FLAVOUR OF MAJOR SPICES

Spices and herbs are nature’s gift to the mankind. They are indispensable
flavouring agents and make our foods acceptable and enjoyable.

India is “the home of spices” and is a leading producer of spices like pepper,
ginger, chillies, turmeric and cardamon. The production figures for the year 1998-
99 are given in Table 1. The export of spices is important to India as a means of
earning foreign exchange and during 2000 – 2001 India exported 2.30 lakh tons
of spices valued at Rs. 1612.0 crores. Export figures for some spices and spice
products are given in Table 2.

In spite of India being a major producer of spices not much attention has been
paid to the improvement in their primary processing aspects. The importing
countries are very particular about standards relating to safety and hygienic
quality in the spices including the absence of foreign material. The safety
requirements may differ from country to country but the requirements may differ
from country concerned about contamination from insects and rodents, pesticide
residues, heavy metal content, bacterial load and the presence to toxins.

With this background in view it becomes very essential for India to produce
spices of high quality which satisfy the international standards and specifications.
In order to get a good quality spice, attention is required not only during
cultivation but also at every stage of processing, right from the moment it is
harvested, till it is properly dried and bagged.

When once the spices are harvested they undergo different types of processing.
Some spices are straightaway dried, whereas some are given chemical
treatment or blanched before drying.

Harvesting :

Spices are usually harvested when once they are fully mature on the plant. For
some spices harvesting is done at different stages of maturity to meet the
specific needs of the end product.

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In the case of pepper, fully mature spikes are harvested for making black pepper
or white pepper, whereas immature pepper (7-8 months old) is harvested for use
in canned pepper, pepper in brine and dehydrated green pepper.

In the case of chillies, in India, fully mature fruits are harvested manually. They
are heaped for a day or two for proper development of the red color and then
they are sundries. In Japan harvesting is done mechanically, either by cutting the
whole plant or branches. Chillies are destalked before drying. This helps in faster
drying and also there will be no spillage of seeds.

In ginger, fully mature green rhizomes are harvested for use as fresh spice or
converted into dry ginger. This dry ginger is used for making powder and also in
oil and oleoresin extraction. On the other hand, tender and less fibrous ginger is
preferred for making products like candy, preserve, pickles, etc.,

In the cases of cardamom and turmeric fully mature spices are harvested and
suitably processed.

Drying :
After harvesting drying is the most important steps.

i. Sundrying is very commonly practiced. Spices are dried on mats or on

mudyards. Here contamination from soil and other extraneous sources can take
place.
ii. An improvement this is drying the spices on raised cement platforms.
Here contamination from soil is eliminated.
iii. As a further improvement over this, the cement yards are covered with
nylon nets which help in preventing contamination from birds’ excrete and other
extraneous matter. Mechanical drying for some spices is employed which helps
in getting a safe and hygienic product, but it will be costlier than sun drying.

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Drying of Pepper :

Pepper barriers are dried in the sun and it takes four to five days for drying
depending on the climatic conditions. During drying the skin becomes wrinkled
and the color changes to black because of the action of polyphenolase on the
polyphonoles present. Improper drying results in white patches due to mould
growth on the surface. Such a material can be cleaned by quick washing and
redrying before exporting.
A good quality black pepper can be prepared by dipping the fresh green berries
in boiling water (blanching) for one minute and then sun drying. This results in
black pepper with a uniform black color having a glossy appearance. Drying time
is also reduced considerably.

Blanching of the green berries for one minute in boiling water reduces the sun-
drying time from 5 days to 3 days. The faster drying can be attributed to the
rupturing of the cells which helps in the release of moisture at a faster rate. The
yield of dried product and volatile oil content are nearly same for both the control
and blanched samples. The recovery of piperine and resin is slightly lower in the
blanched samples compared to the control samples. This may be due to
gelatinization of the control samples. This may be due to gelatinization of the
starch (during the blanching process) present in the pepper which perhaps
hinders the complete release of piperine and resin during extraction. Blanched
and dried pepper possessed a uniformly black and darker color.

Drying of Cardamom :

Preparation of cardamom for market consists of curing, garding and bleaching.

The desirable features in the dried pods are freedom from splits, uniform green
color and smooth surface. To get good green color, fresh mature pods are
harvested and soaked in 2 percent sodium carbonate solution (washing soda) for
10 minutes and then dried in curing chambers to a moisture level of 8-10 percent.
It takes about 48 hours for drying. The alkali treatment helps in fixing the

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chlorophyll which is responsible for the green color. The dried capsules are
rubbed on coir mats or wire mesh and winnowed to remove the plant residues
and foreign matter. The capsules are then sorted according to size, color, etc.,
the dried capsules are stored in double gunny bags with black polyethylene
lining. Cardamom capsules not possessing uniform green color are bleached
using sulphur dioxide to obtain a uniform white or cream colored product.
Alternatively fresh cardamoms can also be used for making bleached
cardamoms.
For bleaching, hydrogen peroxide, potassium metabisulphite (KMS), bleaching
powder and sulphur are commonly used either in combination or alone.
Conventionally the dried cardamom pods are soaked in 2 percent bleaching
powder solution in water for 1 hr. and then spread on wooden trays which are
arranged inside airtight chambers. The trays are exposed to sulphur dioxide
fumes by burning sulphur at the rate of 15g/kg of cardamom. The whole process
is repeated 2-3 times in order to get fully bleached cardamom. Bleaching is also
effected by other methods as follows :

i. Soaking the dried pods in 2 percent bleaching powder solution for 1 hr.
and then in 2 percent KMS solution.
ii. Soaking the dried pods in 4-6 percent hydrogen peroxide solution at
pH 4.0 for 6-8 hrs.
iii. Soaking the dried pods in 2 percent KMS solution containing 1 percent
hydrochloric acid for 1 hour.
iv. Soaking the dried pods in 2 percent KMS solution for 30 minutes and
then in 2-4 percent hydrogen peroxide solution for 6 hrs.
After the above treatments, Cardamom pods are taken out of the solution, spread
on trays for sun drying and dried to a moisture level of 8-10 percent.
Drying of Ginger :

In the traditional practice, mature ginger rhizomes are harvested. The outer skin
is peeled and the rhizomes are sundried. It takes about 8-10 days for sun drying.
If the rhizomes are not peeled it takes about 20 days for drying in the sun.

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Ginger cut into chips and mechanically dried gives a product of better aroma
compared to the sundried rhizomes.

Another type of ginger called bleached ginger is prepared by dipping the peeled
ginger in a solution of fresh slaked lime and then drying in the sun. The process
is repeated 2 to 3 times to get a satisfactory products.

Drying of Turmeric :

Turmeric rhizomes removed from the soil are freed from the adhering mud. The
bulbs and the fingers are separated manually. The fingers are boiled in water for
about 30-40 minutes and then dried in the sun for 8-10 days. The boiling helps in
uniform distribution of coloring matter and also quick drying. In order to improve
the appearance the dried turmeric is subjected to polishing.

The yellow color in turmeric is due to a fat soluble pigment known as curcumin,
present to the extent of 2-7 percent. The colorant has been prepared by us in the
pure form and also in water soluble form which can be used in coloring various
food products.

Drying of Chillies :

Traditionally fresh chillies are sundried to facilitate their availability throughout the
year for internal consumption as well as for export. It takes 15 to 20 days for
drying to a moisture level of about 15 percent. This method is time-consuming
and also results in loss of seeds due to pod breakage. There is also fading of
color which renders the product less attractive. CFTRI has improved this
emulsion containing potassium carbonate, refined edible oil, gum acacia and an
antioxidant. In this improved method, chillies are dipped off, and the chillies are
spread, out for sundrying. By this treatment the chillies dry faster (8 minimised.
Color retention is also better.

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Contamination of spices by heavy metals like lead, zinc, copper, mercury etc.,
are likely to pose problems not only in the export trade, but also for the
processors who make products like curry powder, to differences in soil, climatic
conditions and agricultural practices has to be studied in depth.
Application of pesticide to agricultural crops has become almost inevitable in
order to protect the crops from the attack of pests. Any pesticide residue left on
the spice is likely to end up in the processed products. This is an important
aspect and studies are urgently required in this direction. Methodologies have to
be standardized for the detection and estimation of pesticide residues in different
spices and spice products.
Table 1 : Production of spices during 1998 – 99

SPICES AREA PRODUCTION

(000 Hectares) (000MT)

Pepper 181.55 57.27

Chilli 831.50 821.80

Ginger 67.20 233.66

Turmeric 124.60 487.40

Coriander 521.60 308.10

Garlic 98.50 464.00

Cumin 288.83 115.34

Fennel 26.81 36.58

Fenugreek 33.59 31.41

Cardamom (large) 26.3 5.26

Source : Spices Board, Cochin

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Table 2 : Export of Spices for India during 2000 – 2001
Quantity : M.T

Value : Rs. Lakhs

ITEM QUANTITY VALUE

[MT] [Rs. Lakhs)
Pepper 19,250 32,633

Cardamom (small) 1,100 5,655

Cardamom (large 1,645 2,769

Chilli 61,00 19,523

Ginger 6,580 2,295

Turmeric 34,500 9,106

Coriander 11,700 2,742

Cumin 13,800 9,106

Celery 5,250 1,700

Fennel 4,000 1,778

Fenugreek 9,050 1,787

Garlic 11,000 1,040

Other seed (1) 2,425 896

Other spices (2) 35,000 14,490

Curry Powder 6,200 14,490

Mint Oil 3,875 12,645

Spice oleoresin & other 3,625 36,405

oils

Total 2,30,000 1,69,060

Source : Spices Board, Cochin

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8
 FLAVOUR OF MINOR SPICES AND HERBS
MINOR SPICES AND HERBS :

Allispice : Pimenta dioica L. Merril. Myrtaceae.

Allspice is indigenous to Central America, Mexico and the West Indies. Most of
the world’s production comes from Jamaica. Upwards of 700 m.t. are grown and
exported annually from this small island. Honduras Guatemala, the Leeward
Islands and Mexico also produce commercial quantities of allspice, but quality is
inferior to that from Jamaica.
Allspice in the dried, unripened, but mature berries from 12 m (40ft) tall,
evergreen free. The barrier are dark, hard, reddish brown in color, 4-5 mm in
diameter with a globular shape. The aroma is similar to clove, and the pungent
aromatic flavour suggests and blend of cinnamon, clove, nutmeg and pepper;
hence, its name allspice. The leaves (15 cm long) of the tree are equally
aromatic and are used in the preparation of essential oil of pimenta leaf. The
berries are used both for essential oil and oleoresin production.

Mexican allspice is a little larger than Jamaican, being 5-6 mm dia, but is far
inferior in flavour. Many other trees and shrubs like Japanese Allspice, wild
allspice, Carolina Allspice are also called Allspice but these are seldom used for
commercial purpose as spice.

Jamaica allspice contains upto 4.5% vol oil, consisting of upto 80% eugenol and
nearly 30 other chemical components, eugenol methylether, cineole,
phellandrene, caryoplyllene, resins, tannins, fixed oil and gums. Pimenta leaf oil
is less spicy, thinner and more woody in aroma than that made exclusively from
the barriers. The oleoresin of allspice (from Jamaica) is brownish green in colour
and contains 40-50 ml of volatile oil per 110g. For a good quality oleoresin, 2.27
kg (51b) is equivalent to 45.45 Kg (1001b) of freshly ground allspice in odour and
flavour characteristics.

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Proximate composition of allspice : (%)

Moisture 8.5; protein 6.1; Fat 8.7, total carbohydrates 72.1; Fibre 21.6; Ash 4.7;
Calcium 661 mg, phosphorus 113 mg, potassium 1044 mg, Vit. C 39.2 mg, Vit. A
540 I.U.

Allspice powder in used for flavouring cooked vegetables, fruit pieces, meat
preparations, bakery and confectionery products, pickles, etc. Pimenta leaf oil is
also used commercially in ice creams, liquors, perfumery and medicines. The
oleoresin of allspice is also used in baked goods and condiments.

Anise seed Pimpinella anisum L (Apiaceae), Mithajira, Badian, Vilaitisaun &

Sowa.

Aniseed is indigenous to Egypt, Greece, Lebanon & Turkey. It is now cultivated

in Argentina, Bulgaria, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Japan, India, Pakistan,
Russia and USA.

The anise plant grows to about 45-75 cm (18-30 inches) in height. The small
avoid seeds are 3-5 mm long and 1-2 mm wide with pedicels attached; they are
grayish-green in colour, ribbed with surface down or hairs that tend to give them
a rough feeling. The aroma and flavour of freshly ground anise seed is aromatic,
warm, fruity, camphoraceous and cooling with little perceptible after taste.

Anise seed contains from 8 to 11% fixed oil 1.5-4. 0% essential oil. The latter
consists of 80 to 90% amethole and 10 to 15% chavicol. The essential oil of
anise seed is superior to the China star anise oil in flavour. The oleoresin of
anise is a yellowish-green to orange colored liquid of usually good aroma and
flavour. The volatile oil content ranges from 15-18% and usually 3.75 kg of
oleoresin is equivalent to 45.45 kg (100 1b) of freshly ground anise seed in
organoleptic quality.

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Proximate composition of Anise seed : (%)

Moisture 9.5; protein 17.6; fat 15.9; total carbohydrates 50.00; fibre 14.6; ash 7.0;
Calcium 646 mg; potassium 144 mgs iron 37 mg & phosphorus 440 mg.

Basil (Sweet) : Ocimum basilicum L. Labiatae :

Sweet basil is indigenous to India, Iran and Africa. The Mediterranean type has a
linalool odour and is cultivated in Belgium and France, as well as Bulgaria,
Hungary, India, Italy, Poland, Spain and the USA. The reunion type of exotic
basil, with a pronounced camphoraceous odour, is cultivated in the Comoro
Islands, the Malagasy Republic and the Seychelles. The Bulgarian type of basil is
characterized by a methyl cinnamate odour and grows in the East Indies,
Indonesia and West Africa. Java type basil, typified by a eugenol odour, grows in
Java and South Pacific Islands.

Sweet basil is a fragrant low growing annual herb of the mint family, with purple
flowers and foliage. When fresh, it has a fragrant, minty note with a hint of sweet
clove. It has a pleasantly sweet, spicy flavour, warm, slightly pungent, anise-like
back note and a slightly bitter after taste. The plant grows to a height of 0.6 m (24
in) bearing oval, bright green leaves which measure upto 4.0 cm in length. When
dried, the leaves turn grayish-brown and are usually ground to one of the three
sizes : fine medium or coarse. The flowers of the plant are small and bluish-
white. The whole plant yields 0.10-0. 25% volatile oil

Four types of Basil oils are recognized :

1. European type contains methylchavicol and linalool as main components

and it is highly prized for its fine aroma.

2. Reunion type : contains methylchavicol and camphor but no linalool.

3. Methylannamate type-grown in Bulgaria, India, Sicily and Egypt and

distilled there.

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4. Eugenol type : Distilled in Java and Russia & contains eugenol on the
main constituents.

The essential oil of sweet basil contains about 40% d-linalool, 25% methyl
chavicol and the balance is principally eugenol, cineole, and geranial. Its odour is
sweet anise like, cooling and floral, where as the exotic basil oil consists of about
85% methylcharicol less than 1% 1-linalloll and the balance primarily camphor,
borneol, eugenol and cineole.

The oleoresin of basil is prepared primarily from various varieties having a high
methyl chavicol content. It is very darkgreen, very viscous, almost solid, with a
minimum volatile oil content of 40 ml per 100 g. the equivalency of the oleoresin
to freshly ground basil in flavour and odour characteristics is 0.34 kg to 45.45 Kg
(100 1b).

Approximate composition (%) : Moisture 6.4; protein 14.4; fat 4.00; total
carbohydrates 61.00; fibre 17.8; ash 14.3; calcium 2113 mg, potassium 3433 mg;
phosphorus 490 mg; ascorbic acid 61.2 mg, Vitamin-A 9375 IU.
Caraway Seeds : Carum carvi L
The principal commercial source of caraway seed is the Netherlands. The seed
is also cultivated in Bulgaria, Canada, Britain, Morocco, India, Russia and the
USA. Caraway seed is the dried fruit of Carum carvi L., the white flowered annual
or biennial of the parsley family. The plant grows to about 62 cm in height,
bearing finely divided leaves and strongly ribbed fruit. The fruit must be
harvested early in the morning before the sunrise, as the heads shatter and
scatter the seeds rather explosively when they are dry. The colour of the
crescent shaped, hard seeds is grayish tan. The seeds average 6mm in length.
The aroma from the seeds in very aromatic, sweet, spicy, fresh, characteristic,
agreeable, slightly minty, resembling anise. The ground seed yield upto 7.5%
Volatile oil, consisting primarily of 60% d-carvone and 15% fixed oil of which
oleic, linoleic, petroselenic and palmitic are the major fatty acids. Seeds grown in

12
the northern latitudes yield higher quantities of volatile oil than those cultivated in
the warmer climates.

The oleoresin of caraway seed is a greenish-yellow liquid, with a minimum

volatile oil content of 60%.

Proximate composition of caraway seed (%) : Moisture 9.9; protein 19.8; fat
14.6; total carbohydrates 49.9; fibre 12.7; ash 5.9; calcium 689 mg; magnesium
258 mg, phosphorus was 568mg and potassium 1351mg.

Cassia : Cinnamoumum cassia, Blume Lauraceae.

Cassia is indigenous to china, Indonesia, and Vietnam. It is cultivated in Laos,

Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Chinese cassia, or cinnamon, is cultivated
and obtained from the provinces of Kwangsi, Kweichow, and Kwantung. French
Indochina cassia is the bark of C. loureirii Nees. Batavia cassia now referred to
as Korintje cinnamon, is the bark of C. burmannii Blume. It is cultivated in
Sumatra and exported through the port of Padang. The dried unripe fruit of these
cassia trees are known as cassia buds.

Cassia is the dried bark of evergreen trees of the cinnamomum group. The
young shoots of the cassia tree are cut and the bark peeled twice a year. New
shoots then grow from the stump. The thin bark is slightly rough and shows
longitudinal ridges. The bark is rolled into quills to minimize breakages. Broken
quills are sold as chips.

Chinese cassia quills average 25-38cm long and 2-6mm thick. They are light
reddish brown with patches of gray. The aroma is faintly aromatic and the taste is
sweet, aromatic, pungent, and slightly astringent. Cassia from is light grayish
brown to dark reddish brown. Batavian cassia are smoother and more regular
and have about the same dimensions as those from Saigon. They are reddish-
brown in colour. Cassia buds are usually obtained from Saigon. They are a light
cinnamon like odour and a sweet, warm, pungent taste like that of the bark which
makes them useful for flavouring pickles and pickled products. The chief contents

13
of the oil is cinnamaldelyde. Cassia bark and cinnamon bark are used
interchangeably.

Indian cassia and cinnamon :

1. C. Zeylanicum = True cinnamon.

2. C. inners = Jangli Dalchini of western Ghats = 0.5% Vol. Oil in

the bark.

3. C. tamala = Tejpat, Tamalpatra, or Indian cassia lignea

= Leaves = 2% Vol. Oil.

4. C. Obutifolium = Tezpat or Ram Tazpat. East Indian states.

Celery Seeds : Apium graveolens L.

Celery seed is native to Mediterranean Countries (S. Europe and N. Africa). It is

cultivated in Europe, India, us and Japan. Celery seed is the dried fruit of Apium
graveolens L. the light brown to brown seeds have a characteristic aroma and
warm, bitter taste. Celery plant grown to a height of about 45cm. The minute
globular, light brown seeds, have paler ridges, a characteristic harsh celery
aroma and warm, bitter, celery taste. The seeds seldom exceed 1mm in
diameter.

The seed contain about 3% volatile oil which consists primarily of 60% d-
limonene, 10-20% B-selinene, sedanolid and sedanoic aldehyde. The aroma is
warm, spicy, slightly fatty and its flavour has a burning sensation and very bitter.
The fixed oil content is 16%. The oleoresin content of celery seed is of two types
: French and Indian. The French type is sweet, herbal and tenacious with only a
slight, citrus undertones where as the Indian type is more herbal with a slight
lemon like aroma and tenacious herbal undertone. The French product is more
pleasing in flavour. The oleoresin of celery is a green liquid having a volatile oil
content of 9ml per 100g.

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Proximate Composition : (%) moisture 6.0; protein 18.1; fat 25.3; total
carbohydrates 41.4; fibre 11.9; ash 9.3; and NVEE about 12.

Cinnamon : Cinnamomum Zeylanicum Blume ; Lauraceae .

Cinnamon is indigenous to the hot, moist climate of Srilanka, which still maintains
70% or more of the world market, southern India, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is
cultivated in Java, Sumatra, and S. America, Africa and Madagascar. The wild
Cinnamon free grows to a height of 9-15m (30-50ft) and bears very stiff, oblong
leaves upto 17cm long, yellowish-white flowers in silky clusters and a dry,
pointed, berry like fruits. Under cultivation, the tree is cut back to no more than
2.4m (8ft) to encourage free growth of numerous shoots, is removed in tow
similar sized strips. The outer side of one piece is laid against the inner side of
the other, they are closely bound together and allowed to ferment for atleast 24
hrs. then the outer bark is removed with a curved knife. The bark piece are
placed within the other and allowed to dry. As the bark dries, it contracts, curls
inward and forms a “quill”. The bark is graded fro colour and texture before
quilling. The quills may be as long as one meter, one cm in dia and 0.5mm thick.
The cinnamon quills of commerce are known as cinnamon sticks. The broken
quills of various grades are called quillings. They vary in length from 5-20cm.
Quillings lack the full flavour and aroma of the quills. Short shavings and small
pieces of bark called “featherings” have a flavour and aroma similar to quillings.
Mature bark that is difficult to peel is chopped into chips. The chips are grayish-
brown and are deficient in aroma and taste.

Freshly ground cinnamon bark of good quality contains 0.9 to 2.3% volatile oil,
depending upon the variety the spice is reddish brown and has a warm spicy,
aromatic, woody aroma with similar flavour characteristics. It also has a pleasant,
burning, slightly bitter persistence.

The fine oil of cinnamon from Ceylon has a strong, immediate impact in its
aroma. It is sweet, pleasantly aromatic, warm, spicy, pungent, slightly woody and
clove like. Cinnamic aldehyde make up 65-75% of the oil’s components. The

15
remainder being 1-linalool, furfural, methyl amylketone, cumin aldehyde,
benzaldehyde etc. Oil from the leaves and stems in rich in eugenol, the principal
flavouring ingredient in oil of cloves. The leaf oil is also called as “clove oil”
sometime. The cinnamon oleoresin is a dark brown liquid with a minimum volatile
oil content of 65 ml per 100 g.

Proximate composition (%) : Moisture 9.5; protein 3.9; fat 3.2; total
carbohydrates 79.9; fibre 24.4; ash 3.6; calcium 11228 mg, and potassium 500
mg.

Cloves : Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb Myrtaceae :

The clove tree is indigenous to the Moluccas islands. The Banda group of islands
to the south of the Moluccas, constitute the spice island. They are situated near
the equator in E. Indonesia. Clove is now cultivated in many parts of the tropics,
particularly Zanzibar, Tanzania, Madagascar, Malaysia, India, Srilanka, Jamaica,
French Guiana. About 80% of the world’s supply is exported from Tanzania and
the balance from Madagascar, Srilanka, India, Indonesia and Moluccas islands.

Cloves are dried, unopened flower buds, of an evergreen tree, borne in clusters
of 10 to 15. the buds are picked when they begin to turn red at the base. Their
colour darkens to reddish-brown after drying in the sun. The buds are picked by
hand before flowering and are separated from the short stems prior to drying.
The evergreen tree grows to a height of nearly 15m (50ft) at full maturity and
yield upto 34 kg of dried cloves each year. The flower stalks are the “clove
stems” of commerce. The aroma of ground cloves has been characterized as
being spicy, peppery, sweet, fruity, phenolic, woody and musty. The flavour is
spicy, fruity, astringent, slightly bitter with a warm numbling effect. The essential
oil of clove is primarily extracted from clove buds, but some is also obtained from
the stems and leaves. The aroma and flavour of the bud oil is far superior to that
obtained from the stems or leaves. The clove buds yield 17% (average) essential
which contains 17-90% eugenol; clove stems yield 6% oil with 83% eugenol and
clove leaves yield 2% oil with 80% eugenol.

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The oleoresin of cloves, prepared from clove buds, is standardized to contain 70
ml of essential oil in 100g. it is brownish-green in colour and is viscous. Clove is
considered to be the most fragrant of all aromatic spices.

Proximate composition of cloves (%) : Moisture 6.9; protein 6.00; fat 20.1;
total carbohydrates 61.2; fibre 9.6; ash 5.9; calcium 646mg; vitamin A 530 IU &
as sorbic acid 81 mg.

Oil of clove has some antiseptic qualities and is recommended by some dentists
as a dental analgesic. It is also used in toothpastes and by pharmacies and a
flavouring aid.

Coriander : Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae

Coriander is a strong, odiferous, hardy annual plant, indigenous to the

Mediterranean region of N. Africa and S. Europe. It is now cultivated in many
European, American and Asian countries. The 60cm (2ft) tall plant produces a
slender erect, hollow stem with small light-pink flowers in a compound umbel.
The globular coriander fruit (or seed) is brownish-yellow in colour and about 4mm
in dia with straight and curving indistinct ridges. The flavour resembles a mixture
of caraway, cumin, sage and lemon peel.

Coriander seed yields about 1% essential oil and the oil consists of 60-70% d-
linaool, d-L-pinene, B-pinene, B-and L-terpinene, geraniol etc. The fixed oil
represents about 20% of the total weight of the seed. Its fatty acids consists of
oleic, petrosolinic, palmitic, and linoleic. The essential oil from the smaller fruits is
not only superior in flavour but also the yield of oil is more from smaller seeds.
The oleoresin of coriander is a brownish-yellow liquid with a minimum volatile oil
content of 40 ml per 100 g.

Proximate composition of coriander seed (1 %) : moisture 8.9; protein 12.4;

fat 17.8; total carbohydrates 55.00; fibre 29.1; ash 6.0; calcium 709 mg,
potassium 1267 mg, riboflavin 2mg;.

17
The tender plants and leaves of coriander yield 0.1-0.95% volatile oil of superior
quality. The tender leaves are used for spicing and flavouring food articles.
Aldehydes are the main constituents in leaf oil.

Cumin seed; Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae :

Cumin is the dried ripe fruit of an annual plant indigenous to Egypt. It is now
cultivated in many parts of the world. India, Russia Iran, Morocco, Mexico,
Turkey, Argentina are some of the major producers. The small slender herb
grows to a height of about 60cm (14 in.). It has finely divided leaves, white or
rose colored flowers and grayish bristly fruits about 6mm long, tapering towards
both ends, much like an oat seed. The seed is yellowish brown with a short stem.
The aroma is strong and distinctive, resembling musty caraway. The taste warm,
spicy, aromatic and pharmaceutical.

Cumin seeds yield upto 4.5% volatile oil, of which 40-65% is cuminaldehyde. The
odour is best described as strongly penetrating, irritating, fatty, curry like, spicy,
warm and persistent even after drying out. The flavour is warm, heavy, spicy, and
curry like, dominated by cuminaldehyde but its heaviness lacks the pleasing
freshness of caraway. The fixed oil content approximates 10%. The oleoresin of
cumin is brownish to yellowish-green in colour, it contains 60 ml vol. Oil in 100 g.

Proximate composition of cumin (%) :

Moisture 8.1; protein 17.8; fat 22.3; total carbohydrates 44.2; fibre 10.5; ash 7.6;
calcium 931 mg; magnesium 366mg, potassium 1788 mg, vit-A 1270 Iu. Cumin is
an essential ingredient and is the predominant flavour in most Egyptian, Indian
and Turkish curries. Cumin is an important ingredient of curry powders.

Dill seeds : Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae :

The whole plant with immature seeds is called dill seeds. The dried ripe fruits of
the plant are dill seeds. Dill is indigenous to France, Spain and Russia. It is now
cultivated in Europe, America, India, Pakistan and Mexico.

18
The plant grows to a height of about 1m (3ft), has deeply divided, green leaves
and a large, lacy, compound umbelliferous crown of flowers and fruits the seeds
are flattened ovals brown in colour, measuring approximately 0.5cm in length.
The aroma is warm, aromatic, reminiscent of caraway but sharper and less
pleasant. Indian dill (Anethum sowa) is native to northern India and is cultivated
in Japan and S.E. Asia.

The seeds yield upto 4% volatile oil consisting of 60% carvone, dihydrocarvone,
d-limonene, L-phellandrene, L-pinene, and dipentene. The typical odour and
flavour of the dill weed oil is chiefly due to L-phillandrene; dillweed oils with 20%
or less of carvone are preferred. The dillweed oil contains less than 40% d-
carvone, (34-36%) and the L-phellandrene content is higher than the oil from the
seed. The dill-weed oil is better in flavour than the seed oil. The fruits of the
Indian dill (Anethum sowa) yield 1. 2-3.5% essential oil characterized by
containing upto 10-40% dillapiole and lower percentage of carvone. Dill apiole is
absent in European dill oil .

Oleoresins are produced from dillseed primarily, fortified with dillweed oil to more
closely resemble the flavour character of the whole herb. The colour is light
amber to green with a minimum vol. oil content of 70ml per 100 .

Proximate composition o Dillseed & Dillweed : (%)

Dilseed - Dillweed

Moisture 7.7 7.3

Protein 16.0 20.0

Fat 14.5 4.4

Lethal Carbohydrate 55.2 55.8

Fibre 21.2 11.8

Ash 6.6 12.6

19
Dill seed is excellent in pickles, sauerkraut, sauces, soups, Dillweed is excellent
in green salads, vegetables and seafood sauces and sandwiches.

Fennel Seed : Foeniculum vulgare Miller. Saunf (Hindi)

The fennel plant is native to southern Europe and Asia minor. It is widely
cultivated in Europe, Russia, USA, Argentina and India. It is a pleasantly scented
perennial herb about 0.6 to 1.2m (2-4ft) tall with erect stalks bearing finely
divided green leaves. The compound umbels bear small yellow flowers. The
grayish-yellow-brown seeds varying in size upto 1cm long, are laterally
compressed, slightly curved, oral in shape with 5 ridges and a large single resin
canal under each furrow. The aroma of fennel resembles anise but with a slight
camphoraceous note. The flavour is similarly licorice like, sweet with a slightly
bitter after taste. Each part of the fennel plant is edible-the seeds, leaves, stalks
and bulb.

The dried fennel seeds yield upto 6% volatile oil rich in anethole, as in anise
seed. The volatile oil contains 50-60% anethole, 15-20% fenchone, and minor
quantities of L-pinene, camphene, d-L-phellandrene, dipentene, methyl chavicol
etc. The fixed oil content approximates 10%; it contains petroselenic, oleic,
linoleic and palmitic acids.

The oleoresin is a brownish-green liquid with a minimum volatile oil content of

50ml per 100g.

Proximate composition of fennel seed (1%) :

Moisture 8.8; protein 15.8, fat 14.5 total carbohydrates 52.3; fibre 15.7, ash 8.2.

Fenugreek seed : Trigonella foenum – graecum L. Leguminosae (Fabaceae)

Fenugreek is cultivated in Algeria, Argentina, Egypt, S. Europe, India and USA.

Fenugreek is a small slender, annual herb of the pea family. It grows to a height

20
of about 76cm (30 in.) bearing trifoliate, light green leaves, yellowish-white
flowers, with leguminous like fruit, containing small, deeply furrowed seed. The
seeds constitute the spice. The colour of the seed is light tan and has a flat
shape about 5mm long and 3mm wide. Ground fenugreek seed has a very
strong, maple sweetness, spicy and yet somewhat meat like bitter flavour, the
aroma is that of burnt sugar.

The volatile oil content of the seed is less than 0.02% but it is extremely
odourous and the fixed oil content is 7%. The seeds contain two alkaloids –
trigonelline and choline. When ground fenugreek is extracted with alcohol, it
yields an aromatic essence which is used in the preparation maple flavoured
syrup. If the alcoholic extract is further processed to remove the solvent, the
resulting oleoresin has a hydrolyzed vegetable protein flavour, reminiscent of
meat.

Proximate composition of fenugreek seed (%) :

Moisture 8.8; protein 23.00; fat 6.4; total carbohydrates 58.4; fibre 10.1; ash 3.4,
iron 34 mg, magnesium 191 mg, phosphorous 296 mg. Ground fenugreek seed
may be used in curry powders, soups, salads, meat seasonings, syrups, baked
goods, condiments etc.

Garlic : Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae :

Garlic is native to Western Asia. It grows wild in Egypt, S. France, Italy and Sicily.
It is cultivated in all tropical and temperate region of the world. Garlic is a small,
hardy, perennial, bulbous plant, closely allied to the onion plant. There are white,
pink and yellow varieties; each with variety is used almost exclusively. The strong
odoured, pungent tasting bulb is composed of several bulblets or cloves; the
bulblets are enclosed with in a tough, outer, whitish skin. Garlic is odourless until
it becomes bruised or cut, at which lime, the enzymes react very quickly to
produce allicin and this broken down to allyl disulfide, the characteristic odour of

21
garlic. If the enzyme is destroyed in processing the development of the
characteristic odour of garlic would be prevented.

Dehydrated garlic powder, or one of its many commercial forms, like diced,
minced, or granulated, has a very strong, persistent, aroma and taste. Garlic
powder is extremely hygroscopic and should be kept in tightly sealed containers.
To make it free flowing about 2% calcium stearate is sometimes added to the
product. Dehydrated garlic is available commercially and in retail outlets in 6
different forms ; powdered, minced, coarse, granulated, chopped and diced. The
volatile oil of garlic is less than 0.1% by weight of the fresh garlic. It is obtained
by steam distillation of the freshly ground bulblets. Its colour is brownish-yell and
its odour is pungent and disagreeable. The constituents of the oil are 60% diallyl
disulfide, 20% diallyl trisulfied, 6% allyl propyl disulfide and smaller quantities of
diethyl disulfide, diallyspolysulfied, allinin and allicin. The true garlic odour is said
to be derived from the diallyl disulfide.

Commercial oil of garlic, undiluted has 200 times the strength of dehydrated
garlic or 900 times the strength of fresh garlic. The oil is diluted to different odour
strengths and sold. Oleoresin of garlic is available in either water or oil
dispersible forums; each one is a brownish yellow liquid containing 5g of volatile
oil of garlic in each 100g.

Proximate composition of garlic powder (%)

Moisture 6.5; protein 16.8; fat 0.8; total carbohydrates 72.2; fibre 1.9, ash 3.3.
Garlic has been used for flavouring Indian, oriental, Mediterranean (European
and African) dishes. Garlic is used mostly in non-vegetarian preparation.

Mace and Nutmeg : Myristica fragrance Houtt. Myristicaceae

Mace: This spice is indigenous for the Moluccas Islands but is now widely
cultivated in the Banda Islands, Brazil, Granada, Java, Malaysia and Sumatra.

22
The nutmeg tree is 7.5-12.2m (25-40ft) in height and bears fruits for 60 years or
more. The leaves are glossy and very aromatic. The small blossoms are borne in
clusters yielding yellow, peach like fruit, which when fully ripe, have three distinct
position: the outer skin and fleshy portion; the stringy, deep orange-red inner
membrane called the arillus, which when dried in the sun for 6-8 weeks,
becomes the peachy orange colored spice called mace. The innermost portion of
the fruit is the nut, called nutmeg. The nut has a very hard outer shell, which is
easily removed. The inner portion of the nut is actually the spice-nutmeg. By
weight, the yield of nutmeg is ten times that of mace when both are dried. The
price of mace is usually 20-25% higher than nutmeg. The mace obtained from
Granada is not as aromatic or rich in colour as that from the East Indies.
Granada, Penang or Banda are the major markets for mace. The genuine mace
is very aromatic and warm, spicy, slightly fruity and quite similar to nutmeg but
sweeter.

Mace yields 11-15% essential oil consisting 87.5% monoterpenes, 5.5%

manoterpene alcohols and about 7% other aromatics. The oil is derived from the
East Indian source when the oleoresin of mace is prepared from varieties grown
in the west Indies. The oleoresin is a reddish orange liquid containing 50ml of
volatile oil per 100g.

Proximate composition of mace (%) :

Moisture 8.2; protein 6.7; fat 32.4; total carbohydrates 50.5; fibre 4.8; ash 2.2.
Mace is excellent in flavouring bakery products, ice cream condiments,
confections, non alcoholic beverages etc.

Nutmeg : After very slow drying in the sun until the inner seed rattles when
shaken, the hard shell is broken and discarded. The nutmegs are then sorted
and graded by hand. The colour is grayish brown and varies in size upto 3cm
long and 2cm wide. The shape is oval. The taste is bitter, warm, spicy, pungent,

23
heavy, oily and somewhat terpeney, while the odour is spicy, warm, sweet and
penetrating. The East Indian nutmegs are limed usually before export.

The volatile oil content of nutmeg is about 16% and it is also called “oil of
myristica”. It is yellowish to pale yellow with the odour and taste of nutmeg.
Nutmeg yields from 24-30% of fixed oil, sometimes known as “nutmeg butter”. It
is orange – red to reddish-brown in colour with the consistency of butter at room
temperature. The chief constituent is trimyristicin, the triglyglyceride of myristic
acid, the glycerides of oleic acid and linoleic acid, unsaponifiable matter, volatile
oil and resins. The oleoresin of nutmeg is a pale yellow oil with solids present.
The minimum vol oil content is 80ml per 100g.

Proximate composition of nutmeg (%) :

Moisture 6.2, protein 5.8, fat 35.3; total carbohydrates 49.3; fibre 4.0; ash 2.3;
nutmeg is used usually in sweet & spicy dishes.

Marjoram : Origanum majorana L. Labiatae :

Marjoram is native to temperature regions of western Asia. It is a member of mint

family closely related to the more aromatic oregano. However, it is much sweeter
and more delicate. It is cultivated in S. Europe W. Asia, USA and N. Africa.

The plant grows close to the ground, seldom exceeding 30cm in height. The cut
plant is field dried. The plant has a pleasant, aromatic aroma. The dried leaves
and floral parts are used as a spice. The dried plant is distilled for its essential oil
content. The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation. The yield of oil is about
1% which is yellow or greenish-yellow with an aroma that is spicy, fragrant warm
and aromatic. Chemically it contain linalool, methyl chavicol, cineole, eugenol
and terpineol. The oleoresin is a dark green, viscous, semisolid with a volatile oil
content of 40ml per 100g.

Proximate composition of sweet marjoram (%)

Moisture 7.6; protein 12.7; fat 7.0; total carbohydrates 60.65 fibre 18.1, ash 12.1.

24
Mint (Pepper mint) : Mentha pipe Rita : Labiatae.

Var (a) vulgarism Blackmint & (b) var. officinal is – white mint.

Mint grows wild through out the temperate region of the world and is cultivated in
Argentina, Australia, France, Germany, India, Britain, Italy and USA. The latter is
the longest commercial source of peppermint in the world; most of it is grown in
the pacific northwest. Experts believe that white mint has the better flavour. The
green leaves and tops are harvested wherein full bloom and are partially dried
with the leaf stalks attached. The aroma is very strongly mentholic, sweet and
cooling. The after taste is sweet, minty and cooling. The essential oil is obtained
by steam distillation of the partially dried plant and the yield oil is slightly under
1%. The volatile oil is a pale yellow liquid with a characteristic peppermint odour.
The oil consists of L- & B-pinene, limonene, cineole, ethylamyl carbinol, 1-
menthol (40-50%), menthone, menthylacetate, piperitone and other minor esters.
There is a wide discrepancy is costs, descending on the source of the material
and the degree of rectification in its manufacture. The vol. Oil is used in chewing
gums, confections, ice cream, desserts, cordials, tobacco products and
medicaments for indigestion. Mint is seldom used in seasonings for meat.

Mint (Spearmint) : Mentha spicata L. Libiatae

Peppermint grows to a height of 3 feet but spearmint seldom grow higher than 2
ft. cultivation and harvesting procedures follow the same pattern as peppermint.
The flavour is sharp, pleasantly pungent, herbaceous, sweet and minty.

The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation and the yield is about 0.6% from
the leaves and flowering tops. The principal constituent is 1-carvone, about 56%
of the oil, but the characteristic spearmint notes are derived from the components
: dihydrocuminylacetate, dihydrocuminyl valerate and dihydrocarveyl acetate.
Spearmint leaves are used in fruit preparations or beverages. The crushed
leaves are used in sauces, soups, iced tea and meat preparations.

25
Rosemary : Rosmarinus officinalis L. Labiatae.

Rosemary is a small evergreen shrub indigenous to most cultivated in N. Africa,

S. Europe, Russia & USA. The plant bears leathery, dark-green leaves and light,
sky-blue flowers. The entire plant, excluding the woody portions, may be used fat
normally only the leaves are considered suitable for species. When dried, the
leaves become rolled in appearance, dark-green to brownish-green in colour and
have a tea like fragrance. Their appearance has been linked to pine needles. The
taste is somewhat peppery, spicy, astringent, warming and herbaceous with a
slightly bitter and camphoraceous after taste.

Rosemary leaves yield upto 2% of an almost colorless, volatile oil with a

camphoraceous characteristic odour. Chemically the constituents of the oil are
16-20% borneol, 27-30% cineole, 10% camphor, 2-7% bornylacelate and small
percentages of L-pinene, camphene, terpineol and verbenone. The oleoresin is
a greenish-brown, semisolid containing 10-15ml of volatile oil per 100 g.

Proximate composition of dried rosemary (%) :

Water 9.3; protein 4.9, fat 15.2; total carbohydrate 64.1; fibre 17.7; Ash 6.5.

Saffron : Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae

Saffron is considered to be the most expensive spice on earth. Each flower of the
crocus plant contains one pistil, consisting of three stigmas, a style and an ovary.
The stigmas and style make up the saffron spice and contains most if not all of
the coloring matter. It has been estimated that nearly 5 lakh stigmas and styles
would be required to make one kg of spice. One hectare (2.5 Acres) yield only 6
kgs of dried saffron.

Saffron is indigenous to the countries of Asia minor, Greece and Iran. It is

cultivated in Kashmir, Sicily, China, Greece, UK, Iran, Portugal, Spain, France,
Italy.

26
The spice consists of the dried stigmas and styles of the plant which seldom
grown higher than 30cm (1ft) bearing thin stem with purple flowers each
containing three stigmas.

There are three varieties : a light yellow-orange saffron that is light in flavour;
an orange saffron that is stronger in flavour; and the reddish-orange saffron that
is the highest in flavour. The latter is grown only in Iran. Although saffron is better
know for its intense, yellowish coloring characteristics, it does have a very
pleasant sweet, spicy, delicate floral odour with a somewhat earthy, bitter, fatty,
herbaceous flavour. So called Mexican saffron bears no relationship to the
genuine saffron, either colour, aroma or flavour.

Saffron contain upto 1% volatile oil with an intensive, spicy, rumlike odour. The
oil contains 2, 2, 6-trimethyl 4-6-cyclo hexadienal and the glucosides crocin and
picrocrosin, which contribute to the characteristic colour and bitterness of saffron.
The flavour of the oil is reminiscent of weak iodine and is unpleasantly aromatic.
The coloring matter is crocin which yields on hydrolysis, crocetin and d-glucose.

Proximate Composition of saffron (%) :

Moisture 11.9; protein 11.4; fat 5.9,total carbohydrate 65.4, fibre 3.9; ash 5.4.

Kashmir Saffron grades : 1) Shahi saffron (First grade)

2) Mogra saffron (Second grade)

3) Lachha saffron (Third grade)

The best sample contain not less than 85% stigmas and not more than 15%
styles and floral wastes and volatile matter 15% (max) and water extractables 55-
65% on DWB.

27
Sage : Salvia officinalis L. Labiatae.

Sage is a plant of the Mediterranean region and is cultivated in Europe, Canada,

the USA. The finest quality sage comes from the Dalmatian islands followed
closely by that from Albania.

The plant is of cm (1ft) height and bears purples flowers : some are bluish or
white, in whorls. The plant is a bitter, aromatic, perennial, semi shrub of the mint
family. The dried, whole, rubbed or ground leaves are very aromatic herbaceous
and spicy with a unique balsamic, bitter taste, fragrant, warm and astringent.

The essential oil, to which the plant owes most of its flavour and character, is
produced by steam distillation of the freshly harvested leaves. The yield is about
2.5%. its contains 40-60% thujone, 15% cineole, upto 16% borneol, upto 4%
borneol esters, L-pinene and d-camphor. The oil from Greek sage has a harsher,
more eucalyptus like aroma while English sage has an odour with more
camphoraceous characteristics. Spanish sage has an odour that is somewhere in
between the odours of the English and Greek sage.

The oleoresin of sage in usually prepared from the Dalmatian type of sage. The
oleoresin has a warm; spicy taste; a very important attribute for sausage
seasonings. It contains a minimum volatile oil content of 25-30 ml per 100g.

Proximate composition of ground sage (%) :

Moisture 8.0; protein 10.6; fat 12.7, total carbohydrates 60.7; fibre 18.1, ash 8.00;
ascorbic acid 32 mg, vitamin A 5900 IU.

Savory : (Sweet Summer) Satureia hortensis L.

There are tow main types of sweet savory; summer savory, an annual plant
cultivated through out France and the Mediterranean region, and winter savory.
(Satureia Montana L.), a small hardy shrub which grows wild in southern Europe.
Summer savory is cultivated in Europe, Canada and the USA.

28
Summer savory is an annual, low growing plant about 20-30 cm in height which
grows wild or cultivated. The flowering tops are used for oil extraction while the
bright green leaves are used on the spice. The aroma is fragrant and spicy. The
taste is spicy and peppery; it makes a good substitute for pepper.

Savory contains a yellow to dark-brown volatile oil that has a spicy, aromatic
odour resembling thymol or oregano. Its chief constituents is carvacrol,
amounting to 30-45%. The other minor flavouring elements are L-pinene, 7-8%,
p-cymene 30% dipentene thymol, borneol, l-linalool, terpineol, and l-carvone.

Proximate composition of savory (%) :

Moisture 9.0; protein 6.7; fat 5.9; total carbohydrates 68.7; fibre 15.3, and Ash
9.6.

Thyme : Thymus vulgaris W. Labiatae

Thyme is native to southern Europe and is widely cultivated in the Mediterranean

region (S. Europe and N. Africa), Russia, Canada and USA. Thyme is a small,
creeping shrub like perennial with a pungent mint like odour. It grows no taller
than 50 cm in height bearing dense clusters of purple flowers.

The leaves and flowering tops are used as a spice but the entire plant, excluding
the roots are used for extraction of volatile oil. It has a slight, biting, spicy, rich
taste with a lingering sharpness. The volatile oil of thyme is a pale, yellowish-red
liquid with a rich, sweet, aromatic, warming herbaceous odour. The taste is
sharp, biting, warm, spicy and herbaceous. The chief constituent of the oil is
thymol and other constituents are carvacrol, l-linalool, l-borneol, geraniol, amyl
alcohol, B-pinene, p-cymene, caryophyllene, terpineol and camphene. The
oleoresin of thyme is a dark green to brown, somewhat viscous, at times almost
a semi solid, with a minimum volatile oil content of 50ml per 100g. The dried,
brownish-green, curled leaves, when crushed, shall yield a fragrant, aromatic
odour and have a warm, pungent taste and it contains no less than 0.9% volatile
oil.

29
Proximate composition of ground thyme (%) :

Moisture 7.8; protein 9.1; fat 7.4; total carbohydrates 63.9; fibre 18.6; ash 11.7,
calcium 1890 mg; vitamin A 3800 IU.

Ajowan : Trachyspermum ammi (L) Spragu. Syn : Carum copticum

Ajowan or Bishop’s weed is an annual herbaceous plant bearing the grayish

brown fruits (seed) which constitute the spice. It is called Ajamnoda (Sanskrit) or
omum (Tamil) or Oma (Kannada). It is cultivated through out Indian especially in
Bengal. It is used for its medicinal and flavouring properties. The best quality
ajowan is obtained from Ujjain. It is grown as a winter crop and it becomes ready
for harvest in 5-6 months time. The crop yields about 225 kg seeds/Ha. Ajowan
or Omum water or Aquaptychotis is a common remedy for indigestion. The
essential oil contains p-cymene (50%), dipendene, and Y-terpinene (25%),
thymol (24) and carvacrol (1%). Thymol is an antiseptic agent and it goes to the
market as “Ajowan ka phul” or satajowan. On steam distillation, the crushed
seeds yield 2.5 to 4.0% essential. The thymol of the essential can be partly
separated out by cooling the oil to a very low temperature. Cymene of the oil can
be readily oxidized to thymol if the carvocrol content of the oil is low. The seeds
contain, moisture 8.9%, protein 15.4%, fat (ether extract) 18.1%, crude fibre
11.9%, carbohydrates 38.6% total ash 7.1%.

Asafoetida : Ferula asafoetida : Apiaceae. Hing (Hindi)

Asafoetida is the dried latex obtained mainly from living root stocks or tap roots of
several species of Ferula, namely F. foetida Regel, F. alliacea Boiss etc. of the
family Apiaceae. The plants are perennial herbs which are mainly distributed
from the Mediterranean region to central Asia. Some species are found in the
Punjab and Kashmir regions of India.

The plants bear massive carrot like roots, 10-15 cm dia. At the crown after 4-5
years of growth. At the time of flowering the upper part of the root is laid bare and
the stem is cut off close to the crown. The exposed surface is covered by a

30
dome-shaped structure made up of twigs and mud. The exudates (milky juice)
oozing out from the cut surfaces is scraped off after a few days. The collection of
the resin and the slicing of the root are repeated until exudation ceases.

Asafoetida occurs in three forms in commercial trade :

(1) tears 2) mass and 3) paste. The tears make the purest form of the resin. It is
bitter and acrid in taste and emits a strong and peculiar odour. It is generally
used for flavouring curries and pickles. Asafoetida is acrid and bitter in taste and
emits a strong, disagreeable, pungent, alliaceous odour to the presence of
sulphur compounds therein. Hence its common name abroad, “Devil’s Dung”.

Mass asafoetida is the commercial form. It consists of tears agglutinated into a

more or less uniform mass usually mixed with fragments of root, earth, etc. the
paste from also contains extraneous matter. The tears are rounded or flattened,
5-30mm in dia meter and grayish or dull yellow in colour.

There are two major varieties of asafoetida, namely, ‘Hing’ and ‘Hingra’. Hingra is
said to be inferior to Hing which is richer in odour and is the most fancied. Hing is
further classified as ‘Irani Hing’ and “Pathani Hing”, according to their country
origin, the former being from Iran, and the latter from Afghanistan. Among them,
again, there are several varieties. Of these, ‘Hadda’ is the most priced and the
strongest. The two varieties of Irani asafoetida are ‘Sweet’ and ‘Bitter’ asafoetida.
Sweet asafoetida is obtained from the horizontal cutting of the stem. The bitter
asafoetida is obtained from the cutting of the plant root. Hing is water soluble as
it is rich in gums but Hingra is rich in resin, so it is oil soluble. Hingra is the
exudates of Ferula foetida (syn: F. scorodosma) while hing is the exudates of F.
asafoetida (Syn. Alliacea) Hirani Hing samples mostly contain wordy residue but
pathani ones are comparatively free from wood. Asafoetida samples were found
to contain (%) : resin 19-69; gum/impurities 11. 7-56. 3; volatile oil 4.3-21.00;
total ash 2.7-6.3%, AIA 42.0-84.0 (% of total ash) loss on drying 7.9-32.2;
moisture 2.7-11.8; alcohol soluble extract 1.4-12.9; and sulphur in volatile oil 8.9-
31.4:

31
The resin portion contain chiefly asaresinotennol, free or combined with ferulic
acid. The volatile is levo rotatory (-90 to – 9018) and the chief constituent of the vil
is secondary 2-butyl propenyl disulfide; the remaining constituents are other
disulfides and trisulfide and terpenes. The disagreeable odour of the vil is
reported to be mainly due to 2-Butyl-3-methyl thioallyl disulfide C11H20S2). Hing is
used in foods and Hingra is used in medicines.

Curry Leaf : Murraya koenigii (L) Sprengel. Rutaceae. Gandhela or Mitha neem
(Guj) or curry patta (Punjab), or Kathnim (Hindi). Curry leaves or ‘curry patte’ are
derived from a handsome aromatic small free of the Himalayan region, found
almost throughout India. Proximate composition shows the following (1%) :
moisture 66.3; protein 6.1; fat (ether extract 1.0; carbohydrates 16.0; fibre 6.4;
ash 4.2: the leaves are rich in vit-A, calcium, and oxalates 1.35% the leaves
contain volatile oil about 1%. The young leaves are rich in volatile oil content.
Under pressure the curry leaves give upto 2.6% volatile oil. The leaves also
contain crystalline glucoside koenigin and a resin.

The GCMS studies have indicated the presence of 47 components in the oil of
curry leaf. The main constitutes are : B-carryophyllene 28.7%, B-Gurjunene 21.4:
B-Elemene 6.8%, B-Bisabolene, 2.8, Y-cadinene 2.5%, selinene 8.2%, B-
Elemene 6.8%, B-Bisabolene 2.5%, selinene 8.2%, B-phellandrene 6%, B-
thujene 4.3% and limonene 2.1%. CFTRI Mysore has developed a method for
the retention of colour in dried curry leaves.

32
 FLAVOURINGS FOR SOFT DRINKS
In the beverage industry it is flavour which confers upon a drink its appeal and
palatability. Its quality depends upon proper balance of the various ingredients
which all together constitute this important property. In general, the composition
of a soft drink is 90% water, 10% sugar, 0.2% acid and 0.15% flavour. Although
water, sugar and acid can make a drink, it is the remarkably little quantity of
flavour that lends a characteristic uniqueness to a soft drink. This small additive
is the subject of this lecture.

To describe the flavour part of soft drinks, some knowledge of chemistry is

needed. If the flavour were orange oil, the essential oil from the peel of oranges,
about 250 different chemical structures are involved in characterizing it. Pure
synthetic flavourings may contain fewer substances but still modern flavour
compositions easily contain more flavouring substance.

Natural Flavouring materials:

They consist of vegetable and sometimes animal products used for their
flavouring properties, either as such or processed for human consumption. E.G.
oranges, vanilla beans and roasted coffee beans. The term ‘natural’ is not
necessarily synonymous with non-toxic or harmless. There are some plants that
contain toxic substances and hence ‘not permitted’; while some other contain
toxic principles but are allowed as flavouring substances with the usage limit
prescribed E.g. tonca beans which contain coumarin and sassafras which
contains safrol. These natural flavours are never used as such. Apart from the
fact that various parts of a plant can be extracted or distilled (e.g. fruit, bark,
leaves) many physical means of extraction can be employed. Different extraction
solvents may give different products. In rare cases a chemically defined
substance is isolated from these natural flavour concentrates. These are called
natural flavouring substances. Physical means only are allowed to isolate them to
preserve the natural character. E.G. citral from lemon oil, menthol from

33
peppermint oil and eugenol from clove oil. The same citral, menthol and eugenol
can be produced chemically.
Nature-identical flavouring substances :
These are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes from an
aromatic raw material and are chemically identical to a substance present in
natural products intended for human consumption, either processed or not. The
natural product must be a food. This group contains a steadily increasing number
of substances. Modern analytical instruments make it possible to unveil the
secrets of nature and to find out which chemical nature uses to make flavours. It
is these chemicals, used in ppb range; that make it possible to duplicate the
natural character. Besides esters, the most abundant class of chemicals used in
the flavour industry, heterocyclic substances such as pyrazines, thiazoles,
furans, oxazoles, etc. are increasing in number very rapidly.

Artificial flavouring substances:

About 300 artificial flavouring substances are in use, some of them in substantial
amounts such as ethyl vanillin and ethyl maltol, but most of them, by a limited
number of flavoring houses and in small to very small quantities. It goes without
saying that these substances in principle foreign to the intestinal tract, have to be
evaluated toxicologically and that only those that pass this screening can be
used.

Flavours for soft drinks :

The most popular flavours for soft drinks are still the citrus oils such as orange,
lemon, lime and grapefruit oils. Like all essential oils, these peel oils are water-
insoluble containing more than 90% hydrocarbons, mainly limonene, which
contribute little or nothing to the flavour. The rest, constituting 10% oxygenated
compounds, can be incorporated into a soft drink in two ways : (i) to make a
water – soluble flavouring and, (ii) to emulsify the oil with the oil of weighting
agents and / or emulsifiers.

34
Water-soluble flavourings from citrus oils can be made in several ways.

Washing with dilute ethanol :

Terpenes, i.e., the hydrocarbon fraction do not mix with diluted ethanol and
therefore can be separated. In choosing the extraction solvent, the partition
coefficient of the flavouring substances between the extraction solvent and the
hydrocarbon layer has to be considered. If however, too concentrated ethanol is
used for washing, then too great a quantity of terpenes will dissolve in the
ethanolic layer.

Concentration by simple distillation :

Folded (3/4/5) oils can be made without losing too much of the character of the
oil. Of course the most volatile components are lost, but this can be
compensated for by adding the first fractions, the head of the distillate, to the
concentrated oil.
Countercurrent extraction :
This is a much milder method using solvent system like methanol and pentane or
hexane. The oxygen-containing substances dissolve in the methanol, the
terpenes in the pentane or hexane. Distilling off the methanol gives a very
concentrated citrus oil.
Several products are used as flavours for soft drinks, namely : individual or
compounded concentrated essential oils, alcoholic extracts and distillates from
aromatic plants, flavouring pastes, fruit juices etc. the basic requirement of soft
drink flavour is its complete solubility in syrup. Most flavours are blends of simple
and complex ingredients dissolved in a suitable solvent, which is compatible with
the product in which they are to be used. Ethanol, glycerol, isopropanol,
propylene glycol, esters such as triacetin (glyceryl triacetate), dibutycin (glyceryl
dibutyrate) are used as flavour carriers or diluents. Some of the well known
flavoured soft beverages are cola, lime, lemon, root beer, gingerale, grape and
orange. These contain blended flavours made from two or more flavours. Some
are at least similar in flavour to common fruits or juices while others have a little

35
or no resemblance. The comminuted citrus base is a useful ingredient for citrus
soft drinks providing flavour, colour and cloud together with a measure of fruit
content. However, it has to be blended with other flavours to make it acceptable.
Sweetness and acidity are factors which greatly affect the flavour of soft drinks.
Both these need to be in right proportion in relation to one another and to the
flavour in question, or otherwise, however good the actual flavouring is, the end
result will be unsatisfactory.

36
 MEASUREMENT OF FLAVOUR CHEMICALS

A. FLAVOUR CHEMICALS

B. ANALYSIS OF FLAVOUR CHEMICALS

I. Sample preparation
1. Isolation and extraction methods
2. Concentration techniques

II. Separation Techniques

1. Introduction
2. Paper and thin-layer chromatography
3. Gas chromatography
4. Liquid chromatography

III. Identification methods :

1. Introduction
2. Infrared spectroscopy
3. Nuclear magnetic resonance
4. Mass spectrometry.

A. FLAVOUR CHEMICALS :
Flavour chemical may be classified as follows .
1. Natural flavours : Which are volatile and nonvolatile metabolites of plants
(e.g., essential oils, fruit flavours etc.,)
2. Flavouring compounds arising from enzymatic action on precursors (e.g.,
action of allinase in allium species and myrosinase in mustard).
3. Flavours produced by microbial action and fermentation (e.g., in dairy
products, wines and tea).

37
4. Flavour developed during heat processing or cooking caramelisation,
Maillard reaction, roasting (e.g., cooked meat flavours and coffee).
5. Flavours generated by oxidative reactions – rancidity and flavour
degradation.

B. ANALYSIS OF FLAVOUR CHEMICALS :

The steps involved in the analysis of flavours compounds are,

I. Sample preparation
II. Separation
III. Identification

I . Sample Preparation :

1. Isolation and extraction methods :

i) Expression – The physical extraction of oil or juice from plant parts
e.g., the peel oil from citrus fruits.
ii) Solvent extraction – The method employs extraction of aromatic
components using volatile solvents, liquefied gaseous solvents or supercritical
fluids.
iii) Steam distillation, where the volatile are distilled out along with steam.
iv) High vacuum transfer, where volatiles are recovered from fixed oils
and foods having lipid content.
v) Headspace purging.

2. Concentration techniques :

The flavour isolates often need concentration which should involve minimum
chemical change. The several methods employed to achieve this are,
i) Adsorption (e.g., charcoal and Tenax) followed by desorption
(thermal),

38
ii) Distillation methods (e.g., vacuum distillation, thin-film evaporation the
molecular distillation.
iii) Freeze concentration and
iv) Crystallization.
II) Separation Techniques :

1. Introduction :

The separation method which as the widest application, versatility and efficiency
is chromatography. The method involves the interaction of three components.

i) Solute – the mixture of components to be separated.

ii) Solid phase – a paper, silica gel or a liquid phase coated on an
inert surface.
iii) Mobile phase – a solvent or an inert carrier gas.

The various techniques of chromatographic separations are based on the nature

of the solid / liquid phase used and on the principles of separation employed. The
latter can be classified as follows :

Technique Principle Solid phase Mobile phase

Adsorption Adsorption Usually an Nonpolar
chromatography Inorganic
adsorbent
material
Partition Solubility Inert support / Mixture of polar &
bonded phases non polar
solvents.
Gel filtration or Size and shape Hydrated gel Usually aqueous
exclusion
chromatography

39
 Ion-exchange Ionization Matrix of ionized Aqueous buffer.
chromatic groups

Depending on the support used in chromatography, the methods can be

categorized into.

a) Planar chromatography.
i. Paper chromatography
ii. Thin – layer chromatography (TLC)

b) Column chromatography
i. Gas chromatography (GC)
ii. Liquid chromatography (LC)

2. Paper and thin – layer chromatography :

Thin – layer chromatography uses a wide range of materials like silica gel,
cellulose, polyamides and fluorosil as solid support and involves separation by
adsorption, ion-exchange, partition or gel filtration methods. In both these
techniques, the choice of the solvent system for elution is critical. The individual
components separated are characterized by their Rf values where Rf is the ratio
of the distance traversed by a component to that traversed by the solvent. These
methods are useful in qualitative and quantitative analysis and also in preparative
work.

3. Gas chromatography :
Gas chromatography is the most extensively used instrumental procedure for
separation of compounds. It is employed primarily in analytical work but it can
also be used for preparative purposes. One primary requisite for GC analysis is
that the analyte should be volatile. The sample is introduced into an injection port

40
which is maintained at a high temperature (100-150 0C) to facilitate volatilization
of the components. It is then carried by an inert gas (nitrogen or helium) through
the GC column where the separation of the individual constituents is effected.
Temperature programming, where the oven temperature can be increased at a
chosen rate in a multi-step mode, plays a critical role in the optimum resolution of
the components of the analyte. The separated compounds to a recorded which
registers the output in the form of chromatographic peaks. The area beneath
each peak is proportional to the concentration of the corresponding component.
In addition, GC also permits tentative identification of compounds by comparison
of the retention indices with that of standards.
The two important components of a GC are,
i) Columns
ii) Detectors .

i) Columns :
Two types of columns, packed and capillary columns, are used. The former
consist of stainless steel or glass tubes which are packed with granular inert
support material coated with a stationary liquid phase film. These have the
advantage of being easily emptied and refilled when required. Capillary columns,
on the other hand, consist of fused-silica capillaries with a thin coating of the
liquid phase on the inner walls. These are usually much longer and more
expensive but afford superior resolution and require lesser carrier gas flow.

ii) Detectors :
A GC detector should fulfill the criteria of high sensitivity to components,
tolerance to fluctuations in carrier gas flow rate and temperature, a linear relation
between solute concentration and detection response over a wide range and a
small dead volume. The most commonly used detectors are :
a. Thermal conductivity detector (TCD) measures the difference in thermal
conductivity, using a wheat stone bridge, between a stream of carrier gas
containing a solute and a reference carrier gas stream. It is a non-destructive

41
method of detection and is especially useful in flavour analysis as the eluting
components could be either collected in a preparative work or evaluated
organoleptically.
b. Flame ionization detector (FID) employs an air-hydrogen flame to ionize
the eluting components. The generated ions produce an electric current
difference which is registered by a pair of electrodes. The detector is universal;
as it response to all compounds containing a CH group and provides superior
sensitivity. Its lack of response to air and water provides an additional advantage,
especially in head space analysis.

c. Electron capture detector (ECD) contains a radioactive source ( 63Ni,

tritium or scandium) that creates a constant current from the carrier gas between
two electrodes. A solute when it elutes reduces the current between electrodes to
an extent proportional to its ability to attract electrons. The detector is extremely
sensitive to compounds containing elements with high electron affinity e.g.,
halogens.

A mass spectrometer can be employed as a GC detector which has high

sensitivity and also affords invaluable information on the structural features of the
individual components. This would be discussed in more detail under the
spectroscopic methods section.

4. Liquid chromatography (LC) :

This technique is mostly useful for the analysis of non-volatile components of
flavour extracts. In early forms of LC, the mobile phase passed through under
gravity but in modern HPLC (high pressure liquid chromatography), the elution of
components of a mixture is done by a solvent carried at a constant flow rate by a
pump through a column which consists of silica gel particles of 5-10 um packed
tightly in a narrow bore stainless steel column of 3.9 mm x 30 cm. The columns
commonly used in HPLC are either normal phase (polar stationary phase with a
non-polar mobile phase) or reverse phase (non-polar stationary phase and polar

42
mobile phase). The types of detectors generally employed are UV-visible,
refractive index or fluorescence detectors. In HPLC the mobile phase plays a
major role in the separation of the components of an analyte. Solvent gradient
programming, where the composition of the mobile phase could be altered in a
designed fashion, affords, optimum resolution. In essence, HPLC enables a very
efficient and fast separation of components of a mixture of compounds.
III. Identification Methods :

1. Introduction :
While separation of compounds is achieved by chromatography, identification is
done by spectroscopy. The latter is the study of the interaction between
electromagnetic radiation and matter (e.g. atoms and molecules). Techniques
such as visible, ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy derive their names from the
part of the electromagnetic spectrum studies. The different wavelengths and
related energy changes are presented below.

Wavelength (nm) Description Associated energy changes

10-3 - 10-2 Gamma rays Nuclear emissions from
radioactive substances
10-2 – 10 X – rays Inner-shell electron emission
10 – 400 UV Valence electron transitions
400 – 800 Visible Valence electron transitions
800 – 2500 Near infrared Molecular vibrations (overtones
and combinations)
2500 – 15000 Infrared Molecular vibrations
106 – 107 Microwaves Molecular rotations
107 – 108 Radio Spin orientations

In flavour research, the three major methods of spectroscopic identification are,

i) Infrared Spectroscopy (IR)
ii) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

43
iii) Mass Spectrometry (MS)

2. Infrared Spectroscopy :
The origin of infrared spectra is the absorption of radiation at a specific
wavelength in the infrared region (2500 to 15000 nm) by bonds in compounds
e.g., C-H, O-H, NH.
This causes molecular vibrations which may include the stretching and
contracting of bonds, the changing of bond angles through bending and twisting
and various rocking motions. The IR spectrum of a compounds is a plot of
percentage transmission (T) versus wavelength ( ) and provides a set of
vibrational frequencies at which the absorption is taking place. The absorption
pattern in the 7 to 11 um range is diagnostic of a compound and is referred to as
‘fingerprint’ region. IR spectroscopy is useful in.

i) Identifying a compound by comparison of its IR with that of a standard.

ii) Provide information on the presence of specific functional groups in a
molecule.

When interfaced with a GC (GC-IR), it can identify the constituents in a mixture

as they elute from the GC column.

3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) :

NMR is a spectroscopic technique where certain atomic nuclei present in a
sample, when exposed to homogenous magnetic field, absorb at specific
frequencies in the radio-frequency region. The absorbed energy causes
transition of nuclei between the possible spin states. A plot of the frequencies of
absorption of peaks versus their intensities constitutes on NMR spectrum. The
position of peaks in the spectrum are mentioned as chemical shifts in parts per
million (ppm) relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS), an internal standard. The peak
shape is influenced by the number of nuclei on adjacent atoms. The
phenomenon is referred to as splitting. The magnitude of separation, coupling

44
constant, and the pattern of splitting provides definite information on the nature
and number of atoms on the adjacent carbon. The spatial arrangement of nuclei
can also be deduced from phenomena like nuclear overhauser effect and
diamagnetic anisotropic effects. NMR spectroscopy is a powerful analytical tool
which provides considerable structural information about an organic molecule
and hence is an indispensable analytical tool for a flavour chemist.

4. Mass Spectrometry (MS) :

A mass spectrometer consists of three basic components the ion source, the
mass analyser and the detector. Ion are produced from the sample in the ion
source. There are several methods of ionization. The ones suitable for analysis
of volatile flavour compounds are i) election ionization (E I), where the molecules
in a sample are ionized by interaction with a beam of electrons at pressures of
10-4 to 10-5 torr and ii) chemical ionization (CI), where initial ionization of the
reagent gas by electron impact takes place which in turn ionize the molecules of
the sample. The leading to an array of charged ions. The mass analyser
separates these ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio, m/z. the most
widely used analysers are single and double focusing magnetic deflection
instruments, time-of-flight (TOF) analysers and quadrupole instruments. The
resolved ions strike the detector and produce a signal proportional to their
relative abundances of each ion against its m/z. the fragmentation pattern when
deciphered yields useful structural information about the compound. The strength
of the technique lies in its ability to yield structural information even on a
nanogram quantity of compound. A mass spectrometer can be conveniently
coupled with a gas chromatograph (GC-MS) or a liquid chromatograph (LC-MS)
when connected with a suitable interface. These hyphenated instruments have
been the mainstay methods for the separation and identification of complex
mixtures of volatile and nonvolatile flavour components of foods. the compounds
responsible for sensory characteristics being present in trace quantities, a mass

45
spectrometer with the superior sensitivity is the most important spectroscopic
equipment for a flavour chemist.

1.3. Botanical and Taxonomical characteristics

Tea belongs to the genus Camellia in the family Theaceae. The genus Camellia
includes 82 species. Tea is commonly accepted as Camellia sinensis (L) O.
Kuntze, irrespective of variation in characteristics. This is normally a diploid
(2n=30 chromosomes) but polyploids occur. Systematic taxonomical position of
tea is shown below:

Division Angiospermae
Class Dicotyledones
Order Parietales
Family Theaceae
Genus Camellia
Species sinensis

Taxonomically, four basic varieties of the tea plant are recognized commercially -
China type (Camellia sinensis var. sinensis), Assam type (Camellia sinensis var.
assamica), Cambodia type (Camellia sinensis var. lasiocalyx), and the hybrid of
China and Assam types. Based on leaf pose and growth habitat two intra specific
forms of C. sinensis (L.), i.e. China variety, Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (L.) -
Growth habitat :Dwarf, slow growing, shrub like; Leaf features: Small, erect
narrow, dark green; Leaf pose: Erectophile <50 degree angle. Assam variety,
Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Kitamura) - Growth habitat: Tall, quick growing
tree; Leaf features: Large, horizontal, broad, mostly non-serrated, light green;
Leaf pose: Planophile > 70 degree angle.

46
1.4. General Characteristics

Tea plant is an evergreen perennial shrub most often reaching a height of 20-30
ft. The leaves are of length 5.5-6.1 cm and width 2.2-2.4 cm, evergreen, elliptical,
alternate, acuminate, serrated margins, glabrous sheet with pubescent on below
surface, become dark green and leathery on maturity. The flower buds originate
either singly or in clusters from the side buds, flowers are white with 5 to 7
leathery sepals and petals. Fruits are glabrous, brownish green in color,
tetralobate with 1-3 seeds.

Tea varieties

The traditional teas are – Black tea, Green Tea, Yellow Tea, Red Tea, Dark Tea
and White Tea. Among the above, three types of teas viz., Green, Black and
Oolong are produced and consumed abundantly in different regions of the world.
All the three types are different because these are processed to obtain various
degrees of fermentation (aeration) in the final product.

Green Tea (no fermentation / aeration)

The leaves are withered in hot air and then steamed at 100±5 oC for 40±10sec to
inactivate the enzymes (e.g., polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, catalase etc) and
thus prevent the biological reactions between the enzymes and substrates.
Green tea is more popular in the Eastern countries and becoming popular in
other countries due to health benefits.

Oolong Tea (partial fermentation / aeration)

The tea leaves are wilted in sunlight, crushed and left to oxidize till the edges
become dark in color, then they are heated and dried. Oolong tea, also popular in
the Far East.

47
Black Tea (complete fermentation / aeration)

Leaves (two leaves and bud) undergo biochemical reactions during fermentation
stage and these are dried to obtain black tea. Chemical composition of black tea
is different from green tea and oolong tea. Original components of fresh tea leaf
undergo oxidation, polymerization and other modifications during processing.
Enzyme inactivation (fixing) is a critical step in all the tea preparations, which
provides the suitable chemical composition for tea varieties. Brief stages of
manufacture of three major varieties are provided below:

Green tea Oolong tea Black tea

Fresh leaf Fresh leaf Fresh leaf

Fixing Withering Withering

Rolling Rotating Rolling

Drying Fixing Fermenting

Rolling Drying

Drying

Tea composition and also the taste and aroma vary with climate, soil, season,
horticultural practices and variety. Depending on the origin or source also,
different varieties of tea are produced, with minor modification in the processing
parameters with related to climatic conditions. These are represented with
reference to their origin or source. Viz., Assam (India), Ceylon (Sri Lanka),
Darjeeling (India), Lapsang Souchong (dried over burning pine, originally from
China), Keemun (China), Yunnan (China), Nilgiri (India), Vietnamese (Vietnam),
Nepalese (Nepal), Rize tea (Turkey) are some of the important varieties.

48
1.5. Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of green tea and black tea are presented (Table 1.)
with reference to the major classes. Structures of compounds identified in tea are
provided in Annexure 1. Taste components of black tea were presented in
Table.2.

Table 1. Major chemical components of green tea and black tea

Compounds Percent concentrations*

Green tea Black tea

Catechins /Flavanols 30±5 5±3

Simple polyphenols 2±1 2±1

Flavonols 11±3 11±3

Oxidised polyphenols 4±2 22±3

Theanine 3±1 3±1

Amino acids 6±2 6±2

Peptides/proteins 15±2 15±2

Lipids / Organic acids 5±3 5±3

Carbohydrates 20±5 20±5

Methyl xanthines 4±2 4±2

Minerals 7±1 7±1

Pectins 5±1 5±1

* Moisture free basis

49
 Annexure 1. Structure of compounds identified in tea

OH
OH
2'
4'
8
HO O
1
7 2
6' R1
3
6 4

5
OR2

OH

(-)-Epi- form (2R, 3R)

(-)-Epicatechin R1=H R2=H

(-)-Epigallocatechin R1=OH R2=H

(-)-Epicatechingallate R1=H R2=galloyl

(-)-Epigalloylcatechingallate R1=OH R2=galloyl

OH
OH
2'
4'
8
HO O
1
2
7
3
6' R1
4
6
5
OR2

OH

(-)- form (2S, 3R)

(-)-Catechin R1=H R2=H

(-)-Gallocatechin R1=OH R2=H

(-)-Catechingallate R1=H R2=galloyl

(-)-Gallocatechingallate R1=OH R2=galloyl

Catechins (These are the major constituents of green tea)

50
 OH
OH

HO O
R1
OH

OH

(+)- form (2R, 3S)

(+)-Catechin R1=H

(+)-Gallocatechin R1=OH

OH
OH

HO O

OH
OH

(+)-Epi- form (2S, 3S)

(+)-Epicatechin

Catechins (These are the major constituents of green tea)

51
 R1

R2

HO O
R3

OR

OH O

Kaempferol R1= H R2 = OH R3 = H R =H

Kaempferol 3-(3''-glucosylrutinoside) R1= H R2 = OH R3 = H R = 3-O-[[rahm-(1

rham 2)]-[rham-(1 6)]-Glu

Quercetin R1= OH R2 = OH R3 = H R =H

Myricetin R1= OH R2 = OH R3 = OH R =H

OH
R3

OR2 O

R1

OH O

Apigenin R1= H R2 = H R3 = H

Isovitexin R1= Glc R2 = H R3 = H

Saponarin R1= Glc R2 = Glc R3 = Glc

Flavonols and Flavones and their O and C-glycosides from tea

52
 OH
OH

HO O
OH

OR1
OH
OH
OH

HO O
OH

OR2

OH

Epigallocatechin-(4 8)-epigallocatechingallate R1 = H R2 = galloyl

Epigallocatechingallate-(4 8)-epigallocatechingallate R1 = galloyl R2 = galloyl

OH

OH
O
HO OH

OH
HO

O
OH
OH

HO O
HO
O

OH

HO OH

Prodelphinidin A2 3'-gallate

Dimeric catechins from tea

(These dimeric catechins are formed without rearrangement in rings –
connection between A and B rings)

53
 OH
OH
OOC OH

OH
O OH
HO
OH
H OH
1'
OH
OH

HO OH OH
O OH
OH
OC OH

OH
Assamiacin A

Assamiacin B (1'-epimer)

Dimeric catechin from tea

(Reported from Assam tea)

54
 OH

OH

OH

O O

OH
O
R
Puerin A R = H
Puerin B R = OH

OH
O R2 HO O

OH
HO O

O
HO O
OH

O
OR1
OH

Theacitrin A R1 = OH R2 = galloyl

Theacitrin B R1 = H R2 = galloyl

Theacitrin C R1 = galloyl R2 = galloyl

Puerins and theacitrins from tea

(Theacitrins are dimeric catechins with formation of five membered ring)

55
 O
R4
R1
N
N

N
O N
R3
R2

Caffeine R1 =CH3 R2 = CH3 R3 =H R4 = CH3

Theobromine R3 = H = CH3
R1 =H R2 =CH3 R4

Theophylline = CH3 =H
R1 R2 = CH3 R3 = H R4

Theacrine R1 = CH3 R2 =CH3 R3 = CH3 R4 = CH3

Alkaloids from tea (Originally present)

OH
OR2

OH
HO O

OH
HO O
O

OR1 OH

OH

Theaflavin R1=H R2 = H

Theaflavin 3-gallate R1=gallate R2 = H

Theaflavin 3'-gallate R1=H R2 = gallate

Theaflavin 3,3'-digallate R1=gallate R2 = gallate

Theaflavins from black tea

56
 Table 2. Taste Components in Black Tea

Component Taste

Theaflavins Mouth drying, rough

astringent

Thearubigins Ashy and slight astringent

Catechin Puckering astringent

Epi- Gallocatechingallate Astringent and bitter

Caffeine Bitter, brisk and creamy

Flavonol 3 glycosides Velvety, astringent, mouth

drying/ coating

Amino acids Brothy

Flavanols

These are monomeric flavanols, the most abundant among flavonoids and are
also known as catechins. Their concentration is higher in green tea. Major
catechins are: catechin (C), catechin gallate (CG), epi-catechin (EC), epi-gallo
catechin (EGC), epi-catechin gallate (ECG), epi-gallocatechin gallate (EGCG),
gallocatechin and gallocatechin gallate (Fig. 2). Tea catechins are known for their
biological activities and also contribute to the taste and flavor. As one of the main
subgroups of flavonoids, catechins usually account for 30±5% on dry weight
basis in fresh tea leaves. Green as well as white tea possesses similar quantities
of catechins with possible health promoting properties.

Theaflavins (TFs) and Thearubigins (TRs)

Theaflavins (Fig. 2) and Thearubigins are derived due to oxidation of catechins
by enzymes and rearrangement and condensation of the derived orthoqinones
during fermentation. These are the principal polyphenolic components of black
tea and also found in oolong tea. Their formation is influenced by several factors.
Higher concentration of simple catechins than gallocatechins, results in a higher

57
TF / TR ratio in black tea. Oxidation under low oxygen and high temperature
causes an increased formation of TRs and reduced formation of TFs. Mainly, TFs
are condensed dimers of catechins. TFs constituted TF, theaflavin-3-gallate (TF-
2A), theaflavin-3’-gallate (TF-2B) and theaflavin-3, 3’-digallate (TF-3). TRs are
condensed oligomers / polymers of catechins. Structures of several TRs,
particularly oligomers (3 to 6 catechin units) are provided in Annexure 1 (Thea di
and tri benzotropolones from Black tea). However, polymeric TRs have not yet
been fully characterized and are being investigated by several researchers.
These are also responsible for selected biological activities. TFs and TRs
contribute towards the taste and flavor of black tea. TFs impart yellowish brown
and TRs give a reddish brown color to black tea.

Flavonols and Flavonol glycosides

Major flavonols present are kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin and their glycosides.
Their glycosides with glucose, galactose and rhamnose as carbohydrate units
are present. The flavonol glycosides are light yellow. Quercetin-3-O-(6-O--L-
rhamnopyranosyl)--D-glucopyranoside (rutin) has a very low taste threshold
(0.001 mol/L) and is therefore important in determining the tea taste.

Methyl xanthines

Methyl xanthines present in tea are caffeine, theobromine and theophylline.

These constitute 4±2% of the dry weight of tea leaves. These form complexes
with polyphenols to give briskness and creamy property to tea brew. Caffeine (1,
3, 7-trimethyl xanthine) is a derivative of purine and major (Fig. 3). The
concentration of caffeine in a cup varies with several parameters such as- clonal
variety, manufacturing method, time of brewing, tea bag or loose tea, quantity of
tea and water, etc. Other two methylxanthines present are theobromine and
theophylline. Theobromine had been reported to increase the rate of metabolism
and theophylline had been reported to be a bronchodilator in isolated form.

58
Primeverosides

Alcoholic glycosides (viz., -O- - D-glucopyranosides, and 6-O-D-xylopyranosyl-

O-D-gluco-pyranosides) may be the aroma precursors of tea (Annexure 1;
Primeverosides of flavor compounds of tea). Endogenous glycosidases act on
these primeverosides especially during the rolling stage. Glycosides of (Z)-3-
hexenol, geraniol, linalool, linalool oxides, benzyl alcohol, 2-phenyl ethanol and
methyl salicylate get converted to the respective aroma compounds during
processing.

Carbohydrates

Free sugars viz., glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose, stachyose, maltose and
Rhamnose form heterocyclic flavor compounds during tea manufacturing.

Amino acids

Theanine (50% of total aminoacids) identified as N-ethylglutamine (Fig. 3),

accounts for 1-2% of the dry weight of tea. The other aminoacids present are
asparitic acid, threonine, glutamic acid, glycine, -alanine, valine, methionine,
isoleucine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, lysine, histidine, arginine, glutamine,
asparagines and tryptophan. Amino acids get converted into volatile aroma
compounds during processing due to Strecker degradation. Valine forms
isobutyraldehyde, leucine - isovaleraldehyde, isoleucine - 2 methyl butanal,
methionine - methional, phenylalanine - phenyl acetaldehyde etc. Tea
polyphenols interact with aminoacids and glucose during heating to yield colored
compounds and the formation of Amadori products, which improve the flavor of
tea. Theanine is a constituent of the TR fraction, which is responsible for the
color and taste of tea brews.

Chlorophylls
Degradation products of chlorophyll also contribute to the color. e.g., pheophytin
and pheophorbide give blackish and brownish color to tea respectively.

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Pheophytin is formed directly from chlorophyll without the interference of
enzymes. Formation of pheophytin is preferred due to its balck color.

Volatile compounds
Several hundreds of volatile flavor compounds are reported. Major volatile flavor
compounds identified in black tea are: n-hexanal, E-2-hexenal, Z-3-Hexenol, 2-
hexenol, n-hexanol, n-heptanal, benzaldehyde, (E,Z)-2,4-heptadienal, (E,E)-2,4-
heptadienal, nonanal, phenyl acetaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, cis-linalooloxide,
trans-linalooloxide, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, -terpineol, methyl salicylate,
cis-geraniol, Indole, geranyl acetate, -ionone, dihydroactinidiolide, nerolidol and
phytol. Volatile flavor compounds influence the taste and flavor of tea. The
character impact compounds (fig.4) with respect to odor and flavor are presented
in the Table.3.

Table 3. Odor and flavor impact compounds of black tea

Flavour Odour Impact compound

Sweet Citrus / Lemon Linalool / linalool oxide

Floral Rose Geraniol

Floral Hyacinth Phenyl acetaldehyde

Fruity Almond Benzaldehyde

Fruity Minty Methyl salicylate

Fruity Honey Phenyl ethanol

Grassy Fresh Hexanal, Trans-2-Hexenal, cis-3-Hexenol, -Ionone

Fruity Rose Nerolidol

Other components such as minerals, fluorides, phytoestrogens, vitamin C etc are

also present in tea.

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2. Health-Promoting Properties of Tea Polyphenols for Life Supporting
Systems-In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Lifestyle-related diseases occur during the human life span and these may be
avoidable with selected phytochemicals. Findings from various in vitro and in vivo
experiments, along with epidemiological studies indicated that Green tea is one
of the most practical cancer preventives. Bioavailability and metabolism of tea
catechins in human subjects; Antioxidant properties of tea polyphenols;
Mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by tea polyphenols; effect of tea
constituents on inflammation; Inhibition of breast cancer cell proliferation by TFs
and EGCG through suppressing proteasomal activities; Suppression of prostate
carcinogenesis by tea polyphenols through inhibiting microsomal aromatase and
5 alpha-reductase; Green tea-induced thermogenesis controlling body weight;
Fermented tea is more effective than unfermented tea in suppressing lipogenesis
and obesity; Trapping of methylglyoxal by tea polyphenols; All this information is
available in the research articles.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-) is an endogenous tumor promoter and also

known to be a central mediator in chronic inflammatory diseases such as
rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Green tea showed inhibitory effect on
TNF- gene expression mediated through inhibition of NF-kB and Activator
Protein-1 (AP-1) activation. Expressions of TNF- and IL-6 were inhibited in the
lungs of the mice after treatment with green tea in drinking water. Green tea
possesses preventive effects on both chronic inflammatory diseases and lifestyle
diseases (e.g., cardio vascular diseases; diabetes and cancer), resulting in
prolonged life span and health benefits are due to the polyphenols (viz.,
catechins). Treatment of EGCG to human skin inhibited ultraviolet radiation
induced oxidative stress.

Black tea reportedly possesses many biological activities. It is as an effective

antioxidant, active against inflammation, and some types of cancer. It improves
bone mineral density by influencing the hormonal balance and antioxidant
function. It also possesses antiviral properties owing to the enzyme inhibiting and

61
receptor blocking characters. It reduced DNA damage, mutagenesis and
prevented CVDs. It had effect on the gastrointestinal tract. It affected motility,
absorption, microflora etc.

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