NAME: DOMINGSIL, VLADIMIR A.

SECTION: BSMT 9

1. Discuss what is the hydrological cycle model from evaporation, precipitation,

atmospheric advection to surface/subsurface flows attached or show illustration on
your answer.
The water cycle explains the movement of water through the land, oceans, and atmosphere of
Earth. Water always exists in all three phases and in a variety of forms, including lakes, rivers,
glaciers, oceans, seas, below-ground aquifers, vapor in the atmosphere, and clouds.

Evaporation, Condensation, and Precipitation:

The three main processes that make up the water cycle are evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation.

Evaporation:
The transformation of a liquid's surface into a gas is known as evaporation. Liquid water that is
present in lakes, rivers, and oceans evaporates during the water cycle to form water vapor.
We breathe air that contains significant amounts of water vapor, which surrounds us.
Additionally, water vapor is a significant greenhouse gas. The Earth is insulated by greenhouse
gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide, which keep the globe warm enough to support life as
we know it. Global warming is also exacerbated by rising atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases.
The sun controls the evaporation phase of the water cycle. Liquid water on the ocean's surface
reacts with the light to transform into an invisible gas (water vapor). Wind, temperature, and the
water's density all have an impact on evaporation.

Condensation:
The transformation of a gas into a liquid is called condensation. In the water cycle, atmospheric
water vapor condenses and turns into liquid.
Both at ground level and in the upper atmosphere, condensation can occur. Water vapor
condenses, or gets more concentrated, to produce clouds (dense). Around little particles known
as cloud condensation nuclei, water vapor condenses (CCN). CCN might be minute dust, salt, or
pollution particles. Fog or mist are terms used to describe clouds at ground level.
The sun has an impact on condensation the same way it does on evaporation. Water vapor
approaches the dew point, or saturation limit, as it cools. The dew point of a region is
significantly influenced by air pressure as well.

Precipitation:
Precipitation is a process, just as evaporation and condensation. Any kind of water—liquid or
solid—that falls to Earth as a result of atmospheric condensation is known as precipitation. Rain,
snow, and hail are all types of precipitation.
Rain is not the same as fog. Fog contains water; however, it does not condense to the point of
precipitation or liquefaction and fall to Earth. As liquid water suspended in the atmosphere, fog
and mist are classified as suspensions in the water cycle.
One of the various ways waters is cycled from the atmosphere to the land or ocean is through
precipitation.

Atmospheric Advection to Surface:

Earth's seas include currents that transport water throughout the world, while the atmosphere of
Earth is a dynamic sea of gases in continual motion. A lateral or horizontal transport of mass,
heat, or another attribute is called advection. As a result, the winds that blow over Earth's surface
are an example of advectional air motions.

Subsurface Flow:
It is the flow of water under the earth's surface. Subsurface water that has undergone infiltration
eventually enters the ocean or seeps back to the surface through streams. The slope of the land,
rainfall, the level of groundwater extraction, and other factors all affect the flow of subsurface
water.
In the water cycle, part of the water that falls as precipitation on the earth's surface flows to the
surface to create streams and rivers. By permeating the soil and moving underground, the
remaining water hydrates the vadose zone soil and recharges aquifers, with the excess flowing as
subsurface runoff. It is determined using the Groundwater Flow Equation in hydrogeology.
In water-bearing rocks, subsurface flows have a drainage capability that is slower than surface
flows but quicker than groundwater flows. The hydraulic lateral conductivity of the environment
must be larger than the perpendicular conductivity in order for subsurface flows to arise. In
unsaturated regimes, the subsurface flow might be the base flow in an area with steep slopes, and
it can be the leading flow in humid areas with vegetation cover and well-drained soils.
 2. Explain Classification of Clouds with descriptions;
Typically, clouds are categorized based on their height and appearance. For ease of reference, we
can organize them as follows: high clouds, intermediate clouds, and low clouds. We need to be
cautious when depending on height information. There is some seasonal variance, some
latitudinal variation, and there is occasionally some overlap. For each height group, clouds,
however, have a different look.

WMO cloud classification (1957) - The WMO divided the clouds into ten groups based on their
height and appearance. According to their height, clouds may be divided into the following four
basic groups: family A, B, C, and D. Within each of these primary categories, there are other
subcategories.

Family A: High clouds make up this group of clouds. In the tropics and subtropics, the mean
lower level is 7 km, while the mean upper level is 12 km. There are three subgroups in this
family:

1. Ice crystals can be seen in cirrus clouds (Ci). It has a delicate, fragile, white fibrous,
and silky texture and has a wispy and feathery appearance. These clouds do not block the
sun's beams from view. There is no precipitation as a result.
2. Cirrocumulus (Cc) - These clouds also include ice crystals, similar to cirrus clouds. It
resembles ocean waves or ruffled sand. It is translucent, has no shade, and has white
spherical masses. The sky is like a mackerel.
3. Cirrostratus (Cs) - These clouds include ice crystals, just like the previous two. The
whole sky is covered in what appears to be a milky white veil. It results in "Halo."

Family B: Middle clouds make up this group of clouds. In the tropics and subtropics, the mean
lower level is 2.5 km, while the mean upper level is 7 km. There are 2 subcategories in this
family.

1. Altocumulus (Ac) - Ice water can be found in these clouds. It features globular masses
that are grey or blue. It is also known as flock clouds or wool-packed clouds and has the
appearance of a sheep's back.
2. Alto-stratus (As) - These clouds have different concentrations of ice and water. It has a
grayish or blue appearance and resembles a fibrous veil or sheet. Shadows and coronas
are produced. High and intermediate latitudes are where rain falls.
Family C: Lower clouds make up this group. In the tropics and subtropics, these clouds reach a
height of 2.5 km above the earth. There are 3 sub-categories in this family.

1. Strato cumulus (Sc) - Water makes up these clouds. It seems softer and greyer than
altocumulus, with big globular aggregates. Broken masses or long parallel rolls pressed
together. While the air is calm above these clouds, there are powerful updrafts below.
2. These clouds, known as stratus (St), are also made of water. It appears as though the
whole area of sky is covered by a sheet of grayish white clouds (cloud near the ground).
It mostly appears in the winter, and there may be some drizzle.
3. These clouds, called nimbostratus (Ns), are made of ice or water crystals. It seems to be
a thick, uniform covering of darkness and grayness that effectively blocks sunlight. It
produces consistent precipitation. It can occasionally have an uneven, fractured, and
shapeless appearance.

Family D: These clouds grow vertically, or by convection. The average higher level is 16 km,
while the average low level is 0.5 km. There are two subcategories in this family.

1. Cumulus (Cu) clouds have a flat foundation and a white, regal aspect. They are made of
water. Uneven dome with a wool pack and a shadowed, black appearance below. It
resembles a cauliflower. Usually, these clouds grow to become cumulo-nimbus clouds
with flat bases.
2. Cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds have water at their lower levels and ice at their highest
ones. These clouds grow vertically and have thunderheads with imposing anvil tops.
During the summer, these clouds create ferocious winds, thunderstorms, hail, and
lightning.
 3. Discuss what is visibility and how change in weather affects visibility

The visibility is a measurement of how far away an object or light can still be seen clearly. No of
the ambient light intensity or time of day, meteorology is a science that depends on the
transparency of the surrounding air. Depending on the nation, it is recorded in meters or statute
miles under surface weather observations and METAR code. Road, maritime, and air travel are
all impacted by visibility.
The curvature of the globe limits the geometric field of vision, which is further influenced by eye
level and object height. When determining geodetic vision in geodesy, atmospheric refraction
must be taken into consideration.

Road users' visual environments are significantly altered by rain, especially at night. Through its
impact on headlights, windshields, pavement, and markings, it alters visibility. Rain reduces the
brightness of the road ahead of the car by filtering some of the light from headlights and other
light sources, diminishing their performance. The ability of the driver to see through the
windshield is impacted by rain. By altering the quantity of headlamp retroreflection by the road
surface in the driver's direction, rain also has an impact on vision. Because the retroreflective
qualities of the beads in the painting materials are cancelled by the coating of water on the
pavement, demarcation and pedestrian crossing lines become nearly invisible. The pavement
seems darker than when it is dry due to the same physical phenomena.

4. Discuss about the causes of fog, mist, smog, frost and haze.
This morning, reports of fog and mist were made in the South East, the West Midlands, London,
Bristol, Chelmsford, Oxford, Birmingham, and York.
The airborne water droplets that generate the weather phenomena are also a sure indicator that
winter is approaching.

What causes fog?

Fog and mist are created when water droplets are suspended in the air at ground level, much like
a cloud.
It is one of the most frequent meteorological occurrences in the UK, and pollution makes the fog
thicker by causing more water droplets to collect in the air.
What is the difference between fog and mist?
The official definition of fog is when there is less than 1,000 meters of visibility. If visibility
exceeds 1,000 meters, it is mist.
According to the Met Office, fog becomes a concern inland when visibility falls to about 200
meters. Visibility of less than 50 meters is seen as posing a serious threat to interfering with
transportation.

There are several different types of fog

Fog may be classified into six primary categories: radiation fog, valley fog, advection fog,
upslope fog, evaporation fog, and freezing fog.
According to the mechanisms that lead to the formation of water droplets in the air, the many
varieties of fog are categorized.

How winter can cause fog

Due to the cooling of the ground overnight and the subsequent chilling of the air near the surface
due to thermal radiation, radiation fog often only occurs during the winter months. Once the air
can no longer contain its moisture, condensation happens. This form of fog often dissipates when
the sun rises and warms the earth, but it can persist on higher elevation where the light can't as
efficiently warm the ground.
Valley fog develops when hotter air passes over a valley and colder, denser air settles at the
valley bottom. Days may pass throughout this.
Air with a lot of moisture in it condenses into fog when it encounters a chilly surface - such as
when a warm front crosses over snow or a chilly body of water. Sea or coastal fogs are
frequently caused by this.
When air is forced up a hill, it may cool as it ascends, creating "upslope fog."
When cold air moves over moist terrain and warmer water, evaporation fog can result, which can
lead to frost. The water droplets evaporate when the air moves over water or damp terrain,
creating a mist. This is seen over heated outdoor pools and hot tubs. Oftentimes, evaporation fog
is fairly localized.
The water droplets in freezing fog can still be liquid while dropping below the freezing point.
Additionally, freezing fog may contain "feathery" ice crystals, which are visible when they
adhere to lampposts, fenceposts, and other structures.
 5. Discuss the forms of precipitation
All forms of water that fall to the earth from the sky are referred to as precipitation. The typical
precipitation includes dew, hail, snow, and rain. All kinds of precipitation, rainfall, and snowfall
all provide a considerable amount of water to them. The most common type of precipitation is
rainfall. It is a euphemism for precipitation. Typically, depth is indicated in millimeters or
centimeters. Location, season, and time all affect the amount of precipitation.
An air mass is lifted into the sky during the precipitation process, where it cools and part of its
moisture condenses to create precipitation.
Frontal lifting, where warm air is hoisted above cooler air by the frontal passage, and orographic
lifting are the three basic processes of atmospheric lifting. both convective lifting, where air is
pulled upward by convection activity, and when air mass rises to travel through mountain ranges.
Convective cells are started by surface heating, much like at the heart of a thunderstorm cell.
It fuels the vertical instability of moist air and is produced as water vapor rises and condenses,
releasing heat from its transformation into vapor. As a result of the condensation process, certain
droplets grow heavier (= 0.1 mm dia.) as a result of impact and aggregation, bigger drops (= 0.1-
3 mm) develop, and precipitation then begins to fall.

Forms of Precipitation are: Rainfall, snowfall, drizzle, sleet, and hail are a few examples of
frequent precipitation types.

1. Rain is a type of precipitation that takes the shape of water drops larger than 0.5 mm in
diameter, with a maximum size of about 6 mm.
2. Snow makes up snow, which often combines to create flakes. Initial density ranging
between 0.06 and 0.15 gm/cm3.
3. Drizzle: A light sprinkling of numerous, tiny water droplets, each measuring less than 0.5
mm in diameter. The water drop's small size gives it the appearance that it is floating in
the air.
4. Glaze is created when rain or drizzle touches a surface that is below freezing. The water
drops freeze to create glazing or freezing rain, which is an ice covering.
5. Sleet: Transparent raindrops that have frozen over.
6. Hail is a type of showery precipitation that takes the shape of ice pellets or lumps that
range in size from 5mm to 50mm or more. Hail typically has a density of 0.8 gm/cm.