PLATE NO.

1
TITLE: Determinacy and Stability

OBJECTIVE: To determine the determinacy and stability of structures.

DISCUSSION:

Establishing a structure's stability and determinacy is crucial before using an analytical

method. Before beginning an analysis of a structure, it is essential to determine what type of structure

it is. It could be necessary to analyze various structure types using various methods. Structures'

determinacy can be classified into determinate and indeterminate categories. Using the three static

equilibrium equations (FV=0, FH=0, and M=0), we may determine if the structure is determinate or

indeterminate. If all of a structure's unknown forces can be precisely determined using the three static

equilibrium equations, the structure is said to be statically determinate. The term "statically

indeterminate" refers to structures that have more unknown forces than there are equilibrium

equations for. Our structures also need to be stable. This indicates that disruption can cause a

structure to regain static equilibrium. An unstable structure will not be able to stand on its own. Hence

there is no purpose in evaluating it. Analyzing the structure's stability is crucial. To protect structures

from collapsing, stability represents a fundamental challenge in structural engineering that must be

solved. That is to say, it is important to meet the equilibrium equations to guarantee the equilibrium of

a structure or its components. Additionally, the members must be adequately restrained or held by

their supports. There are two types of structural stability: stable structures and unstable structures.

INSTRUMENT/ EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS: A4 Bond Paper, Printer, Ruler, Ballpen, Scientific

Calculator

PROCEDURES:

1. Determine whether or not the structure is a beam, truss, or frame. Then, using their respective
equations, evaluate their determinacy and stability.
2. When dealing with structures, the structure itself must be cut at all of its supports (roller, hinge,
and fixed support).
3. The structure needs cuts in every location with a known internal force (internal hinges and
rollers).
4. Expose all the internal and exterior reactions by creating a Free-Body-Diagram diagram.
5. Using the following equation, determine the stability and determinacy of the beam: r=3+ec
(statically determinate), r>3+ec (statically indeterminate), and r3+ec (statically unstable). Let
r=no. of reactions of the beam and ec=equation of circumstances ( 1 for each internal hinge
and 2 for each internal roller).
 6. If the beam structure is statically indeterminate, use the formula ie=r-(3+ec) to find the degree
of indeterminacy.
7. Count all the structure members and joints for truss structures and all the reactions at each
support.
8. Using the following equation, determine the determinacy and stability of the truss: m+r2j
(statically unstable); m+r=2j (statically determinate); m+r>2j (statically indeterminate). Where
m, r, and j are the number of members, reactions, and joints.
9. If the truss turns out to be statically indeterminate, use the formula ie=m+r-2j to determine the
degree of indeterminacy.
10. Using the following equation, determine the determinacy and stability of the frame: 3m+r3j+ec
(statically unstable); 3m+r=3j+ec (statically determinate); and 3m+r>3j+ec (statically
indeterminate). Where m is the number of members, r is the number of reactions, j is the
number of joints, and ec is the equation of conditions ( 1 for each internal hinge and 2 for each
internal roller).
11. If it turns out that the frame is statically indeterminate, use the equation ie=3m+r-(3j+ec) to get
the degree of indeterminacy.

SKETCH:
SOLUTION:

GENERALIZATION:

PLATE NO. 2
TITLE: Reactions of Determinate Structures

OBJECTIVE: To determine the reactions of determinate structures.

DISCUSSION:

Statically determinate structures can be identified by determining the structure's determinacy

and stability. Basic equilibrium equations are employed to analyze statically determined structures.

This analysis discovers the unknown reactions to identify stresses further. The structure is statically

determinate if the number of unknown forces is equal to or fewer than the number of equations. There

are six equations for three-dimensional structures and three equations for two-dimensional structures.

You may find the values of each force by solving the equations. When applying external pressures

does not alter the shape of a structure, it is considered stable. Beams, walls, and arches are statically

determinate structures known to be stable or maintain equilibrium. Another advantage of this kind of

structure is that it doesn't experience stress from temperature changes. Additionally, they do not

produce unwanted forces with distinct settlement patterns. As finding reactions at supports due to

forces acting on the beam is always the first and, typically, the simplest step in analyzing a beam

structure, solving the reaction of a structure is also crucial.

INSTRUMENT/ EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS: A4 Bond Paper, Printer, Ruler, Ballpen, Scientific

Calculator

PROCEDURES:

1. Analyze the structure to determine whether it is statically determinate or indeterminate. In this

particular instance, each of the provided structures is statically determinate.
2. Use the three equilibrium equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0) to calculate the reactions at
each support if the structure is statically determinate.
3. Draw the free-body diagram for beam constructions first, exposing all the forces within the
structure and reactions at each support.
4. If a load is either uniformly distributed or varying, it is necessary to solve for its resultant and
then replace it with the load's equivalent point load.
5. The provided beam structures are examples of simple beams. Solve for the ΣMA = 0
(summation of moments at point A). With this, the reaction at support B or RB will get.  
6. If one of the reactions at specific support is known after using the MA = 0, the FV = 0 can also
be used.
 7. First, draw the free-body diagram to expose all the forces in the truss structure and the
reactions at each support.
8. Only two supports—hinge support and roller support—are used in the given truss
constructions. To solve the reactions at each support, we can also use the three equilibrium
equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0)
9.  Solve for the ΣMA = 0 (summation of moments at point A). Any point in the support reaction
can also employ this equilibrium equation. This will affect how support B or RB responds.
10. If one of the reactions at specific support is known after using the MA = 0, the FV = 0 can also
be used.

SKETCH:

SOLUTION:

GENERALIZATION:

PLATE NO. 3
TITLE: Direct Integration Method

OBJECTIVE: To determine the location and magnitude of the maximum deflection using the direct
integration method.
DISCUSSION:

One of the techniques used in structural analysis is the direct integration method. Another

name for it is the double-integration method. By integrating the differential equation of the elastic

curve of a beam twice and utilizing boundary conditions to get the integration constants, this method

involves determining the deflection of a beam. The first integration produces the slope, while the

second integration produces the deflection. Knowing algebra and calculus, specifically how to derive

equations, is necessary to use this method. The main idea behind this method is to create a

differential equation or a global moment that describes the behavior of the beam by combining three

fundamental elements of structural mechanics, such as kinematics, constitutive law, and equilibrium

equation. This is an equilibrium equation expressed in terms of the rotation and deflection of the

beam. This differential equation is a complete boundary value problem for a specific beam when

supported by appropriate and sufficient boundary conditions at both ends of the beam. The product

EI, where E stands for the modulus of elasticity and I for inertia, is known as the beam's flexural

rigidity and is typically constant along the beam.

INSTRUMENT/ EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS: A4 Bond Paper, Printer, Ruler, Ballpen, Scientific

Calculator

PROCEDURES:

1. If it is a statically determinate structure, draw the free-body diagram and use the three
equilibrium equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0) to solve for the support reactions. Use a
compatibility equation if the structure is statically indeterminate.
2. If a load is either uniformly distributed or varying, it is necessary to solve for its resultant and
then replace it with the load's equivalent point load.
3. Cut the beam at the near-end support to reveal the shear and moment at the cut section. The
beam's length is then set to x.
4. Write or formulate the global moment equation of the cut beam using ΣM at the cut section,
setting the beam's length as x. This global moment is also known as y''.
5. Integrate the global moment equation to get the equation for slope. This slope equation is also
known as y'.
6. Next is to integrate the slope equation to get the deflection equation. This deflection equation
is also known as y.
7. Set boundary conditions. Defining x as the location of each support in the beam and y as the
deflection at each support.
8. By substituting the set boundary equations into the deflection equation, solve for the C1 and
C2 using the specified boundary conditions.
9. To find the deflection at a certain point in the beam, apply the deflection equation and
substitute its location as x.
 10. In solving for the slope at a certain point in the beam, use the formulated slope equation and
substitute the location of that certain point as the value of x.
11. The maximum deflection is found at the 0 slope, so while solving for the maximum deflection,
set your slope to 0. Then, attempt to get the value of x or the location of the maximum
deflection. Then, using the deflection equation, solve for the maximum deflection by replacing
the position of the maximum deflection with the value of x.

SKETCH:

SOLUTION:

GENERALIZATION:

PLATE NO. 4
TITLE: Moment-Area Method

OBJECTIVE: To determine the location and magnitude of the maximum deflection using the
moment-area method.
DISCUSSION:

Another method used in structural analysis is the moment-area method. This method is one of

the best methods for measuring the bending displacement in beams and frames. The slope and

deflections at certain positions along the axis of the beam or frame are computed using this method

by using the area of the bending moment diagrams. Christian Otto Mohr improvised it (1835-1918).

Compared to the direct integration method, it is typically more convenient in calculation efficiency and

can, thus, be useful in more complex structural geometries. The moment-area method is, therefore,

more advantageous than the double integration method due to the ending moment-area method's

ability to simplify numerous issues without straightforward mathematical solutions. Two theorems—

also known as "Mohr's theorems" or "moment area theorems"—form the foundation of the moment

area approach. The first refers to the change in slope between any two beam sites, whereas the

second is concerned with the deflection at a particular beam point. The following schematic, which

will serve as a guide, will be shown after the two theorems. It shows a precise beam that has been

randomly loaded and the bending moment diagram that goes along with it.

INSTRUMENT/ EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS: A4 Bond Paper, Printer, Ruler, Ballpen, Scientific

Calculator

PROCEDURES:

1. If it is a statically determinate structure, draw the free-body diagram and use the three
equilibrium equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0) to solve for the support reactions. Use a
compatibility equation if the structure is statically indeterminate.
2. Choose a reference point in the beam to draw the M/EI diagram.
3. After choosing a reference point, Draw a moment diagram or M/EI diagram. 
4. Next is to draw the elastic curve of the beam. The beam's elastic curve depends on the beam's
support. Then draw the tangent line using your reference of the tangent line at certain support.
5. After that, determine the deviation, which is the vertical distance from the tangent line to the
elastic curve. Do this step to every point of the beam.
6. Next is to determine the deflection, which is the vertical distance from the beam to the elastic
curve. Do this step to every point of the beam.
7. Formulate equations from these drawings using the trigonometric principle of a tangent, which
is θ= opposite/ adjacent.
8. Using the formulated equations, first solve for the value of theta (θ) of your reference tangent
line.
9. Then solve for the deviations of each point of the beam using the formula  ΔB/A= (Area (M/EI))
(B/A) * x̄(B). 
10. After that, solve for the deflection using the formulated equations and substitute the solved
value of deviation and theta (θ).
SKETCH:

SOLUTION:

GENERALIZATION:

PLATE NO. 5
TITLE: Conjugate Beam Method

OBJECTIVE: To determine the location and magnitude of the maximum deflection using the
conjugate beam method.

DISCUSSION:

One of the methods used in structural analysis is the conjugate beam method. Using engineering

principles, one may determine a beam's slope and displacement. This technique is also described as

an imaginary beam with the same length as the real beam. However, the load on the conjugate beam

is determined by the bending moment divided by EI. In 1865, Heinrich Muller-Breslau invented the

conjugate beam technique. The technique is based on the statics idea. The link between load, shear
force, and bending moment, as well as that between curvature, slope, and deflection, is also utilized

by the conjugate beam method. It is the moment-area modified method. Additionally, this method has

properties. The first property indicates that a conjugate beam's length is always the same as the

principal beam's length. Second, the load on the conjugate beam is shown in the M/EI diagram, along

with the loads on the actual beam. Following that, the simple support for the conjugate beam is

identical to the simple support for the real beam. Fourth, the real beam's fixed end becomes the

conjugate beam's free end. The fifth principle states that the real beam's point of zero slopes

corresponds to the conjugate beam's point of zero shears. Finally, the highest moment for the

conjugate beam matches the real beam's maximum deflection point.

INSTRUMENT/ EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS: A4 Bond Paper, Printer, Ruler, Ballpen, Scientific

Calculator

PROCEDURES:

1. If it is a statically determinate structure, draw the free-body diagram and use the three
equilibrium equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0) to solve for the support reactions. Use a
compatibility equation if the structure is statically indeterminate.
2. Choose a reference point in the beam to draw the M/EI diagram.
3. After choosing a reference point, Draw a moment diagram or M/EI diagram. 
4. The next step is to create a new beam that is the same length as the original beam and alter
the supports in accordance with the conjugate beam principle (fixed support will become a free
end, external support will remain as external support, and internal support will become external
support).
5. Make the loads in the M/EI diagram from the original beam as the loads for the new or
conjugate beam.
6. Expose the reactions of the newly replaced supports of the beam. Then solve for the reactions
using the three equilibrium equations (ΣFV=0, ΣFH=0, and ΣM=0).
7. Cutting the beam at that point and exposing the shear and moment can solve the deflection of
a specific location in the new beam. Then, solve for the moment of the cut section using ΣM=0
as the principle of the conjugate beam method states that the moment in the conjugate beam
is equivalent to the deflection of the original beam at a certain point.
8. Repeating procedure no. 7, but solving for the shear using ΣFV=0 instead of solving for the
moment. The principle of the conjugate beam method states that the shear in the conjugate
beam is equivalent to the slope of the original beam at a certain point.
9. Draw the elastic curve to find where the maximum deflection is located. Then repeat procedure
no. 8 to solve for the maximum deflection of the beam at the 0 slope. Then set the shear at 0
to solve for the location of the maximum deflection.
10. After solving for the location of the maximum deflection, repeat procedure no.7 and solve for
the moment of the beam using ΣM=0 and substitute the location of the maximum deflection as
the value of x to solve for the maximum deflection.
SKETCH:

SOLUTION:

GENERALIZATION: