Capacitors in Distribution System

Module

08
Quality in Electric
Power Supply

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 1 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

SYNOPSIS
In the earlier smaller power systems (unto 1947), loads were mostly radial, sinusoidal and
balanced. Power factor correction through capacitors was adequate to provide a good quality
of power supply. With extensive industrialization and energy of pump sets for agriculture and
also with railway electrification, the power systems have changed.

Energy efficiencies call for thruster-controlled systems. These leas created problems
pertaining to maintenance of quality. Yet, the expectations of quality have increased. In this
chapter power quality specifications have been cited. The areas, which influence quality
factors both on the utility as well as the consumer side, have been tabulated and discussed.
Types of neutral grounding systems, including the latest, resonant neutral systems have been
discussed. The effects of harmonics on power quality have been detailed and the
interferences of different types have also been discussed. Harmonics, methods of survey and
costing of harmonics are given in detail.

ROLE OF CAPACITORS IN QUALITY CONTROL OF ELECTRIC POWER:

Capacitors are a useful tool In controlling the quality of electric supply. Capacitors are
independent portable generators of reactive power. Their main utility is in supporting
reactive power requirements, maintaining a correct voltage profile smoothening out voltage
surges and so on. Let us consider an old system where capacitors played an important role in
the above activities.

8.1 OLD SYSTEM

The loads under the old system were mainly single-phase and or three phase-balanced loads.
A major portion of these loads consist of induction motor drives for the industrial at sector
and incandescent lamps in residential and industrial sectors. The motors drove at near-
synchronous speeds. The loads drew lagging current. The current did not fluctuate. Most of
the problems were related to voltages at consumer terminals. With adequate generation, the
load demand, for both power and energy, was met at a declared frequency of 50 Hz.

Thus, the quality of a good power system, hinged around various factors including reliability,
voltage sags, (occasionally) voltage swells, surges and occasionally, flickers and system
frequency variations within stipulated limits. Capacitors with simple controllers, helped to
maintain an acceptable quality of power for almost 70-80 years.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 2 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

8.2 NEW SYSTEM

Over the year, the volume of electrical applications has grown enormously. In its wake, this
has brought forth the problems of efficiency and reliability, both in operations and the life
expectancies of electrical apparatus. Thus power electronics have started playing a major
role. In one direction, thruster switching control the input power by limiting the portion of a
supply cycle to the changing requirement of the apparatus and in another direction, it
converts 50 Hz ac supply into dc and inverts this dc supply into a variable frequency supply.
The frequency is regulated and with it, the speed of operation of the electric drive. This draws
power from the mains, under varying points of a supply cycle so as to maintain step with the
exact power requirement. The electric consumptions fall significantly.

In yet another evolution, office automation and industrial automation, and computer
technology have grown enormously. These are based on microprocessor chips. The
miniaturization in general, has demanded highly restricted tolerances on the variable
parameters of electric supply.

We thus face a contra-directional picture. Power electronics have contributed heavily to the
pollution of electric supply mainly by generating harmonics. Yet for their main operation and
for the operation of circuits based on microchips these devices cannot tolerate pollution. The
supply has to be nearly pollution-free and ideally sinusoidal. Voltage-related problems have to
be nil or almost nil.

Firstly we must accept that the specifications for quality in power have neither been
universally standardized nor accepted. The utilities which were once a monopoly with no
competition have broken into segments within a geographic zone which was formerly
supplied by one utility. We have different utilities competing with one another for securing
customers. ISO specifications have been developed to mark out utilities whose power supply
has a minimum level of guaranteed tolerances and those that do not meet these
requirements. The typical categories of power quality varia7ons are given in Table (1)

Note that except for electro-magnetic interference which is a current-related problem the
rest of the above problems are all voltage-related. The system frequency is load-related.
Quality problems can arise out of reasons attributable to the user side. When this is so it is
much more convenient and cheaper for the consumer to apply various remedies at his
premises. Besides being non-effec7ve it is also costly for the u7lity to cater to these. Table (2)
illustrates these factors.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 3 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Please note that the starting of a high horse power motor can cause impulses and short
duration voltage sags. Switching it off can cause a short duration voltage rise. Controls will
bring in harmonic distortion. Industrial arc furnaces will introduce flicker harmonics and
negative sequence imbalances besides a perceptible voltage depression under short-circuit.
These disturbances need to be contained at the load end by individual customers.

Again note that the switching in of capacitor banks will introduce transients. Switching out
will bring out impulses. Switching in of capacitors will raise the voltage (a swell at night time).
Capacitor banks tuning to any harmonic increase the harmonic levels. The banks then have to
be altered and de-tuned.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 4 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Table (1) Typical Categories Of Power Quality Variations

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 5 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Table (2) factors affec.ng power quality parameters :customer side

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 6 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Numerous quality problems arise on the utility side. They have to be taken care of
meticulously if the utilities want to retain their ISO certification and remain competitive.
Table 2. lists the factors affecting quality on the utility side.

8.3 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY :

A. Instantaneous Disturbances: These are abnormalities of a short duration. This group
includes switching impulses transients, short duration voltage sags, system faults and
swells.
B. Steady state variations: This group includes long-term duration voltage variation,
system frequency, harmonics, telephone interference, radio frequency interference,
flicker, short-circuit voltage depression, etc.

A. DISTURBANCE
1. Impulses
These are caused by factors outside the realm of utilities or users, like lightning strikes.
Their rise time and peak voltages are controlled by the resistance capacitance of the
charging atmospheric circuit, as well as by the stored energy. Their fall time is
controlled by the peak voltage, resistance and capacitance of the discharge system
over which it flows.

The voltage wave dies down exponentially. It causes a dielectric breakdown of the
electrical apparatus which comes across the peak voltage point and the earth.
Sometimes it flashes across an outer surface of an electrical apparatus as well. The
remedial measures includes using lightning arresters surge protection capacitors,
isolation transformers for sensitive circuits, with external surface creep age distance
meeting requirements of the expected level of pollution at the site of installation etc.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 7 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Table (3) factors affec.ng power quality parameters: u.lity side

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 8 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Table (4)

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 9 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

2. TRANSIENTS SWITCHING
A sudden switch-on or switch-off, particularly of an inductive or a" capacitive
apparatus, creates transient voltages and currents in the circuit. The transient currents
are high. The transient voltages are not as high as those appearing under impulses.
The transients have an oscillating, exponential decay, wherein the oscillating
frequency is the natural (resonance) frequency of the overall circuit. These transients
can be caused by switching the operation of an unloaded transformer, a transmission
line, a capacitor bank or any apparatus which can .store energy in one form or other.
These transients have comparatively longer durations than those under groups of
above.

Transients do not cause a dielectric breakdown directly but stress the system. Re-
strike across a circuit breaker, caused by a primary transient, can introduce high
voltage and cause dielectric breakdown, otherwise transients cause partial discharges,
the cumulative effect of which reduces the life expectancy of an apparatus. Lightning
arresters help to contain the peak voltage in a transient. The best remedy lies in
controlling the switching instant on a voltage wave. Another method is by restricting
the surge in-rush current by using series reactors or series switching resistances
(which are later shorted), also known as pre-insertion resistors.

3. SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS

A. SAGS
Suppose that an apparatus across a line fails and creates a short-circuit across the line.
The line voltage drops down sharply, causing voltage sag. Within a few cycles, the
protective fuse or relay operates and disconnects the failed apparatus, restoring rated
voltage across the line. This gives voltage sag of short duration.
Spurious tripping of adjustable speed drives (ASD) under short duration voltage sag, is
a serious problem. A 15% drop in voltage for a half cycle, can trip an 'ASD', (adjustable
speed drive) in a typical installation.

On ac systems, the hold on relay operated by a magnetic coil/ is similarly susceptible

to release with respect to voltage sag and its duration.
In a typical reported example, there was a short across a line, to which a 10 MW
induction motor was connected. By the time the short was cleared, the voltage sag
increased. The motor speed dropped down. By the time the voltage was restored, the

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 10 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

motor went into a starting mode and went on drawing heavy current and maintaining
unhealthy voltage sag. Eventually, the motor tripped (Ref. KTo. 15).
Storage memories can get wiped out and microprocessor circuits can mal-operate
with small duration sags. The remedial measures include using:
Uninterrupted power supplies (UPS), storage devices, increasing the short-circuit level,
by either using a large rating on supply transformer or by paralleling into another bus
or with a multiple fed-in system.

B. SWELLS
A sudden cut-off of a major load can raise the line voltage momentarily. If the system
has an automatically controlled capacitor bank, the voltage swills persist till such time
as the extra capacitor is switched off. Similar circumstances exist in a system with an
automatic tap changing arrangement on the supply transformer. Except for very
sensitive electronic apparatus, short duration voltage swells are not damaging.
Frequent swells will burn out incandescent lamps faster.

B. STEADY STATE VARIATIONS

1. OVER-VOLTAGES
Although continuation of a steady state voltage variation is mentioned for a period
beyond 30 cycles, some authors have raised this period to/ over one minute. One of
the basic causes of steady state voltage variation is a low short-circuit level or supply
capacity of the system at the point of supply. This could be attributed to the rating of
the supply transformer or to the raring of the transmission system or even limited
leading MVAR absorption capability by generators in the system. Steady state
variation in the load, non-adjustment of capacitor bank or tap position on the supply
transformer under light load conditions/ could be the other causes of over-voltages.
Phase over-voltages can result from unbalanced three-phase loads depending on the
nature of the neutral grounding system.

Steady state over-voltages can increase the dielectric stress in an electrical system.
Just as importantly they increase the internal losses raise the hot spot temperatures
besides the stress on insulation and lead to an on-set of partial discharges. This lowers
the life of the operating equipment due to reduced dielectric strength. According to an
EPRI report (Ref. No. [36]) a 10% increase in voltage stress accompanied by harmonic
currents caused a 7% increase in the operating temperature of a power capacitor. This
resulted in a 30% reduc7on in life expectancy.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 11 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Over-voltages also increase the junc7on temperatures in an 1C and lead to their

malfunctioning. Over-voltage tolerances for electronic equipment are very critical. It
may be noted that a rating in output at a rated voltage for any given equipment
ensures its operations at a steady state temperature under which the expected period
of life expectancy can be achieved. A higher over-voltage tolerance will ensure that
the equipment will still work without a breakdown, but continuous or repeated
operations under an over-voltage will certainly reduce its overall life expectancy.

This point is particularly important while specifying the rated voltages on power
capacitors. As per the standard specifications the rated voltage will be the highest
steady state over-voltage to which a capacitor is subjected in its operation. Lower
rated voltage gives higher KVAR output at a higher operating voltage. It also reduces
capacitor life significantly. This insistence on low voltage rating by the customer is one
of the reasons for an abnormal rate of capacitor failures.

Steady state over-voltages can be guarded against by setting of over-voltage

protection relays. Current limiting fuses can also offer some protection. The best
security lies in proper operation and maintenance of the system.

2. UNDER-VOLT AGES
The various causes for under voltages are:
1. Overloading of supply transformers;
2. Inadequate short-circuit level at the point of supply;
3. Excessive voltage drops across a long feeder;
4. Poor power factor of the connected load;
5. Remote system faults while they are being cleared;
6. Interval in re-closing of an auto-enclosure; and
7. Star7ng of large HP induction motors.

8.4 EFFECTS OF UNDER VOLTAGES:

(a) If the impedance of any apparatus during its working condition is 'z', then power drawn by
it across an applied voltage V, is v2/z. Its output is propor7onal to v2/z. Under low voltages
the output falls drastically.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 12 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Power capacitors primarily support the voltage. Their capacity to support voltages falls
drastically with under-voltages. Actually that is the condition when capacitors are needed the
most.

(b) In India the major load on networks is caused by agricultural pumps. Due to poor
investments in transmission and distribution the supply voltages at the pump site are
ridiculously low. Thus, a farmer selects a much higher rated pump than what he requires.
Even at normal voltages the high rated pump is operated at 60-70% of its ra7ng. Its efficiency
and power factor are low. Both these factors fall down further, rather steeply, when the
supply voltages plummet. More often than not, the motors burn out.

(c). The user tries to boost up a low voltage with the help of his own induction type of aid.
• On home appliances, one uses a constant voltage transformer (CVT).
• On home computers and its accessories, one uses an uninterrupted power supply
(UPS).
• On the utility side, one tries to boost up the voltage by changing taps, or by using a
booster transformer.
All these measures give a satisfactory voltage on the user side. On the utility side, these
measures further depress the power factor, draw more current, as well as introduce
harmonics.

The remedy lies, first and foremost, in using power capacitors extensively and judiciously. This
has to be supported by strengthening the system, by increasing short-circuit levels, etc.
The primary application of shunt and series capacitors lies in supporting the voltage.

8.5 PRESCRIBED LIMITS FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION

1 . The Indian electricity act prescribes the following limits on voltage regula7on:
• Voltage regula7on on LT lines to be ±6%;
• Voltage regula7on on HT lines up to 33 kV to be
• Voltage regulation on EHV lines 132 kV and above to be within ±12.5%, and
• Voltage regula7on on 400 kV ac lines to be between ±5%.

2. US specifica7on ANSI C84-1:

• Rated service voltage -120 V ac;
• Range A - 114 Volts to 126 V, and

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 13 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

• Range B - 110 Volts to 127 V.

Range A allows slight latitude in the frequency of deviations/ over that in range B. It says
that deviations beyond the above range should be infrequent.

3. Requirements of sensi7ve equipments are drawn as below: (Ref. No. 38)

Change in frequency ±0.5 Hz;
Rate of change of frequency not to exceed 1 Hz/ second;
Total voltage harmonic distor7on not to exceed 5%, and
Voltage unbalance to be less than 3%.

4. CBEMA voltage tolerance curves for computer equipments.

CBEMA stands for Computer Business and Equipment Manufacturers

Association of USA.

Fig (1) voltage tolerance curve for computer equipment

(A) lack of stored energy in some manufactures equipment
(B) voltage breakdown concerns

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 14 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Similar types of curves have been put out by various other electrical/electronic equipment
manufacturers. By far, 'CBEMA' voltage tolerance curves have been widely accepted.
System Frequency

Power system operation has experienced fluctuation in declared frequency much beyond the
tolerance limit of ±3% as defined in Indian Electricity Act of 1956, Rule No.55. This is mainly
due to perennial imbalances in generations versus the load demand due to inadequate
capacity addition in the system including:
• Non-availability of spinning reserve as well as hot stand by in the system;
• Reduced generation from thermal sets due to planned and forced outages;
• Shut-down and break down on power station auxiliaries leading to partial and 'total
loss of generation capacity; and
• Reduced Hyde peaking support due to poor lake levels.

As such the estimated and predicted shortfalls are managed by adopting load regulatory
measures for system opera7on to remain at near normal frequency of 50 Hz.

Collected data on system performance however, indicates that actual load relief obtained is
70-75% only resul7ng in the sub-op7mal condi7on of lower frequency below 3% tolerance.
Besides the planned outages of generator sets/forced and unanticipated shortfalls is occur
due to system disturbances causing sudden outage of sets, leading to a rapid fall in system
frequency, transmission system separation and cascaded tripping leading to system collapse.
For this automatic load relief measures are adopted through discrete under-frequency as well
as frequency tuned relays. System normalization is time-taking and results in prolonged
operation at lower frequency.

This low frequency operation affects both the consumer and the utility. Similarly during off
peak load hours, the use of excess capacitors and the reluctance of utilities to back down sets,
result in over-frequency as well as over-voltages.

The effect of such low/high frequency, affecting utilities and consumers is brought out in
CBIP's technical report no. 52 of July' 86, (Ref. No. 35) and is briefly summarized herein.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 15 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

HIGHER FREQUENCY
1. Over-speeding of motors and overloading;
2. Over fluxing of transformer core, leading to heating, insulation deterioration and
consequently premature failure; and
3. Harmonics.

LOW FREQUENCY
a. Consumers
Consumer equipment induction motors/ transformers:
1. Reduction in speed;
2. Higher magne7c induc7on;
3. Higher harmonic currents;
4. Over hea7ng of motors/transformers;
5. Lower efficiency due to increased loss;
6. Motor burn-outs; and
7. Lower reac7ve compensa7on output and hence support to system.
a. Utilities

LOWER FREQUENCY
1. Power sta7on thermal:
1. Higher flux density, resul7ng in machine satura7on and higher field requirement;
2. Excessive core loss, over-heating of machines;
3. Reduced speed and cooling effect;
4. reduced reactance and higher fault currents;
5. Failure of long turbine blade;
6. Affects cooling of various bearings
7. Under frequency causes speed reduc7on in various power sta7on pumps and motors,
caused by under frequency loading lower station, auxiliary outputs and hence partial
reduction in generation.

2. Power sta.on Hyde:

1. Increased flux levels and magne7c satura7on;
2. More iron losses;
3. Over-heating and over-loading; and
4. Decreased speed and poor ven7la7on and hence overhea7ng.
T and D system:

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 16 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

3. Under-frequency operations reflected as:

1. Lower system voltage;
2. Lower output than rated, by the reac7ve compensation equipment and hence increased
losses;
3. Loss of load due to load shedding both manual and then through the opera7on of
protective relays.
4. Increased percentage error in recording by induc7on type/ energy meters/ up to 1%; and
5. Loss of revenue due to 3 and 4 above.
4. under frequency opera7on results in:
1. System over-voltage;
2. Leading MVAR management problem;
3. Over-fluxing of all transformers resulting in core saturation, over-heating, insulation
deterioration and premature failure; and
4. Dielectric failure of reac7ve compensa7on equipment.
Annexure 1 provides some interes7ng details on the operating frequency limits of generators
widely used in India.

8.6 HARMONIC AS A PROBLEM AREA: GENERATION AND HARMFUL EFFECTS

With the change in nature of the electrical load with power electronics and with the use of
computers and microprocessor-based single-phase devices, the networks will be loaded with
increasing levels of harmonics. At the same time, these loads demand a power, free of
harmonics. Thus, harmonics have become a prominent feature to be attended to in power
quality specifications.

Harmonics have been dealt with in some details in (chapters 3 and 26 of this book). We will
reproduce a brief portion here for reference.

1. Sources producing harmonics:

Briefly there are converters, pulse modulated loads, machine drives, fluorescent and other
gas discharge lamps, some type of rotating loads, apparatus with magnetic circuits, arc
furnace, thrusters, railway traction, HVDC and SVC systems, etc.

Harmonic are defined as a multiple (by a complete integer) of the basic supply frequency. The
second harmonics are not pre-dominant. These second harmonics mainly arise with the
rectification of single-phase loads. They are mostly filtered out at the source with chokes and
filters.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 17 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

2. Harmful effects of harmonics:

a. Capacitors are the worst sufferers. The capacitor output KVAR is proportional to
frequency. Capacitor losses are proportional to their outputs. Thus, dielectric losses in
a capacitor are proportional to the harmonic frequencies, which are a multiple of
fundamental frequencies. Secondly, the peak voltage now consists of fundamental
frequency peak, superimposed with a harmonic peak voltage. The dielectric stresses
also increase. We would like to repeat that a 10% increase in voltage stress by
harmonic currents increases the opera7ng temperature by 7% and reduces the life by
30%, etc.
b. Ripple control systems, power line carriers, etc. mal-operate in the presence of
harmonics.
c. There is excessive heating of induction and synchronous machines.
d. Should a circuit with capacitors resonate with a harmonics, there will be excessive in
flow of currents and rise in voltages.
e. Insulation in general, and cables in particular, will have higher dielectric losses, higher
hot spot temperatures and early break downs. Control cables in service stations have
failed on a number of occasions on this account.
f. Energy meters as well as other indicating and recording meters can give wrong data.
g. Microprocessor and solid state systems will malfunction.
h. There will be interference with power plant excitation systems as well as with large
motor controllers.
i. There will be mechanical oscillations of induction and synchronous machines.
j. There will be unstable operation of firing circuits based on zero crossing detection and
latching.
k. Harmonics, entering a large substation, with a long transmission line terminating into
a higher capacity transformer, with capacitor on secondary, can cause Ferro-
resonance, and hence the failure of an EHV transformer.

The major troublemakers are third harmonic (source saturated inductive cores) fifth harmonic
(six pulse converter), seventh harmonic (six pulse converter), and eleventh harmonic (twelve
pulse converter, used on a low scale). As the harmonic frequency goes up, the reactance to its
flow increases. Thus higher harmonics don't flow over long distances (that is, on longer lines
with higher inductances). Lower harmonics spread over into. Neighboring systems and cause
trouble.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 18 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Generally speaking capacitors, accentuate harmonic magnitudes, as with increasing

frequencies, the path resistance offered by them decreases.

8.7 RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE: (RFI)

A corona discharge takes place on EHV transmission lines. Streamers generate from a
conductor and flow through an expanding envelope and diminish. They generate high
frequency radiation and audible noise and light to some extent. These frequencies differ
depending up on the weather conditions such as humidity, dust particles etc. There is a power
loss also. EPRI had reported a power loss between 0.3 to 1.7 kW conductor km for 500 kV
lines going to as much as 0.7 to 17-kW conductor km for 700 kV lines (Ref. No. 37). There is a
whole spectrum of frequencies beyond 10 kHz. These frequencies interfere with carrier
frequencies defense telecommunication etc.

A radio frequency filter allows all audio frequencies up to 2000 Hz to pass but suppresses
frequencies up to 10 kHz. Figure (2) shows a typical radio frequency filter.

Fig(2) A Radio Frequently Inference Filter Era Transac.on

Fig. (2) A radio frequency interference filter ERA Transac7on 2580 Ref. 6 “.
Radio frequency interference can originate from any conducting metal shape which reaches
the corona discharge voltages. Corona discharge voltages could be ac dc or impulse type.
It may be noted that harmonics pass easily through the radio frequency filter. However they
also over-heat the filter components and reduce their life.

8.8 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI):

Strong electromagnetic noise is caused by transient potentials and strong electromagnetic
fields associated with high and rapidly changing voltages and currents. This noise can infiltrate
into the measuring systems and superimpose on regular readings.

This is taken care of as below:

1. Power line RF filters as described in Fig. (3) Above are

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 19 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

also useful in filtering out EMI.

2. Measuring equipments are provided with a magnetic shielding. Screened coaxial cables are
also used.
3. In the case of high precision research and measurements, shield chambers are used.

Fig (3) Frequently Response Of A R-F1 Filter Era Transac.on

8.9 TELEPHONE INTERFERENCE FACTOR (TIF)

There is electromagnetic coupling between overhead power lines and telephone lines. When
the power lines carrying harmonics and the harmonic frequency fall within the audio zone,
the telephone conversation is disturbed. Various methods were tried and established to fix up
a basis for the evaluation of this disturbance.

Table(5) single frequently TIF values(2000),IEEE(IEEE Std.519Ref.34)

A mass survey was carried out to determine the level at which a harmonic interference
appeared on the audio range. The disturbance caused by a 1000 Hz tune was selected as a
reference base. Disturbances caused at other frequencies were compared with this base and
'TIF" values were arrived at for a typical US system opera7ng at 60 Hz.
The product of current T in rms and TIF is called I-T product. The values of J-T products have
to be kept low to minimize telephone interference.
The following methods have been suggested to keep the I-T product low:
1. Increase the pulse number in a converter. This reduces the magnitude of harmonics.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 20 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

2. Keep the retard phase angle as small as possible. J-T product increases rapidly with the
retard phase angle.
3. Use twisted telephone wires. Their exposure to three-phase lines is to be kept even.
4. Use harmonic filters carefully. Make doubly sure that harmonic filters do not resonate with
system components.
With a changeover to digital transmission and to fiber-optics the use of old pairs of telephone
lines and an overhead system, conveying audio signals, is going out of vogue. TIF is loosing its
prime position in power quality aspects.
Flickers
Industrial arc furnaces have highly fluctuating currents. Coupled with inadequate short circuit
capacity at the supply point, that is higher source impedance, which causes widely varying
voltage drops across the source impedance, the supply voltages fluctuate. Other consumers
connected on this feeder or substation, which supplied the arc furnace, also face severe
instant voltage fluctuations.
The outputs of incandescent lamps varied as V2. The lamps flickered, causing a nuisance
amounting to irritations for all neighbors. Just as in the case of telephone interference, this
phenomenon was deeply investigated during the early history of electrical power systems.
Flicker meters were developed and standards for flickers were evolved.
The lumens output of a lamp with respect to its energy input varied as per the lamp
construction. Again, the degree or level wherein the irritation of an eye begins, depends both
on the sensibility of the eye as well as on the response characteristic of the transmitting
medium from the eye to the brain. Finally, percentage changes in voltage with reference to
the frequency of occurrences were seRled upon as reference parameters. IEEE Std.519-1992
gives the following graph with the caution that there are several such graphs by others and
that they might revise this graph as well. .

Fig. (4) Flicker irrita.on curves

©2000, IEEE (IEEE Std.519Ref. 34)

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 21 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

Coming back to modernity, severe 'flickers' could be caused by pulsed loads. Take the case of
resistance welding. Here, a converter releases a burst of energy cycles at a controlled
frequency over a few seconds. Then it stops. Then it starts again. There is a voltage flicker.
The equipments which suffer from this flicker, are microprocessor-based systems, computers

8.10 THE REMEDIES-AGAINST 'FLICKERS' ARE:

1. Increase the short-circuit level of the source. Minimum short-circuit levels have been
prescribed before giving connections to arc furnaces. These are in terms of the system
voltage and the MVA rating of the furnace as well as short-circuit voltage depression
related to VAR excursion and system fault level at the consumer premises (Ref No,- 29).

2. Add stand-by energy capacity through a select use of capacitors. Series capacitors/ shunt
capacitor banks— fixed and/or variable type/ static VAr compensators (SVCs)/ etc. have
been used in one instance or "the other. SVCs support the instant short fall in voltage on
an instant-to-instant basis in required doses. They are the most effective and are also very
costly/ but are the most suitable for rapidly fluctuating loads.

8.11 NEUTRAL GROUNDING SYSTEMS—SAFETY/ POWER QUALITY

The major considerations in the type of neutral grounding to be used are safety for human
beings and the safe working of electrical appliances besides assured operation by the protec-
7ve relay system. However one report notes that 80% of the power quality problems were
related to the grounding system in that par7cular case (Ref. No. 21).

The following neutral grounding practices prevail:

1. Solidly earthed neutral grounding system for the transformer and multiple points earthed
neutral grounding System for distribution; j
2. Neutral system grounded through impedance termed as resistance neutral earthling
system;
3. Insulated floating type or .ungrounded neutral system;
4. Resonant earthed neutral system; and
5. Earthling through distribution transformer.

1. Solidly earthed neutral grounding system

It's advantages from the point of view of power quality are:

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 22 of 24

 Capacitors in Distribution System

(a) Impulses occur between a line and earth. With solidly earthed neutrals, impulse type
voltages are not transmitted to other lines/ where sensitive electronic equipment might be
operating.
(b) Should one line get shorted to earth, voltages across the remaining two lines do not get
affected.
It's disadvantages are:
(a) The safety of humans could be compromised. Should a person accidentally touch a live
point, the fatal current through his body is small. Safety relays to trip against, small neutral
earth currents are not sensitive enough to trip a circuit breaker and prevent a tragedy. The
normal lines to earth, short-circuit currents are heavy and the relay tripping has to be
adjusted for that. As against this disadvantage, the advantage is that the neutral and other
lines never achieve extremely high potential levels, under a one single-phase fault condition.
(b) Line to neutral short-circuit currents are heavy. They can lead to high energy being led
into fault, resulting in the creation of fires and the destruction of machines through which the
fault current flows. The O/C - E/F protective relays must act fast.

As per the NEC code of USA, a separate earth fault protection relay is compulsory if the short-
circuit current exceeds 1000 A. As per the Indian Electricity Act, under 61-A, an earth fault
relay is compulsory for all circuits above 5
kW load and in low voltages.

Solidly earthed neutral systems are widely used in India, UK, USA, etc. With single-phase loads
like those in a UPS, the impulse voltage drops or third harmonic voltage drops will increase
from the point of earthling of a neutral to the point of entry of the neutral to a PC.

This can cause interference between systems connected to a common neutral at different
points. The multiple earthling of a neutral is thus favored.
2. Restricted neutral system
In areas of high risk explosives like those in a coal mine, one cannot allow large short-circuit
currents to flow through a short. The machineries here are mobile and are fed with flexible
trailing cables. Conductors in these cables cut through and get grounded very often. The
neutral is earthed through a resistance or a choke. This limits the short-circuit currents. But
this also raises line voltages and impulse voltage substantially when a fault or an impulse
occurs on one line. A typical value in British practice is as below:
• System voltage—500 Volts
• Limiting impedance—424 Q
Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 23 of 24
 Capacitors in Distribution System

• Neutral current restricted to 750 mA.

Star connected power capacitors have a higher failure rate to body on these systems. They
must thus be suitably designed.
3. Insulated, floa7ng type or ungrounded neutral system
In this system, the earth fault current is the least. It occurs on account of capacitance to the
body of the electrical apparatus both of which are connected.
Star connected capacitors have floating neutrals. When used on electric arc furnaces, where
there is an abundance of harmonics, impulses and negative sequence currents due to phase
unbalance, the leakage current to earth through the capacitance of the capacitor body to
earth is substantial. This results in the high failure rate of capacitors. When capacitor bodies
are mounted on insulators, the rate of failure of capacitors drops down. In these systems/ the
impulse voltages can rise to as high as 6-7 7mes the system voltages.
4. Resonant earthed neutral system
In this system, a low impedance choke connects the neutral to the ground. At an instant, the
neutral current increases beyond a set value, an electronic circuit connects a stand-by
capacitor in parallel with this choke. The .combination tunes to the lines frequency. It
increases the impedance to flow of a short-circuit current through the neutral substantially,
and holds it down.
Thus, it combines the advantages of a solidly grounded neutral system and of a
restricted neutral system. It is used on an increasing scale in Germany, and in Scandinavian
and East European' countries.
The type of neutral grounding plays an important part in power quality, with reference
to today's sensitive electronic loads.

Module (08) Quality In Electric Power Supply Page 24 of 24