I

Lateral Earth Pressulre

1'5 I

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
a Dstinguish clearly between acLive, passive, and at-rest earth pressures.
a Use Rankine's theory for the dr:termination of active or passive earth pressure for any backfill condirion.
a ApplyCoulomb's theory for the determination of active orpassive earthpressure for anybackfill condition.
a Distinguish clearly between Rankine's theory and Coulomb's theory of earth pressure.
a Estimate the earth Pressure at rest for a basement retaining wall or bridge abutment.
a Write the expression for active or passive earth pressure and draw the pressure distribution diagram in
Rarrkine's or Coulomb's theory.
Use_ the trial wedge method or graphical methods, such as Poncelet's (Rebhan's) method,
Culmarur,s
rnethod, anrl others, for determination of active or passive earth pressure.
a Llnderstand how the friction circle method can be used to determine passive earth pressure.
a Analyze the influence of various parameters such as wall height, lvall friction, and wall back angle on
lateral earth prcslure.
Anal;'ze the inJluence of backfill paranreters such as cohesion, friction angle, density, surface slope,
!
surctiarge, and water table location on lateral pressure. I
I

15.1 lntroduction
Embankments constructed for highways, railways, bridges, and buildings are designed with a safe slope to ensure
stabilitv under short- and long-term cr:nditions. The provision of a safe slopre for embankments requires availability
crf adequate land for ihe purpost'. Where adequate lar\C is not available, enrbankments
may Ue pr&iaea rvith verti-
c,rl sides arrd laterally supported by corrstruction of a retaining structure. provision of a retaining structure may be
many times more economical and viable than provision of an embankment with safe side slopes especially in areas
It'here the value of or demand for land is high.
a
fhus, retaining structure tetains soil at difterent elevations on either side of it. The soil on the higher sicle
tends to slide and assllme a stable slope, which is prevented by the retaining structure. This causes pressure on the
Strtlcture, which is known as lateral earth pressure. The design of the retaining structure requires knowledge of
the magnitude, position, and direction of the lateral earth pressure. The retaining structure may be either rigld or
flexible. Examples of rigid retaining structures are masonry and concrete retaining walls, which resist laterafearth
Pre_siule by their self-weight ancl/or by structural action. Examples of flexible retaining structures are sheet piles
and bulk heads, which derive their stability by embedment in the foundation soil. This cfiapter deals with the meth-
ods for determination'of lateral earth pressure behind retaining walls. The design principles of retaining walls and
the determination of lateral earth pressure behind sheet piles are considered in the next ihapter.

15.2 Lateral Earth Pressure

When a soil mass is retained at a higl'rer level by a retaining wall, the retained mass of the soil tends to slide and
assume a flat slope for equilibrium, which is resisted by the retaining wall. This exerts pressure on the retaining
 CHAPTER 15 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE
580 .
first and then the soil
wall, lvhich is known as lateral earth pressure. Usually, the retaining wall is constructed
backfill. The back of the wall is either vertical or
behind the wall is backfilled; hence, the retained soil is often called
to the horizontal due to wall friction
slightly inclined to the vertical ancl the llateral earth pressure is slightlv inclirred
and inclination of the back of the wall.
The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends on the following factors:
1. Type and extent of the movement otfthe wall and the resulting horizontal strain in the backfi]l'
2. piiperties of the backfill material, including the density (/, cohesion (c), and angle of shearing
resistance (@).

water table and provision for drainage'

3. Groundwater conditions in the bachfill r.r.h ur depth of
4. Degree of roughness of the surface r.rf the back of the retaining wall.
5. Slope of the back of the retaining wiall.
e. oepth of the retaining wall, thaiis, the height of the-backfill to be retained'
7. Inilination of the backfill surface wiith the horizontal'
g. Additional loads on the backfill surface such as traffic loads or additional constructions, if any'

1IA rvp"t .r hf"t"l eCO Prs:*1" -

There are three basic types of lateral earth pressure' They are:
1. Active earth pressure.
2. Passive earth Pressure.
3. Earth pressure at rest.
These three basic types of lateral earth pressures will b r discussed in the following subsections'

15.3.1 Active Earth Pressure

a horizontal surface. If the retainin8 wall
Figure 15.1(a) shows a retaining wall of height H with.a b"*iillhaving
were not there, the backfill would assnme u 3tubl" flat slope. \Ale know
tiat cohesionless soils assume a stable slope
when a backfill is retained, the wecge of
equal to the angle of internal friction without any lateral support. Hence,
of the backfill for equitbrium' This tends to
soil above a certain ,r.f" i""ar to slicle and moie array from the rest
move or rotate'
push or rotate the wall away from the.backfill if the wall is free to
The movement of ure #uu away from the backfill causes expansion of the bacKill, resulting in stress.release'
movement of the wall away from the backfill'
thereby reducing the lateral earth pressure. Thus, the more is t-he

Coulomb's failure
Fronlf
sloe <- Backside
1
U;
6 -Eee!r!I-elrcsf
E OB=q=o
6
b oA, = o, = on= Po
o
@

Active state
oB=e=4,
OA. = o, = on= P.
Retaining wall
Normal stress, o ------>
(b)
(a)

(b) Mohr's circles showing

of active earth pressure: (a) Retaining wall with a backfill and
- a 15.1 Developmentdecrease
Figure
of lateral earth pressure in the active case.
the graiual
 15.3 TYPES OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE .581
the more is the horizontal strain in the backfill, in the form of expansion, and the less is the lateral earth pressure.

I Initially when the wall is in a state of rest, a typical element of backfill at any depth is subjected to vertical stress
due to self-weight of soil above the element and lateral earth pressure in the hbrizontal direction. The state of stress
for the soil element is represented by Mohr's circle (I) in Fig. iS.t1U), where OB is the vertical stress and OA1 is the
lateral earth pressure at rest.
When the lateral earth pressure tends to push or rotate the wall away from the backfill, the movement of the
wall away from the backfill causes explansion of the backfill, resulting in stress release, thereby reducing the lateral
earth pressure. Thus, the more is the rrLovement of the wall away from the backfill, the more is the horizontal strain
in the backfill, in the form of expansion, and the less is the lateial earth pressure. This is shown in Fig. 15.1 (b), by
Mohr's circle (II), in which on = o: = OA, is the reduced lateral earth pressure while the vertical ,ti"rr, equal to
6u = 61= OB, remains constant. The decrease in the lateral earth pressure thus causes increase in the diameter of
Mohr's circle, causing it to approach ttre Coulomb's failure envelope. The decrease in the lateral earth pressure due
to movement of wall away from the backfill and consequent expansion and stress release continues Lntil Mohr's
circle touches the Coulomb's failure envelope of the baclifill material. \Mhen Mohr's circle touches the failure enve-
lope, as shown by Mohr's circle (III)-inIig. 15.1(b), the backfill material is on the verge of failure (limiting equi-
librium) and no further decrease in the lateral earth pressure can take place. The miniirum lateral earth piessure
exerted on the retaining wall; when the wall moves away from the backfill, and the backfill material is in tire limit-
ing equilibrium, is known as active ealth pressure.
When the wall moves away from ttrre backfill, the bacKill is said to be in the active state and the minimum lat-
eral earth Pressure exerted by the backfill in the active state in its limiting equilibrium condition is known as active
earth pressure' Active earth pressure occurs when Mohr's circle of stresies at any point in the backfill touches the
Coulomb's failure envelope.
_Active
earth pressure is denoted by the symbol pa, and its units are kN/m2, tf m2, or kgf / cmz. All retaining
walls, which are free to move or rotate, are by default subiected to active earth pressure and ire designed to resist
the same.

15.3.2 Passive Earth Pressure

All retaining walls are usually not placed on the ground surface on the front side but are laid at some depth. Hence,
the retaining wall has soil to some depth on its front side. When the wall moves away from the backfill due to active
earth pressure, it actually moves towards the soil on the front side. The movement of the wall is resisted by the front
soil and exerts a lateral pressure on the wall, in a direction opposite to that of active earth pressure, as shown in
Fig. 15.2. Also, the movement of the wall towards the front soil causes compression of the soil, which, in turn,
increases the lateral pressure from the f: ont soil. Thus, the more is the movement of the wall toward the front soil, the
more is the horizontal strain in the front soil, in the form of compression, and the more is the lateral earth pressure

/1
<-

l.+-nrr -+l
4
pp +) --------+r

Fr+
Passive earth pressure
l*-- Ppz --l
Passive earth pressure
(a) (b)

Figure L5.2 Practical cases of passive earth pressure: (a) In front of a retaining wall and
(b) on shear key below a retaining wall.
582 . CHAPTER 15 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Backfill at Rest
OB=ov=or
OA,=on=or=Po
Coulomb's failure envelope
1

ut
o
o
6 Passive state
c6
o
.C
OB=dv=os
a OA9=on=6r=r,
Ae

Normal stress, o
--l
Figure 15.3 Mofu's circles showing a gradual decrease and then increase in lateral earth pressure in the passive case.

from the front soil opposite to that of active earth pressure. This is shown in Fig. 15.3,by Mohr's circle (II), in which
ot = og = OAz is the increased lateral earth pressure while the vertical stress, equal to o, = 01= OB, remains const.mt.
The increase in the lateral earth pressure causes decrease in the diameter of Mofu's circle as shown by Mofu's circles
(II) and (III), and Mohr's circle reduces to a point, as represented by points An and B, which become concurrent.
Further increase of the lateral earth pressure from the front soil makes it higher than the vertical stress. At
this stage, the lateral earth pressure becomes the major principal stress and the vertical stress becomes the minor
principal stress. This is shown by Mohr's circles (ry), (V), (VI), etc., causing again an increase in the diameter of
Mohr's circle. The increase in the diameter of Mohr's circle leads it to approach the Coulomb's failure envelope.
The increase in the lateral earth pressure due to the movement of wall towards the front soil and the consequent
compression continues until Mohr's circle touches the Coulomb's failure envelope of the front soil. When Mohr's
circle touches the failure envelope, as shown by Mohr's circle (VI[) in Figure 15.3, the front soil is on the verge of
failure (limiting equilibrium) and no further increase in the lateral earth pressure can take place. The maximum
lateral earth pressure exerted on the retaining wall, when the wall moves towards the front soil, while it reaches its
limiting equilibrium, is known as passive earth pressure.
When the wall moves towards the front soil, the front soil is said to be in the passive state and the maximum
lateral earth pressure exerted by the front soil in the passive state in its limiting equilibrium condition is known as
passive eartli pressure. Passive earth pressure occurs when Mofu's circle of stresses at any point in the front soil
touches the Coulomb's failure envel,:pe.
Another practical example of passive earth pressure is the case of shear key provided below the base of a retain-
ing wall. A shear key shown in Fig. L5.3 is provided to improve the stability of the wall against sliding. When the
retaining wall moves away from the backfill due to active pressure, the shear key also moves in the same direction
but towird the soil below the base of the wall on the front side. This generates passive earth pressure on the shear
key. It is denoted by the symbol po, itnd its units are kN/m2, tf m2, orkgf /cmz. Passive earth pressure is actually a
stabilizing force improving the stdbility of the retaining wall, unlike active earth pressure.

15.3.3 Earth Pressure at Rest

Figure 15.4 shows a basement retaining wall in which the wall is rigidly fixed to the basement slab. The basement
relaining wall is therefore fixed in poiitio., and cannot move away from the backfill when subjected to lateral
earth prEssure. The lateral earth preisure exerted by the backfill on a retaining wall which is fixed in position and
7

15.4 DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION FOR EARTH PRESSURE AT REST .583

Figure 15.4 Earth pressure at rest on basement retaining walls.

,Away from fill <- 0 ----> Toward fill

Figure 15.5 Variation in lateral earth pressure with the movement of the wall relative to the soil.

cannot move is known as earth pressure at rest. It is denoted by the symbol po, artd its units are kN/m2, t/rrrz, or
k9f / cmz. As the wall does not move, the earth pressure exerted does not cause any lateral strain, and hence, there
is no expansion of the backfill and :no stress release. Earth pressure at rest is therefore always more than active
earth pressure for the same depth oi: soil.
The abutment of a bridge is rigidly attached to the deck slab of the bridge and is also similarly fixed in position
and hence subjected to earth pressure at rest. Determination of earth pressure at rest is discussed in Section 15.4.
Thus, lateral earth pressure exerted on a retaining wall depends on the direction and extent of the movement of
the wall. Figure L5.5 shows the variation in lateral earth pressure on the y-axis as a function of the wall movement.
When the wall moves away from the backfill, lateral pressure decreases with the increase in the movement of the
wall; the minimum lateral earth pressure exerted on the wall is known as active earth pressure. When the wall
moves toward the soil, the lateral earth pressure generated increases with the increase in the movement of the walli
the maximum lateral earth pressure generated on the wall is known as passive earth pressure. The lateral earth
pressure exerted on the wall when the wall is fixed in position is known as earth pressure at rest.

15.4 Derivation of for Earth Pressure at Rest

When a material is subjected to three-dimensional (3D) stresses, 6*, or, artd o,, along the three coordinate axes, r,
A, andz, respectively, the strain along the r-axis can be computed from the principles of mechanics of
materials as

,, =*b*- 1t(o, +o,)l (1s.1)

 tu$ ?qg'le +
,. nl" mo \, .-anL "| rtloin"oq ,^lrol ,

$' el
nl, hra;r*1J s\=in
,+
{ ' Ht(. Pr, @ eest *Ju A
a
'-?9-I

-)
-J
) :)a
T t sor\ flass lS q,no'.le,J tc, te f,t-.rl ^lnh"rk ,
U"-ofrous eLrh c g
, iro{."yic *o\.,t J .

6r = '1, Ir,,.-t^ (61 nE )l

nl .*.t ,

&= o
e,
Q=Q
<t
: 20 str'\o i.il1^
FN s.Js e, Ncc =) F
bt= _ 6
l(o t l_ "(
sr{ t_A \q: c" etl. "l &dl
. (rrkkj o! rul. !r.
"k a
tlo -= /!
(r-r)'g r

6\= To
l.c ?o = k^ "4" q . ^I"
I
AL { =.o J
?o E o
X= H
?o E L""lH
1Hl Ht . ,l *.[.g rf.,

=) \o t ioltr 0., '.S 'brl.^q^L-

^
{
 -lUtA-- -ELI
rr. fl, [u.,,t
^llz t""f,
=) P" -'LrqJH. q
. ,lrl,,J ht"
r^rJ H
a.tls qt nl3 ouo.o
K{H
tl* hce

-I [r^llz

ffi
gJ J*

tuJ'&-J.l
.l.. (r-Jr)

I*;t U4'
-t
l^IJ 1 J Irt
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_Qr C L fro, ?ttu,re
.;i^1" L
o

{ ' Qo..ltine ( t t sq)

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\.rr1ltti.r.rr .l q so(l "tq.rt o[
ley+\' z "rr& sol\ anor( bo,^Jd
t G ptme c,^rrqe
k Je<{ve SAk{d yt, U

,. *:"{.fi-1r,,},r,. cktc
l-in io q. grr\ rnasr *:hen
frulkttiuzn.
i.e o[,eo c[eor $lt.r. rs t,q,',ine,,[ ol .u.U pa.,^ F
ol thlo *ke sorl lnag
.

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q h.,\q; par[i..a sot\ ,(as\ lo..td
::, 3"i.-r.3 "t
t{.,
'€ rc r..{.{hu .yt rlrc qb. *J1
p\"r[
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-l
r

sLl.'
1..-,\.J xater i :t'
rtb '
910'N1.

L> ot'rJor-*\ €qtl\ pr.

"tr
is q c6os1*t(re .t q ?^rl +(. rttln*q cL
yooll.n .{ d(e t"rttrtr
.-,8 .r..J"x pl,.r4lc qb. *J,
+ Acr 'r.r{&qr ol R*ti^e
** &.ir.h* J €o.,1\ rr.
ir (*r[lo e o,s rJ"rJ
*. \e soll ,r\q
9{ is ho.o?r."* & se.ni_ inlinrle
I'
Q*..^J s.rJn.e t\ L*xonlJ
l' T[.e sc,i1 4oK ,.3
Jr, S\ Col,eslookgs,
[' -..e' baot d(e *1,",* sL. '.s S"qoo+h &rretlirJ
"t ,
$' \e eol\ e&e-e^[ rs in {t: sLk -}
ptostu \b,
r''(- of \*7r
"l
r. &rt.,
*. Hr.rer€rr dhe ah.rg, [o, teen er\"^-J.f, &
o[eslve soll b5 s..L ntrll( sals br.
R:rki.ro t A,lrue €slth ?resr.rt e lr.' c"\esi"o lBgs
tr{t!
Soil el"n.-L o\ l.p A , :, , oI t..l
6xi rrl.l. sksl
q: Hoc xc,o lrl sl"*r
(',nrt, qle
nD cheor cLesr arl
^,['."{
b,*t hlx. plon.(
1+1, &
y,
=) E& c\ Afe mqiov d..ricroV pr\atipal
+
6t6. e\.tst oJ
q= J.z E>E
,,L e# 6, = 6.
& 6.=6"L
Atll,q6 cace r+ *\u ts"fl /nc{eS atDou &-
t .ottrl 01 ,O
"\ect €o( €( , al dhe
dt.n

soll
e\t ',.tn\ eaya.,A t ,

B st,l$s {o Br , E, , *le
I+ €rF*rcno ir lqre
6r a. 1po6,j' ;- ;;"'1^r]":f'fi *
cLAk "l yt"slu qb. yeoc\et
.

l'e \"\t. 6t /
€.rJoFe-. {.,,.,o[es {he &l\.r"e-

Dlo. ol q-uhr\r 6ite tn(f,eolel or

d\e ula[ rnoves
a.[
e..rqu .t'.- t*[*rt S,
\e{T .-Lil.,,., d\e
}"t"\t\s X cafts{?^J\ +.
otr -t t^,1&t. J(o- tt pr-etra[1 4.1.1a tr.P
,]q P
 A} Arhve c^JL
(r

F-aitot e
gta<e
+.+$7o-
6a= 6r_= Cl 6-
Po.

o{q rot ?ti.1crpa1

Fl^e
alA oB = o4_%Ct3
CB= CD = oe Brn{
a
lq - oq _ oc stn{
oc (r- rhg)
6x= oft= oc+C+
CA= Co = oesiq{
6? = + oc s\n{
oc
= o. (r*s,q4\ (U
.t, r
1r,.q
ft0, (^) & (al
GP*
q- = .t-
si"4
l + s,r,4
=!o ra- I - s,"d
(
t rr_srn
{ ).e
"". p{ = k^ .lx
kol c"tlirct"'l J ook*e
L-) tL l.\ a
*r( vr, =
J * slo4
+. "I +.
I tsia{

+, latiollca
' t P. -) !a.ne e.\ ?" , ,. Ft^tJE ko tdlqi
*, -lf,e
Jaitu"e is
pl*,te i.ret,n eJ J (,rs + {/") t" dke
raa 6Y ptinci pc.l Phne , oht6[,, lt hc,rlxont^[.

A.h,. A"I;oe
qe +4lz

a.-- A,lrlre

Ovt ut"r.an[ d
'2,4
-o*1
{ =$
/u/.
)
ko^lH

,,L '1, l'^l u-

<-pr,
t_

V-.-t*- J-
,d(;[}H*,)
Po = k?.H + rlrkJ tr-

il= IAr.tt
<l
rAi
&
l-------3-
iqx - q+H
, v
# Rqrld, Plgtitte frdt ?tes(*, e &," C,r\esror,--iesr G*.tlrt

nI .\t/dA, X o! r.r L
^vLt, s[..*1
, CL
htX. tt , q
S'.nce r\o ckeov
s{.ecJq ool o^
1l-l' & Htx. r l^e .f <r.- "l-"-en L
Gx k F^ : P.lnclpJ s{osl.{,.
f.rrll^!1,
.J 6z )6,
.tl
ttlW 1{in"y
?ar{\.r€- *\ ct
CaiL 6z
't

I
lr-
()v t{dl .no\ e.(eal $., n"Jr L^cthlt
r+
i f]". =) qqlllt..., an"lptt sfiae iq
.l-
htrz. It.1,o,1
I
I
=) Leor\s inrtealg 6 io 6.r-
I {$
I
-' =L - olq . .l tto [n.
ote Jr.o* re.
{len atj.*e
\ xr.vo (a.=q)
\
\
ea
-luq

./ ,,.,
,/
. ,,,

. _..- _
4 S.r\s.g qtn{|.,
h.lz.
'q .gh,* sj, 5h s qr-["(
teor..re d\o..t "\rtt. [[x t , 6x
q) 6z =) 6=f,x
U

6z= C\
 =) D io. "l $(ot v ot' increalQS.

L>
6=6i
6s=q,
+. utt $<ohr 6to L,
" c[e"( Jrr [.. ennJ, p
rna^r. h4<. ftnsl
, 67 s ?P.
\

L, +h ),r ?,p ,

/\\
Ei, L,e plr^2.
lur*\|, '.. hs-$D) _

oB = oCr CG
= Oe+eD = 6C+ oc sin$
?, = oc(rasin$) ( _
^J

q = o* = OC-CA
= OC-CD = oc - clc Stn$
6x = oc(r_s.^4) ( u.t
[-r-o..1
q, (^l & (r)
r* R\"{ --(+y,),n,
-t = ___ =} rP
tlx 1- sl"Q , \ r: sr4
='r"-t" = ur'+^
It I coe H,,,.nl .+ // &td{1 flr. =
r +sin{
r_ s.{
+. -Vt
e +or"(Qs+ d1z)
e \o.tlo{lon pp is
"t So,.,te qs d\"F
.+ Fo or$r, rrlgg k g kP
fl I
*' -[e &11o,*
1laoe .,ol4. rnaiar 1ti^clptl gl,ne is= at ( qst 41, )
'' HteJqg h4aiar ptinci
7J ? 1^c. tu 1+1.
.t. f.tiLrte plae
Lc. t. t ? q-r- $1"
hl r. )

Pc9$\e Q.o.,L,,re

q s- +12

-)

*4;r/
tnl +
?.rcvq6.[
?'tcvt
,/
/acl

J*;d-
€t
'* ttlq.i.,,.,-o rlraf, J en'r he€tl, "cltL enoodf b*[1,tr L q l,,orx.,n1^f
rd
+o q r"rclrT { s6 kxt-L *n,}or;g, x.l
Scr.t{63g i\ Sqt{ e.[eJ
&*r\ .[ d. "
"J tsk{|.\r 4"sr, e, (ror.{uJ.tfu
b"4rrr
o.,tlve
e.'.rtt pt. k, {. pain}
"[ +ppl..Juq .l <J.. &r.,lk^k pr.
* .,.t,tr LI
t^lJl u s.nortfi
Po, \ lilx, s"rL." o,f u".t{rrr
d @
4
GhuloqtrcJ r,""[til
I
=) (?r"'k ioei dl,.

I - sin{,
k41 ko=
k^+H r + sl^4
3f L,.l l"?t- .E- Sl
(3
Po. @ on,
rc"1
A,r,rl l: + lt""[*
A l, X=o tt-t = Lrsd =rzLlt,i
?o. =

/l [, I. Qrrr h r
rat lq? + Uo , r|,r3( t
L,rar 1
_oA. = J6 Lx lr-
O.^e +o S,{dr{orf

^t 1"6.1b"P" = t^ 1
7 =hq
=) P"" k1
Dt^t t Boott rrr

to" o "f x =o

K. Q, Fo='lqtJrq )l3ttfItr =
T"IJ q
2q L^ lr-
a.hve €.?1Pq= Ftwp^rx fu, Por- =
* E A,t fl,
l2fq + tlz t2Lt \ =

hr r qf
= 16 Lnt ).'r
&r

4.1, 7ra, pn. o

k= r-u^d : o.3 !3
r+ {1.1
lr C-r i)r.o lo (.r\J*+€-

1: 6.333 r 6
: z L^l l^r-
b'z4tu
t^
lrnL . 6.333 r lf r/
: 3$,t I h,t1.,f
Po: 2t ( + ,r/rrBf,(,dr4
llq,{4 L, 1,
,/
tz
U
d 'e/, + lo T.te , 6ig
2,! 14
12 { toT. (t /
d:rsd
q-
e*[tu :1-
A
bA: Col e-

-r
J,-
z Laglr - f
4,- (
t ?",

J"
4" tff-o {,
I

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