Assignment 2

Geotechnical Engineering

Date: 14th May 2019

1. (I) LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

Under conditions where there is no lateral strain within the ground mass, the value of the
lateral soil pressure is commonly called the lateral earth pressure at rest (Ko). Sometimes it
is also defined as the neutral lateral earth pressure or the lateral earth pressure at
consolidated equilibrium. The ratio of lateral to vertical earth pressure in this "no lateral
strain" condition is termed the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko = a/al. Here a, is the
principal horizontal stress and al is the principal vertical stress, both in a soil mass having a
cylindrical form of test apparatus.
According to the theory of elasticity, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest depends solely
on the value of Poisson's ratio v, i.e., Ko=v/(I - v) (Tschebotarioff 1973). In some practical
situations, e.g., the design of rigid unyielding walls such as gravity-type walls constructed
on stiff foundation soils or basement walls backfilled with sand, Ko will typically be equal
to 0.4-0.5. In clays of normal sensitivity, Ko is usually 0.5-0.6.
(II) ACTIVE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES ON A RETAINING WALL

If at- rest lateral earth pressures cause a retaining wall to move, the horizontal pressure
behind the wall will reduce. With enough displacement, the soil behind the wall will
develop a failure plane. This failure plane, which is the plane on which soil particles
move with respect to each other, will limit the horizontal soil pressure to a minimum
value. This minimum pressure is called the active lateral earth pressure. The horizontal
displacement at the top a retaining wall required to reach this minimum pressure is
small (on the order of 0.012 inches to 0.048 inches per foot of wall height in sand).
Therefore, most retaining walls are designed to resist at rest earth pressures acting on
the back side of the wall.

The horizontal pressure applied by soil on a retaining wall is proportional to the

vertical stresses in the soil. These vertical stresses can be calculated using the unit
weight of the soil and depth beneath the ground surface, which is represented by the
following equation:

σv γz

Where: σv = vertical pressures in soil

γ = unit weight of soil
z = depth below ground surface

When wall movement occurs, the horizontal and vertical pressures behind the wall are
related to each other using a coefficient called the active earth pressure coefficient.
Figure 1 illustrates the lateral pressure with respect to depth beneath the ground
surface, and is calculated as follows:

σh k a σv

2
k tan 45 − φ
a 2
Where: σh = horizontal soil pressure acting on wall

ka = active earth pressure coefficient

φ = soil friction angle

Once the lateral earth pressure is known, the force acting on the retaining wall can be
calculated as follows:

F σh A
Where: F = force acting on retaining wall per meter width of wall
A = area on which pressure is applied
 Figure 1: Active Lateral Earth Pressures on a Retaining Wall

Since the lateral earth pressure changes with depth, this equation should be modified.
The best way to do this is to find a force per unit width of wall, which is calculated
as follows:

1 2

F 2 ka γ H

Where: H = total height of retaining wall

This equation can be derived as follows:

σh ka γ z

A dz 1
H
⌠
F ka γ z d z 1
⌡

1 2
F
2 ka γ H
(III) PASSIVE LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES ON A RETAINING WALL

When movement of a retaining wall occurs, the horizontal pressure in front of the wall
will increase as the soil compacts. If enough displacement occurs, the horizontal
pressure in front of the wall reaches a maximum value and is called the passive lateral
earth pressure. This pressure helps resist further movement of the retaining wall to help
prevent failure of the wall.

The horizontal pressure applied by soil on a retaining wall is proportional to the

vertical stresses in the soil. These vertical stresses can be calculated using the unit
weight of the soil and depth beneath the ground surface, which is represented by the
following equation:
 v z

Where: v = vertical pressures in soil

 = unit weight of soil

z = depth below ground surface

When wall movement occurs, the horizontal and vertical pressures in front of the wall
are related to each other using a coefficient called the passive earth pressure
coefficient. Figure 1 illustrates lateral pressure with respect to depth beneath the
ground surface, and is calculated as follows:

Once the lateral earth pressure is known, the force acting on the front of the retaining
wall can be calculated as follows:

F =  hA

Where: F = force acting on retaining wall per meter width of wall

A = area on which pressure is applied
 Figure 1: Passive Lateral Earth Pressures on a Retaining Wall

Since the lateral earth pressure changes with depth, this equation should be modified.
The best way to do this is to find a force per unit width of wall, which is calculated as
follows:

Where: H = total height of retaining wall

2. TWO TYPES OF SLOPE STABILIZATION METHOD

I. Retaining Wall

Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting the soil mass
laterally so that the soil can be retained at different levels on the two sides.
Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to a slope that it would not
naturally keep to (typically a steep, near-vertical or vertical slope). They are used
to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing
undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely
and engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway
overpasses. A retaining wall that retains soil on the backside and water on the
front side is called a seawall or a bulkhead.

II. Terrace

In geology, a terrace is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or gently

sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread that is typically bounded one side by a
steeper ascending slope, which is called a "riser" or "scarp." The tread and the
steeper descending slope (riser or scarp) together constitute the terrace. Terraces
can also consist of a tread bounded on all sides by a descending riser or scarp. A
narrow terrace is often called a bench.[1][2]

The sediments underlying the tread and riser of a terrace are also commonly, but
incorrectly, called terraces, leading to confusion.

Terraces are formed in various ways.

3. Settlement is the downward movement of the ground caused by a load consolidating the soil
below it or causing displacement of the soil. Settlement often refers to the downward movement
of the ground around an excavated space, such as that for tunnels, shafts, or basements.

It is usual for buildings to experience some degree of settlement within the first few years
after construction. Although the extent to which this ground movement impacts upon buildings
depends on several factors, which may include existing soil conditions, methods of construction,
size and depth of the construction works and type of structure, its condition, and its foundations.

The best method to solve settlements that occur in a 4 store building is by using
compaction grouting is a soil strengthening and displacement method used to improve the
load-bearing capacity of the ground beneath a structure. This type of geotechnical method
is popular in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and throughout much of the surrounding region as
a result of the loosely packed, dispersed soils in the area. Improving the bearing capacity
of the ground soils underneath a building’s foundation is crucial to avoid sudden shifts in
the soil and subsequent foundation damage such as cracking or bowing.

The advantage in compaction grouting, a grout mixture is injected into the ground at the
elevation of the substandard soil, where it then densities and sturdies the soil. Here are
some of the key advantages of this ground-shoring method:

 Compaction grouting causes minimal disruption to the landscape, surrounding

soils, and nearby structures.
 This technique can be utilized for projects that have limited access and require
more delicate installations.
 It is cost-effective and easy to install compared to some other soil stabilization and
ground-shoring methods.
 Engineered Solutions has used this versatile technique on a variety of projects, and
it has successfully strengthened ground soils in each instance.

There are few disadvantages associated with compaction grouting. The main
disadvantage of this technique is that it is a bit messy and may require clean up and
grouting adjacent to unsupported slopes may be ineffective because it is not suitable in
decomposable materials and it is danger of filling underground pipes with grout.