cmp100 General Information

100 General Information
Abstract
This section is an overview of dynamic (centrifugal and axial) and positive displace-
ment compressors and an overview which directs readers to more detailed informa-
tion on specific categories found in subsequent sections of the manual.
This section also provides background information on the principles of compres-
sion, including a discussion of thermodynamics. It is not essential that you read this
entire section, but you may wish to use it as reference material when selecting a
compressor.
To confirm your initial selection of a new compressor, you may find that unique site
requirements or economic factors pose serious problems for the original choice of
machine. Accordingly, it may be necessary to evaluate two or more categories (or a
combination of categories) of machines for a given application.
Contents Page
110 Introduction 100-3

111 Background
120 Compressor Categories 100-4
121 Dynamic Compressors
122 Positive Displacement Compressors
130 Thermodynamics of Compression 100-5
131 Introduction
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity
134 Flow Measurements
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes
136 Isothermal Compression
137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
138 Polytropic Compression
139 Miscellaneous Notes
Chevron Corporation 100-1 December 1996

100 General Information Compressor Manual
140 Design Considerations 100-22

141 Compressor Duty
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves
143 Gas Analysis
144 Site Conditions
145 Service Requirements
150 Application and Selection Criteria 100-26
151 Selection Basis
152 Approximate Application Ranges
153 Compressor Selection Process
154 Selection Analysis
160 Packaging 100-41
170 Driver Selection 100-44
171 Function of Drivers
172 Driver Consideration
173 Driver Characteristics
174 Driver Selection
175 Special Driver Considerations
180 Suction System Design 100-56
181 Separator Vessels
182 High Efficiency Filters
183 Piping And Equipment Considerations
December 1996 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual 100 General Information
110 Introduction
111 Background
Most work involving compressors falls into one of three categories:
1. Purchasing and installing new compressors.
2. Troubleshooting problems during startup or while in service.
3. Modifying compressors to resolve problems or to accommodate operational or
service changes (different flow, gas pressures, etc.).
The overall goal in all three cases is the same: To maximize profits while providing
safe, reliable equipment which satisfies operating requirements and local environ-
mental constraints. Profitability is a long-term goal involving the following factors:
1. Meeting safety and environmental needs (including noise restrictions)
2. Initial cost
3. Installation and commissioning expense
4. Energy consumption (this is a major expense on compressors)
5. Reliability
6. Maintaining production (this is often the overwhelming economic factor)
7. Operability (troublesome equipment wastes resources that can be spent on prof-
itable work)
8. Starting up on time, the first time, in critical services
9. Maintenance expense
10. Operating flexibility
Although each of these factors must be considered when making decisions, there is
some degree of conflict between them. For example, buying an inexpensive unit
may keep initial costs down but it may also be less reliable and require frequent
maintenance. On the other hand, buying the ultimately reliable compressor may be
prohibitively expensive in up-front costs and unnecessary to ensure acceptable
performance.
Use judgment when deciding which factors are the most important. It is especially
important to communicate with the people responsible for operating and main-
taining the unit. Their input on the relative priority of the above factors is invalu-
able. In the end, however, engineering judgment will always be necessary.
Sub-section 154 contains additional information which illustrates how these factors
impact the overall cost.

120 Compressor Categories

Compressors may be classified into two main categories - Dynamic and Positive
Displacement. These are illustrated in Figure 100-1.
Fig. 100-1 Compressor Types
The range of application of compressors varies widely, with inlet pressures from
vacuum to several thousand pounds per square inch (psi) and discharge pressures
from less than atmospheric to well beyond 15,000 psi. The gases handled vary from
hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2, to refrigerants and unusual gases having
molecular weights in the low hundreds. The sizes, types, and construction of
compressors vary greatly to accommodate this diversity of service.
121 Dynamic Compressors

Dynamic compressors develop a rise in pressure by increasing the kinetic energy of
the gas flow on a continuous basis. The types within this category include:
• Centrifugal (radial)
• Axial
Another means of compressing gases on a continuous-flow basis is the ejector. This
device has no moving parts, but requires a motive fluid which mixes with the gas
being compressed. Because of its rather low efficiency and limited scope of applica-
tion, the ejector is not covered in this manual. Typical applications include: vacuum
service on refinery vacuum distillation columns, and air ejection from the steam
condensers.
A centrifugal (dynamic) compressor is illustrated in Figure 100-2.
122 Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors perform work on the gas in a repetitive non-
continuous process. The types within this category include:
• Reciprocating

• Rotary
– Screw
– Sliding Vane
– Liquid Ring
– Roots (Straight Lobe) Blower
A reciprocating positive displacement machine is shown in Figure 100-3. Two
rotary positive displacement machines are shown in Figures 100-4 and 100-5.
Fig. 100-2 Cut-away of a Six-stage Vertically-split Fig. 100-3 Balanced-Opposed Horizontal Motor-
Centrifugal Compressor Driven, Four-Cylinder Reciprocating
Compressor, Plan View (Courtesy of
Dresser Rand)
Refer to Sections 200 and 300 for more detailed discussions on centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors.
130 Thermodynamics of Compression
131 Introduction
The principles of compression are based on thermodynamics. Compressing gases
involves complications that pumping liquids does not. The compressible nature of
gases requires us to account for their more complex behavior through the applica-
tion of thermodynamic principles.

Fig. 100-4 Cut-Away of a Two-Lobe Rotary Positive Fig. 100-5 Helical Lobe Rotary Positive Displacement
Displacement Compressor (Courtesy of Compressor (Courtesy of Howell Training
Roots Div., Dresser Industries) Group)
The following information provides a detailed tutorial on compression fundamen-

tals, to help understand how compressors work. However, it is not essential for
many applications; therefore, you may wish to bypass this material, and go directly
to Sub-section 140.
Understanding thermodynamics of compression, as described in this section, is
helpful for the following reasons:
1. It helps in selecting the best category and mechanical design for the required
flow rate and differential pressure. These selections can significantly impact
the total project cost (including installation and energy costs).
2. Properly defining the mass- and volumetric-flow rates is essential in design
and specification (including rerates), and may also be helpful in trouble-
shooting.
For example, there are several commonly used conventions for defining flow
rate:
– pounds/hour (lb/hr),
– million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD),
– standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM),
– actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM),
– inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM), and
– moles per hour (mol/hr).
It is essential to work with consistent engineering units. (Errors are not uncommon.)
3. The thermodynamic properties of the gas (or mixture of gases) affect the
energy required to do the compression. The energy requirements affect both

the size of the driver and the mechanical design of the compressor. Both are
critical design factors in new applications and rerates.
4. The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases can be estimated, based
on the properties of the individual components. Most compression applications
involve mixtures.
5. In gases with water vapor, the water content also needs to be accounted for.
The following sub-sections review fundamental concepts which apply to all
compressors.
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility

Equation 100-1 defines the behavior of a “perfect” gas in terms of variables listed:
pressure, temperature, volume, etc. This is a helpful starting point, although few
gases actually are “perfect”:
pV = WRT
(Eq. 100-1)
where:
p = absolute pressure in pounds per square foot
V = volume in cubic feet
W = weight in pounds
R = Ro/M = constant for specific gas
Ro = universal gas constant = 1545.3 (ft.-lb./lb mol °R)
T = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
M = molecular weight
For a continuous flow process, Equation 100-1 is modified as follows
PQ = 10.73wT
----------------------
M
(Eq. 100-2)
where:
Q = actual volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (ACFM)
w = weight flow, pounds per minute and,
P is now in psia
To correct for deviations from a “perfect” gas, a compressibility factor, Z, is added
to Equation 100-2. Z is an empirical factor to correct the equation for actual, real
gases which deviate from “perfect.”

10.73wTZ
PQ = --------------------------
M
(Eq. 100-3)
For example:
At standard conditions (14.7 psia, 60°F) the factor (Z) of most gases is generally
assumed to be 1.0. However, some gases deviate appreciably even at standard condi-
tions. For example, normal butane has a Zo value of 0.975 (Zo denotes the factor at
standard conditions).
Values for Z are available in charts for the gas being compressed. If a chart is not
available, or if the gas is a mixture, generalized compressibility charts may be
used. To use these charts, it is necessary to compute the so-called reduced pressure
and temperature as follows[v]
P
P r = -----
Pc
(Eq. 100-4)
where:
T
T r = ------
Tc
(Eq. 100-5)
Pr = Reduced pressure
P = Actual absolute pressure, psia
Pc = Critical pressure of the gas, psia
Tr = Reduced temperature
T = Actual absolute temperature, °R
Tc = Critical temperature of the gas, °R
Appendices F and G contain a collection of compressibility curves for specific
gases and generalized charts. The critical temperature and pressure of a gas mixture
are explained in the next sub-section.
The compressibility of some pure gases, notably steam and ammonia, cannot
be accurately predicted using the generalized charts. However, steam tables and
an individual chart for pure ammonia are available. When the water vapor or
ammonia content of a mixture is small (5% or less), the generalized charts may be
used for the mixture with relatively good accuracy.
For gas mixtures containing hydrogen or helium, effective values of critical pres-
sure and temperature for helium and hydrogen must be used to derive acceptable
accuracy from the generalized charts. These effective values are included in
Appendix F.

Note also that Z values can be calculated using PPROP.
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity

Gas Mixtures
Knowing the mole fractions in a mixture leads to calculation of several important
properties of the mixture:
• the molecular weight, Mm
• molal specific heat, MCp(m)
• the critical pressure, Pc(m), and
• critical temperature Tc(m).
A sample problem is included in Appendix B. Also see Figure 100-6 for a sample
calculation.
The mole fraction X is
N1 N2 N3
X 1 = -------- , X 2 = -------- , X 3 = -------- , etc.
Nm Nm Nm
(Eq. 100-6)
where:
Nm = Total moles in a mixture
N1, etc. = Number of moles of each individual component
A “mole” is actually a number of molecules (about 6 x 1023 ). A “mole fraction” is
the ratio of molecules of one component in a mixture. For example, if the mole frac-
tion of methane in natural gas is 0.90, this means that 90% of the molecules are
methane. Since volume fractions are equivalent to mole fractions, the mixture
is also 90% (by volume) methane.
The mixture fractions could also be calculated on a mass or weight basis. The mole
(volume) basis is used in compressor calculations because it is a simpler, less
confusing method.
The molal specific heat is used to determine the k value (ratio of specific heats) as
follows. The k value is often called the adiabatic exponent, and is a value used in
the calculation of horsepower, adiabatic head, and adiabatic discharge temperature.
(Refer to Isentropic [Adiabatic] Compression.) The k value is:
Cp MC p ( m ) MC p ( m )
k = ------ = ----------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------
Cv Ro MC p ( m ) – 1.986
MC p ( m ) – -------- -
778
(Eq. 100-7)

Fig. 100-6 Sample Calculation of Gas Mixture Properties
where:
MCp(m) = Molal specific heat (heat capacity) of mixture at constant pressure
778 = Conversion factor, ft-lb/BTU
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
Ro = See Equation 100-1 for R o definition
MCp(m) should be taken at the desired temperature (usually the average of suction
and discharge temperature). This aspect will be covered in Isentropic (Adiabatic)
Compression. Note that the k value of the mixture must be determined by first
determining the molal heat capacity of the mixture (see Figure 100-6). It is a

common mistake to multiply the k values of the individual gas components by their
respective mole fractions to determine the k value of the mixture.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the gas mixture is determined by dividing the molecular
weight of the mixture by that of air.
Mm
S.G. = -------------
28.96
(Eq. 100-8)
Humidity
For air compressors it is usually necessary to account for water vapor content. It is
important to know the moisture content accurately when a process requires a defi-
nite quantity of dry air. Furthermore, the moisture in the inlet air affects the power
requirement, and water drop-out in intercoolers and aftercoolers.
Note that water-vapor content must also be accounted for as a component in
process streams, if present. In those cases, the content is usually available from
process engineering, gas and chemical engineering, etc.
The following information discusses how to account for water content in air.
Relative humidity, in percent, may be determined from the following relationship:
Pv
% R.H. = --------- ( 100 )
P sat
(Eq. 100-9)
where:
Pv = Partial pressure of actual water vapor content
Psat = Partial pressure of water vapor when air is fully saturated at the
temperature of interest (can be found in steam tables)
Specific Humidity is the ratio of the weight of the water vapor content to the
weight of dry air at the existing conditions of pressure and temperature, and is deter-
mined as follows:
Wv 18  P v 
S.H. = ---------- = -------------  --------------- 
W da 28.96  P – P v 
 Pv 
= 0.622  --------------- 
 P – Pv 
(Eq. 100-10)

where:
Wv = Weight of water vapor
Wda = Weight of dry air
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture (usually atmospheric), in abso-
lute
Relative and specific humidity may be obtained from a psychrometric chart when
the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures are known. However, most psychrometric
charts are based on the International Standard sea-level pressure of 14.7 psia, and
are, therefore, accurate only for that barometric pressure.
For example, if a standard (14.7 psia) psychrometric chart were used for conditions
of 5000 feet elevation (12.23 psia), 80°F dry bulb, and 60°F wet bulb, the indicated
specific humidity would be low by about 25%, and the relative humidity low by
10%.
If the altitude is more than 200 or 300 feet above sea level, the following equation
should be used instead of a psychrometric chart:
P – P v ( wb )
- ( t – t wb )
P v = P v ( wb ) – ------------------------------------
2830 – 1.44t wb
(Eq. 100-11)
where:
Pv(wb) = Vapor pressure in psia corresponding to wet bulb temperature
(from steam tables)
t = Dry bulb temperature, °F
twb = Wet bulb temperature, °F
Knowing Pv, the relative and specific humidities can be calculated with
Equations 100-9 and 100-10. The volumetric or mole percent of the water vapor
can be calculated from Equation 100-6 as follows:
Pv
mol % H 2 O = ------ ( 100 )
P
(Eq. 100-12)
The mole percent of dry air is then 100 minus the mole percent of the water vapor.
The other properties of the mixture of air and water vapor (molecular weight, MCp,
etc.) may then be calculated.
134 Flow Measurements

Flow through a compressor may be stated in a number of different ways:
• MMSCFD

• Moles/Hour (MPH)
• SCFM
• ACFM
• Weight Flow
MMSCFD
MMSCFD denotes millions of standard cubic feet per day, where “standard”
means 14.7 psia and 60°F. This notation is often used in gas plant, gas transmission,
and refinery applications.
Moles/Hour (MPH)
Process engineers often use MPH in material balance computations. (A “mole” is a
fixed quantity of molecules. This concept greatly simplifies process calculations.) A
mole of any gas occupies approximately 379.4 cubic feet at standard conditions
(14.7 psia, 60°F), and it has a weight in pounds equal to the molecular weight of the
gas. For example, a mole of methane (CH4) would have a volume of 379.4 cubic
feet at standard conditions, and that volume would weigh 16.04 pounds. Knowing
the moles per hour, the MMSCFD may be determined from:
MPH ( 379.4 ) ( 24 )-
MMSCFD = ------------------------------------------
10 6
(Eq. 100-13)
SCFM
SCFM denotes standard cubic feet per minute, and is frequently used in compres-
sion work.
ACFM
Actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) at the inlet, often called Q, is related to the
physical size of the compressor. Several design parameters are based on Q. ACFM
at inlet is also abbreviated ICFM. ACFM at the compressor discharge is sometimes
of interest, and in this manual it will be abbreviated DCFM (discharge cubic feet
per minute).
However, note that ICFM is the more appropriate term to use when referring to
inlet conditions. In many cases, ACFM is often used interchangeably with ICFM. If
there is any doubt, be sure to get clarification.
SCFM may be converted to ACFM, or Q, by:
Q 1 = ACFM
14.7   T 1   Z 1 
= ( SCFM )  ---------
 P -   --------
520   Z 0 
- ------
1
(Eq. 100-14)

where:
P1, T1, Z1 = Absolute pressure (psia), absolute temperature (°R), and
compressibility at the condition of interest.
Zo = Compressibility at standard conditions.
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between ICFM and
SCFM.
Weight Flow
Weight flow, w, may be calculated from any conditions of interest using the
following equation (derived from Equation 100-3):
P1 Q 1 M
w = --------------------------
10.73T 1 Z 1
(Eq. 100-15)
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between weight flow
and inlet cubic feet per minute.
Weight flow can also be determined from SCFM:
14.7 ( SCFM )M ( SCFM )M

w = -------------------------------------- = ---------------------------
10.73 ( 520 )Z 0 379.4 Z 0
(Eq. 100-16)
Zo is often taken as 1.0 regardless of its actual value. It is important to use the same
value for Zo in all calculations. Although the discrepancy would generally be no
more than one or two percent in a single calculation, it could be compounded after
conversions are made back and forth by several parties involved with the
compressor project. Be consistent.
When specifying compressors, it is best to use weight flow and MMSCFD or
SCFM, and to clarify the standard conditions to every one involved.
Other Conventions for Standard Conditions

Standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60°F have been referred to in foregoing para-
graphs. This standard is prevalent in the USA in the petroleum and natural gas
industries. API Standards use these standard conditions. However, in working with
air compression systems, “Standard Air” as adopted by ASME is defined as air at
a pressure of 14.7 psia, a temperature of 68°F, and a relative humidity of 36%.
These conditions correspond to an air density of 0.0750 pounds per cubic foot.
(Refer to the “References” section of this manual for more information.)
In the metric system, the normal cubic meter per hour is a widely used flow term.
Normal refers to conditions of 760 mmHg Absolute (14.7 psia) and 0°C (32°F).
Weight flow is generally stated in kilograms per hour. The SI system uses kilopas-
cals for pressure (1 kPa = 0.145 psi). Other metric units such as kilograms per

square centimeter or Newtons per square meter are used. (Conversion tables are
included in Appendix D.)
The matter of standard conditions is further confused by the ISO conditions for
base-rating a combustion gas turbine. These conditions are 760 mm Hg Absolute,
15°C, and 60% relative humidity. The rated flow through the compressor on the
front end of a gas turbine is universally based on ISO conditions.
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes

The two actual methods used to calculate thermodynamic relationships are isen-
tropic (adiabatic) and polytropic. These calculations are the basis for determining
capacity, driver size, and mechanical design. The following explains the differences
and when they are used.
Figure 100-7 shows the compression paths of three theoretical processes:
isothermal, isentropic, and polytropic. The theoretical work needed for isothermal
compression is described by the area ABEF. It can be seen that the isothermal work
is appreciably less than that of the isentropic area ABDF. Similarly, the isentropic
area is smaller than the polytropic area ABCF.
Fig. 100-7 Theoretical Compression Paths on P-V Diagram for Different Processes
These differences can be attributed to differences in heat transfer (cooling). The

isothermal process would require continuous cooling during compression to negate
all of the temperature rise. In an actual compressor the theoretical isentropic
discharge temperature can sometimes be achieved by a moderate amount of cooling
during compression. Even so, the resultant process will not be purely isentropic
due to other losses in an actual machine. The polytropic path BC best represents an
actual process where there is no cooling during compression.

In practice, the isentropic and polytropic methods of analysis are both usable for
designing and predicting the performance of compressors.
It turns out that the isentropic (adiabatic) method is commonly applied to posi-
tive displacement compressors, because these machines are often equipped
with a cooling system that cools the casing or cylinder during compression,
making the actual temperature rise approach that of the theoretical adiabatic
process.
The polytropic process is typically applied to dynamic compressors in which
there is no cooling during the compression that takes place in any individual
stage. (There may be cooling between each stage or series of stages, but not within
a given stage.)
The positive displacement and centrifugal categories of compressors are covered in
further detail in Sections 200 and 300 of this manual.
136 Isothermal Compression

In an isothermal process, the temperature is unchanged during compression.
Although it is impossible to build a machine that will compress isothermally,
isothermal performance is approached as the number of intercoolers or other
cooling devices is increased.
Furthermore, although isothermal compression cannot actually be attained in prac-
tice, it is often used as the basis for comparison with other compression processes.
The effect of the number of coolers on compression power will be covered under
Polytropic Compression.
The following equation applies to an isothermal compression process:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
(Eq. 100-17)
“Head” is a term often used for the work input to the compression process. The
units of head are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass). In general practice,
the unit of head is usually taken as “feet.” The theoretical head for an isothermal
process is:
Hisot = RT1 ln r
(Eq. 100-18)
where:
P
r = -----2- = pressure ratio
P1
Equation 100-18 may be used to evaluate other compression processes with various
amounts of cooling.

137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression

Adiabatic Relationships
Isentropic means constant entropy (a definition of entropy is beyond the scope of
this manual). Adiabatic describes a process wherein no heat is added or subtracted.
For the sake of this discussion, it can be assumed that isentropic and adiabatic are
the same (although different thermodynamically).
Adiabatic compression is commonly assumed for reciprocating, but not centrif-
ugal compressors.
In isentropic processes, the following relationships apply:
P1V1k = P2V2k = C
(Eq. 100-19)
where:
C = constant
k
= ratio of specific heats (see Sub-section 133)
Z1 + Z2
 k-----------
–1
-   ------------------
-
r k – 1  2 
H ad = RT 1 --------------------------
k–1
------------
k
(Eq. 100-20)
where:
Had = adiabatic head, ft.
k–1
------------
x = r k –1
(Eq. 100-21)
where:
x = a factor created for convenience
T2(theo) = T1 (x + 1)
(Eq. 100-22)
where:
T2(theo) = adiabatic discharge temperature (theoretical absolute discharge
temperature assuming 100% adiabatic efficiency)
T 2 = T 1 1 + -------- 
x
 η ad 
(Eq. 100-23)

where:
ηad = adiabatic efficiency
T2 = Actual discharge temperature, °R
wH ad
Ghp = --------------------------
33 ,000η ad
(Eq. 100-24)
where:
Ghp = gas horsepower
Notice that Equation 100-20 has been corrected by an average compressibility,
(Z1 + Z2) / 2. Averaging is a fairly accurate approximation of the correction
required.
Because of the non-ideal (non-perfect) behavior of many gases, the k exponent does
not remain constant during compression. For air, diatomic gases, and inert gases,
the change in k is small when the pressures are moderate. However, for most hydro-
carbon gases, the variance of k during compression is substantial. The usual correc-
tion is to calculate k using MCp (see Equation 100-7) at the average of the
compressor (or stage) suction and discharge temperature. MCp values at 14.7 psia
are given in the Appendix of this manual.
Using the MCp at atmospheric pressure and average compression temperature for
compressor head and power calculations is sufficiently accurate for most applica-
tions. However, for very high pressures or other unusual conditions, further correc-
tions are necessary. Such corrections will be covered under Polytropic
Compression.
Adiabatic Efficiency
Since the change in entropy is not zero in an actual adiabatic compression process,
an adiabatic efficiency (ηad) is used in Equation 100-23 and 100-24. In order to
calculate MCp at average compression temperature, it is necessary to estimate the
adiabatic efficiency to arrive at a discharge temperature per Equation 100-23. If the
estimate is inaccurate, a second iteration may be required.
Thermodynamic Diagrams
Thermodynamic-property diagrams account directly for deviations of a real gas
from ideal relationships. These diagrams are a plot of gas properties, commonly
including: enthalpy, entropy, pressure, and temperature. Occasionally, a special
diagram is developed for a widely used gas mixture such as a refrigerant. However,
note that few charts are available for mixtures, and this method is therefore not
commonly used for hydrocarbon mixtures.
When a diagram is used to predict changes of state during compression, compress-
ibility and variance of k are not needed because these variables are already factored
into the diagrams. In general, then, this method is more accurate than
Equation 100-20, and when charts are available, it is certainly more convenient.

Diagrams are often used in compressor calculations for heavier hydrocarbon gases
such as propane and propylene that tend to deviate considerably. Diagrams for
many pure gases are well established. The Appendix includes an assortment of
these diagrams.
The following equations pertain to the use of diagrams for compressor calculations.
Note that for an isentropic process, there is no change in entropy, S.
S2(theo) - S1 = 0
(Eq. 100-25)
where:
S2(theo) = S1 = entropy at suction conditions
∆h(theo)= h2(theo) - h1
(Eq. 100-26)
where:
h1 = enthalpy at suction conditions, Btu/lb
h2(theo) = theoretical enthalpy at discharge pressure and S1, Btu/1b
∆h ( theo )
h 2 = -------------------- + h 1
η ad
(Eq. 100-27)
where:
h2 = actual enthalpy at discharge pressure and temperature, Btu/lb
ηad = adiabatic efficiency
Note that the actual discharge temperature T2 may now be found on the thermody-
namic diagram at the point corresponding to h2 and P2.
Had = (778) ∆h(theo)

(Eq. 100-28)
The gas horsepower may now be calculated by using Equation 100-24.
138 Polytropic Compression

Polytropic compression is commonly assumed for dynamic (centrifugal and
axial) compressors.
The previous discussion of the adiabatic process showed that its relationships need
mathematical corrections to make credible predictions. The corrections are compro-
mises between theory and actual gas deviations, and they do not always yield suffi-
ciently accurate predictions for some types of applications. Unfortunately, even
this process requires adjustments to account for the non-ideal behavior of
many gases.

Polytropic Relationships
The polytropic compression process is described mathematically as follows.
n n
P1 V1 = P2 V 2 = C
(Eq. 100-29)
where:
n = polytropic exponent
k–1
η p = ------------
k
------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 100-30)
where:
ηp = polytropic efficiency
n–1
H poly = RT 1 r n – 1 Z + Z
------------
  1 2
--------------------------  ------------------- 
n–1 2
------------
n
(Eq. 100-31)
where:
Hpoly = polytropic head, ft.
n–1
------------
T 2 = T1 r n
(Eq. 100-32)
wH poly
Ghp = ----------------------
-
33 ,000η p
(Eq. 100-33)
In Equation 100-30, k is ordinarily taken at the average compression temperature
by most compressor manufacturers. Therefore, when estimating overall flange-to-
flange performance, use k at average flange-to-flange temperature to yield results
very close to those of stage-by-stage calculations. In the case of single-stage
machines, the difference between k at inlet temperature and average temperature is
generally very small. Accordingly, in this manual, k at average compression temper-
ature will be used.

A thermodynamic diagram can be used for a polytropic calculation by first deter-

mining the adiabatic head Had using Equations 100-26 and 100-28. Polytropic head
Hpoly can then be determined by:
 ηp 
H poly = H ad  -------- 
 η ad 
(Eq. 100-34)
The relationship between polytropic and adiabatic efficiencies is:
k–1
------------
r k –1
η ad = ----------------------
 k-----------
– 1
-
 kη p 
r –1
(Eq. 100-35)
This relationship is graphically represented by Figure 100-8.
Fig. 100-8 Adiabatic and Polytropic Efficiency Relationships

From the foregoing discussion, it should be obvious that k is not equal to η. In

some of the early compressor publications, the k and η exponents were erroneously
treated as the same value. This error may have been one of nomenclature. At any
rate, it is important to recognize that k is associated with the adiabatic process, and
η with the polytropic process.
139 Miscellaneous Notes

Some gases have extraordinarily large deviations from ideal behavior near their crit-
ical conditions or at high pressures. For example, carbon dioxide at 1500 psia and
100°F has a compressibility factor, Z, of about 0.27. Furthermore, if the tempera-
ture is increased by only 20°F, there is a 40% increase in the compressibility factor.
If a small amount of methane is mixed with carbon dioxide, the compressibilities
change significantly, and predictions of these compressibilities by generalized
charts is not reliable.
There are a few compressor applications that must deal with widely deviating
gases. The values for Z and k vary so much that conventional methods of calcula-
tions for the compressor gas properties do not have sufficient accuracy. For these
somewhat rare occasions, various equations of state are used. There are a number
of these empirical relationships in existence, and each set of relationships tends to
have some advantages over the other sets for certain gas compositions.
Several equations of state that have been developed to predict thermodynamic prop-
erties include the Benedict-Webb-Rubin, Peng-Robinson, Redlich-Kwong, and
Martin-Hou equations. Typical gas compositions to which these correlations are
applied include ultra-high pressure hydrocarbons, high-pressure carbon dioxide,
some refrigerants, and some chemical plant gases. These relationships are generally
processed with a mainframe computer. A description of these complex correlations
is beyond the scope of this manual. To meet our needs, when dealing with
compressor applications where the gas deviations are very large, advice should be
sought from a process engineer with experience in the use of these equations of
state.
140 Design Considerations

Compressor sizing can involve several levels of detail, arbitrarily defined below:
1. Specifying the flow rate, pressure rise, and gas composition, leaving the
machine design and selection to the manufacturer. This is the quickest,
simplest approach, but it may not involve the Company in important design
details. This method is not commonly used.
2. Close estimations (±10% typically) based on empirical correlations of
energy consumption, temperature rise, and installation cost. Several
sources exist and they are commonly used by producing locations to size recip-
rocating compressors. One set of correlations is presented in Section 300.
3. A detailed analysis based on the equations developed in Sub-section 130. This
may be helpful in selecting the most effective category of compressor (recipro-

cating, centrifugal, etc.), in cases where the category has not been determined.
These equations can be used to estimate energy requirements and compression
temperatures.
4. Rigorous, detailed analyses and calculations to determine compression
energy, power required, gas temperatures, pressure rise, and mechanical
stresses. These analyses are done by equipment vendors and are beyond the
scope of this manual.
141 Compressor Duty

The first step in specifying compressors is to define the required compression duty.
This includes defining:
• flow rate
• gas composition
• suction pressure
• suction temperature
• discharge pressure
The Compressor Pressure Profile Worksheet, CMP-EF-876, in the “Standard Draw-
ings” section of this manual may be used for determining and recording inlet and
discharge conditions.
These conditions should be confirmed and the variability of the conditions deter-
mined.
In most applications, future, or alternate operating conditions can significantly
affect the sizing and characteristics of the compressor system. Following is a list of
typical changes affecting compressor duty:
1. Build-up in discharge pressure of gas injection compressors as the resistance of
the oil field formation increases with time, or as more compressors are added
to the system.
2. Increase in flow rate and change in molecular weight of gas gathering system
as an oil-field's gas-to-oil ratio increases with time.
3. Large change in molecular weight, flow, and pressures during periodic catalyst
regeneration in a process plant.
4. Increase in system pressure drop due to fouling of equipment during a run.
5. Change in feedstock to a process unit.
6. Seasonal changes of ambient temperature and cooling water temperature.
7. Start-of-run (SOR) versus end-of-run (EOR) conditions in a refining unit.
8. Routine turndown of compressor capacity.
Initially, you must accurately determine the pressure/flow envelope where the
compressor operates. If available, review the process flow diagram and a pressure

profile in detail with the operating, or project representative to assure that all factors
have been considered. If a process flow diagram is unavailable, make a sketch of
the flow circuit. If you question the pressure drop allowances, review the calcula-
tions with the operating, or project representative. Refer to the Fluid Flow Manual
for information on pressure drop calculations.
It is extremely important that you accurately determine the suction pressure. For
example, if a four-stage reciprocating compressor is sized for compression from 20
to 4400 psia, and the actual suction pressure turns out to be 25 psia, the actual
weight flow will be 25% higher, and the horsepower required 19% higher than
predicted.
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves

A system resistance curve can be drawn after the pressure profile is accurately deter-
mined. This curve plots the system discharge pressure or head versus inlet volu-
metric flow, and reflects the complete piping system friction losses. Each point on
the curve shows the head or pressure required to deliver an amount of flow through
the piping system.
The system resistance curve can be superimposed on the compressor's actual charac-
teristic curve to show the point at which the compressor will operate. Sections 200
and 300 provide more detailed discussions. The following provides an introduction
to system resistance and compressor characteristic curves.
System Resistance Curve

The system resistance met by a compressor can vary from a constant discharge pres-
sure to a variable relationship as shown in the generalized system resistance curves
of Figure 100-9.
Examples of the three types of curves are:
Type 1 - Constant Pressure

• Gas Lift
• Gas Injection
• Refrigeration
• Plant/Air Instrument Air
Type 2 - Combined Constant Pressure and Friction

Process with piping and equipment plus constant pressure drop through catalyst bed.
Type 3 - Predominately Friction

Systems with only piping, fittings, and equipment such as heat exchangers.
Compressor Characteristic Curve

General characteristic curves for the four types of compressors at constant speed
are shown in Figure 100-10.

Fig. 100-9 System Resistances
Fig. 100-10 Constant Speed Characteristics of Various Types of Compressors

143 Gas Analysis

A gas analysis should be provided for all present and future operating conditions,
and it should be checked for the presence of sulfides, chlorides, or other corrosive
agents. These contaminants can have a major effect on the selection of the materials
of construction. Hydrogen embrittlement is a potential problem in compressing
gases having a significant hydrogen partial pressure. If the gas is “wet” with water
or hydrocarbon liquids, it may be necessary to provide special separation and
heating equipment for the compressor suction system.
144 Site Conditions

The climatic conditions play an important role in the compressor applications.
Compressors are normally in a heated enclosure in frigid climates, and are some-
times enclosed in temperate climates. If the ambient temperature is -20°F or less,
special material requirements are needed for an air compressor with an atmospheric
suction, regardless of a heated enclosure. The climate also dictates the requirements
for winterization and tropicalization.
Environmental restrictions on noise and emissions, area classification for elec-
trical devices, and any special safety hazards should be reviewed.
Data sheets that accompany compressor specifications have provisions for indi-
cating the site conditions and requirements. (See the Specifications section of this
manual.)
145 Service Requirements

The criticality of the service should be thoroughly reviewed. A service may be
termed “critical” if one or more of the following conditions exist:
1. Compressor does not have a spare: and therefore, failure would cause an inter-
ruption in production resulting in substantial economic losses. (See
Appendix L for a discussion of availability and reliability factors related to
new purchases.)
2. Service is such that a compressor failure could cause damage in the plant.
3. Service is such that a compressor failure could create a safety hazard.
150 Application and Selection Criteria

This section discusses the range of application, limitations, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of compressor (see Sub-section 120 for categories).
Refer to the specific sections of this manual to confirm the initial selection.

151 Selection Basis

Selection of compressors involves concurrently satisfying the following require-
ments:
1. Suitability for service - the machinery should be sized for rated conditions
and be sufficiently flexible to accommodate off-design conditions.
2. Dependability - the design should have proven reliability and be easy to main-
tain.
3. Economic performance - the efficiency should be high without undue sacri-
fice in flexibility and reliability.
4. Safety and environmental compatibility - the installation should permit safe
operation while complying with noise and environmental regulations.
5. Low cost - the installed cost (factored with financial, operating, and mainte-
nance costs) should result in the lowest evaluated cost for the payback period.
152 Approximate Application Ranges

Approximate application ranges in terms of ICFM and discharge pressure for four
categories of compressors can be quickly approximated using Figure 100-11.
Figures 100-12 through 100-16 provide further information to clarify the decision.
These figures will help resolve conflicts in selection when the application falls into
an area of overlap in Figure 100-11.
See Sub-section 153 for a more detailed explanation for selecting compressor cate-
gories.
Note that the data used in these figures are generalized and there may be cases
where a certain manufacturer has a design that will surpass the practical limits
shown.
153 Compressor Selection Process

After the compression duty has been sufficiently defined, the following steps may
be taken for initial selection of the best category of compressor. See
Sub-section 141, “Compressor Duty.” This assumes you have not determined the
category already.
Step 1.
Convert flow rate to ICFM using Equation 100-3 (also see Equations 100-32,
100-33 and 100-34).
Step 2.
Calculate overall pressure ratio, roa = final discharge pressure/suction pressure
(absolute pressures must be used).

Fig. 100-11 Approximate Application Ranges
Step 3.
Calculate discharge temperature, T2, using Equation 100-32 and an adiabatic effi-
ciency, ηad,of 0.75 for all types of machines except reciprocating. Use ηad = 1.0 for
reciprocating compressors. (Note that absolute temperatures in Rankine must be
used.)
The 0.75 efficiency is an arbitrary value that is convenient for making an initial
rough estimate. An ηad of 1.0 for reciprocating is suitable for most applications as
this machine tends to achieve nearly perfect adiabatic temperature rise when a
coolant is circulated through the cylinder jacket. (However, do not use ηad = 1.0 for
power calculations. See Step 10.)
Step 4.
If the discharge temperature is less than 300°F the application can most likely be
achieved in one step of compression, without intercooling, with a centrifugal or
rotary compressor. For reciprocating machines, the discharge temperature for a
single cylinder should be less than 300°F.

Fig. 100-12 Selection Guide
Fig. 100-13 Axial Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 75,000 - 250,000
Low: 30,000
High: 1,000,000
Discharge Pressure: Typical: 15 - 150 psig

High: 550 psig (special design for LNG plant)
Discharge Temperature: Typical: 400 - 650°F

High: 720°F
No. of Stages per casing: Typical: 6 - 15

High: 20 (special to 22)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 4000 - 5000

High: 6000
Speed, RPM: 2800 - 12,000
Bhp per casing: Typical: 6000 - 50,000

High: over 100,000
Selection Notes:
• Generally used for air service - high volume and relatively low pressure. Typical pressure ratios for air service
are 2.5 to 7. High pressure ratio is about 14.
• Is more efficient than centrifugal.
• Is usually physically smaller and lighter in weight than centrifugal for same duty.
• Speed is somewhat higher than that of centrifugal for same duty.
• Two casings can be put in tandem arrangement, but it is seldom done.
• Some designs have provisions for intermediate nozzles for intercooling or sidestreams, but this feature is not
often employed.
• Very narrow stable operating range at constant speed - about 12%.
• Some designs utilize one or more centrifugal impellers on the high-pressure end of the rotor. This feature
greatly improves stable operating range.
• Can be fitted with variable stator vanes on first through fifth (and higher) stages to widen performance map.
Machines so fitted are often operated at constant speed.
• Relatively quiet operation.
• Typical applications: Large air compressors, such as FCC or coker air blowers. Front-end air compressor for
combustion gas turbines (not specified separately)

Fig. 100-14 Centrifugal Compressor–Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 1500 - 100,000
Low: 500
High: 180,000 (360,000 for double suction)
Discharge CFM (DCFM): Low: 250 ( can be lower with special designs)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 15 - 4000
High: 10,000 (one design has been tested at 13,000)
Discharge Temperature, °F Typical: 250-300
High: 350 (with oil seals)
500 with (labyrinth seals)
No. of impellers per casing: Available: 1 - 10
High: 8 - 10 (to 20,000 ICFM)
6 - 7 (20,000 - 40,000 ICFM)
4 - 5 (>40,000 ICFM)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 8000 - 10,000
High: 13,000 (special to 30,000)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 3000 - 14,000
High: 30,000 (special to over 50,000)
Bhp per casing: Typical: 1000 - 20,000
High: over 50,000
Selection Notes
• Most versatile type of compressor with wide application range.
• Each lower pressure casing may have up to three pairs of intermediate nozzles (8 nozzles total) for
connecting intercoolers. This means that one casing can have as many as four sections of compression, but
typically only three sections per casing are used. Note that only one intermediate nozzle is required to intro-
duce or extract each sidestream. Some refrigeration compressors have as many as three sidestreams.
• As many as four casings have been driven in tandem without interposed gear. Two casings in tandem are
commonplace, as are two casings separated by a gear.
• Polytropic efficiency varies widely from about 60% at low ICFM to over 80% at very high ICFM.
Efficiency also varies inversely with number of impellers in series.
• 1000 ICFM or 1000 Bhp are about the minimum economic sizes in API class machines. Refrigeration class
machines down to 500 Bhp are available.
• Noisy without acoustic treatment
• Stable operating range for one multi-stage casing is usually about 30% at constant speed. Further capacity
reduction at constant speed can be done by (1) variable inlet guide vanes on first stage (fairly efficient), (2)
suction or discharge throttling (less efficient), or (3) bypass (inefficient). When two or more casings are driven
in tandem, the overall stable operating range is reduced. Stable operating range varies inversely with number
of impellers in series.
• 10 impellers per casing is generally not recommended. Use a maximum of 8 impellers per casing for initial
estimating.
• Typical applications: Process-gas recycle, high-capacity plant/process air systems, pipeline compression,
high-capacity refrigeration.

Fig. 100-15 Reciprocating Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 100 - 3000
High: up to 7500 per cylinder for vacuum or low pres-
sure service to 20 psig discharge, or 6000 to 50
psig.
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40 - 6000
High: up to 15,000 (special to over 35,000)
Discharge Temperature, °F: Typical: 250
High: 300 (400 in special cases)
No. of crank throws per Typical: 2-6
frame: Maximum: 8 (10 available)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 1000 (5-inch stroke)
720 (7-inch stroke)
514 (10-inch stroke)
Bhp: Typical: 150 - 6000
High: 12,000
Selection Notes
• Very high efficiency. At pressure ratios of 2.5 - 5 per stage, adiabatic efficiency is 85 - 89%, and mechanical
efficiency is 95% for slow-speed (600 RPM or less) machines rated at 200 HP and higher. At pressure ratios
lower than 1.5, valve losses become significant.
• Available in non-lubricated version with minor sacrifice in efficiency and reliability.
• Horizontally opposed configuration requires large plot area which is especially significant on skidded (pack-
aged) units. Vertical, “Y”, and “L” configurations reduce plot area, but limit number of cylinders per frame.
• Can usually achieve capacity control down to 25% with five-step unloading (down to 12-1/2% on multi-unit
installation, or unit with two first-stage cylinders). Small loss in efficiency at reduced capacity.
• Also can bypass discharge back to suction for more capacity control.
• Typical Applications: Downstream—Hydrogen makeup/booster compression, overhead/flare gas compres-
sion, small instrument air compression, refrigeration. Upstream—Gas injection, gas processing, gas-product
compression.

Fig. 100-16 Rotary Compressor—Application Ranges and Selection

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 300–2000
High: 30,000 (For low-pressure and vacuum service)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40–150
High: 550 (usually attained in typical: second of two
casings in tandem.
Discharge Temperature, °F Typical: 200–300
Maximum: 450 (for some designs)
Pressure Ratio, Typical: 2–3
P2 /P1: High: 4 (20 is attainable with oil-flooded and liquid ring
machines.)
Differential Pressure, Typical: 10–75
(P2/P1), psi: High: 170
Speed, RPM: Typical: 300–3600
High: 20,000
Bhp: Typical: 50–2000
High: 6000
Selection Notes
• Available in oil-flooded, drop-lubricated, “dry” (oil-free), and liquid-ring design. When the oil-flooded or liquid-
ring version is applied, the discharge temperature is substantially less than that indicated by adiabatic calcu-
lations. For example, the actual discharge temperature might be 200°F or less versus a calculated value of
350°F.
• Good efficiency at low-pressure ratios (somewhat lower than that of reciprocating).
• Require inlet and discharge silencers at higher power levels to achieve tolerable noise level.
• Very good for skidding and semi-portable installations due to small size and freedom from vibration.
• Are often two-staged by connecting two casings in tandem. Tandem arrangement allows sidestream (in or
out) between casings.
• Can have stepless capacity control down to 10 - 15% of rated with hydraulically operated slide valve. Effi-
ciency loss at turndown greater than that of reciprocating.
• Capacity control can also be achieved by speed adjustment down to 50% of rated speed.
• Dry (oil-free) units are very noisy.
• Typical Application: Freon, NH3 refrigeration, plant air.
Step 5.
If Step 4 indicates that intercooling is not necessary, refer to Figure 100-11 and
select the type of compressor. Then proceed to Step 10.

Step 6.
If the temperatures cited in Step 4 are exceeded, more than one step of compression
will probably be required (note that the word “step” is used to denote a section of
the compression duty to avoid confusion with compression “stages.”) Each row of
blades in an axial machine or each impeller in a centrifugal compressor is called a
“stage.” Whereas each cylinder of a reciprocating machine is usually called a
stage; and each casing of two rotary compressors in tandem is called a stage. The
number of steps or sections can be estimated by assuming an equal pressure ratio
for each step. Use 2% allowance for pressure drop between the steps. By trial-and-
error method, use the following equation and Equation 100-12 to determine the
number of steps keeping the discharge temperature at 300°F or less:
1
---
r oa n
r = ------------------------
-
( 0.98 ) n – 1
(Eq. 100-36)
where:
r = pressure ratio of each step
roa = overall pressure ratio
n = number of steps ; 2,3,4..
n - 1 = number of intercoolers
Step 7.
Calculate suction and discharge pressure for each step of compression using the r
determined in Step 6 and taking a 2% pressure drop between each step.
Step 8.
Calculate ICFM for each compression step. The suction temperature for the first
step should be known. If suction temperature for succeeding steps is unknown, use
15°F plus the temperature of available cooling water; or if cooling with air coolers
is desired, use 25°F plus the design maximum ambient temperature. If these values
are not yet known, use 100°F as suction temperature of succeeding steps.
Step 9.
Refer to Figure 100-11 and select the compressor category that will satisfy the
ICFM and discharge pressure for all compression stages. Generally, it is desirable
that one type of compressor will handle all steps. Refer the initial selection back to
the process designer (if available) to insure the selection is compatible with the
process requirements. Occasionally, it may be necessary to use a combination of
types such as axial for the low-pressure (LP) step and a centrifugal for the high-
pressure (HP) step. Another example would be a centrifugal and a reciprocating for
LP and HP steps, respectively.

Step 10.
Calculate weight flow using Equation 100-15 and assume that this value is constant
for all compression steps. Calculate adiabatic head and Ghp for each step using
Equation 100-20 and 100-24. For the first estimate, it is convenient to use adiabatic
relationships for all types of compressors to minimize computations. Also,
compressibilities can be neglected in most cases unless the gas deviates widely.
Add the Ghp's to find the total Ghp for the compression duty.
Step 11.
Review Figure 100-12 through 100-16 which may help resolve the choice of the
compressor when the application falls into an overlapped area.
Step 12.
At this point, some thought should be given to reliability and availability of the
compression system. (See Appendix L for more information.) If the service is
deemed to be critical, the following number of machines are typically used:
Axial and Centrifugal: One 100% unit
Reciprocating: Three 50% or two 100% units
Rotary: Same as reciprocating (Rotary are seldom
used in critical service.)
For a general purpose service, one 100% unit is the usual choice. In some instances,
the capacity may vary widely on a seasonal basis, or it may build up over a period
of years. In such cases, it may be economical to use more smaller sized units.
Step 13.
Proceed to the section of the manual corresponding to the selection made in the
above steps (Sections 200 or 300). Review this information to verify and refine the
selection.
Step 14.
If the type of driver is known, make sure that it is compatible with the size and
rating of the type of compressor selected. If the type of driver is unknown, use
Sub-section 170 preliminarily and then refer to the Driver Manual. Due to limita-
tions of the driver or size of the compressor train, it may be necessary to use two or
more equally sized trains for the required compression capacity. This step should be
considered along with Step 12.
Step 15.
When the application involves the introduction of sidestreams (e.g., refrigeration
compressor), it is necessary to calculate the properties of the mixture of the two gas
streams at the entrance of the next section or stage of compression.

Step 16.
Contact at least two vendors for each type of compressor selected. Have each
vendor prepare preliminary selections, and submit order-of-magnitude prices and
estimated performance information. If it becomes evident that a small process
design change might save a considerable amount of money, the change should be
referred to the process designer. In some cases the process design can be conserva-
tive and a slight modification may allow a substantial savings.
154 Selection Analysis

After the initial selection has been made and estimating information has been
received from vendors, it is advisable to make a preliminary analysis of the
following factors to confirm the economic feasibility of the compressor:
• Purchase price of compressor and driver;
• Cost of auxiliaries;
• Space requirements;
• Foundation requirements;
• Installed cost;
• Cost of utilities (cooling water, electricity, steam, etc.);
• Annual compressor-load profile (amount of operating time at full and part
loads);
• Annual power, steam, or fuel costs corresponding to load profile;
• Compressor availability versus production goals;
• Economic factors of interest on capital, depreciation, income tax, and escala-
tion;
• Local experience (are operating and maintenance personnel familiar with the
type of machine selected?); and
• Standardization of machines and spare parts.
This analysis is particularity important when two or more categories or types of
compressors are initially selected. A quick look at first costs or installed costs
will rarely provide a reliable indication of the overall life cycle costs of owning
and operating a compressor for a period of years. Required payback periods for
projects are typically in the range of 2 to 5 years. In some cases, it may be desirable
to examine the life cycle costs for periods of 15 years or more.
Examples
The usual approach is to calculate the present value and accumulate them on an
annual basis for the desired number of years. Figure 100-17 shows the results of an
economic study for two different categories of air compressors for 500 ACFM.

In Figure 100-17 observe that the installed cost of this reciprocating compressor is
50% higher than that of the screw machine, but the accumulated costs are equal
when considering a period longer than 2-1/2 years. (Note also that using unit costs
such as $/HP or $/ICFM in terms of installed costs would be very misleading.) Effi-
ciency directly affects power costs which is the dominant component of the
overall accumulated expenses.
Figure 100-18 shows the total expenses for two life-cycle periods for three catego-
ries of compressors in a large air compression duty. In this comparison, the recipro-
cating and centrifugal machines are even in costs for a five-year cycle, despite the
fact that the installed cost of the reciprocating machine is twice that of the others.
But when considering the 15-year case, efficiency takes over, making the recipro-
cating compressor the least costly.
Figure 100-17 and 100-18 do not show any particular unit costs or trends for
air compressors or compressors for other gases. Their only purpose is to demon-
strate the need for an economic analysis. For critical services, the requirements for
reliability or safety may overrule the choice determined by the other economic
factors, such as purchase price, energy, etc.
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be
reviewed with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts

FIgures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors. Figures 100-17 and 100-18 do not show
any particular unit costs or trends for air compressors or compressors for
other gases. Their only purpose is to demonstrate the need for an economic anal-
ysis. For critical services, the requirements for reliability or safety may overrule the
choice determined by the other economic factors, such as purchase price, energy,
etc.
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be
reviewed with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts

Figures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors.

Fig. 100-17 Life Cycle Costs for Light-duty Reciprocating and Rotary Screw Compressors for a 500 ICFM (Nominal)
125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
This graph displays the total compressor costs (purchase, installation, energy consumption, and mainte-
nance), when totaled for different assumed project lives. The total costs are displayed in terms of
“present value.” This is the amount that would be needed up front to pay all the costs over the project life,
assuming, the money compounded at the cost of capital (10%), and were spent to pay the respective
costs.
This chart shows that the reciprocating compressor costs more initially, but when you consider the future
power consumption, the screw compressor will actually cost more. This is because the reciprocator is
more efficient, and will consume less power over the years.

Fig. 100-18 Life Cycle for Heavy-duty Reciprocating, Rotary Screw, and Centrifugal Compressors for a 1500 ICFM
(Nominal) 125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
Note: This graph depicts two cases of “present value” for assumed project lives of 5 and 15 years.
(Present value is explained in Figure 100-17.)
This chart shows that: 1) installed costs are a minor part of the total compressor expense, even at a very
short project life of 5 years, and 2) the reciprocating compressor becomes more attractive as longer
project lives are assumed. Like Figure 100-17, this is because the higher efficiency of the reciprocator
pays off in power consumption over the operating life of the compressor (despite typically higher mainte-
nance expense).

Fig. 100-19 Comparison of Axial and Centrifugal Compressor Size
Fig. 100-20 Typical Plot Dimensions and Weights of Centrifugal Compressor Casings
Dimensions for Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Centrifugal Compressors
Horizontally Split (1)
ICFM Width, ft Length, Ft Weight, lbs
3-stg 8-stg 3-stg 8-stg
20 - 40K 8 7 11 24K 40K
9 - 20K 6 6 9 13K 20K
4 - 9K 4 5 6 7K 10K
0.5 - 4K 4 4 6 6K 9K
(1) and (2)
Vertically Split
Weights @
Casing Rating, Width, ft Length, ft 750 psi 3000 psi 6000 psi
9 - 20K 6 7 29 35 50
4 - 9K 5 6 22 33 41
0.5 - 4K 4 5 18 22 25
(1) Width dimensions shown are across support feet.
(2) Based on 5-stage casing.

Fig. 100-21 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors—Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated maximum Add Skid

SkidWeights for 3 Weight per
3 Wheels Add per Wheel Wheels with Motor Each Add'l
Maximum ICFM L x W x H, Ft. Lbs. Inches Driver, Kips Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5
Fig. 100-22 Approximate Plot Areas and Weights of Typical Reciprocating Compressors
Frame Horsepower No. of Cylinders RPM Average Footprint (1) Average Weight (1) and (2)
500 2 900 14′W x 5′L 13500 lbs
1000 2 514 14′W x 9′L 26000 lbs
5000 4 327 22′W x 14-1/2′L 120000 lbs
10,000 6 257 26′W x 20′L 210000 lbs
(1) Does not include driver
(2) Frame plus average size cylinders
160 Packaging
Packaging is a technique used to minimize construction time and labor costs at the
installation site. It consists of placing the compressor, driver, auxiliaries, and
control system on one or more skids (baseplates). Piping, tubing, and wiring are
routed between the various equipment items on each skid, and are then brought to a
minimum number of terminal points on the perimeter of the skid. These terminal
points facilitate connecting the package to the system at the jobsite.

The size and complexity of packaged equipment range from a simple air
compressor package rated at a few hundred horsepower to a large and complicated
package containing a gas compressor driven by a large mechanical drive gas turbine.
When packaging is applied on a large scale to a major project, the concept is known
as modularization or modular construction. This approach has particular applica-
tion to projects in remote areas where the availability of skilled labor is either low
or costly and difficult to implement. Modular construction takes advantage of the
availability of skilled labor at major industrial centers throughout the world. In addi-
tion to potential labor cost reductions, this approach provides the opportunity to
improve the overall project schedule.
Modular construction is used extensively for offshore platforms and onshore facili-
ties such as those on Alaska's North Slope and in jungle and desert locations.
Typical compressor module weights are 25 to 300 tons. One large module for the
North Slope contained a compressor for low-pressure separator gas, a 33,000 HP
gas turbine, gas coolers and scrubbers, and all auxiliaries, piping, and controls. This
module weighed 2600 tons and was 60 ft. x 110 ft. x 100 ft. high.
Module or package size and weight are limited by factory handling capability, trans-
portation constraints, and the capacity of jobsite lifting or moving apparatus.
Console-mounted lube- and seal-oil systems for compressors are good examples of
smaller packages. Figure 100-23 provides some general weights and dimensions
which may be used for early estimates.
Fig. 100-23 Typical Packaged Seal/Lube Oil System Weight and Dimensions
Nominal Oil Flow,
gpm L x W x H, ft Dry Wt, Kips Operating Wt,Kips
25 14 x 8 x 7 8.5 10.0
50 18 x 9 x 8 12.0 15.9
75 19 x 9 x 8 14.0 18.5
100 20 x 10 x 8 16.0 22.0
150 22 x 11 x 8 18.0 27.0
20 24 x 12 x 8 20.0 32.0
300 32 x 12 x 8 35.0 60.0
400 40 x 12 x 8 52.0 92.0
Figures 100-24 and 100-25 list some estimating weights and dimensions for recipro-
cating compressors (with and without coolers) with various drivers. Figure 100-26
shows typical dimensions and weights for integral gas engine driven reciprocating
compressors. Figure 100-27 and 100-28 provide similar information for centrifugal
compressors including turbine drives and enclosures.

Fig. 100-24 Typical Reciprocating Packages with Coolers Weight and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 1200 34 x 13 x 16 100 19.1
Engine 565 35 x 12 x 14 60 2.3
Engine 500 30 x 12 x 14 47 4.7
Engine 450 30 x 18 x 18 55 1.8
Engine 415 30 x 12 x 13 48 5.2
Motor 350 20 x 12 x 14 51 2.0
Fig. 100-25 Typical Reciprocating Packages without Coolers Weights and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 2,600 38 x 12 x 10 106.0 13.2
Engine 1,000 35 x 13 x 12 71.0 9.5
Turbine 2,000 35 x 12 x 12 100.0 17.0
Turbine 1,000 50 x 12 x 12 80.0 11.6
Motor 2,000 22 x 12 x 10 89.5 12.5
Motor 900 26 x 12 x 8 49.0 12.5
Fig. 100-26 Typical Integral Compressor Packages Weights and Dimensions

HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips
1,000 23 x 14 x 12 100
1,500 27 x 14 x 12 140
2,000 33 x 16 x 15 190
2,400 33 x 16 x 15 210

Fig. 100-27 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors Horizontally-Split Units and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated Maximum Skid Add Skids
Maximum 3 Wheels Add per Wheel Weights for 3 Wheels Weight per Each
ICFM L x W x H, ft. lbs. Inches with Motor Driver Kips Add'l Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5

The driver represents a major factor in the cost of a compression system. It should
be selected with care to ensure optimal performance of the compressor train. This
manual presents only general information on drivers. For additional coverage of
driver selection, see the Driver Manual.
171 Function of Drivers

The driver of any compressor train must provide the torque necessary to maintain
the required speed at the compressor's rated, or other specified conditions. The
driver must also have an adequate speed-torque characteristic to start the
compressor train and bring it to operating speed in a timely manner. (Compressors
are normally started in a no-load or partial-load condition.)
172 Driver Consideration

Proper matching of driver to the compressor is not a routine task. Some consider-
ations that must be taken into account include:
• Starting or breakaway torque.

Fig. 100-28 Typical Gas Turbine-Driven Centrifugal Compressor Dimensions and Weights
Turbine-Compressor Skid Ancillary Equipment Dimen-
ISO HP Model Speed, rpm Dimensions L x W x H, ft sions L x W x H, ft
4,250 34.5 x 8.0 x 20.0
16,000 59. x 10.0 x 24.0
26,500 61.0 x 10.0 x 24.0
4,900 Single 30.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
4,900 Tandem 34.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
10,600 8,140 48.5 x 8.0 x 11.8 38.0 x 18.0 x 15.1
3,830 15,700 27.2 x 7.8 x 8.3 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.0
1,165 22,300 23.1 x 5.8 x 7.3 12.0 x 6.0 x 4.8
4,900 Single 26.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
4,900 Tandem 29.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
2,500 Single 28.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
2,500 Tandem 33.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
1,875 25.0 x 8.0 x 8.6
Approximate Skid Weight (kips) per With Enclosure Type Add

ISO HP Weights, kips Additional foot Kips Engine Control Cab Add-Kips
4,250 33 0.8
16,000 96 1.6
26,500 105 1.8
4,900 74
4,900 81
10,600 107.5 1.2
3,830 52.1 0.6
1,165 18.5 0.4
4,900 55.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
4,900 66.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
2,500 33.0 Open side - 3.4

Total encl. 5.0 0.5
2,500 48.0 Open side - 3.4

Total encl. 5.0 0.5
1,875 32.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
• Comparison of available speed-torque characteristic with that required for

desired acceleration.
• Allowable speed variation (type of governor).
• Load Variation.

• Need gearbox to match speeds?

• Torsional critical speeds and vibration.
• Lateral critical speed and vibration.
• Current pulsations in electrical system if driver is a motor and load has oscilla-
tory torque.
• Lube-oil requirements of driver and compressor - can lube systems be
combined?
• Type of coupling.
• Weight.
• Space (footprint).
• Energy/fuel costs.
173 Driver Characteristics

Figure 100-29 provides general characteristics for several types of drivers. The
values shown are approximate and should not be taken as limits for a partic-
ular type of driver. Hot gas and cryogenic expansion turbines, hydraulic turbines,
and steam engines are not shown in Figure 100-29. The expansion turbine has char-
acteristics similar to those of a steam turbine. The hydraulic turbine is often a
centrifugal pump operating in reverse. Steam engines are virtually extinct as
compressor drivers.
There are a few occasions when a compressor will have two drivers. Some exam-
ples are:
• Cryogenic expansion turbine and motor driver for compressor in natural gas
processing plant.
• Air compressor driven by hot gas expander and motor or steam turbine in fluid
catalytic cracking unit or nitric acid plant.
• Compressor driven by gas turbine with steam turbine helper.
In such cases, special consideration must be given to the division of the compressor
load between the two drivers for all operating conditions.

Fig. 100-29 General Characteristics of Compressor Drivers

Figure 100-30 shows the approximate ranges of speed for the four types of compres-
sors. This chart provides only a rough estimate of the speed, but will be helpful in
beginning the driver selection process.
Figure 100-31 presents a list of commonly used drivers for various types of
compressors.
Note that API specifications typically require drivers to be rated at 110% of the
maximum power required by the compressor. An exception to this general rule is
where a reciprocating compressor is driven by a steam turbine. In this case, the

Fig. 100-30 Approximate Speed Regimes for Various Types of Compressors
Fig. 100-31 Common Compressor Drivers and Drive Fig. 100-32 General Area of Application of Induction
Arrangement Options and Synchronous Motors (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)

turbine is usually rated at 120% of the compressor's maximum power. Internal

combustion engine drivers are rated on a case-by-case basis.
The following comments provide further guidance in making the initial driver selec-
tion:
Electrical motors
1. Figure 100-32 shows the general areas of application for induction and
synchronous motors in terms of horsepower and speed.
2. Induction motors have a lagging power factor and a high starting current which
may present difficulties for some electrical systems.
3. Synchronous motors have leading power factor which is often an advantage for
the electrical system. Brushless excitation is usually employed.
4. Motor drivers should not be used for applications requiring frequent starts.
Typical allowable starts vary from four per hour for a 100 HP motor to two per
day for a 1000 HP motor.
5. Designs are available for higher than normal starting torques, but these are
accompanied by higher inrush or starting currents.
6. Refer to the Driver Manual regarding starting, breakdown, pull-in, and pull-out
torques which must be considered in compressor applications.
7. Type of enclosures, atmospheric conditions, insulation, service factors, and
hazardous area classification are all important application factors. Refer to the
Driver Manual for detailed information. It is usually unnecessary to consider
these factors in depth in the initial driver selection.
8. Two-pole motors in the 500 to 10,000 HP range have had some serious
vibration problems, and are not recommended. Consult a Company
specialist if a two-pole motor in this range is being considered.
Steam Turbines
1. Steam turbines are excellent drivers for centrifugal compressors because the
turbine design can usually be tailored to match the compressor's speed. Steam
turbines are also well suited to the higher speed rotary compressor. Steam
turbines have occasionally been used to drive reciprocating compressors with
ratings to 9000 HP. A double reduction gearbox is required for such applica-
tions.
2. There are two main classes - condensing and non-condensing. Non-condensing
turbines are also known as backpressure or topping turbines. Non-condensing
turbines generally need a steam pressure ratio (absolute inlet pressure divided
by exhaust pressure) of at least two. Some condensing machines have steam
extraction or admission sidestreams. Again, the pressure ratio should be at least
two for inlet and sidestream pressures.
3. There are two types of blading - impulse and reaction. Impulse-type is some-
what less efficient, but is generally favored for mechanical drivers in the

United States. However, reaction machines should be evaluated when effi-

ciency is of paramount importance.
4. Ratings vary from a few horsepower for a single-stage general-purpose turbine
to 50,000 HP or more for special-purpose, multi-valve, multistage turbines.
5. Single-stage non-condensing turbines in the 100-500 HP range have an isen-
tropic efficiency of about 35-45 % @ 3600 RPM. The practical minimum rated
speed for this type of turbine is 1800 RPM, but that speed is generally not
economical because the efficiency falls to 20-30% for the same HP range. A
geared turbine would have an efficiency 45-55% with gear losses included.
6. Figure 100-33 shows efficiencies that can be used for rough estimates of
condensing and non-condensing multistage turbines.
A more precise estimate of efficiency would include corrections for superheat,
speed, power, pressure ratio, etc.
Fig. 100-33 Isentropic Efficiency Chart

HP ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY, ηi,%
500 60
2000 70
10,000 75
7. The steam rate, SR, in pounds per horsepower-hour (lb/HP-hr) may be esti-
mated by:
2545
SR = --------------------------------
( h1 – h2 ) ( ηi )
(Eq. 100-37)
where:
h1 = turbine inlet enthalpy of steam, Btu/lb
h2 = theoretical enthalpy at turbine exhaust at same entropy as at inlet
steam condition.
ηi = turbine isentropic efficiency
8. Two turbine casings are sometimes driven in tandem to achieve the number of
stages, power, and speed required by the driven equipment.
Combustion Gas Turbines

1. Only the two-shaft gas turbine should be considered for a compressor drive
that requires any speed variation. The load carrying capability and efficiency of
a single-shaft gas turbine falls off very rapidly as speed is reduced. Also, the
single-shaft machine requires a much larger starting device. Figure 100-34 is a
diagram of a simple-cycle, two-shaft gas turbine. In the two-shaft design, the

power turbine is “free”, i.e., there is no mechanical connection between the gas
generator and the power turbine. It should be noted that the gas generator
section can be a modified aircraft jet engine. Such machines are known as aero-
derivative gas turbines. Some aircraft engines have twin spools, so that a gas
turbine using such an engine would technically have three shafts. However,
such machines are usually referred to generically as “two-shaft.”
Fig. 100-34 Simple-cycle Two-shaft Combustion Gas Turbine
Because of the light weight nature of the gas generator in the aero-derivative
turbine, the machine speed can be increased very rapidly from self-sustaining
speed (typically 25-30% of rated speed). The acceleration rates from this level
to operating speed of the power turbine can be in the range of 10-30 seconds if
desired. On the other hand, a heavy-duty turbine may require 10-20 minutes of
warm-up time for the same speed change.
2. The power turbine is often directly coupled to a centrifugal or axial
compressor. The compressor design can usually be tuned to match the gas
turbine's speed. Also, the speed of the two-shaft turbine can be adjusted
slightly for the purpose of matching with very little penalty in power capability
and efficiency. In cases where the speed difference is too large, a gearbox is
used.
3. Occasionally, combustion gas turbines have been used to drive reciprocating
compressors. This arrangement requires a double reduction gearbox to accom-
modate the speed differences.
4. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for gas turbines. Gas turbines can be used in
combined cycle schemes to improve overall thermal efficiency of the system.
Also refer to the Driver Manual for information on combined cycles utilizing
gas turbine drives.

Separate Internal Combustion Engines

1. Engines are often used to drive reciprocating compressors in direct-coupled
arrangements. Also suitable for direct-drive of rotary machines of the lower
speed variety.
2. Geared low-speed engines were used extensively for driving pipeline centrif-
ugal compressors in the past owing to high thermal efficiency. Gas turbines are
generally favored now since their efficiencies have become competitive with
those of engines.
3. Engines are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycle (commonly called two-
cycle or four-cycle). Most separate drive engines are four-stroke, particularly in
the upper end of the power range.
4. Straight natural gas engines are spark-ignited. Some engines are available as
dual fuel units capable of operation wholly on diesel, or on 95% gas with 5%
(by weight) diesel pilot oil providing compression ignition.
5. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for separate internal combustion engines.
Integral Gas Engines

1. This design comprises power cylinders and reciprocating compressor cylinders
combined in one machine or frame.
2. They are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. Essentially all integral
engines today burn natural gas and are spark-ignited. Diesel versions were
available in the past but are no longer competitive.
3. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates
and environmental considerations for integral gas engines.
175 Special Driver Considerations

The following provides a general awareness of factors that can have a major influ-
ence on the final design of the compressor train. Further information is contained in
the Driver Manual and the General Machinery Manual.
Oscillatory Torque
The torque of a reciprocating compressor oscillates significantly during one revolu-
tion of the crankshaft. This condition is usually represented by a torque effort
diagram (see Figure 100-35). The shape of the torque oscillation curve is a func-
tion of the number of degrees between each crankshaft throw, the number of
throws, and the loading of the compressor cylinders. The amplitude of the torque
wave tends to increase as capacity is reduced by cylinder unloading. If the driver is
an induction or synchronous motor, the torque oscillations could cause harmful
current pulsations in the electrical system. Figure 100-36 shows the variation in
current for a typical motor-driven reciprocating compressor. The remedy for exces-
sive oscillations is to provide sufficient rotating inertia by adding a flywheel or

increasing the moment of inertia of the motor rotor. Limits for current pulsation are
covered in API 618 .
Fig. 100-35 A Typical Torque Effect Diagram
Fig. 100-36 Oscillogram Showing Variation of Current to a Synchronous Motor Driving a

Typical Reciprocating Compressor. Line A is the Envelope of the Current Wave.
Difference B–C Divided by Rated Full-load Current Multiplied by 100 is Percent
Current Pulsation (From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis 1982
by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Rotary compressors also cause a pulsating torque although the frequency is higher
and the amplitude is lower than the corresponding values for reciprocating
machinery.

Lateral Critical Speeds

The shafts of turbomachinery (dynamic compressors and turbines) have critical
speeds. A so-called critical speed occurs when the frequency of an exciting force is
at or near one of the natural frequencies of the rotor system. This resonant condi-
tion can result in dynamic instability with magnification of lateral vibration ampli-
tudes to excessive levels. The exciting force can be rotor unbalance at rotational
frequency, or other phenomena such as an unstable oil film in bearings, rotor rubs,
periodic aerodynamic forces, friction forces from loose fits, etc.
A rotor system can have several critical speeds, but the first two are usually the
ones of concern. Occasionally the third critical speed will have some influence in
the design, and very rarely the fourth critical will come into play. A shaft that oper-
ates below the first critical is called a “stiff” shaft. Those that operate above the first
critical are known as “flexible” shafts. Figure 100-37 shows a typical rotor response
plot for a flexible rotor operating above the first and below the second critical
speed. Critical speeds can be excited during normal operation or during startup and
shutdown.
Fig. 100-37 Rotor Response Plot (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
The joining of the compressor and driver shafts can have a significant effect on the
overall critical response of the coupled-up system. A critical speed analysis is
conducted by the manufacturer(s), and is sometimes performed in parallel by an
outside consultant. Although this analysis can be highly complex, it is manageable
with current technology, and the results are reasonably reliable.

Torsional Critical Speeds

Shaft systems also have torsional natural frequencies. Whereas lateral vibrations are
similar to a guitar string vibrating, torsional vibration is an oscillation in angular
direction, i.e., oscillating “twisting” of the shaft. When an exciting force of suffi-
cient magnitude and coinciding frequency is applied, the system will vibrate with
angular amplitudes reaching destructive levels. The stimulus may originate in the
driver or in the driven equipment. The oscillatory torque of a reciprocating
compressor, as mentioned above, is an example of an excitation. The excitation can
be steady-state or transient. The startup of synchronous motors and centrifugal
compressor surge are examples of transient excitation.
Torsional vibration is an insidious phenomenon as it can occur with little or no
visible evidence. Lateral vibration can be felt, sometimes heard, and observed with
instruments. It takes very special instrumentation to detect torsional vibration. The
effects of transient torsional vibration can sometimes be heard if conditions are
severe enough to cause rattling of the teeth in a gear mesh.
A shaft system can have several torsional critical frequencies of interest. A typical
specification calls for the criticals to be at least 10% away from any exciting
frequency in the operating speed range. The fact that there is a critical in the oper-
ating speed range does not necessarily mean that it is harmful. If there is adequate
damping, the amplitudes and resultant stresses may be low and of little concern.
Nevertheless, criticals in the operating speed range are generally not allowed in the
design phase.
Torsional vibration studies are usually not as complicated as lateral critical anal-
yses, and their results are generally quite reliable. Harmful torsional vibration can
ordinarily be avoided by tuning the stiffness of the couplings in the compressor
train, or by changing the mass moment of inertia of components of the system. A
resilient damping-type coupling can also be used to cure a problem in the field and
is occasionally implemented in the original design.
Gearboxes
When a gearbox is employed in a compressor train, it can stimulate torsional vibra-
tion due to manufacturing imperfections. It can also be the victim of torsional vibra-
tion if the torque variation is sufficient to cause tooth separation in the gear mesh.
Gearboxes also cause a power loss of about 1-1/2 - 2% for single reduction units,
and about 3% for double reduction machines. Trains with gearboxes take more
space and have been troublesome in the past in a number of applications.
In view of these disadvantages, the application engineer may be dissuaded from
selecting a train of equipment that requires a gearbox. It is indeed a worthwhile
effort to search for equipment that does not require gearing. On the other hand,
there have been cases where this effort was carried too far such that unqualified
equipment was force-fitted into a gearless train resulting in a new set of problems.
While it is true that gearboxes have been responsible for excessive machinery down-
time in some installations, manufacturing techniques and analytical methods have
improved to the extent that gearbox reliability is now generally compatible with
that of compressors and drivers. Moreover, use of a gearbox will usually allow the

compressor and driver to operate at ideal speeds. The overall efficiency is thus
improved and the gear's power loss is often more than redeemed.
180 Suction System Design

Efficient removal of solids and liquid aerosols from gas streams entering compres-
sors is highly desirable for several reasons. These include incident prevention,
increased machinery service life, reduced downtime, increased volumetric effi-
ciency, and increased process throughput.
Compressor component service life, particularly in reciprocating and rotary
compressors, is greatly affected by gas entrained liquids and solids. Valves, rider
bands, cylinder liners and other sliding contact components last significantly longer
when abrasive contaminants and liquid aerosols are not allowed to enter the
compressors. Liquids and solids can be extremely damaging to dry screw compres-
sors and lobe-type blowers which have tight internal clearances that seal the gas
flow-path. Oil-injected screw compressors can generally handle liquid aerosols
provided they do not degrade the viscosity of the lubricating oil. Solids, however,
can cause damage very readily. In centrifugal compressors, a reduction in fouling
and lower erosion and/or corrosion rates can be achieved.
181 Separator Vessels

A separator vessel or knockout pot is usually the first line of defense against solids
or liquids entering a compressor. Selection of the type of vessel for each application
(vertical, horizontal, gravity, or impingement), depends on the amount of space
available and on the gas/liquid characteristics. Prior to designing a vessel, or modi-
fying an existing vessel, the designer should:
• Estimate the potential amount of solid and liquid loading
• Establish a target for gas cleanliness
• Determine the gas and liquid densities
• Determine the fouling, erosion, and corrosion rates of solids and/or liquids
entrained in the gas
With this data, one can calculate the optimum gas velocity and select appropriate
vessel internals.
Most operating facilities prefer vertical separator vessels because they require the
least amount of plot or deck space. More important is the vessel's ability to effi-
ciently capture, retain, and drain liquids and solids consistent with process require-
ments.
Vertical Vessels
The vertical liquid/gas separator in Figure 100-38 is the most basic configuration
for knockout vessels found in compressor suction systems. This design utilizes
gravity separation as the primary method of separation and a mist elimination pad

Fig. 100-38 Vertical Knockout Vessel

to coalesce aerosols as the secondary separation method. The figure illustrates the
orientation of vessel internals and the standard dimensions recommended for proper
liquid/gas separation and control.
The advantages of the vertical separator include:
• Less plot space
• Greater surge volume length for effective level control and to protect against
liquid “slugs”
• Increased vertical disengagement space between the liquid level and the mist
elimination pad
• Centrifugal separation is easily incorporated
Appendix P contains a concise design guide for designing separator vessels. This
design guide is not intended to replace a process design manual for separators.
When possible, it is recommended that engineers take advantage of computer
programs such as “SEPDES” for design optimization.
Horizontal Vessels
Horizontal separator vessels as shown in Figure 100-39, are seldom used as basic
knockout vessels. Space and foundation requirements make them costly and
impractical for basic service. They are commonly applied when the process
requires a large volume of liquid to be removed from the gas.
The advantages of horizontal separator vessels include:
• Greater liquid holding volume
• Increased coalescer surface area
• Flow is perpendicular to gravitational forces
One difficulty with horizontal vessels is that they are not easily modified to isolate
accumulated liquids from the disengagement space. For this reason, centrifugal
separation is not a practical design option in horizontal vessels. To assist in
isolating accumulated liquid from the gas flow path, a dipleg or “udder” is some-
times incorporated. Appendix P contains a design guide for designing separator
vessels.
182 High Efficiency Filters

The most efficient devices for scrubbing liquid and solid aerosols from gas are high
efficiency filters. These devices are effective in removing up to 99.9% of all liquid
and solid aerosols with a particle size cut-off of 0.3 microns. This can control gas
contamination concentrations to 0.01 ppm.
The two prominently available designs, high efficiency liquid/gas coalescers and
high efficiency mist eliminators (with Brownian motion media), are very different
in design, but achieve similar results. Appendix P contains information on high effi-
ciency filters.

Fig. 100-39 Horizontal Knockout Vessel
Retrofit Considerations
High efficiency filters are recommended as an addition to the knockout pot to
further enhance the quality of the gas to be compressed. Although high efficiency
filters have demonstrated resiliency to liquid flooding, systems that have the poten-
tial to “slug” large amounts of liquid should have an appropriately sized knockout
vessel equipped with a mist elimination device upstream to protect against liquid
overload. Many knockout vessels found in the field are inadequately sized or
improperly designed because the worst-case plant conditions were not considered.

183 Piping And Equipment Considerations

Separator vessels are only one part of a properly designed compressor suction
system. Piping design and layout, equipment location, and some aspects of
machinery skid design are equally important considerations in the design of these
systems.
Pipe Sizing And Gas Velocity

Piping is one of the largest single cost items in nearly all process plant projects. As
such, the overriding sizing criteria is economics. The economic line size is the
smallest nominal pipe size that passes the required flow, without exceeding prac-
tical velocity limits. In compressor suction and interstage lines, the gas velocity
should generally be in the range of 20-50 ft/s.
In compression systems, the economic gas velocity is 40 times the cube root of
specific volume (ft3/lbm) for on-plot installations and 25 times the cube root of
specific volume for off-plot installations. In addition, there are practical limits to
the pressure drop in these lines. In gas lines the pressure drop should not exceed
10-15 psi per 1000 feet of pipe.
Equipment Layout, Elevations, And Drainage

It is important to provide an equipment layout that minimizes condensation down-
stream of knockout equipment, and controls and collects any liquids that do
condense downstream. The vessel or coalescer immediately upstream of the
compressor should be located as close as possible to the compressor suction. As a
maximum, it should be no more than 50 feet upstream.
Piping between the knock-out equipment and the compressor suction should be
sloped to drain back to the knock-out equipment, and should not include pockets or
low spots where liquids can collect. Lines should have a minimum slope of 1/2
inches per foot. If low spots are completely unavoidable, the line should include
low point drains that can be conveniently operated at grade or from an elevated plat-
form.
Compressor suction and interstage piping should be kept short and have few elbows
to reduce the potential for liquid collection. This needs to be balanced with the need
for adequate piping flexibility. Suction lines for centrifugal compressors should
have a minimum straight length of five pipe diameters immediately upstream of the
compressor. No flow restrictions such as reducers or suction strainers should be
located within this straight length of pipe.
Block valves should be line size in horizontal piping runs or located in vertical runs
to avoid liquid accumulation behind the valve. If a reducer is needed in the line
between the compressor and knock-out equipment, it is preferably located in a
vertical piping run. If it must be located in a horizontal run, it should be an eccen-
tric reducer oriented to prevent the accumulation of liquids.

Line Cleaning And Suction Strainers

Temporary suction strainers are recommended in the inlet piping for each stage of
compression to prevent solids from entering the equipment. In addition to suction
strainers, inlet piping should be mechanically cleaned and/or chemically cleaned to
remove grit, welding products, mill scale, and foreign objects. Typically, an acid
pickling procedure is used as described in the Chevron Piping Manual. Temporary
suction strainers in the suction lines of unspared centrifugal compressors which
must run without interruption for extended periods (where it is not possible to
remove the strainer after startup) should have very coarse mesh capable of catching
only large foreign objects such as nuts and bolts. In these systems, extra care must
be taken to ensure the suction lines are clean prior to startup.
Gas Temperature
The knock-out vessel and line between the vessel and compressor should be insu-
lated to prevent condensation from external cooling. If beneficial, the line and the
vessel can be heat traced as well. Reciprocating compressor jacket water should be
maintained at an elevated temperature to prevent condensation on the cylinder
walls. API 618 requires jacket water to be at least 10 F above the inlet gas tempera-
ture to prevent condensation. In many applications, this temperature is greater than
the cooling water available at the site. If this is the case, a cooling water console
with closed loop circulation is one solution.

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110 Introduction 100-3

Chevron Corporation 100-1 December 1996

140 Design Considerations 100-22

December 1996 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 100-3 December 1996

120 Compressor Categories

Fig. 100-1 Compressor Types

121 Dynamic Compressors

122 Positive Displacement Compressors

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130 Thermodynamics of Compression

Chevron Corporation 100-5 December 1996

The following information provides a detailed tutorial on compression fundamen-

December 1996 100-6 Chevron Corporation

132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility

Chevron Corporation 100-7 December 1996

December 1996 100-8 Chevron Corporation

Note also that Z values can be calculated using PPROP.

133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity

Chevron Corporation 100-9 December 1996

Fig. 100-6 Sample Calculation of Gas Mixture Properties

December 1996 100-10 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 100-11 December 1996

134 Flow Measurements

December 1996 100-12 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 100-13 December 1996

14.7 ( SCFM )M ( SCFM )M

Other Conventions for Standard Conditions

December 1996 100-14 Chevron Corporation

135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes

These differences can be attributed to differences in heat transfer (cooling). The

Chevron Corporation 100-15 December 1996

136 Isothermal Compression

December 1996 100-16 Chevron Corporation

137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression

Chevron Corporation 100-17 December 1996

December 1996 100-18 Chevron Corporation

Had = (778) ∆h(theo)

138 Polytropic Compression

Chevron Corporation 100-19 December 1996

December 1996 100-20 Chevron Corporation

A thermodynamic diagram can be used for a polytropic calculation by first deter-

Fig. 100-8 Adiabatic and Polytropic Efficiency Relationships

Chevron Corporation 100-21 December 1996

From the foregoing discussion, it should be obvious that k is not equal to η. In

139 Miscellaneous Notes

140 Design Considerations

December 1996 100-22 Chevron Corporation

141 Compressor Duty

Chevron Corporation 100-23 December 1996

142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves

System Resistance Curve

Type 1 - Constant Pressure

Type 2 - Combined Constant Pressure and Friction

Type 3 - Predominately Friction

Compressor Characteristic Curve

December 1996 100-24 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 100-9 System Resistances

Fig. 100-10 Constant Speed Characteristics of Various Types of Compressors

Chevron Corporation 100-25 December 1996

143 Gas Analysis

144 Site Conditions