UNIT 15

THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS AND

INSTRUMENT

0. INTRODUCTION
1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2. ADVERBIALS
2.2.1. Features
2.2.2. Classification of adverbials
2.2.2.1. Morphological function
2.2.2.2. Syntactic function
2.2.2.3. Semantic function
3. ADJUNCTS
4. PROCESS ADJUNCTS
5. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS AND INSTRUMENTS.
5.1. Manner adjuncts
5.2. Means adjuncts
5.3. Instruments adjuncts
5.4. Subject adjuncts
6. POSITION OF PROCESS ADJUNCTS
7. PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
8. CONCLUSION
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Introduction
In order to deal with this analysis a number of relevant classical works in the field have been
used; the first one being Quirk and Greenbaum's major work, A University Grammar of
English (1973), which provides a thorough analysis of the English grammar, and the second
one, Thomson and Martinet's A Practical English Grammar (1986), which offers a practical
view of the English grammar. Nevertheless, some other current references have been used,
namely David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar Practice in Context (1997) and Gerald
Nelson, English: An Essential Grammar (2002).

ADVERBIALS

Syntactically speaking, adverbials are divided into two classes: adjuncts and conjuncts or
disjuncts.
1 If the adverbial is integrated into the structure of the clause, it is an adjunct.
2 If the adverbial is peripheral to clause structure we have a conjunct or a disjunct.
3 conjuncts usually have a connective function:
 ADJUNCT: Slowly they walked back home
 DISJUNCT: Frankly, I'm tired
 CONJUCT: If they open all the windows, then I'm leaving.

FEATURES
Adverbs have the following features:
 Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.
 They commonly express manner, degree, time, place ...depending on their semantic
role.
 Many adverbials are derived from adjectives.
 They share the same syntactic features with prepositional phrases.
 Other categories also play the same role as adverbials:
o How did you get out that hole?

crawling (verb)

extraordinarily nervous (adjectives)

rather well (adverbs)

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS

(1) simple adverbs, (2) adverbs formed by means of affixation, (3) adverbs formed by
means of compounding, and (4) adverb formed by means of other constructions.
- Simple adverbs occur as one-word adverb phrase only, resisting both pre- and
postmodification:
o Adverbs of place: in, outdoors, abroad, ashore.
o Adverbs of time: already, ever, now, still, then, today.
o Interrogative adverbs: how, why, where.
o Intensifying adverbs: almost, enough, even, most, only, quite, rather.

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 o Conjuncts: again, also, besides, furthermore, however.
- Adverb formation by means of affixation: many adverbs can be identified on the basis of
affixation, that is, typical derivational suffixes whereby some adverbs inflect for comparison.
Typical derivational suffixes for adverbs are:
(a) the suffix -ly, by means of which new adverbs are created from adjectives to indicate
manner, as in odd-oddly, interesting-interestingly, full-fully.
(b) the suffix -ward(s), added to a few adverbs/prepositions, as in backwards, homewards,
upwards;
(c) the suffix -wise, forming manner adverbs, such as clockwise, or adverbs in peripheral
dependent function, such as healthwise;
(d) the suffixes -fashion and -style indicate new trends (i.e. schoolboy-fashion, cowboy
style); and
(e) the suffix -ways, which indicates direction (i.e. sideways).
- Adverb formation by means of compounding: compound adverbs are usually
formed by an adverb + a preposition / relative pronoun / noun (i.e. herein, hereby,
somewhat, indoors).
- Adverb formation by means of other constructions : prepositional phrases, for
example, also keep the same features as adverbs (microscopically vs. with a
microscope).

The addition of affixes affects changes in spelling:

 + ly: slow-slowly; calm-calmly.
 some exceptions: true-truly, whole-wholly.
 Adjectives ending in -able/-ible, they drop the final -e and add -y: capable-capably,
 When adjectives end in -y, it is changed to -i (happy-happily; easy-easily).
 Adjectives which end in a vowel +single consonant letter T, they double the final
consonant (final-finally; beautiful-beautifully).

The addition of affixes also affects phonological changes:

The lateral consonant /l/, usually pronounced as dark L in the positive degree, turns
into clear L when suffixes are added (final-finally, beautiful-beautifully).

SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
From a syntactical point of view, adverbials fall into adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts.

SEMANTIC FUNTION
Semantically, disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the
form of the communication or to its meaning. (i.e. Frankly, unfortunately, wisely). Conjuncts
function as the connecting link between the sentence in which they occur and the preceding
context. Semantically, they may express listing (in the first place, secondly; furthermore,
moreover); summative (therefore, in sum, to sum up), appositive (for example, that is,
specifically, in particular), resultive (as a result, in consequence), inferential (in that case,
then), contrastive (better, on the contrary, on the other hand, however, nevertheless), and
transitional references (by the way, now, meanwhile, eventually). Manner, means and
instrument are not reflected in them.

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Semantically, adjuncts add extra information to the action or process by means of
descriptions about place (at the station), time (yesterday morning), manner (with patience,
in jeans), means (by bike), or instrument (with a fork) among other. Following Greenbaum &

ADJUNCTS

An adverbial must satisfy one or more of these criteria to be an adjunct:

a) If an adverbial cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause, it is an
adjunct. For example, although "slowly" can appear initially in a positive clause:
Slowly they come back home.
It cannot do so if the clause is negative:
Slowly they didn't come back home.
Hence, slowly is an adjunct.

b) If an adverbial can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative

interrogation, it is an adjunct. For example, the adverbial clause in
He writes to his parents because he wants to

c) If an adverbial can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative negation, it

is an adjunct, alternative negation showing that the adverbial is the focus of the
clause negation. For example, on Monday is an adjunct in
We went to Chicago on Monday.
amazement.
PROCESS ADJUNCTS

process adjuncts co-occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs:
He likes them *skilfully
He owns it *awkwardly
Process adjuncts favour final position, since they usually receive the information focus.
Indeed, no other position is likely if the process adjunct is obligatory for the verb:
They live frugally vs. *They frugally live
Since the passive is often used when the need is felt to focus attention on the verb, process
adjuncts are commonly placed in middle position rather than finally when the verb is in the
passive:
Tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed on the protesters (pre-verbal position)
Process adjuncts realized by units other than adverb phrases often occur initially:
By presenting this button you can stop the machine

MANNER ADJUNCTS
They constitute by far the largest group to be realized by adverbs.
Adverbs as heads of a manner phrase are an open class. The main method of forming
manner adverbs is by adding a "-ly" suffix to an adjective. Examples:
Lift that box carefully.
You have done this job extremely well.
You have been treated badly.
It is also possible to express manner by the use of comparison, using "as" or "like", as in the
following examples;
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 You should write as I tell you.
He repaired the house like an expert.
She sings like a _ professional (in the manner of a professional)

MEANS ADJUNTS
Means is usually expressed by prepositional phrases, often "by" -phrases, as in:
I go to the hospital by car.
He remembers Susan by her pictures.
The article is omitted in by-phrases denoting communication: by car, by train, by letter, by
post, etc.

INSTRUMENT ADJUNTS
Instrument adjuncts are usually expressed by prepositional phrases (normally a
prepositional phrase introduced by with). Like manner adjuncts they respond to the
question of "How ...?". For instance:
The dog was injured with a fork.
Someone killed him with an arrow
SUBJECT ADJUNCTS

Subject adjuncts refer to the state of mind of the performer of the action. For instance:
2. Ann opened the door happily.
We can divide Subject adjuncts into three subclasses: general subject adjuncts, volition
adjuncts and formulaic subject adjuncts.
The General subject adjuncts is an open class, which would include the following examples:
- With great pride, he accepted the award ("He was very proud to accept... ").
The second type is volition adjuncts, which include adverbs such as "deliberately"
- I deliberately left the door unlocked so that he could get in.
The third type is formulaic subject adjuncts, which are used to make certain utterances
conform to conventions and expectations regarding the level of politeness.
- You are cordially invited to our wedding.

POSITION OF PROCESS ADJUNCTS

Process adjuncts are normally located at the end of the sentence, because they receive the
information focus.
This is the only possible position if an adjunct is obligatory for the verb:
They live frugally.
NOT: They_frugally live.
In other sentences there exists another possible position for the adjunct:
Billy slowly drank his coffee.
Manner adjuncts are placed at initial position when the information focus is another part of
the sentence, which happens less commonly when this function is performed by adverbs.
For example:
With great courtesy she replied to the questions.
As a result of the change in the focus of information corresponding to the passive structure,
adjuncts may come to be placed before the verb:
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 The tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed at people.

PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATION

A contrastive analysis between Spanish and English at this level is quite useful for students.
Also, in the Spanish curriculum, the expression of manner, means and instrument is
envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in terms of simple descriptions of people, things, and
places, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex descriptions of people,
things, and situations, asking teenagers for detailed descriptions.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOLTON, D. and N. GOODY (1997). Grammar Practice in context. Richmond Publishing.

HUDDLESTON, R. and G.K. PULLUM. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of the English
Language. Cambridge University Press.
NELSON, G. (2001). An Essential Grammar. London: Routledge.
QUIRK, R. and GREENBAUM, (1979) A University Grammar of English. London: Longman.
QUIRK, R. et al. (1985) A Comprehensive grammar of the English language. London:
Longman.
THOMSON, A.J. and MARTINET A.V. (1986) A Practical English Grammar. London: OUP.

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