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UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLITICS

REVIEWER (1st SEMESTER)
CHAPTER I: Understanding Culture and Society

LESSON 1: DEFINING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS
Society -involves social (i.e. actions and interactions), cultural (i.e.
practices and traditions) and political (i.e. power relations)
realities.
-social, cultural, political (social sciences/disciplines)
PORTRAYS SOCIAL LIFE AS
-sociology; impinged upon by social forces
-anthropology; routinized by cultural practices
-political science; constantly enmeshed with power relations
Man’s Social and Cultural Background “Change is the only constant thing in this world”-Heraclitus
Culture, society and politics are concepts. They exist in the realm
of ideas and thoughts. As such, they cannot be seen or touched
and yet they influence the way we see and experience our
individual and collective lives as social beings.
Learning about one’s self, culture and society entails knowledge
about various identities and how these shape people’s views and
behavior. Reflecting on this enables a person to appreciate what
makes him or her similar to and different from other people.
Culture is defined as the system of knowledge, norms and values more or
less shared by members of a particular society.
Society is a group of People who interact in a defined territory and share a
culture.
Politics may be defined as: (1) the art of government, (2) public affairs,
(3) compromise and consensus, and (4) power.
Identity It is the distinctive characteristic that defines an individual or is
shared by those belonging to a particular group. Identities are
important because they shape both individual and group behavior
as well as people’s views about other people and society.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS AND SOCIAL
DIFFERENCES
(Gender)
Gender and Gender Roles People play different roles in society depending on one’s age and
occupation. There are jobs that require a specific gender to
perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.
Gender -Refers to social, cultural and psychological characteristics or
traits related to males and females based on certain social
contexts.
-It is different from sex, which refers to the biological
characteristics that distinguish a male from female.
-Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a
person masculine or feminine.
Gender Roles Refers to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person
to exhibit based on his/her sex.
(Socio-economic Class) The Philippine society can be categorized into various socio-
economic classes. During the prehistoric times, our ancestors
have developed a society where people were assigned with
different social functions. However, as the society changes,
differences in one’s function in the society became wider and
more diverse.
Socio-economic classes changed when the Philippines gained
independence from Spain. The Americans introduced democracy
and did not impose any form of socio-economic classes.
At present, a person’s position in the society is based mainly on
his family’s economic status. Social stratification, or the division
of society based on occupation and income, wealth or power, is
simpler at present than in the present.
The National Statistical Coordination Board divided the population into high-income, middle-income and low-
(NSCB) income classes.
High-income Class People earning an average of P200,000 a month, or approximately
P2.4 million a year. The “rich class” and accounts for merely one
percent of the country’s total population.
Middle-income Class People earning an average of P36,000 per month. Consists of
professionals and small-scale entrepreneur

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Low-Income Class People earning less than P10,000 a month. Consists of laborers
and minimum wage earners
Social Mobility -The movement of people or families within or between different
levels in the society
-The opportunity to transfer from a lower socio-economic class to
a higher one
-Possible through education or in some cases, through marriage.
(Ethnicity) refers to a group or people, also called ethnic group, who have a
common or shared culture, language, history, religion and
tradition
Ethno-linguistic groups include Ivatans, Ilocanos, Pangasinenses, Kapampangans, Tagalogs,
Bicolanos, Visayans (Masbatenos, Hiligaynons/ilonggos,
Cebuanos, Boholanos, Warays and Surigaonons) Maranaos,
Subanons and Zamboanguenos
Race refers to a group of people who share the same physical attributes,
such as skin color, height, and facial features. People are grouped
into different races based on their physical appearances classified
into three major races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
(Religion) can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a
group of people’s belief in God or group of gods. Sociologists
consider studying religion as part of society’s culture. In most
cases, religion not only affects a person’s belief, but one’s way of
life.
(Exceptionality) A quality or characteristics of a person that makes him or her
different from an established norm in the society.
Various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a
person and which makes it difficult for him/her to function
properly in society.
Existing categories of exceptionality: behavior, communication,
intellectual, physical, multiple exceptionality.
Exceptional People The characteristics which makes a person exceptional may have
been acquired from birth, through a medical condition or through
an accident.
-Who differ from societal and community standard of normalcy
-With learning or behavioral problems and with physical and
sensory disabilities.
-Who are intellectually gifted.
NATIONALITY
Nation A large aggregate of people united by common descent, history,
culture, language and economic life inhabiting a particular
country or territory.
Nationality -A person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or
country.
-Can be acquired by an individual from the country where he/she
was born (jus soli) or through his parents (jus sanguinis)
-An individual is national of a particular country by birth.
Nationality is acquired through inheritance from his/her parents.
-People with the same nationality often share the same language,
culture, territory and in some cases, ancestry. They share the same
rights and are protected by same laws.
Citizenship -A person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which
means that an individual has been registered with the government
in some country
-An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he is
accepted into that country’s political framework through legal
terms.
No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have different citizenships.
LESSON 2: SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE,

BEHAVIORS AND PHENOMENA
Values are a person’s or collectivity’s principles or standards
of behavior and are considered as judgment of what is

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important in life. They are important and lasting ideals

shared by the members of a culture about what is good
or bad.
Belief takes the form of firmly held opinion on conviction
regardless of the lack of verifiable evidence. Beliefs
may be based on tradition, faith, experience, scientific
research or a combination of these.
Political Behavior and Phenomena include events through which authority, governance
and public opinion are put into practice. A political
behavior of a person or group may be influenced by
their political views, ideology and levels of political
participation. An obvious example is the act of voting.
Political phenomena are not only limited to public
office as this also include how institutions like school,
a church or companies are ran and governed.
Elections It is the formal and organized process of electing or
being elected, especially of members of a political
body or legislative body.
Political Dynasty It is a term used in politics to refer to a family in which
several members are involved in public governance.
Political Candidate Endorsement by a Celebrity It is when a political candidate seeks the help of a well-
known or influential personality in a campaign.
Cultural Behavior and Phenomena -Also known as bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior
is that event when certain individuals behave a certain
way merely because other persons do as well.
-Happen when something or someone gains
widespread popularity.
Popularity (Fan Base) It is the state of being liked, admired or supported by
many people. Formation of fan base is a clear
manifestation of popularity. For instance, singers,
actors and actresses, athletes and musical bands have
their group of fans.
Social Media Buzz Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are social networking
sites where many people are members and interact with
other members through information, picture, music and
video sharing.
Social Change It is the transformation of social institutions over time.
It is an alteration in the social order of a society. Social
change may include changes in nature, institutions,
social behaviors or social relations.
Characteristics of Social Change 1. Social change happens all the time.
- material culture (things) usually changes
faster than nonmaterial culture (ideas and
attitudes)
2. Social change is sometimes intentional but is
often unplanned.
3. Social change is controversial
4. Some changes matter more than others.
Cultural change It is the transformation of culture or the way people
live. It deals with the evolution of cultural components.
Modification of a society through innovation,
invention, discovery or contact with other societies.
Transnational Families -A transnational family is where one parent, or in some
cases both parents, lives and works in another country
while the children remain in their country of origin.
-While these families remain secured financially, its
member are also exposed to it setbacks.
-Children who become overly unsupervised, they find
themselves meeting up with peer pressure, over
independence and lack of family orientation. These
may result in alcohol or drug abuse, unwanted
pregnancy, mood swings or early marriage.
Political change Happens when the rulers of a country lose power or
when the type of governance in the country changes.
Governance It is the kind of system or ideology used to express
authority in a country. It may be a democracy,
monarchy, oligarchy and others.
Youth Volunteerism Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer

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or free labor in community services.

MECHANISMS OF CHANGES
Diffusion It is the process through which cultural traits of one
society are borrowed, transmitted and adopted by
another one and considered as its own (i.e. migration,
globalization).
Enculturation Refers to the process through which we learn about the
culture we live in. We learn behaviors, values,
language and morals acceptable in our society.
Acculturation Refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with
those of another, such has happened to certain Native
American tribes and to many indigenous peoples
across the globe during the process of colonization.
Assimilation It is the adoption, by a minority group, of the customs
and attitudes of the dominant culture.
Invention It is the process whereby new cultural elements are
created to solve social and cultural problems (i.e.
Internet).
Discovery It is the process whereby we recognize or gain a better
understanding of already existing elements present in
the environment (i.e. Scientific Research).
CONFLICT AND CHANGE
Inequality and conflict in society also produce change. Karl Marx foresaw that
“social conflict arising inequality (involving not just
class but also race and gender) would force changes in
every society to improve the lives of working people”
(Macionis 2012:566)
Ideas and Change Weber, like Marx, also saw that conflict could bring
about change. However, he traced the roots of most
social change to ideas. For example, charismatic
people such as Mahatma Gandhi or Jose Rizal had
political ideas that changed society.
Demographic Change -Population patterns such as population growth, shifts
in the composition of a population, or migration also
play a part in social change.
-An increasing population may encourage the
development of new products and services, but it can
also have ecological and social implications such as
conversion of more agricultural land to residential
subdivisions.
-The social, political and cultural behavior and
phenomena in the society are results of the interaction
within society. These behaviors, be they usual or not,
are but a natural response to changes and ideologies
developing within society as a result of constant
interactions between members of society.
LESSON 3: THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: ANTHROPOLOGY,
SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
ANTHROPOLOGY -It is the branch of knowledge which deals with the
scientific study of man, his works, his body, his
behavior and values in time and space
-It is derived from the Greek words, Anthropos, which
means “man”, and logos, which means “study” or
“inquiry”.
Renowned Anthropologists: Franz Boaz
-Father of American anthropology; a physicist.
-gave modern anthropology its rigorous scientific
methodology
-originated the notion of "culture" as learned behaviors.
Alfred Kroeber and Lewis Henry Morgan
Became prominent in their field since their
specialization included the championing of indigenous
rights like traditional cultural preservation and
ancestral domain of the American Indian Tribes that
they intensively studied.
Bronislaw Malinowski
-Is the founding father of the strategy of data gathering

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from the respondents which apply participant

observation which is central to ethnography.
Margaret Mead
- an American anthropologist best known for her
studies of the peoples of Oceania. She also commented
on a wide array of societal issues, such as women’s
rights, nuclear proliferation, race relations,
environmental pollution, and world hunger
FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Social anthropology How social patterns and practices and cultural
variations develop across different societies.
Cultural anthropology Studies cultural variations across different societies and
examines the need to understand each culture in its
own context.
Linguistic anthropology Studies language and discourse and how they reflect
and shape different aspects of human society and
culture.
Biological or physical anthropology Studies the origin of humans as wells as the interplay
between social factors and processes of human
evolution, adaptation, and variation over time.
Archaeology Deals with prehistoric societies by studying their tools
and environment.
Anthropology helps by providing insights into strange
aspects of past and even present societies which
historians and sociologist find difficult to comprehend
and explain.
Goals of Anthropology: - Describe and analyze the biological evolution of
mankind.
- Describe and assess the cultural development of our
species.
- Describe, explain and analyze the present-day human
cultural similarities and differences.
- Describe and explain human biological diversity day.
SOCIOLOGY -is defined by Anthony Giddens as “the study of human
social life, groups and society.” It is an academic
discipline that attempts to provide a deeper assessment
of individual and group behavior, as well as social
phenomena, by examining the interplay between
economic, political and social factors.
Renowned Sociologists: Auguste Comte - is known as the founder of
positivism and is credited with coining the term
sociology. Comte helped shape and expand the field of
sociology and placed a great deal of emphasis on his
work on systematic observation and social order.
Emile Durkheim - known as the "father of sociology".
He is credited with making sociology a science. One of
his most famous pieces of work is "suicide: a study in
sociology," and another important work of his that
focuses on how society functions and regulates itself is
"the division of labor in society."
Karl Marx - was the forerunner of the conflict theory
and wrote communist manifesto – a book that is
focused on the misery of the lower class (working
class) caused by the existing social order. His critical
theories collectively understood as Marxism.
Max Weber - German sociologist and political
economist best known for his thesis of the “protestant
ethic,” relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his
ideas on bureaucracy.
Sociology analyses human interaction which is
essential in understanding cultural man’s make-up.
This social relationship will provide sociological
information that will help in understanding society
objectively through the use of scientific investigation
or methodology.
Goals of Sociology - Understand ourselves better and mankind.
- Help with decision making, both own and that of

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larger organizations.
- Gather systematic information from which to make a
decision, provide insights into what is going on in a
situation and present alternatives.
POLITICAL SCIENCE is a systematic study of a state and its government,
with the relationship of men in the community, with
relations of men and groups to the state itself, and with
the relations of a state with other sovereign states
abroad (Palispis, 2009, p.14).
- The works of Greek philosophers such as Plato and
Aristotle as well as the European thinkers such as
Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Jacques Rousseau,
Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke are influential in
the field of political science.
-It emphasizes the use of power, interest, influence and
diplomacy which is important in creating a well-
ordered society. According to Ricardo Lazo, the
primary goal of political science is citizenship
education. It requires students to understand and
appreciate the duties and obligations of being a
member of a society.
Political science is further divided into some areas of 1. Public administration – which examines how the
interest: government functions and how decisions and policies
are made.
2. Political economy – which evaluates the interplay
between economics, politics and law and its
implications to the various institutions within society.
3. Comparative politics – which compares domestic
politics and governance systems across different
sovereign states.
Goals of Political Science - Be immersed in current affairs and build an
understanding on the local, national and international
politics.
- Learn how political activities are organized in and out
of our country.
- Provide substantially critical and scientific
contribution to government and society
The discussion on social, cultural and political changes highlights the importance of learning about our society
and its processes. In many ways, the disciplines mentioned help people understand their social roles and how they
can participate in the changes they wish to make in their respective societies.
CHAPTER II: Culture and Society, The Perspective of Anthropology and Sociology
In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology culture comes first as a
subject matter, followed only by society.
Sociology Anthropology
-Is a community or group of individuals joined -A culture is a way of life of a group of individuals. Its
together because of sustained bond and interaction. Its subjects include symbols, language, values, and norms.
subject includes origin, existence, and relationships of According to many anthropologists, a culture can be
groups and institutions within communities of people. defined as a set of learned behaviors and beliefs that
characterize a group of people.
A society is characterized by the presence of the -Social solidarity: whereby members of the community
following elements: live together for mutual benefit.
-Shared identity and culture-among member that serve
as basis for their patterns of action and behavior.
-Common language
-Large population and the ability to sustain succeeding
generations of members
-Definite geographical area
-Political, economic, and social organization
5 MAJOR TYPES OF SOCIETIES 1. Hunting and gathering- dates as far as several
million years ago and were considered the
first societies. The basic economic units were
family and local clan which organized hunting
and gathering activities and distributed the
accumulated food supply.
2. Horticultural and Pastoral societies-was

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brought about by the gradual shift from

hunting-gathering to the introduction of
agriculture as a more stable food production
method. Horticultural societies relied on the
cultivation of plants as their primary source of
food, while pastoral depended on the
domestication of animals.
3. Agricultural Societies-The development and
spread of agriculture led to the emergence of
civilizations in Mesopotamia and China. Food
production became more efficient due to the
new methods of farming, the invention of
more advanced tools and the establishment of
permanent settlements.
4. Industrial societies- Technological
advancement resulted in the invention of
machines that improved production. The rise
of urban centers or cities was also a major
development during this period.
5. Post-Industrial societies-where knowledge is a
commodity and technological innovation is
key to long lasting development.
LESSON 1: CULTURE AS ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND
SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT.
Categories of Culture 1. Material Culture- is composed of the physical
or tangible objects produced, shared and
utilized within society such as tools or
implements, paintings, and other works of art,
architectural styles, weaponry and toys.
Material culture (Henslin, 2010) are the
material objects that distinguish a group of
people, such as their art, buildings, weapons,
utensils, machines, hairstyles, clothing, and
jewelry. These are the evidences of everything
that we saw and heard. To Kornblum (2002),
it consists of all the things that a society
produces. Ordinary things like plates, bowls,
tables, cabinets, or even religious items are
immensely produced for a certain purpose that
comes from the idea of culture.
2. Non-material-culture consists of intangible
properties and elements of society that
influence the patterns of actions and behavior
of its members. Examples include language,
beliefs, values, attitudes, ideas, and norms
shared among members of society.
Nonmaterial culture to Henslin (2010) is also
called the symbolic culture. This identifies a
group’s way of thinking that includes their
beliefs, values, and other assumptions about
the world. It also refers to the common
patterns of behavior, including language and
other forms of interaction.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
(Values and Beliefs)
Values are general and shared perception of what is good,
right, appropriate and worthwhile or important with
regards to modes of conduct as in the case of self-
reliance or obedience,
3 ELEMENTS THAT CONSTITUTE FILIPINO
VALUE SYSTEM
Halga It is the evaluative aspect as to what Filipinos find
most virtuous which constitute three dimensions
1) Pagkatao o Self-worth
2) Pakikipagkapwa-tao or dignified relationship
with other people
3) Pagka-makatao or compassion
Asal It is the expression of the evaluative aspect of Filipino

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value system which constitute three standards:

1) Kapwa or relational
2) Damdamin o emotional
3) Dangal o honor
Diwa This refers to the kalooban or inner which in essence is
intertwined reason and emotion.
Beliefs Are conceptions that people accept as true about the
world and where individuals fit in it.
(Social Norms) these are established expectations of society maybe
written or unwritten as to how a person is supposed to
act depending on the requirement of the time, place or
situation. All societies have guidelines that govern
moral standards and even the most routine aspects of
life.
4 TYPES OF NORMS
Folkways Are norms that stem from and organize casual
interactions, and emerge out of repetition and routines.
We engage in them to satisfy our daily needs, and they
are most often unconscious in operation, though they
are quite useful for the ordered functioning of society.
These are standards of behavior that are socially
approved but not morally significant.
Examples: Waiting in line, raising one’s hand if he/she
wishes to talk, not burping out so loud, dress
appropriately
Mores they determine what is considered moral and ethical
behavior. They structure
the difference between right and wrong. People feel
strongly about mores, and violating
them typically results in disapproval or ostracizing. As
such, mores exact a greater
coercive force in shaping our values, beliefs, behavior,
and interactions than do
folkways.
Taboos It is a very strong negative norm; it is a prohibition of
certain behavior that is so
strict that violating it results in extreme disgust and
even expulsion from the group or
society. Often the violator of the taboo is considered
unfit to live in that society.
Example: in some Muslim cultures, eating pork is
taboo because the pig is considered
unclean.
Laws is a norm that is formally inscribed at the state or
federal level and is enforced by
police or other government agent and can result in
formal punishment for violations, such
as fines, incarceration, or even death. Laws are a form
of social control that outlines
rules, habits, and customs a society uses to enforce
conformity to its norms.
(Symbols) such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—
help people understand that world. They provide clues
to understanding experiences by conveying
recognizable meanings that are shared by societies.
(Language) It is a symbolic system through which people
communicate and through which culture is transmitted.
Some languages contain a system of symbols used for
written communication, while others rely on only
spoken communication and nonverbal actions.
Culture and society are two closely interrelated concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed it needs human
interaction and it needs people to practice it continuously. Without a society practicing their common culture, the
culture may cease to exist.
Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue to thrive. A
society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society need each other so they
can both develop and prosper.
LESSON 2: CULTURE AS ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND
SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT

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ASPECTS OF CULTURE Since culture is very complex, there are important

aspects of culture that contribute to the development of
man’s social interaction.
A.Dynamic, Flexible, Adaptive
Dynamic Culture is dynamic as it responds to the changing needs
of time, alongside to the motion and actions within and
around it. When one aspect changes within a system,
culture easily responds to it.
Example: In the aspect of music, we can see that music
may change from time.
Flexible Culture is capable of being flexible to be able to face
any challenges that life would bring. It changes based
on the current situation of our society.
Example: Amish people are very strict and particular
with their culture. They still make decision-making
balanced in a sense that both their organization and
culture can survive the inevitable changes around
them, especially through modern times.
Adaptive It continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
Example: When it comes to language, we can also see
how culture adapts to changing times. We have already
developed new words related to the internet like
memes, netizens, vines and others.
B.Shared and Contested Culture is learned and acquired through different
interaction with people. Culture is shared learning
experience. As we share culture with others, we are
able to act in appropriate ways as well as predict how
others will act. Despite the shared culture, that doesn’t
mean that it is homogenous. If it is learned and shared,
it is also contested in different ways and situation.
Because of diversity, culture is subjected to debate and
analysis.
C. Learned through socialization and enculturation Socialization – is the life-long process through which
people learn to understand the societal norms or
expectations and values as a member of the society
through social interaction.
Enculturation – is the process by which an individual
adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed. This is the product of
socialization.
Agents of Socialization: Family, Community, Mass
Media, and Religion
D. Patterned Social Interactions Social interactions – is the process by which people
act and react in relation to others. It can help us filter
the parts of our culture that we learned so that we can
identify what suits us and what does not. Social
interaction is “the mutual influence of two or more
people on each other’s behaviors.”(Thompson and
Hickey, 2005).
5 PATTERNS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Exchange Is our expectation that whenever something good, we
will receive something good in return.
Cooperation Is when people work together to achieve a common
goal. Cooperation is considered to be essential to the
mankind’s survival because without cooperation, social
life would be unmanageable.
Competition This is the opposite of cooperation because instead of
working together towards a common goal, competing
individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that
only one can have.
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by
force, or hurt other people just to achieve their goals.
But conflict isn’t always bad, the existence of a conflict
can strengthen the unity within group because they are
threatened by an external factor.
Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to
persuade another person. People usually coerce others
when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

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E.Integrated and at Times Unstable This is known as holism or the various parts of a
culture being interconnected and interlinked. In order
to keep the culture functioning, all aspects of the
culture must be integrated.
Example: The language must be able to describe all the
functions within the culture in order for ideas to be
transmitted from one person to another.
F.Transmitted Through Socialization or Enculturation An organization’s culture is transmitted to its members
and even to one society to another through
socialization and enculturation.
Example: Transmission of a culture of the
Spaniards/Spanish to the Filipinos during Spanish
colonization.
G. Requires Language and Other Forms of Language is considered as the transporter of a large
Communication part of our culture. However, everything that can be
said in one language cannot be said in another,
meanings are not directly translatable. Language is not
only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-
verbal language or body language when we interact
with others.
Example: Our first reaction with a stranger is usually a
smile.
LESSON 3: THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
Theory Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior
or performance is organized. It thus enables us to make
predictions about that behavior.
Three Major Perspectives in Sociology Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical
perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective,
the functionalist perspective, and the conflict
perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists
theoretical paradigms for explaining how society
influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective
uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and
human behavior.
Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus
1. Symbolic Micro Uses of Symbols; Face-to-face interactions
Interactionism
2. Functionalism Micro Relationship between the parts of society; How aspects
of society are functional (adaptive)
3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce resources; How the elite control
the poor and weak
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as
symbolic interactionism, directs sociologists to
consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what
these symbols mean, and how people interact with each
other as defining features of society. The theory
operates on the assumption that society is a stable and
orderly system.
THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE
According to the functionalist perspective, also called
functionalism, each aspect of society is interdependent
and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The
government, or state, provides education for the
children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on
which the state depends to keep itself running.
THE CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE The conflict perspective, which originated primarily
out of Karl Marx's writings on class struggles. The
theory assumes that there is a constant power struggle
among various social groups and institutions within
society. Conflict theorists study the culture of
“dominant classes” and analyze how this culture is
imposed on other classes. The effective domination of
this class facilitated by culture brings about social
order.
CHAPTER III: Ethnocentrism

Cultural Variation -Refers to the differences in social behaviors that

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different cultures exhibit around the world.

-is affected by man’s geographical set-up and social
experiences.
Ethnocentrism -is coined by William Graham Sumner which is a
perspective that promotes an individual’s culture as the
most efficient and superior hence the individual who
exhibits ethnocentrism feels that his or her culture is
the most appropriate as compared to other cultures.
-When people find cultural practices and values not
their own as disturbing and threatening, that can be
regarded as ethnocentrism. This is typical situation due
to lack of information about other cultures which
produces less understanding which may result to
culture shock and sometimes to even dismissal of the
value of other’s way life.
FUNCTIONS OF ETHNOCENTRISM
1. Ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a Believing that one’s own ways are the best encourages
group. a “we” feeling with associates and strengthen the idea
that loyalty to comrades and preservation of the basis
for superiority are important values. Positively, it
promotes continuance of the status quo and negatively,
it discourages change.
2. Ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the The ways of one’s group are the best, there is little
cooperation between groups. incentive to interact with the inferior group. Extreme
ethnocentrism is likely to promote conflict as the
records of past wars and religious and racial conflicts
reveal.
3. Conflict of course leads to social change. Ethnocentrism becomes a vehicle for the promotion of
social change.
WHEN DO WE BECOME ETHNOCENTRIC AND 1. When you judge the behavior and beliefs of people
WHAT IS OUR WAY OUT? who are different from you. Way out: You must stop
judging others who are different from you.
2. When you believe that they are primitive cultures,
especially if their way of life is different from yours.
3. Way out: Ethnocentrism is taught. You have to
unlearn that your culture is superior and all other
cultures are inferior.
4. When you believe that some cultures are backward if
they lack the technology and consumerism of your own
culture.
5. Way out: Remember that there are no primitive or
backward cultures. All Cultures provide their members
with the means for meeting all human needs.
Cultural Relativism -He argued that there no universal moral standards of
right or wrong, good or bad for evaluating cultural
phenomena. Standards are relative to the culture in
which they appear. Cultural relativism is the idea that
all norms, beliefs and values are dependent on their
cultural context and should be treated as such.
-The central point is cultural relativism is that ina
particular cultural setting certain traits are right
because they work well in that setting while other traits
are wrong because they would clash painfully with
parts of that culture.
-Appreciation of other cultures may come about for
two complementary reasons: (1) acquisition of
sufficient knowledge about the culture in question like
reading about the practices and rituals, and (2) direct
exposure to other cultures through travel or
immigration. In both cases, individuals personally
come in contact with the people representing another
culture and they see the performance of a different set
of practices.
-Means respect and tolerance.
Xenocentrism Refers to the preference for the foreign. It is
characterized by a strong belief that one’s own
products, styles or ideas are inferior to those which

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originated elsewhere. One clear indication of the

existence of xenocentrism is our preference for
imported goods. Filipinos seem happy to pay more for
imported goods on the assumption that anything from
abroad is better.
Xenophobia Xenophobia' comes from the Greek words 'xenos'
(either "stranger" or “guest") and 'phobos' ("fear" or
“flight”). Xenophobia is “fear and hatred of strangers
or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign.”
Xenophobia includes straight people being afraid and
disapproving of gay people.
Cultural heritage -is a representation of the ways of living established by
society or group and passed on from generation to
generation. According to John Feather, cultural
heritage is a human creation intended to inform.
-helps historians and archaeologists understand and
decipher the way of living people of yesterday had.
Ex.
 Architectures such as buildings, house and
structures
 Artifacts like books, documents, objects
images, clothing, accessories and jars
 Things that made people who they are like
oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals and
traditions
Tangible Heritage Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete or
physical. A tangible heritage is a physical artifact or
objects significant to archaeology, architecture, science
or technology of a specific culture. Examples:
-Traditional clothing
-Utensils (such as bead work, water vessels)
-Vehicles (such as the ox wagon)
-Documents (codes, laws, land titles, literature)
-Public works and architecture built and constructed by
a cultural group (buildings, historical places,
monuments, temples, graves, roads and bridges)
Intangible Heritage An intangible heritage is not physical or concrete item
which exists intellectually in the culture. Examples:
-Songs
-Myths
-Superstitions
-Oral poetry
-Stories and various forms of traditional knowledge
such as ethno botanical knowledge
Preservation of cultural heritage is tantamount to protecting them from external threats such as destruction
(symbolic and physical), mutilation (in part or its entirety), and desecration through frivolous use/representation.
CHAPTER IV: Human Bio-Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

Culture E.B Tylor (1920 as cited by Madrid and Santarita,
2016), “the complex whole which encompasses beliefs,
practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts,
symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person
learns and share as a member of the society”
PRE-HISTORIC Early Humans are the symbols for bipedalism, a
special form of locomotion on two feet and for having
larger brains compared to the earlier primates. The
Paleolithic Age or Old Stone Age paved way to the
discovery of earliest tool-making that defined the way
of living of our early ancestors.
1. Lower Paleolithic Age Period -Homo Erectus existed
-Sought efficiency and made tools for specific tasks
-hand ax and other stone tools were created out of the
chipped off flakes from a core rock, of different angles

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2. Middle Paleolithic Period -Homo Sapiens existed

-More efficient tools for prying, lifting, holding and
pulling
-Created uniform flakes of rock and detailed each for
different tasks
3. Upper Paleolithic Period -Homo Sapiens Sapiens existed
-Blade, longer then a flake rock was the most distinct
tool
-The increase in specialized tools that they developed
reflected an increase in the population
-Increased in exploration of new economic activities
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION OR NEW STONE AGE Food production occurred and it ended the human
quest for hunting and gathering of food for survival. As
the population increases, different changes in the
lifestyle of humans also took place.
-Lessened the nomadic practices
Page 3
-People started to settle in specific places (villages to
grow crops and raise animals)
-Specialized social roles for men and women started to
developed
-Efficiency in food production allowed more time in
developing arts and sciences
-Led to more inventions of farm implements and tools
to ensure agricultural productivity
-More time in pursuing arts and religion led to the
building of temples and granaries
-Human attitude change toward natural environment
-People started cutting timber for their abodes and
cleared forested areas for settlements
-Early civilizations and rise of cities
CIVILIZATIONS AND RISE OF THE STATE Coming from the Latin word, “civis”, which refers to a
person who lives in a city; and “civets” which means to
the urban community in which one dwells, the word
CIVILIZATION was formed. To Anthropologists, it
refers to societies in which a large number of people
are living in a city. There, people become socially
stratified and is being governed by a ruling elite who
work through a centrally organized political systems
called states.
1. Agricultural Innovation -Early civilizations like the Ancient Sumerians built
dikes, canals and reservoirs to irrigate farmlands
-Extensive water infrastructures controlled water
resources at will-water could be held and run off into
the fields as necessary
-Freedom from seasonal rain cycles allowed farmers to
harvest more crops in a year
-When framing became permanent, populations in
farming villages rose.
-Bodies of water were developed into agricultural lands
2. Diversification of Labor -A number of people pursue nonagricultural activities
full-time
-Ancient records showed the development of varied
specialized skills
-Some became artisans, craftsmen, coppersmiths,
silversmiths, sculptors, merchants, tanners, potters,
engravers, butchers, carpenters, spinners,
cabinetmakers, bakers, clerk and brewers
-Developed trade systems to procure the raw materials
needed for their technologies
3. Social Stratification -Emergence of social classes
-Symbols of special status and privilege appeared in
cities.

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-For instance, people in Mesopotamia were ranked

according to the kind of work they did or the family
into which they were born.
-The possessions of wealth and the influence it could
buy became in itself a requisite for high status
-Social classes were evident in their laws, burial
customs, etc.
4. Central Government -Emergence of governing elite
-Governing elites saw to it that different interest groups
like farmers or craft specialists provided their
respective services and did not infringe one another.
-Government ensured that cities were safe from their
enemies by constructing fortifications and raising an
army
-Taxes were collected so that construction workers,
army and other public expenses could be paid
-Guaranteed safety for the lives and property of
ordinary people
-Evidences of early centralized authority can be seen in
their law codes, temple records, and royal chronicles.
CHAPTER V: Individuals and Society

Enculturation It is the process of adopting the behavioral patterns that
occurs when a cultural knowledge is passed on to the
next bearer who will perpetuate and ensure the
continuance of their tradition and practices. It is also a
diffusion of one’s culture to another through diverse
means like: learning, imposition by force, and
consequent, among others.
Socialization Takes place when prospective culture bearers learn
their culture’s body of knowledge and skills through
education, training, exposure, and experience. It is a
lifelong social experience by which we develop our
human potential and learn culture. The agents of
socialization are 1) Family; 2) Peer; 3) School; 4)
Church; 5) Government
These two result in:
1. Identity Formation The development of an individual’s distinct
personality. Identity formation clearly influences
personal identity by which the individual thinks of him
or herself as a discrete and separate entity. It is formed
through his interaction with other people. A person’s
socialization with individuals or groups allow him or
her to imbibe certain characteristics and interests that
contribute to his/her identity.
Cultural Identity One’s feeling of identity or affiliation with a group or
culture.
Ethnic Identity Basis of a presumed common genealogy or ancestry.
National Identity Ethical and philosophical concept whereby all humans
are divided into groups called nations.
Religious Identity Set of beliefs and practices generally held by an
individual involving adherence to codified beliefs and
rituals and the study of ancestral or cultural traditions,
writings, history, and mythology, as well as faith and
mystic experience.
2.1. Norms Norms are culturally determined rules that guide
people regarding what is right, wrong, proper or
improper. According to Newman (2012), norms create
predictability in daily affairs and interaction, making it
easier to live with the members of society. These are
rules that guide the behavior of members of a society
or group. Norms allow us to feel safe and secure, and
to operate at ease.
2.2. Values Culturally defined standards that people use to decide
what is desirable, good, and beautiful, and that serve as

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broad guidelines for social living. These are standards

people use to determine desirable goals and outcomes.
These are criteria on which people base their
judgements regarding behaviors and decisions.
FOUR BASIC FILIPINO VALUES 1. Emotional closeness and security in family;
2. Approval from authority and of society;
3. Economic and social betterment;
4. Patience, endurance, and suffering
OTHER FILIPINO VALUES -Centered on maintaining social harmony, motivated
by the desire to be accepted within a group.
-Hiya – “a sense of shame”
-Amor propio – self-esteem
-Bahala na- to humbly submit everything to the Higher
Being during tough times. A positive thing for it
acknowledges that the Supreme Being has a greater
power than man, which is why they are entrusting their
lives to Him.
3. Statuses and Roles
STATUS – is any position that an individual can occupy in the
society.
-“position in a social system, such as a child or parent”
- Linton (1936) – American Sociologist
STATUS SET Refers to all the statuses a person holds at a given time
TYPES OF STATUS
a) Ascribed Status social position a person receives at birth or takes on
involuntarily later in life.
(ex. A son, daughter, a Filipino, a teenager, or a
widower)
b) Achieved Status refers to social position a person takes on voluntarily
that reflects personal identity and effort. (ex. honor
student, teacher, boxing title)
ROLE Refers to the behavior expected of someone who holds
a particular status.
ROLE SET Number of roles attached to a single status
ROLE STRAIN Conflict among the roles connected of two or more
statuses.
INTERACTIONALIST SOCIAL THEORY the role is not fixed or prescribed or ascribed, but
something that is constantly negotiated between
individuals in a tentative, creative way.
STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY traces the origin of deviance to the tensions that are
caused by the gap between cultural goals and the
means people have available to achieve those goals.
5 CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE 1. CONFORMISTS - Are people who believe in both
the established cultural goals of society, as well as
normative means of attaining those goals. They follow
the rules of the society.
Ex. The Hopeful Poor. Many poor Filipinos accept
their fate although many are still hopeful that sending
their children to school will uplift them from
impoverishment.
2. RITUALISTS- People who do not believe in the
established cultural goals of the society, but they do
believe in and abide by the means for attaining those
goals. They still live in the society and follow approved
ways but they no longer try to achieve other goals.
Ex. The Passive Poor. Some poor have already
accepted and are contented that they are poor. They
live peacefully with their neighbors and do not pose as
threats to others.
3. INNOVATORS - People that accept cultural goals of
society but reject the conventional methods of attaining
those goals. Individuals still accept cultural goals but
go about achieving goals in a disapproved way. These
are generally those we regard as criminals.
Ex. The Surviving Poor. Some poor will resort to
illegal activities in order to survive like tapping
electricity from the neighbor’s house.

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4. RETREATISTS - People who reject both cultural

goals and the accepted means of attaining goals. They
simply avoid both goals and means without replacing
them by their own. No longer desire to achieve cultural
goals and abandoned the approved ways of achieving
goals.
Ex. The Retreating Poor. Some poor no longer has the
desire to improve their lives. They commit illegal
activities in order to earn a living.
5. REBELS - Reject both the established cultural goals
and the accepted means of attaining those goals, but
they substitute new goals and new means of attaining
these goals. Individuals challenge the existing
culturally accepted goals by coming up with new ones.
Ex. The Resisting Poor. Some poor resists the
prevailing notion of poverty. They use their
resourcefulness, ingenuity and innovation to improve
their lives. They follow decent and legal means.
4. Human Dignity, Rights and Common Good Human dignity refers to the idea that a person has the
innate right to be valued, respected, and treated well.
Human rights are legal, social, and ethical principles
that consider the human person as deserving of
liberties and protections by virtue of his or her human
dignity (Atienza, et. al., 2016). These two are
significant concerns when dealing with socialization
and issues on deviance.
Human rights are founded on natural rights, which are universal and inalienable, and are not contingent on laws,
customs, beliefs, or values of particular culture. The following are its characteristics:
UNIVERSAL they belong to all human beings regardless of race,
religion, gender, and other characteristics
FUNDAMENTAL cannot be taken away from any human being
INDIVISIBLE various rights are interrelated and given equal
importance
ABSOLUTE cannot be qualifies and are considered basic necessities
for living a genuine life.
In the Philippines, we use the 1987 Philippine constitution to recognize human rights. It includes the Bill of
Rights where the rights of Filipino citizens are enumerated.
CHAPTER VI: How Is Society Organized

A group unit of people who interact with some regularity and identify themselves as a unit (Newman, 2012). It
becomes a collection of people interacting together in an orderly way with the same expectations about one
another’s expectations.
Social groups Collection of people who regularly interact with one
another who have something in common and who
believe that what they have in common is significant.
share a sense of common identity.
Aggregates A set of individuals who happen to be in the same
place and at the same time
Ex. People gathered to watch a firework display; a
crowd
Categories Consist of one particular kind of person across time
and space. They are sets of people who share similar
characteristics. Ex. ASEAN people having similar
faces
TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
A. ACCORDING TO INFLUENCE 1. PRIMARY GROUP - Small but intimate; direct
interaction with one another; emotional bonds are
easily formed; very strong sense of belongingness. (ex.
family, barkada)
2. SECONDARY GROUP - Large but impersonal;
formed to perform a specific purpose; can become a
primary group (ex. cleaners, classmates, company)
B. ACCORDING TO MEMBERSHIP 1. IN-GROUPS - groups towards which people feel
loyalty (ex. teammates)
2. OUT-GROUPS - groups toward which people feel
antagonism. (ex. opposing team)
C. REFERENCE GROUPS a group of people whose standards we refer to as we

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evaluate ourselves.
provides a person with a set of standards to check
against and to know if one is doing well or where
he/she needs improvement (ex. mentors, family,
seniors)
SOCIAL NETWORKS the social ties radiating outward from the self that link
people together. The people who are linked to one
another. (e.g. politician’s link with civil society groups
and non-governmental organizations, a doctor’s
connection with a couple of pharmacists, business man
and governmental agencies)
CHAPTER VII: Cultural, Social, Political Institutions

Institution -Is a result of social relationships and patterns that are
practiced by a number of individuals, when they
become governed by communally accepted formal and
informal agreements or norms.
-Is led bynteractions shared by more than one person
anchored on similar aims and conditioned by similar
concerns build up an organization of ideas and actions.
- “an established organization or corporation (such as a
bank or university) especially of a public character”.
Social Institution consists of a group of people who have come together

for a common purpose. These are also defined as
mechanisms or patterns of social order focused on
meeting social needs, such as a government, economy,
education, family, healthcare, and religion.
Cultural Institution are institutions with an acknowledged mission to engage

in the conservation, interpretation and dissemination of
cultural, scientific, and environ-mental knowledge, and
promote activities meant to inform and educate citizens
on associated aspects of culture, history, science and the
environment.
Political Institution are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws.
These are institutions that mediate conflict; make policy
on the economy and social systems.
In sociology, it is important that one should study social institutions because undeniably, such are primary
transmitters of culture and are considered as important agents that determine not only the character of a group in
society but also every individual’s personality.
Examples of Social Institutions 1. Kinship, Family and Household
2. Political Organization and Authority
3. Economy
4. Religion and Belief Systems
5. Health Institutions
EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1. Kinship, Family and Household

a. The family is the basis for KINSHIP, which is a social structure defined by relations among in-dividuals linked by
blood or legal ties.
b. Kinship may be established through:
i. BLOOD RELATION (Consanguineal kinship) is the most basic form of relations. It is achieved by birth or blood
affinity. (e.g. relationship between parents and their children, between siblings, between grandparents and
grandchildren)
1. LINEAGE is the line where one’s descent is traced. One’s descent can be traced by studying either the person’s
paternal or maternal line or the father’s and mother’s line.
2. Kinship is also possible through RITUAL OR CEREMONY. Among which is the COMPADRINAZGO or the
godparenthood complex. Among concepts related to this are:
a. PADRINAZGO which refers to the spiritual parenthood emphasizing a vertical relationship (ritual linkage
between godparents and godchildren)
b. COMPADRAZGO which is defined as ritual co-parenthood, highlighting horizontal relationships or ritual ties
binding adults

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ii. MARRIAGE which is the legally or formally recognized union of two people as partners in a personal
relationship.
1. Here are the recognized Marriage Rules:
a. MONOGAMY- both married partners only have one spouse
b. POLYGAMY- when an individual has multiple spouses
c. POLYGYNY- when one man is married to more than one woman simul-taneously
d. POLYANDRY- when two men are socially recognized as sires and pro-vide some investment to the same woman
and her child. It is the bond of one woman to more than one man.
2. The following are the Post-marital Residency Rules:
a. PATRILOCAL - Residence requires that the newly married couple live with or near the domicile of the parents of
the groom
b. MATRILOCAL - Residence requires that the newly married couple live with or near the domicile of the parents
of the bride
c. BIOLOCAL/AMBILOCAL - Residence gives the couple a choice of stay-ing with either the groom’s parents or
bride’s parents
d. NEOLOCAL-Reside independently of the parents of either groom or bride
c. According to Census Bureau (1990) a FAMILY is “a householder and one or more other persons living in the
same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption”.
a. FAMILY may also be described through FUNCTIONAL DEFINITIONS. Herein, the focus moves away from
blood relationships and focuses instead on the functions a family performs. In this concept, the FAMILY is any unit
or group of individuals where there is: 1) an obvious shar-ing of resources, 2) supportive relationships, 3)
commitment and identification with other family members, and 4) preparation of children to become adults.
b. There are two TYPES OF FAMILIES based on an individual’s entry:
i. The FAMILY OF ORIENTATION is the family into which a person is born.
ii. The FAMILY OF PROCREATION is the family that a person forms through marriage or any legal agreement.
c. Structurally, there are several KINDS OF FAMILIES:
iii. NUCLEAR FAMILIES are the simplest kind which consists of the parents and their chil-dren (either through
natural consanguinity or legal adoption).
iv. EXTENDED FAMILIES are those that are composed of the nuclear family and other relatives such as the
grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins.
v. RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES are composed of the spouses and their children from previous marriages.
2. Political Organization and Authority
a. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION is the organized way in which power is distributed and deci-sions are made
within the society; the entity that is participating in a political process.
b. This may come in the following forms:
i. BAND is the least complex form of political organization. Consists of 20-50 individuals who are usually related
by kinship. Individuals are made to follow group discussion through social mechanisms. The decision-making is
often made by the entire group, with the eldest member acting as a facilitator. Hunting and gathering society is its
example.
ii. TRIBE is a political organization marked by loyalty per family or cluster. Individual’s loyalty primarily lies on his
or her immediate family, followed by the relatives/ this group allows for the creation of interdependent generations.
It is less mobile than tribes because their economic subsistence requires a degree of settlement. The leaders are
individuals who are believed to possess special skills or aptitudes that relate to the economic activity. It can be
traced on semi-sedentary societies like the horticultural and pastoral societies.
iii. CHIEFDOM is more complex than a tribe; it consists of local communities who sub-scribe to the power and rule
of a leader who has absolute power than them absolute power is given to the leader. Example of chiefdom in the Pre-
colonial Philippines is the societies ruled by rajah or datu
c. AUTHORITY refers to the power widely perceived as legitimate rather than coercive.
i. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY- fuses power with tradition. It is legitimized by respect for long established
cultural patterns. People accept the exercise of power as it has been the status quo in the society. His title as a leader
is inherited. (examples: monarchs and their allies)
ii. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY- the power legitimated through extraordinary personal abilities that inspire
devotion and obedience. Not conventional since that it makes its own rules as shown by religious leaders like Jesus
of Nazareth and Mohammed of Mecca.
iii. RATIONAL AUTHORITY- achieved by the leader through a process of following estab-lished codes and
procedures in the distribution of power and resources in the society. Stresses out the achievement over ascribed
achievements. The ruler exercises power with the basis of his talent and training not on the inheritance or family
ties. He is being elected or appointed by the laws of the land.
3. Economy
a. Little et al (2014) defined ECONOMY as the “social institutions through which a society’s re-sources (goods and
services) are managed”. Atienza et al (2016) backed this with a further de-scription of the economy as “an institution
that addresses questions regarding the limited re-sources of society”.
b. GOODS are the physical objects we find, grow, or make in order to meet our needs and the needs of others.
Goods can meet essential needs or they can be luxuries. When goods are pro-duced for the purpose of sale in the
market, they become what are referred to as COMMODI-TIES.

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c. SERVICES are activities that benefit people. These services provide some of the resources that help maintain and
improve a society. Among the examples of services are: food preparation and delivery, healthcare, education, and
entertainment.
d. The two dominant economic systems in the world are CAPITALISM and SOCIALISM.
iv. In its simplest and most accepted description, CAPITALISM is a market-driven economy in which the state does
not intervene with the movement of the goods and services leav-ing it up to the market forces to shape society
(Investopedia.com).
v. SOCIALISM on the other hand, is characterized by state ownership of businesses and services, generally targeted
at an equitable society.
e. Seen therefore as a social institution, the ECONOMY is perceived to execute particular functions with respect to
social welfare. According to Dr. Regina Sadaf of the Pakistan Institute of Devel-opment Economics (2017), a
country’s ECONOMY is expected to:
vi. Deal with the equal distribution of wealth to alleviate poverty
vii. Ensure the provision of the society’s basic needs; and
viii. Ensure the provision of opportunities.
4. Religion and Belief Systems

f. RELIGION is basically described by Emile Durkheim (1915) as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative
to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community, called a church, all those who adhere to them”.
g. RELIGION is also a social institution such that it involves patterns of behaviour that influence not only one
person but a society. It is found to generally help a society understand the meaning
and the purpose of life. Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and inte-grated set of beliefs,
behaviours, and norms centred on basic social needs and values.
h. Some sociologists include belief systems among their recognized types of religion as shown in this table
presented by Little in 2016:
Religious/Belief system What/Who Is Divine Example

Classification
Polytheism Multiple gods Ancient Greeks and Romans
Monotheism Single god Judaism, Islam
Atheism No deities Atheism
Animism Nonhuman beings (animals, plants, Indigenous nature worship (Shinto)
natural world)
Totemism Human-natural being connection Ojibwa (First Nations)
CHAPTER VIII: EDUCTAIONAL INSTITUTION

Education and Society
-The relationship between the concepts “EDUCATION” and “SOCIETY” is one that can be a challenge for social
scientists. Anthropologists, sociologists, or other social scientists may be on conflicting sides of the argument. Some
may argue there is no society without education. Therefore, education comes first, and is more important than
society. Others may argue that a society must exist before there can be education. Furthermore, education is a
reflection of a society, or is influenced by society. Therefore, the society comes first and is more important.
Regardless of the side of the argument supported by one group of scholars or another, there is an evident consensus
that education and society are interconnected (Jean-Francois, 2015).
 EDUCATION helps individuals to learn how to live, how to behave, and how to organize everything in
their lives so it is an agent which brings change in society or we can say in online education is a “social
change agent”.
 EDUCATION in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character
or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society
deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.
-As the meaning of education, so its nature which is very complex. The natures of education are:
 Education is life-long process
 Education is a systematic process
 Education is development of individual and the society
 Education is modification of behavior
 Education is a training
 Education is instruction and direction
 Education is life
 Education is continuous reconstruction of our experiences
-The role of education is countless for a perfect society and man. It is necessary for every society and nation to bring
holistic happiness and prosperity to its individuals.
THREE TYPES OF EDUCATION:

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o FORMAL EDUCATION is anything that is taught in a formal setting such as a classroom. It usually begins in
elementary school and continues through high school, and beyond. In formal education, students who are usually
grouped by age or education level are taught by professional teachers in a structured environment. The curriculum is
planned and deliberate and often follows a strict syllabus created by the teacher or another education professional.
o INFORMAL EDUCATION refers to any kind of education that doesn’t use a formal learning and teaching
method. It covers everything from a parent teaching a child how to read or count in the home to being taught a skill
by a friend. It consists of experiences and learning from being a part of a family and community as opposed to a
structured classroom setting.
o NON-FORMAL EDUCATION often involves instruction from a teacher. However, it does not rely on a syllabus
or any other set structure. If there is a structure in place, it is malleable by the teacher and can be customized to meet
a student’s needs. Some examples of non-formal education include job training, adult education courses, fitness
courses, and any one-on-one tutoring session that can be customized with the student in mind.
Some of the FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION in Society are:
1. TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE: Education instils and transmits the social norms values and beliefs into the
next generation.
2. SOCIAL INTEGRATION: Education unifies the individuals in society and creates the sense of solidarity among
them. It helps the individuals and groups to cooperate with one another and find a common ground for social life.
3. CAREER SELECTION: Education helps individuals to think about their career which they want to pursue in
future. It prepares them for future endeavors. Provide them with all the necessary in-formation regarding
professional life.
4. SOCIALIZATION: Educational institutions provide individuals the platform to interact with different people of
their own age and common interest.
5. RATIONAL THINKING: Education helps individuals to think rationally and conclude any event, situation and
issue with reasonable explanation.
6. ADJUSTMENT IN SOCIETY: Education grooms the personality of an individual which helps him/her to adjust
in any environment, group, community and society.
7. PATRIOTISM: Love for nation and country are instilled in people from very young age through educational
institutions. They learn their duties and obligation towards nation and their country.
8. METHOD OF SOCIAL PROGRESS AND REFORM: Education guides the children towards new values and
assists the development of intelligence and increase the society potential for its own transformation. Education is
considered as the most powerful and effective instrument of social change and social development in present time.
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES is administered by three different government agencies, each exercising
largely exclusive jurisdiction over various aspects of the education system:
o The DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION oversees all aspects of elementary, secondary and in-formal education. It
supervises all elementary and secondary schools, both public and private.
o Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in the Philippines is supervised by the TECHNICAL
EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (TESDA). TESDA oversees TVET providers, both
public and private, and acts as a regulatory body, setting training standards, curricula and testing requirements for
vocational programs.
o The main authority in tertiary education is the COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION (CHED). Directly
attached to the Office of the President, CHED has far-reaching responsibilities. It develops and implements higher
education policies and provides quality assurance through its oversight of post-secondary programs and institutions,
both public and private.
The PHILIPPINE FORMAL EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE is composed of: (as found in the World Education
Services Website)
A. Basic Education
1. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION consists of six years of schooling, covering grades 1 to 6 (ages 6 to 12). Before
the adoption of the K-12 reforms, elementary education was the only compulsory part of the basic education cycle.
With the reforms, however, compulsory education has been ex-tended and is now mandatory for all years of
schooling, inclusive of grade 12.
2. With the enactment of the K-12 reforms, SECONDARY EDUCATION was extended from four to six years and
divided into two levels: four years of Junior High School (JHS) and two years of Senior High School (SHS), giving
the basic education cycle a structure of K+6+4+2. All six years of secondary education are compulsory and free of
charge at public schools.
B. Higher Education
1. HIGHER EDUCATION in the Philippines is offered through various degree pro-grams (commonly known as
COURSES) by a wide selection of colleges and universities—also known as higher education institutions (HEIs).
There are THREE TYPES OF HEIs in the Philippines as classified by CHED:
i. STATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES or SUCs are defined as public institutions “with independent
governing boards and individual charters established by and financed and maintained by the national government. In

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order to be classified as a university (as opposed to a college), institutions need to offer graduate programs in
addition to a mini-mum number of bachelor programs in a range of disciplines. There are presently 112 SUCs in the
Philippines.
ii. LOCAL COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES are public institutions established and funded by local government
units. There are presently 107 local universities and colleges.
iii. OTHER GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS form a category that comprises specialized HEIs that provide training
related to public services, such as the Philippine National Police Academy or the Philippine Military Academy, for
example. There are presently 14 of these institutions.
iv. The vast majority – 88 percent – of HEIs in the Philippines, however, are PRIVATELY OWNED. There were
1,710 private HEIs in operation in the 2016/17 academic year, which include both religiously affiliated institutions
(mostly Catholic schools) and non-sectarian institutions. Most of these institutions offer the same type of tertiary
education programs as public institutions and are overseen by CHED.
CHAPTER IX: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
CHAPTER IX: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Most Essential Learning Competency
References
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
 Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on
factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is a society’s categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their
occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political). As such, stratification is the
relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit.
 SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION
o CLOSED SYSTEM or CASTE SYSTEMS are systems in which people can do little or nothing to change their
social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and will remain in it their
whole lives. People are assigned occupations regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no
opportunities to improve a person’s so-cial position.
o OPEN SYSTEM is the stratification that facilitates social mobility, with individual achievement and personal
merit determining social rank. The hierarchical social status of a person is achieved through their effort. Any status
that is based on family background, ethnicity, gender, and relig-ion, which is also known as ascribed status, becomes
less important. There is no distinct line be-tween the classes and there would be more positions within that status.
 In class systems, people have the option to form EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGES, unions of spouses from different
social categories. Marriage in these circumstances is based on values such as love and compatibility rather than on
social standing or economics. Though social conformities still exist that encourage people to choose partners within
their own class, people are not as pressured to choose marriage partners based solely on those elements. Marriage to
a partner from the same social background is an ENDOGAMOUS UNION.
 Class systems, according to Max Weber, are based on three dimensions of stratification:
 WEALTH is the total value of an individual or family, including income, stocks, bonds, real estate, and other
assets;
 POWER is the ability to influence others to do your bidding, even if they do not want to; and
 PRESTIGE refers to the status and esteem people hold in the eyes of others.
 MERITOCRACY is an ideal system based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort—
or merit—that determines social standing. High levels of effort will lead to a high social position, and vice
versa. The concept of meritocracy is an ideal
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVEES ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Theoretical perspective Major assumptions
Functionalism Stratification is necessary to induce people with special

intelligence, knowledge, and skills to enter the most
important occupations. For this reason, stratification is
necessary and inevitable.
Conflict Stratification results from lack of opportunity and from

Theory discrimination and prejudice against the poor, women, and
people of color. It is neither necessary nor inevitable.
Symbolic Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles, daily

interactionism interaction, and conceptions of themselves.

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SOCIAL MOBILITY is the movement in time of individuals, families, or other social units between positions of
varying advantage in the system of social stratification of a society.
 TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY
o HORIZONTAL MOBILITY - This occurs when a person changes their occupation but their overall social standing
remains unchanged. For example, if a doctor goes from practicing medicine to teaching in a medical school, the
occupation’s changed but their prestige and social standing likely remain the same.
o VERTICAL MOBILITY refers to a change in the occupational, political, or religious status of a person that causes
a change in their societal position. An individual moves from one social stratum to another.
o UPWARD MOBILITY is when a person moves from a lower position in society to a higher one. It can also
include people occupying higher positions in the same societal group.
o DOWNWARD MOBILITY takes place when a person moves from a higher position in society to a lower one.
o INTER-GENERATIONAL MOBILITY happens when the social position changes from one generation to another.
The change can be upward or downward. For example, a father worked in a factory while his son received an
education that allowed him to become a lawyer or a doctor.
o THE INTRA-GENERATIONAL CHANGE in societal position occurs during the lifespan of a single generation. It
can also refer to a change in position between siblings. One way is when a person climbs up the corporate ladder in
their career. For example, an individual starts their career as a clerk and through their life moves on to a senior
position such as a director. One sibling may also achieve a higher position in society than their brother or sister.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND MINORITIES

LEARNING EXPERIENCE
SOCIAL MOBILITY
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND THE MINORITIES
 SOCIAL INEQUALITY is the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social posi-tions or
statuses within a group or society.
 POVERTY is defined as a ‘pronounced deprivation in well-being’. It can be defined narrowly or more broadly,
depending on how well-being is understood.
o ABSOLUTE POVERTY is poverty below an official line set at the ‘absolute standard of what households should
be able to count on in order to meet their basic needs’.
o RELATIVE POVERTY is defined in relation to other people in that society at the same time. Poverty is often
defined this way in high-income countries to acknowledge that people are part of a society and to take into account
broader quality of life issues.
o CHILD POVERTY refers to the deprivation of the material, spiritual and emotional resources children need to
survive, develop and thrive, and to enjoy rights and achieve their full potential.
 Poverty is related to, yet distinct from, inequality. INEQUALITY is concerned with the full distribution of
wellbeing; poverty is focused on the lower end of the distribution only – those who fall below a pov-
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erty line. Inequality can be viewed as inequality of what, inequality of whom and inequality over what time horizon.
 In the social sciences, MINORITY does not just refer to a statistical measure and can instead refer to categories
of persons who hold few or no positions of social power in a given society.
 Louis Wirth defined a MINORITY GROUP as “a group of people who, because of their physical or cul-tural
characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal
treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.”
o RACIAL OR ETHNIC MINORITIES - Every large society contains ethnic minorities: sub-groups that share a
common heritage, which often consists of a shared language, culture (often including a religion), or ideology that
stresses common ancestry or endogamy. In this case, while minority status can be conditioned by a clear numerical
difference, more significantly it refers to issues of political power. In some places, subordinate ethnic groups may
constitute a numerical majority, such as blacks in South Africa under apartheid.
o GENDER AND SEXUALITY MINORITIES - Recognition of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people as a
minority group or groups has gained prominence in the Western world since the nineteenth century. The abbreviation
“LGBT” is currently used to group these identities together. The term queer is sometimes understood as an umbrella
term for all non-normative sexualities and gender expressions but does not always signify a minority; rather, as with
many gay rights activists of the 1960s and 1970s, it sometimes represents an attempt to highlight sexual diversity in
everyone.
 While in most societies the numbers of men and women are roughly equal, the status of women as a oppressed
group has led some, such as feminists and other participants in women’s rights movements, to identify them as a
minority group.
o RELIGIOUS MINORITIES - Persons belonging to religious minorities have a faith which is dif-ferent from that
held by the majority population or the population group that is in power. It is now accepted in many multicultural
societies around the world that people should have the free-dom to choose their own religion, including not having
any religion (atheism or agnosticism), and including the right to convert from one religion to another. However, in
some countries this freedom is still either formally restricted or subject to cultural bias from the majority population.
o PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES - The disability rights movement has contributed to an under-standing of people
with disabilities as a minority or a coalition of minorities who are disadvan-taged by society, not just as people who
are disadvantaged by their impairments.
 GLOBAL INEQUALITY involves the concentration of resources in certain nations, significantly affect-ing the
opportunities of individuals in poorer and less powerful countries.
 THEORIES EXPLAINING GLOBAL INEQUALITY
Theory Major assumptions
Modernization theory Wealthy nations became wealthy because early on they
were able to develop the nec-essary beliefs, values, and
practices for trade, industrialization, and rapid economic
growth to occur. Poor nations remained poor because they
failed to develop these be-liefs, values, and practices;
instead, they continued to follow traditional beliefs and
practices that stymied industrial development and
modernization.
Dependency theory The poverty of poor nations stems from their colonization
by European nations, which exploited the poor nations’
resources and either enslaved their populations or used
them as cheap labor. The colonized nations were thus
unable to develop a pro-fessional and business class that
would have enabled them to enter the industrial age and to
otherwise develop their economies.
 GLOBAL STRATIFICATION refers to the unequal distribution of resources among nations.

 A major concern when discussing global inequality is how to avoid an ethnocentric bias implying that less
developed nations wants to be like those who have attained postindustrial global power. Terms such as “developing”
(nonindustrialized) and “developed” (industrialized) imply that nonindustrialized coun-tries are somehow inferior,
and must improve to participate successfully in the global economy, a label indicating that all aspects of the
economy cross national borders.
 COLD WAR TERMINOLOGY was developed during the Cold War era (1945–1980) when the world was
divided between capitalist and communist economic systems (and their respective geopolitical aspi-rations).
Familiar and still used by many, it involves classifying countries into FIRST WORLD, SEC-OND WORLD, AND
THIRD WORLD NATIONS based on respective economic development and standards of living.
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 The WORLD SYSTEMS APPROACH uses an economic and political basis to understand global ine-quality.
Development and underdevelopment were not stages in a natural process of gradual moderniza-tion, but the product
of power relations and colonialism.
o CORE NATIONS are dominant capitalist countries, highly industrialized, technological, and ur-banized.
o PERIPHERAL NATIONS have very little industrialization; what they do have often represents the outdated
castoffs of core nations, the factories and means of production owned by core na-tions, or the resources exploited by
core nations.
o SEMI-PERIPHERAL NATIONS are in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but nevertheless
acting as a major source for raw material. They are an expanding middle-class marketplace for core nations, while
also exploiting peripheral nations.
 The nations of the world differ dramatically in wealth and other resources, with the poorest nations be-ing found
in Africa and parts of Asia.
 To understand global stratification, it is useful to classify the world’s nations into three categories: wealthy
nations, middle-income nations, and poor nations. The middle category is often subdivided into upper-middle-
income nations and lower-middle-income nations.
 Several measures of global poverty and global inequality help us to understand the nature and extent of global
stratification and identify the nations most in need of help.
 Global poverty has a devastating impact on the lives of hundreds of millions of people throughout the world.
Poor nations have much higher rates of mortality and disease and lower rates of literacy.
 Global poverty especially affects women and children, who suffer in many ways from the effects of poverty in
poor nations.
 A sociological perspective suggests that efforts to reduce global poverty need to address continuing ex-ploitation
of poor nations by wealthy nations and multinational corporations, and that these efforts will succeed to the extent
that they also reduce ethnic and gender inequality.
CHAPTER X: SOCIAL CHANGE AND HUMAN AGENCY

LESSON 1
Inventions, Diffusion Acculturation and Globalization
Social change refers to basic alterations, over time, in the behavior patterns, culture, and structure of
society .Clearly not all changes are social changes. The physical changes in an individual during his/her different
developmental stages and tasks which may have a profound effects on the individual are not considered as social
change. On the other hand, the shift from dictatorial to a democratic form of government denotes social change for
it creates changes in the society’s patterns of interactions, ways of life and institutional structure. Similarly,
scientific inventions could constitute social change only when such inventions bring about alterations in a society’s
patterns of daily interactions and relationships and affect the institutions and structure of the society.
Social change is a general term which refers to change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behaviour
or the social relations of a society or a community of people. The restructuring of the Philippine society from an
agricultural to an industrial society constitutes social change.
Social change refers also to acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a positive way. Advocacy for
human rights , justice, equality and democracy, as well as social movements and cause oriented groups for liberation
and eradication of poverty, which could bring about institutional changes to make the society more humane and a
better place to live in, constitute social change.
Social change could be:
1. Slow, gradual, incremental, evolutionary; in this it might be barely noticeable.

2. Fast, radical, sudden and revolutionary; it might even take people by surprice.
3. Wide in scope, affecting all people in a society.
4. Limited in scope, affecting only a small number of people.
Discovery and Invention
Discovery – It refers to the process of finding a new place or an object, artifact or anything that previously
existed, It also refers to the initial awareness of existing but formerly unobserved relationships of elements of nature
to human life
Example: The discovery of fire led to the art of cooking; discovery of oil, of organisms and substances; of
diseases, of atoms and sources of energy.
Invention – It implies a creative mental process of devising; creating and producing something new, novel or
original. It also implies the utilization and combination of previously known elements to produce an original or
novel product. Invention could be either social or material.

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Example: Invention of number system, government, language, democracy, religion and alphabet ( Social
invention) Invention of the wheel, machines, etc. ( material Invention), invention of new methods or techniques.
Diffusion
It refers to the process by which change comes about as culture spreads from one society to another through
direct or indirect contact between members of two different cultures. Change may come about in one or both of the
societies. Generally, It is the culture of the more powerful and more culturally and technologically advanced society
that is diffused in the underdeveloped society.
Example: The Spanish colonial administrators and missionaries transformed the pre-Spanish Filipinos from
worshippers of ‘Bathala’ and other lesser deities and with a barangay form of government into Christianity and
centralized form of national government.
Diffusion involves the following social processes:
a. Acculturation – Cultural borrowing and cultural imitation. It explains the process of cultural change and
psychological change that results following meeting between cultures. The effects of acculturation can
be seen at multiple levels in both interacting cultures. At a group level, acculturation often results in
changes to cultures, customs and social institutions. Noticeable group level effects of acculturation often
include changes in food, clothing, and language. At the individual level, differences in the way
individuals acculturate have been shown to be associated not just with changes in daily behaviour but
with numerous measures of psychological and physical well-being.
Example: the Filipinos are said to be the best English- speaking people of Asia
b. Assimilation – Blending or fusion of two distinct cultures through long periods of interactions.
Example: Americanization of Filipino immigrants to the U.S.
c. Amalgamation – Biological or hereditary fusion of members of different societies.
Example: marriage between a Filipino and an American
d. Enculturation – Deliberate infusion of a new culture to another.
Example: The teaching of American history and culture to the Filipinos during the American regime.
Globalization and Globalism
Globalization - It refers to the process of increasing integration between units around the world, including nation-
states, households /individuals, corporation and other organizations. It is an umbrella term, covering economic,
trade, social, technological, cultural and political aspects.
In globalization goods manufactured in one location can now be sent relatively easily through transportation
networks of airplanes and ships, while the internet allows ideas and media to reach global audience.
Globalism – This refers to the universal, internationalist impulse that the world is connected. It refers to the
connection between cultures, nations, and peoples; It embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy
foreign products and ideas, adopt new technologies and practices and participate in “world culture”. The danger lies
in totally adopting a particular cultural hegemony as a standard culture and behaviour. This would lead to death of
diverse ethnic cultures, languages, arts, religions, beliefs, practices, and other cultural identities which took millions
of years to develop.
Social Inequality
It occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that
engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons. Although the Philippines differs
from most Asian nations that have titled nobility, The Philippines is still highly stratified. Social inequality has
several important dimensions. Income is the earnings from work or investments, while wealth is the total value of
money and other assets minus debts. Other important dimensions include power, occupational prestige, schooling,
ancestry, and race and ethnicity.
Measures or Programs to Reduce Social Inequality
To reduce such great disparity and social inequality, the following social remedies, programs and projects are
instituted both by the government and NGO’s.

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1. Creation of the public school system and enactment of compulsory school attendance in the primary school
level
2. Establishment of GO’s and NGO’s to work for the promotion of human rights, gender sensitivity, public
welfare.
3. Provisions for social services, such as health services, hospitalization and medical services, public works
and communication, fire protection, police protection, and services during calamities and emergency
situations.
4. Income redistribution program . Three methods are used. First, through a progressive tax scheme – the
more money a person earns, the higher his or her rate of taxation, Second, through transfer payments –
includes cash welfare benefits that are designed to raise the income of the poor, the unemployed, the aged
and physically handicapped; money is transferred to one sector of the country to another without a
corresponding contribution to current production. Example: Social Security benefits and the GSIS
retirement benefits. Third, through government subsidies of goods and services – transfer payments, except
that they consist of in-kind transfers like goods and services, not cash benefits.
5. Government program on providing land for the landless and home for the homeless and relocation of
squatters.
6. Constitutional provisions on protection of labor, women, children and the aged.
7. Greater autonomy given to local governments.
8. Regional development as well as manpower development programs.
9. Programs of export of local manpower, professional, and skilled and semi - skilled workers to other
countries.
LESSON 2
Social Conflicts, Contradictions, and Tensions

The Philippines is experiencing social contradictions and tensions brought about by the inter-ethnic conflicts, class
struggles, armed conflicts, terrorism, protest, and gender issues.
1. Inter-ethnic Conflicts
The Inter-ethnic conflicts are those which concern the issue in the conflicts between or among the ethnic
groups, the displacement of cultural minorities from their ancestral lands ( forested areas, uplands, lowlands or
coastal areas) due to governmental projects in the name of development as well as government apathy to their fight
against poverty. It is an armed conflict between ethnic goups contrast with civil war on one hand ( where a single
nation or ethnic group is fighting among itself) and regular warfare on the other where two or more sovereign states
( which may or may not be nation states) are in conflict.
2. Class Conflict
It is frequently referred to as a class warfare or class struggle, is the tension on antagonism which exists in
society due to competing socioeconomic interest and desires between people of different classes. Class
conflict can take many different forms: direct violence, such as deaths from poverty, starvation, illness or
unsafe working conditions; coercion, such as the threat of losing a job or pulling an important investment;
ideologically, such as with books and articles promoting capitalism. The conflict can be direct, as with a
lockout aimed at destroying a labor union, or indirect, as with an informal slowdown in production
protesting low wages by workers or unfair labor practices by capital.
3. Class Struggle
Class struggle or class warfare or class conflict is tension or antagonism in society. It is said to exist
because different groups of people have different political and social interests. Class struggles are mainly
economic in nature such as those between the employees and employers, the capitalists and the workers.
The working class is still fighting for better living wage, security of tenure, removal of contractualization in
the industry and better working conditions.
4. Armed Conflict
An armed conflict is a contested incompatibility which concerns government and/or territory where the use
of armed force between two parties, of which at least one is the government of a state, results in atleast 25
battle-related deaths. Examples of this are the armed conflict in Mindanao.
Terrorism
It is any act designed to cause terror. Terrorism can be understood to feature a political objective. It is
politically loaded and emotionally charged. Broad arrays of political organizations have practiced terrorism
to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right wing and left wing, political parties,
nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments. The symbolism of terrorism
can exploit human fear to help achieve these goals. The ISIS, ABU SAYAF, the Bangsa Moro Freedom
Fighters, etc.are reported by many as terrorist.

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Protest
A protest ( also called a remonstrance, remonstration or demonstration). It is an expression of bearing
witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or
situations. Protests can take many different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations.
Protesters may organize a protest as a way of publicly making their opinions heard is an attempt to
influence public opinion or directly enact desired changes themselves. Where protests are part of a
systematic and peaceful campaign to achieve a particular objective, and involve the use of pressure as well
as persuation, they go beyond mere protest and may be better described as cases of civil resistance or
nonviolent resistance.
Gender Issue
The gender issue is interdisciplinary and cross-national in scope focusing on gender and gender equality.
Gender equality, also known as sex equality, gender egalitarianism, sexual equality or equality of the genders, is
the view that all genders including men and women should receive equal treatment and should not be discriminated
against based on their gender.
Gender issues are those concerned with social and political biases and discrimination against women and
against the lesbians, gay, bisexual transgender, queer, and intersex.(LGBTQI) among others.
With the widespread recognition of human rights throughout the world, gender becomes a basis for one’s
social identity as a human being. The gender categories depend on one’s personal orientation and the labelling
attached to the behaviour by the group or the community.
The most common orientation is being a homosexual or a heterosexual. A homosexual is an individual who
is romantically and sexually attracted to a person of the same sex. A male who is sexually inclined or sexually
inclined or sexually attracted to another male is considered a “gay,” while a female who is inclined romantically and
sexually with another female is considered “lesbian”. Individuals who are attracted to both sexes are called
“bisexual,” and to those who are attracted to various genders are considered “polysexual.”
Another common type is the heterosexual which refers to a person who is inclined to be romantically and
sexually attracted to a person of the opposite sex. This is the gender orientation of majority of the people of the
world.
The label “transgender” refers to a male or female whose internal gender or gender identity does not match
his or her (genetalia) as male or female. Thus, he or she can identify with any gender identity of his or her choice.
Once he or she has decided to match his or her internal gender identity and the particular gender role he or she
chooses, then he or she can undergo a medical sexual reassignment. In this case, he or she is considered a
“transsexual.”
At present, the LGBTQI community is strongly conducting awareness programs for their recognition, lobbying
in Congress for equal rights legislations and holding rallies and demonstrations against bias and discrimination
hurled upon them.
CHAPTER XI: SOCIAL MOVEMENT AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE

SOCIAL MOVEMENT
Social Movement, is a form of social behaviour which occurs outside the institutional framework of
our everyday life. It is a “ conscious, collective, organized attempt to bring about or resist large-scale
change in the social order by non-institutionalize means. It is a type of group action. They are large,
sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on specific political or
social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change. Social movements have a
high degree of internal order and a sustained, purposeful orientation. They are highly structured, have
well-defined statuses and norms, endure for many years, and have well-established goals.
A social movement is a collective effort to promote or prevent social change so that new order of social
thought and action can take place. A large number of people act together with some degree of
leadership and organization. Social movements begin during periods of unrest and dissatisfaction in the
political, social, economic and cultural dimensions of society. The people unite in an organized manner
to bring change with the hope that the social and political ills of society can be changed. The people
resist the present condition and express their dissatisfaction through outright and prolonged actions
such as “people power revolutions” environmentalism and feminism.
Types of Social Movements
Classification of Social Movements on the basis of two criteria:
1. The type of change their sponsor seek ( either a change in the individuals or a change in the social
order), and

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2. The amount of change they seek ( either partial or total). They are of four types:
a. Alternative Movements. Refer to movements that aim to achieve some limited but specific
change in individuals.
Example: religious movements on morality and ethics
b. Redemptive Movements. Refer to movements that also focus on the individual, but they seek
total, not partial change.
Example: Christian Movements
c. Reformative Movements. Refer to movements that emphasize changing society rather than
individuals. Their aim is moderate or partial change since they view the present social order
as basically workable.
Example: Civil rights movement
d. Transformative Movements. Refer to movements that aim at total change in the existing
social order. There is a need to re-structure or to completely overhaul the existing structure
which members perceive as unjust, exploitive and anti-people’s well being. Transformative
movements are true revolutions.
Example: the French Revolution
Social Consequences of Social Movements
1.
Social movements can contribute to social change and improvements. They can result in wage
increase and the granting of benefits, new pieces of legislation, replacement of public officials,
and popular endorsement of new values or strengthening of values extolled.
2. Social movements lead to some basic changes in the social structure and policies. Example: labor
movements
3. Social movements may result in new institutions with new and radical values, or in the
preservation of the social order. Example: The EDSA Revolutions of 1986 led to the ouster of a
dictator and the restoration of democracy in the country.
4. Social movements may result in new directions of the culture and the establishment of new
folkways, mores, and values.
DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE
Demography is concerned with the size and structure of human population. The social structure of a
society is closely related with the changes in the size, composition and distribution of population. The
size of the population is based mainly upon three factors-birth rate, death rate and migration
( immigration and emigration).
The composition of population depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status, literacy, etc.
Changes in demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in mortality rates, will produce
changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents.
Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. The size of populations affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are born into a
growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we marry, our
ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.
Population analysis shows that there is a relationship between population changes and economic,
social and cultural variables like poverty illiteracy, ill-health, family structure, forms of marriage, work
etc. Population growth is the most important factor in poverty.
Poverty is related with health and the size of the family also. Nations with large population (e.g.
China and India) are more poverty stricken than the countries which have not much population. Sex
imbalance affects the forms of marriage (monogamy and polygyny). It is seen that communities, which
have more males than females, resorted to polyandry system. Polygyny was generally found in such
communities where females were in more numbers than males.
The population of every society is always changing both in numbers as well as in composition.
Population changes have occurred all through human history because of migration, war, pestilence,
changing mores etc. In modern times, adoption of two artificial ways to population growth, viz., birth
control and abortion are also affecting the number and composition of population structure.

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The decline of both the birth rate and the death rate bring social transformation. With changes in size
go changes in composition. While the birth rate is falling, the proportion of younger in the proportion
of youths declines and that elders and advances significant social changes occur.
Social Inequality
Social inequality is found in almost every society. Social inequality is shaped by range of structural
factors, such as geographical location or citizenship status, and are often underpinned by cultural
discourses and identities defining, for example, whether the poor are ‘deserving’ or ‘undeserving.’ In
simple societies those that have few social roles and statuses occupied by its members, social
inequality may be very low.
Cause of Social Inequality
There is a little question that some people in the Philippines are better off the most other people in
other countries. That being said, poverty also impacts millions of people in the Philippines and why do
such inequalities exists? Let’s examine the two prevailing explanations of poverty.
Two prevailing explanations of poverty:
a. Blame the poor – One approach to explain poverty, that the poor are responsible for their own
property. There is some evidence to support this, because the main reason people are poor is the
lack of employment and laziness. According to this view, society has plenty of opportunities for
people, and people are poor because they lack the motivation, skills, or schooling to find work.
b. Blame the society – Another approach to explain poverty, that society is responsible for
poverty. While it is true that unemployment is the main contributor to poverty, the reasons
people don’t work are more in line with this approach. Loss of jobs in the city is a major
contributor to poverty. There simply isn’t enough work to support families.
Effects of Social Inequality
Social inequality affects nearly every dimension of our lives. For example, did you know that children
from poor families are three times more likely to die from disease, accidents, neglect, or violence during
the first year of life than those children born to wealthy families. In addition, on average, wealthy people
live five years longer than those less fortunate.
Nationalist and Progressive Alternatives to address Inequality
1. Genuine war on poverty – not just lip service by the leaders in government to liberate the people from
the bondage of poverty
2. Political will on the part of government to pursue a genuine land reform; a national program for
industrialization, vis-à-vis government efforts to develop the country’s steel industry; and a pro-people
orientation to say “no” to the dictates of the more powerful imperialist, neo-colonialist countries of the
world.
3. Political will on the part of the governed to unite and form a national ideology based on Filipino ideals,
needs and aspirations
4. Government’s genuine support to local producers and business entrepreneurs and protectionist policy
to our local products, goods, and services.
5. Genuine countryside development
6. A strong political will on the part of government to curb graft and corruption in all levels of life.
7. Better social services and more legislative enactments for the welfare of those who have less in life
8. Creation of more job opportunities for the people to become economically self-sufficient.
9. Moratorium on the payments of the country’s foreign debt or selective repudiation of those debts
which did not go to national development and to use these debts payments for national development.
10. Alternative education which is state – funded education for all levels of society, or truly socialized
education based on capacity to pay.
11. Tie-up between higher education and business and industries to ensure employment.
12. Increased governmental budget to education and social services in pursuance of the constitutional
provisions
13. Education which is truly democratic, nationalists, humanist, scientific, mass-oriented and pro-people.
14. A national program on profit-sharing between laborers and capitalist, between workers and employers.
15. A major overhaul of the unjust social structure, a radical transformation of the existing exploitative
system- a revolutionary process which could bring about a new social order where there would be
more or less equal, distribution of wealth, power and prestige.

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CHAPTER XII: Cultural and Political Change

NEW CHALLENGES TO HUMAN ADAPTATION
Culture Change
It is the term used in public policy making that emphasizes the influence of cultural capital on individual
and community behaviour. It places stress on the social and cultural capital determinants of decision making and the
manner in which these interact with other factors like the availability of information or the financial incentives
facing individuals to drive behaviour.
These cultural capital change influences include the role of parenting, families and close associate;
organizations such as schools and workplaces; communities and neighbourhoods; and wider social influences such
as media. It is argued that this cultural change manifests into specific values, attitudes or social norms which in turn
guide the behavioural intentions that individuals adopt in regard to particular decisions or course of action.
These behavioural intentions interact with other factors driving behaviour such as financial incentives,
regulation and legislation, or levels of information, to drive actual behaviour and ultimately feedback into
underlying cultural capital.
In general, cultural stereotypes present great resistance to change and to their own redefinition. Culture often
appears fixed to the observer at any one point in time because cultural mutations occur incrementally. The cultural
change is a long lasting process. Policymakers need to make a great effort to improve some basic aspects of a
society’s cultural traits. However, the improvement of economic and political institutions may help this procedure.
Factors of Cultural Change
1. Leadership Change-changes in top level management can result in changes in organizational culture.
Organizational culture is set by the founder of the organization, but the initial culture set by the founders
might be subjected to changes due to the impact of a wide range of factors. This argument relates to the
private sector organizations at a greater extent compared to public sector organizations.
Organizational leadership causes changes to organizational culture to a certain extent. The extent to
which organizational culture is subjected to change due to change in leadership depends on a set of factors
such as the difference between the new and old strategy to achieve organizational objectives, personal traits
and characteristics of a new leader.
2. Technological Developments – The extent of technological developments that have especially accelerated
during the last two decades have been found as a major factor causing cultural changes. Technological
developments impact organizational culture within the settings of health organizations in particular. The
emergence of possibility of making online appointments to see practitioners instead of having to call or
physically attend health care organizations have caused substantial changes in the practices of healthcare
organizations with inevitable implications on organizational culture.
3. Mergers and Acquisitions - They trigger ornanizational culture.It is important to note that mergers and
aquisitions mainly relate to private sector organizations. An initial period after merger or acquisition is the
most challenging for employees at all levels due to the possible clash of cultures in relation to various
organizational processess. A hybrid culture may evolve after certain period of time once merger and ac
quisition is completed . The level of effectiveness of organizational leaders play critical roles in
shaping the impact of mergers and acquisitions in organizational culture. In other words, leaders need to be
actively communicating with employees at all levels, as well as, other organizational stakeholders
explaining inevitable impact of mergers and acquisition on organizational culture, and trying to make this
impact positive.
4. Changes in External Environment- is a factor that may cause organizational cultures to change. Changes
to external environment that may trigger changes in organizational culture may relate to changes in
political, economic, social, technological, environmental or legal external factors, abbreviated as PESTEL
analysis.
5. Contact- The contact between two societies will obviously change the culture of the societies through the
process of “cultural diffusion” and “acculturation,”
6. The Geographical and Ecological Factors – are natural or physical factors. The climate or rainfall,
attitude of the place and closeness to the sea decides the culture and lifestyle of the people. Any change in
the physical features will automatically lead to a change in their culture, habits and ways of living.
Causes of Cultural Change

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1. Sometimes members of a society are often confronted by customes that differ from those which they
have learned to accept. In such a situation, they adopt some of the new customs, reject others and
follow modified versions of still others. This might be called cultural eclecticism.
2. New customs and practices are likely to be more readily adopted under two conditions.
(i) If they represent what is viewed as socially desirable and useful and
(ii) If they do not clash with re-existed and still valued customs and practices.
3. Changes in culture are always superimposed on existing culture especially during cultural contact.
4. All the cultural changes are not equally important. Some changes are introduced to culture because
they are considered necessary for human survival. Some other changes are accepted in order to satisfy
socially acquired needs not essential for survival.
5. It is a fact of common observation that crisis tends to produce or accelerate cultural changes. If the
changes are accepted once due to the crisis, they tend to persist. For example, women were included in
the military during Second World War, and even now they continue to be there.
6. Cultural Change is cumulative in its total effect. Much is added a little is lost. Its growth is like the
growth of a tree that ever expands but only loses its leaves, sometimes its limbs, from time to time as
long as it survives.
7. Cultural change leads to chain reaction. Whenever a change is incorporated into the culture and
becomes defined as a “social necessity”, new needs emerge, generating the desire for still further
changes to complement or supplement the original change.
Political Change
The type of political leadership and individuals in power also influences the rate and direction of social
change. In many societies, the political leadership controls also the economy. Scientific-technological and non-
technological change are also dependent on political development which indirectly affect social change. There is a
direct relationship between the type of political organization and social change. In hunting and gathering societies,
there were no political organizations capable of mobilizing the community, as such; there were minimum changes in
the societies. In all other types of society, however, the existence of distinct political agencies, such as chiefs, lords,
kings and governments strongly affects the course of development of society it takes. A ruler may choose to channel
resources into building up his castle, for example, even when this empoverishes most of the population.
Political developments in the Philippines in the last two or three centuries has certainly influence economic
change as much as economic change has influenced politics. The government plays a major role in stimulating (and
sometimes retarding) rates of economic growth. In all industrial societies there is a high level of government
intervention in production.
Political Factors that affect Development
Why are some countries remain poor?
1. Poor Management
There are often political factors involved in why some countries remain poor, and one of this is bad
government. Governments need to do lots of things to encourage development-they need to build and maintain
infrastructures, and raise and spend finance wisely, on the right projects. When governments are inept at managing
infrastructures, development is impossible. Nobody wants to build a factory in a city when the power could go at
any time. They also need to set up their laws and business practices in a way that encourages investment and
initiative, that protect businesses and individuals legally, and that honor property rights, contracts, and copyrights.
2. Corruption
If you have ever lived in a country where corruption is rife, you will know how frustrating, disheartening and
fundamentally disempowering corruption can be. Here in the Philippines, the thriving types of corruption cases are
not far from those which have been identified in the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) such
bribery, kickbacks, abuse of function, influence peddling and illicit enrichment. It looks, however, at corruption in
both lenses of ‘corruption in action’ and corruption inaction such that commission of an unlawful act is not the sole
determinant of corruption but neglect of duty and failure to act on sworn servitude to the people is also constitutive
of a corrupt action. Misbehavior by a public official, while it may not involve a taking of government fund or public
property, is also considered a violation of the code of conduct as it connotes a negligence of duty or personal gain.
3. Trade Laws
Trade Law is largely a political matter. Sir Walter Raleigh an English adventurer and writer famously said
‘whosoever’ commands the trade of the world commands the riches of the world and hence the world itself.’ As one
of the fastest-growing economies in the world today, not only does the Philippines need to sustain its upward
economic momentum, it also needs to capitalize on its current growth gains to finally address and resolve serious

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and long – standing socioeconomic issues and problems, such as worsening poverty, high unemployment, low
wages, increasing prices and cost, and widening social inequalities, among others.
Given the experiences and lessons learned from the past, the Philippines should also take the opportunity to re-
evaluate and even reform, if necessary, the trade and employment strategies and policies that it has implemented in
previous years implementing trade policy reforms and ensuring that they are aligned with decent work goals and
principles will only serve to further improve overall economic planning and development policy making.
4. Political Instability
Finally, political instability plays a role in why some countries remain poor. This could be ethnic tension, tribalism,
or all-out war. Needless to say, countries with long-term conflicts such as the ones in Somalia,Syria, Iraq,Israel,
Palestine and Afghanistan, including the Philippines have little chance of developing. Nations such as Sri Lanka and
the Philippines have simmering ethnic divides that are constant distraction, de-stabilizing the region and
discouraging investments.
Global Warming, Climate Change and Greenhouse Effect
In a 2008 NASA article, Eric M. Conway defined “ global warming” as the increase in Earth’s average surface
temparature due to rising level of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and other gases. It is the term used
to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is
believed to be permanently changing the Earth’s climate. Climate scientists looking at the date and facts agree the
planet warming and predicted a 1.4 and 5.8 C by the year 2100.
Conway defined ‘climate change’ as a long term change in the Earth’s climate, or of a region on Earth. As effects
such as changing patterns of rainfall and rising sea levels would probably have more impact than temperatures
alone, he considered global climate change a more scientific accurate term similar to the view of the UN-IPCC.
Scientist predicted further a rise in the Earth’s temperature from 3 to 9oC from the year 2025 to 2050 and this rise is
expected to be greater in the higher latitudes, reaching as much as 20o and lower at the equator.
“ Greenhouse effect” refers to the trapping of the sun’s warmth in the planet’s lower atmosphere due to the greater
transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet’s
surface.
“ Greenhouse effect” is a phenomenon in which the atmosphere of a planet traps radiation emitted by its sun,
caused by gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases that allow incoming sunlight to pass
through but retain heat radiated back from the planet’s surface.
Causes of Global Warming ( Climate Change)/Temparature Changes
1. External Forcings which include:
a. Changes in an atmospheric composition such as increased concentrationof greenhouse gases such as

carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, carbon monoxide.
b. aerosol and soot from volcanic eruptions
c. Solar luminosity, solar storms
d. Variations of Earth’s orbit around the sun
2. Anthropogenic forcing’s or human activities that produce and emit pollutants in the terrestrial, aerial,
and fluvial domains of the Earth. Other human activities which lead to environmental degradation include,
land clearing, deforestation, illegal logging, use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals in agriculture,
burning of coals to run machines of factories and industries and reckless dumping of waste products an
open lands and bodies of water.
Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change
1. Rise of temperature from 3 to 9 degrees from the year 2025 to 2050.

2. It can cause a thermal expansion of the oceans and create tsunamis and storm surges generated by submarine
landslides caused by warmer ocean water thawing ocean floor permafrost or releasing gas hydrates.
3. It can melts glaciers and polar ice, thus causing sea levels to rise up by one to 4 feet by the middle of next
century.
4. Heat would cause inland waters to evaporate more rapidly, thus lowering the level of bodies of water such as
the inland lakes.
5. According to the IPPC, climate change is causing “ extreme weather” which means hotter summers and
colder winters. In Chicago, in the summer of 1995, more than 500 people died during the summer heat wave.
6. A number of extreme precipitation events in US, in China, and other parts of the globe as well as blizzards,
heavy rainstorms, tsunamis, tornados and heavy snows cause habitat inundations and flooding in many

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countries of the world, destruction of infrastructures and ecological systems, massive loss of lives and
properties, and disruption of transportation and communication.
7. Global warming could result to more droughts, water and power shortage, wild fires and a spread of tropical
disease from mosquitoes and other carriers.
8. A high level of climate change disturbs the balance of the global ecosystem, increases health risks and more
heat related injuries and deaths.
Solutions to the Problem
National and inter-governmental solutions to the problem of global warming and climate change include the
following:
1. The mass production of photovoltaic solar panels for home roofs. Solar power is perceived to be the next
generation of clean and non-polluting energy. Other natural resources of energy include the wind, the
oceans, alcohol fuels from crops, and burning vegetative matter to curb the damaging effects of greenhouse
gases.
2. Voluntary aim from developed European countries like Britain and Germany of reducing emission to 1990
levels.
3. Various kinds of trading systems to encourage nations to work together to reduce emissions.
4. Prohibiting mountain clearing and planting more trees in poor countries.
5. Rich countries investing funds to clean up dirty coal plants or to plant forests in poor parts of the world or
spending funds to preserve rain forests.
6. To pressure China and India to take some responsibility because they are among the biggest emitters of
greenhouse gases and are poised to do more damage to the environment than the richest countries can
repair.
The Issue on Filipino Overseas Contract Workers and Other Migrant Workers
Definition of Overseas Contract Workers and Migrant Workers
These Filipinos are popularly known as the OCWs or the Overseas Contract Workers, or worker engaged in any
line of work abroad, where employment is based from a valid contract. On other hand, migrant workers are a more
general description of OCWs, however, this term includes those who are undocumented or illegally deployed. These
OCWs employ themselves in foreign countries because of the low cost of labor or the high unemployment rate in the
Philippines.
Reasons for Working Abroad
Filipino migrant workers have their own reasons for working abroad. The most common cause for the labor
exodus is financial, for better income and “greener pasture”. Through their remittances, the OCWs were able to
provide their families with the basic necessities in life, to send their children to college, to purchase their own house
and lot, to enjoy the comforts and convenience of modern appliances, and to put up a small business as a source of
income in the future. Some Filipino workers work abroad with the hope of marrying a foreigner who will free them
from all sufferings and difficulties encountered in our country.
Difficulties/Problems Experienced by OCWs and Filipino Migrant Workers
But not everything is a bed of roses for the Filipino migrant workers. Even before they leave for abroad some of
them have been victims of illegal recruiters. Stories of abuses, including sexual abuse, harsh treatment, poor
working conditions, racial discrimination and exploitation, and non-payment of wages abound as we hear from the
media. OCWs reported experiences of homesickness, culture shock, and other psychological problem such as
extreme loneliness, nervous breakdown and emotional stress brought about by the absence of none or both parents
or spouse. Prolonged separation has brought about problem children, unstable family relationships, marriage break
ups and extra marital relationsips. They also experienced feelings of alienation and degradation due to the negative
impressions and insulting remarks from foreign employers especially to our Filipino domestic helpers.
Sociologists call the exodus of Filipino professionals to foreign countries as “ brain drain” and the said migration of
our skilled workers as “ brawn drain”. Both phenomena work for the advantage of the foreign lands where their
talents and expertise are utilized to the disadvantage of our own country.
The Department of Labor and Employment and its adjunct agency, the Overseas Workers Welfare
Administration(OWWA) have taken highly visible stand in endeavouring to project workers’ rights abroad as well as
providing more benefits to workers’ families. An NGO ( nongovernmental organization) which provides various
forms of assistance such as financial and legal assistance to our OCWs and migrant workers is called the
“Migrante.”
New Forms of Media (Social Media) and Social Networking

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The advent of the 21st Post-Modern society characterized by sophisticated inventions ushered the emergence of
Ihe internet, new forms of media (social media) and social networking. The present-day modern society is
characterized and aptly called the Computer Age, the Age of Convergence, The Age of Information and the Age of
Virtual Reality.
“ Social media refers to the technologies, platforms, and services that enable individuals to engage in
communicationfrom one-to-one, one-to-many, Social media are electronic platforms used to share information,
thoughts and ideas, personal or groups’messages and other content such as blogs, photos, and videos. It is also
defined as a group of internet-based applications that allow individuals and groups to share, co-create, discuss and
modify user-generated content.
Examples of social media are Facebook, Tumblr, Pinterest, Youtube, SnapChat, Google and Vine.
Social networking is a platform that allows people to create and maintain online personal and business
relationships.
Examples: WeChat, Linkedln, Viber
Manifest Functions of the Social Media and Social Networking
1. Provide a platform for interconnectivity among people of similar or diverse political, racial, ethnic,
religious, or cultural orientations
2. Allow a user various ways of interacting with other users and to set up groups and organizations of more or
less similar interests and goals.
3. Allow user-members to upload and share pictures and videos
4. Allow user-members to hold conversations by posting messages online
5. Provide updated current news and events, latest trends in fashion, music, arts, sports, science, technology,
and others.
6. Provide a platform for discussions, scientific forums, expression of ideas and opinions on many public
issues and social concerns.
7. Promote, advertise, and create an on-line content
8. Open the availability of knowledge and information in almost everything, anything and anyone on the
planet making it inevitable for socio-cultural and political change to take place.
9. Allow cultural diffusion and cultural exchange among diverse population of the world.
10. Contribute to the development of positive attitudes and values such as openness, tolerance, understanding
of rich cultural diversity, cultural relativism, and ethical neutrality which can lead to social harmony and
amity between and among nations.
11. Offer limitless possibilities for personal, social and societal growth and development.
12. Provide wholesome entertainment to all people of the world via satellite transmission such as sport
competitions, concerts, concerts, talent shows, and other cultural events.
13. Provide a platform for sharing and showcasing one’s exceptional talents and skills which produce instant
Internet sensations and celebrities.
14. Allow a broader scope of promoting advocacies, initiatives, trends, programs, and campaigns and the
generation of popular support viewers.
15. Texting provides an instant inexpensive form of interaction and communication.
INCLUSIVE CITIZENSHIP AND PARTICIPATORY

GOVERNANCE
During his travel to some progressive European countries, Dr. Jose Rizal observed, “ Tell me the kind of
schools a country has and I’ll tell you what kind of country it is!”Departling slighjtly from Rizal’s statement, we can
say, “ Tel me the kind of citizens a country has and I’ll tell you what kind of country it is! “ On the same light, the
late US President John F. Kennedy stated, “ Ask not what your country can do for you but what you can do for
your country.” Thus, the relevance of understanding inclusive citizenship and participatory governance as a major
response to social, political and cultural change.
A true and genuine democratic society promotes inclusive citizenship and participatory governance for that
is what democracy is all about. The promotion of such democratic processes is in consonance with the popular Latin
maxim and principle, “Salus populi est suprema lex!” ( The welfare of the people is the supreme law!).
Inclusive citizenship implies that all citizens in all walks of life no matter the stations in life they may be, or
whatever gender, creed, color and political affiliation they belong to, Thus, have the right to have their voices be
heard and the right to participate in policy formulation and decision-making processes that affect their security and
welfare. This is essentially and fundamentally ‘people empowerment.
’
Inclusive citizenship promotes legal equality to all the citizens of a body politic- that everybody is equal
before the eyes of the law, that legally it means ‘equality among equals. Inclusive citizenship implies that everyone

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has equal opportunity to have access to the country’s resources, public funds, government services and entrance to
public office. Simply stated: “ Nobody is left behind.”
Inclusive citizenship recognizes respect for human rights and the intrinsic value of human dignity. It
encourages freedom of speech and expression, freedom of assembly, and the right to petition to redress grievances.
It recognizes the right information especially on matters that affect the general welfare.
Participatory Governance
Emphasizes on democratic engagement through the deepening of citizen participation in the governmental
processes. It promotes citizens engagement and active citizen participation in the collective policy and decision-
making processes that would improve the quality of life of the people and the growth and development of the
country. It allows free flow of ideas and opinions through public debates and opinion surveys on issues and matters
of public concerns. It allows freedom of speech and expression on public meetings, assembles, talk shows, and
public forums.
Effective participatory governance demands the citizens’ active participation in the selection and election of
competent and qualified public officials to run the affairs of government. In the same vein, as embodied in the
Constitution, the people have the ‘right to strike’ against a corrupt and despotic government. Such right is further
amplified in the Constitutional provisions on the system of recall on abusive and incompetent officials in the local
government and the political process of ‘ impeachment’ against erring and corrupt high-ranking officials in the
national government. Impeachment is initiated and implemented by the people’s representatives in our law-making
body.
\
Citizen Engagement – is the desired outcome or logical end of participatory governance that is evident from the fact
that the right to participate in a society’s decision-making processes has been accepted by the world community as a
fundamental human right. Participation also has instrumental value because it can help achieve other primary goals.
In particular, participation can help deepen democracy, strengthen social capital, facilitate efficiency and sustained
growth and promote pro-people initiatives, equity and social justice.”
One of the principles of a democratic state is the principle of check and balance. Although the principle applies to
the three branches of government, ordinary citizens can participate in checking the abuses and excesses committed
by people in the public service. To effectively perform such political function, the concerned citizens must be
equipped with information on matters of public concern. This calls for the crafting of an implementing law on the
right to information under the principle of transparency as embodied in the constitution. However such
implementing law remains an elusive dream as long as the lawmaking body lacks the political will to craft such law.
It is therefore frustrating that while three-fourths of the world’s population now have access to “right to information
laws,” the said rights still remains illusory in our country.
By way of conclusion, what we need is concerned and enlightened citizenry who have the firm belief and
conviction in their capacity to institute change and the unwavering political will to actively engage in the realization
of the desired social and political changes for national growth and development.

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Accounting for Business Combination (St. Anthony's College)

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UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLITICS

CHAPTER I: Understanding Culture and Society

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LESSON 2: SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGE,

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important in life. They are important and lasting ideals

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or free labor in community services.

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from the respondents which apply participant

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brought about by the gradual shift from

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value system which constitute three standards:

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ASPECTS OF CULTURE Since culture is very complex, there are important

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CHAPTER III: Ethnocentrism

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different cultures exhibit around the world.

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originated elsewhere. One clear indication of the

CHAPTER IV: Human Bio-Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

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2. Middle Paleolithic Period -Homo Sapiens existed

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-For instance, people in Mesopotamia were ranked

CHAPTER V: Individuals and Society

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broad guidelines for social living. These are standards

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4. RETREATISTS - People who reject both cultural

CHAPTER VI: How Is Society Organized

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CHAPTER VII: Cultural, Social, Political Institutions

Social Institution consists of a group of people who have come together

Cultural Institution are institutions with an acknowledged mission to engage

EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. Kinship, Family and Household

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4. Religion and Belief Systems

Religious/Belief system What/Who Is Divine Example

CHAPTER VIII: EDUCTAIONAL INSTITUTION

THREE TYPES OF EDUCATION:

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Some of the FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION in Society are:

There are THREE TYPES OF HEIs in the Philippines as classified by CHED:

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CHAPTER IX: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

CHAPTER IX: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVEES ON SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Theoretical perspective Major assumptions

Functionalism Stratification is necessary to induce people with special

Conflict Stratification results from lack of opportunity and from

Symbolic Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles, daily

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SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND MINORITIES

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