SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE TESTS

OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES:
LOW-CYCLE, FULL-SCALE,
AND HELICOPTERS

Presented at the
FOURTH PACIFIC AREA NATIONAL MEETING

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS

Los Angeles, Calif., Oct 1-3, 1962

Reg. U. S. Pat. Off.

ASTM Special Technical Publication No. jj8

Price $10.50; to Member.s $7,35

Published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS
1916 Race St., Philadelphia 3, Pa.
BY AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS 1963

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 63-15793

Printed in Baltimore, Md.

September, 1963
 FOREWORD

The papers in this Symposium on Fatigue of Aircraft Structures were

presented during four sessions held on October 1-3, 1962, at the Fourth
Pacific Area National Meeting of the Society, Los Angeles, Calif. The
symposium, sponsored by Committee E-9 on Fatigue, was organized into
three broad categories.
The first section on Low-Cycle Fatigue was organized by Ivan Rattinger
of Aerospace Corp. The second group of papers dealing with Helicopter
Fatigue Problems was organized by M. J. McGuigan, Jr., of Bell Helicopter
Corp. The final section of this symposium, on Problems in Design and
Evaluations of Full-Scale Structures, was presented under the leadership
of M. S. Rosenfeld of the Navy Air Material Center. The over-all chairman
of the symposium program was H. F. Hardrath, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration.
A transcript of the panel discussion on low-cycle fatigue held during this
symposium was supplied by Ivan Rattinger.
Presiding oflScers of the sessions were R. E. Peterson, Westinghouse
Electric Corp.; F. B. Stulen, Curtiss-Wright Corp.; H. J. (rover, Battelle
Memorial Inst.; and T. J. Dolan, L^niversity of Illinois. Acting as session
chairmen were Messrs. McGuigan, Hardrath, Rattinger, and Rosenfeld.
NOTE.—The Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements
and opinions advanced in this publication.
 CONTENTS

Introduction—H. F. Hardrath 1
Low-Cycle Fatigue
Low-Cycle Axial Fatigue Behavior of Mild Steel—J. T. P. Yao and W. H. Munse. . 5
The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Strength of Plain and Notched Stainless Steel
Sheet in the Range from 10 to 10' Cjxles—W. J. Bell and P. P. Benham 25
Low-Cycle Fatigue of Characteristics of Ultrahigh-Strength Steels—C, M. Carman,
D. F. Armiento, and H. Markus 47
Low-Cycle Fatigue of Ti-6A1-4V at - 4 2 3 F—R. R. Hilsen, C. S. Yen, and B. V.
Whiteson 62
Low-Cycle Fatigue Properties of Complex V\'elded Joints of High Strength 301,
304L, 310, and AM-355 Stainless Steel Sheet Materials at Cyrogenic Tem-
peratures—J. L. Christian, A. Hurlich, and J. F. Watson 76
Effect of Stress State on High-Temperature Low-Cycle Fatigue—C. R. Kennedy. . 92

Panel Discussion of Low-Cycle Fatigue 107

Helicopter Fatigue
Empirical x^nalysis of Fatigue Strength of Pin-Loaded Lug Joints—A. A. Mitten-
bergs. . 131
Statistical Evaluation of a Limited Number of Fatigue Test Specimens Including a
Factor of Safety Approach—Carl Albrecht 150
Helicopter Fatigue Substantiation Procedures for Civil Aircraft—J. E. Dougherty
and H. C. Spicer, Jr 167
Design and Evaluations of Full-Scale Structures
An Aluminum Sandwich Panel Test Under Mach-2.4 Cruise Conditions—W. D.
Buntin and T. S. Love 179
Estimation of the Fatigue Performance of .-Aircraft Structures—J. Schijve 192
Discussion 214
Aircraft Structural Fatigue Research in the Navy—M. S. Rosenfeld 216
Discussion 238
Small Specimen Data for Predicting Life of Full-Scale Structures—C. R. Smith. . . 241
Programmed Maneuver-Spectrum Fatigue Tests of Aircraft Beams Specimens—
Leonard Mordfin and Nixon Halsey 251
Discussion 274
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE TESTS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES:

LOW-CYCLE, FULL-SCALE, AND HELICOPTERS

INTRODUCTION
BY H. F. HARDRATH1

Following a precedent set at previous introduces effects of high and low

West Coast National Meetings of the
Society, ASTM Committee E-9 on
Fatigue again sponsored a Symposium
on Fatigue of Aircraft Structures at the
West Coast Meeting held in Los Angeles,
Calif., Oct. 1-5, 1962.
As indicated by the presiding officer of
one of the sessions, fatigue research may
concern itself with any of several levels
of complication: (1) the basic mechanism
may be studied from the physical and
metallurgical points of view; (2) simple
specimens may be tested to study the
mechanical behavior of the material
under carefully controlled loading con-
ditions; (3) notches or other disconti-
nuities may be used to introduce
partially the effect of shape of practical
parts; (4) subassemblies may be studied
to introduce the effects of somewhat
more complicated joints; (5) complete
structures may be subjected to neces-
sarily simplified representations of ex-
pected loading conditions; and (6) service
failures may be analyzed. The sym-
posium includes papers treating each of
these phases of fatigue study and
1
Fatigue Branch, NASA-Langley Research
Center, Hampton, Va.
temperature.
As with other symposia on fatigue, this
one does not conclude that the problem
is now solved. It does, on the other hand,
attempt to assemble representative
current thinking on the problem with
particular emphasis on aeronautical
and missile applications. Several papers
present procedures for correlating obser-
vations that should be particularly
helpful to designers. One paper in-
corporating studies of the combined
influence of loads and temperatures is
almost certain to be the forerunner of a
variety of such studies that will be
carried out in connection with future
vehicles.
The papers are organized into three
broad categories: (1) low-cycle fatigue
problems; (2) helicopter fatigue prob-
lems; and (3) problems encountered in
design and evaluation of full-scale
structures.
Grateful acknowledgment is made of
the contributions of the authors, the
session chairmen, presiding officers,
those who reviewed papers prior to the
meeting, the West Coast Coordinator,
and the participants in the discussions.

Copyright 6 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

Low-Cycle Fatigue
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

LOW-CYCLE AXIAL F A T I G U E BEHAVIOR OF M I L D STEEL

B Y J. T. P. Y A O 1 AND W. H. MUNSE2

SYNOPSIS

A general hypothesis that describes the cumulative effect of plastic defor-

mations on the low-cycle fatigue behavior of metals is presented and verified
with results of a variety of tests on steel specimens. Limited correlations with
existing test data from other low-cycle fatigue tests on aluminum-alloy speci-
mens indicate that it may be possible also to extend this hypothesis to metals
other than steel.

NOTATIONS

Ac, Cross-sectional area at the test section
of the specimen after precompression,
sq in.
Af , Cross-sectional area at the test section
of the specimen at fracture, sq in.
A0, Original cross-sectional area at the
test section of the specimen, sq in.
Ar, Cross-sectional area at the test section
of the specimen, re-machined after
precompression, sq in.
C, A constant
Dc, Diameter at the test section of the
specimen after precompression, in.
df , Diameter at the test section of the
specimen at fracture, in.
d0 , Original diameter at the test section of
the specimen, in.
dr, Diameter at the test section of the
specimen, re-machined after precom-
pression, in.
i, Number of applications of tensile load
m, Empirical parameter obtained from
slope of log Aet versus log N diagram
«, Number of applications of tensile load
prior to fracture
N, Number of cycles to failure
q, Plastic true strain, per cent
1
Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering.
University of N e w Mexico, Albuquerque, N .
Mex.
2
Professor of Civil Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y
of Illinois, TJrbana, 111.
qc\, Plastic true precompressive strain, per
cent
qf , Plastic true strain at fracture in
simple tension, per cent
<7max , Cyclic maximum plastic true strain,
per cent
9min , Cyclic minimum plastic true strain,
per cent
qm , Plastic true mean strain, per cent
qa , Plastic tensile true strain at fracture,
per cent
R, Absolute-strain ratio, cyclic minimum
plastic true strain to cyclic maximum
plastic true strain, qm-,n/qm&x
r, Relative-strain ratio; cyclic com-
pressive change in plastic true strain
to cyclic tensile change in plastic true
strain, Aqc/Aqt
S, Engineering stress, psi
Aqe, Cyclic compressive change in plastic
true strain, per cent
Aqt , Cyclic tensile change in plastic true
strain, per cent
Aqa , Cyclic tensile change in plastic true
strain at w = 1, per cent
Aec, Cyclic compressive change in plastic
engineering strain, per cent
Aej, Cyclic tensile change in plastic engi-
neering strain, per cent
At a , Cyclic tensile change in plastic engi-
neering strain at n = 1, per cent

Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT
During the past two decades, an in-
creasing amount of information on the
low-cycle fatigue behavior of metals has
been published (1,2).^ Nevertheless, these
studies have provided data of only lim-
ited scope.
Since in low-cycle fatigue tests the
applied loads are generally high enough
to cause plastic deformation and a cor-
responding hysteresis in the stress-strain
relationship, limits of either load or de-
formation are usually maintained con-
stant in any particular test. Low-cycle
fatigue tests are therefore further iden-
tified as either constant-load or con-
stant-deformation tests.
In general the results of constant-load
low-cycle fatigue tests are presented in
the form of conventional S-N curves,
where S and N are respectively the nom-
inal stress or stress range and the cor-
responding life of the specimens. Al-
though the shape of a typical S-N curve
can be qualitatively described, it is diffi-
cult to make a precise analysis for this
type of test. On the other hand, results
of constant-deformation low-cycle fa-
tigue tests have consistently shown a
linear relationship between the tensile
change in plastic deformation and the
number of cycles to failure on a log-log
basis.
Empirical relationships have been de-
veloped to describe the effect of fully
reversed cychc strain on the low-cycle
fatigue life of metals. However, these
hypotheses do not portray adequately
the data from all types of low-cycle fa-
tigue tests.
The objectives of this investigation
were to study in a general manner the
cumulative effect of the changes in plas-
tic deformation on the low-cycle fatigue
behavior of axially loaded steel speci-
mens and to develop a more general
low-cycle fatigue hypothesis.
' T h e boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer
to t h e Ust of references a p p e n d e d t o t h i s p a p e r .
STRUCTURES
On the basis of a literature review, a
general hypothesis was developed to de-
scribe the cumulative effect of various
types of plastic strain cycles on the low-
cycle fatigue behavior of metals. Special
tests on three mild steels, ABS-C* as-
rolled, ABS-C normahzed, and a rimmed
steel, were then carried out to verify the
hypothesis. In addition, hmited correla-
tions were made with published test data
from other types of low-cycle fatigue
tests on 2024 aluminum alloy to indicate
the possibilities of extending the applica-
tion of this hypothesis to metals other
than mild steel.
LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE HYPOTHESIS
In 1912, Kommers (3) concluded from
a series of cyclic bending tests that the
magnitude of the cyclic deflection was
an important factor in low-cycle fatigue
studies. Orowan (4) suggested that the
following expression be used for cyclic
strain tests:
iV(Ae,) = C. (1)
This relationship has served as a basis
for most of the hypotheses that have
since been developed.
On the basis of the results from re-
versed-strain tests, Manson (5), as well
as Gross and Stout (6), empirically mod-
ified Eq 1 to the following form:
iV"(A€,) = C. .(2)
Then Coffin and his associates (7-Q)
found that straight lines with a slope of
approximately —0.50 (t» = ^) best fit
their extensive data. Moreover, to cor-
relate the results of cyclic strain tests
and those of simple tension tests. Coffin
presented the following equation:
IV"HA€,) = - . .(3)
2
Many constant-deformation tests con-
ducted on various metals have shown
' American B u r e a u of Shipping designation.
 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL
straight-line relationships between the
cydic change in tensile plastic strain and
the specimen life on a log-log scale (5-20),
but the slopes of the hnes have been
found to vary somewhat with the mean
strain.
Let us now examine more closely the
empirical relationship shown in Eq 2.
If we raise both sides of the equation to
the (l/w)th power, we obtain
~(^T 1.0. .(4)
If we let n be the number of applications
of tensile load prior to fracture, it is ap-
parent that the lowest possible value for
« is 1 while the counterpart for .V gen-
erally has been taken as i or | in the
literature. The difference between n and
A^ is small at larger values of N. Since
at « = 1.
Aci = Aen
Equation 4 then becomes
nl ) = 1.0. .(5)
Drucker et al (21) reported that the
values of Aca vary with the amount of
precompressive strain. Moreover, it is
found that the values of m generally
differ between the test results of Evans
(22) (w ^ 1) and those of Cof&n (7,9)
(w = ^). Since Evans conducted his tests
with repeated tensile loadings and Cof&n
conducted most of his tests with fully
reversed strain conditions, it is reason-
able to assume that the quantity w is a
variable dependent upon the change in
plastic compressive strain, Acc •
The assumption, therefore, that low-
cycle fatigue fractures occur only in ten-
sion is generally valid for steels and is
one of the conclusions reached in an ex-
tensive recent low-cycle fatigue investi-
gation by Dubuc (13). It is assumed also
that fracture of a material is produced
by an accumulation of the plastic de-
formations experienced by the material.
On the basis of the experimental evi-
dence and the assumptions discussed
above, it is postulated that plastic de-
formations accumulate according to an
exponential function and more specifi-
cally that the hypothesis may be pre-
sented in generalized form as follows:
1.0. -(6)
i - l |_V^e,i/ Ji
Since it has been shown (11) that for
low-cycle conditions true strain values
are approximately proportional to the
corresponding engineering strains, a sim-
ilar expression may be written as follows
in terms of true strains.
YA9^Y''»1
E \^qj J. 1.0. (6(a))
If we now introduce the relative-strain
ratio, r, the ratio of the cyclic compres-
sive change in plastic strain, Ae^ or A^^,
to the subsequent tensile change in plas-
tic strain, A«, or Aqi, then.
.(7)
.(7(a))
As noted previously, both 1/m, and
Aeu (or Agn) are functions of r. It then
remains to find the relationship between
1/w and r.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM
On the basis of the hypothesis ex-
pressed in Eq 6 or 6(a), a linear relation-
ship should exist between log Aqn and
log n at constant values of the relative-
strain ratio, r. However, there was no
available information regarding the var-
iation of both Aqa and l/m with respect
8 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

to r. A number of specimens were tested ber of specimens were tested in cyclic

in one-cycle tests with various relative- strain tests with constant r ratios of
strain ratios to find the relationships —0.25, —0.50, —0.75, and —1 to find
between A^d and r. In addition, a num- the relationship between \/m and r.

TABLE I.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MATERIALS.

Ch emical Composition, Per Cent

Material"
Mang- Phos- Chro- Alu-
Carbon anese phorus Sulfur silicon Copper mium Niciiel minum

C N a n d CA steels 0.24 0.69 0.022 0.030 0.20 0.22 0.08 0.15 0.034
E-steel 0.21 0.34 0.019 0.030 0.01 0.18 0.12 0.19 0.003

" CN, ABS-C normalized steel; CA, ABS-C as-rolled steel; and E, rimmed steel.

TABLE II.—AVERAGE RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS (TYPE C-1 SPECIMENS).

Yield strength, psi At Fracture

Ultimate Elongation, 2 in.
Material Strength, Gage Length,
psi per cent True Stress, True Strain,
Upper Lower psi per cent

CA 42 200 40 200 70 600 34.5 137 000 94

CN 48 600 46 800 68 700 35.9 143 000 105
E 38 300 33 500 59 300 35.6 120 000 98

2 Gage Length Materials and Specimens:

'^2"rad lONC,

ABS-C as-rolled, ABS-C normalized,

, AEAAO . ««.t .•
"J" S and a rimmed steel (respectively desig-
nated as CA, CN, and E Steels) were
1 5/8 2 1/4' 5/B"_ - " used in this test program. The chemical
5 1/2"
compositions of these materials are listed
(o) C-l Type Specmer
in Table I. All specimens were fabricated
r rod
from f-in, thick plates with the specimen
axis parallel to the rolling direction of
the plates.
Standard tension coupon specimens,
_2!
designated as type C-l specimens, were
tested to obtain the mechanical proper-
ties shown in Table II. Specimens with
a minimum diameter of J in. and radii
of curvature of 1 in. at the test section
were used and designated as the C-2 type
specimens. The reduced test section of
these specimens was designed to confine
the critical section within a small region
(b) C-2 Type Spedmm at mid-length of the specimen to make
FIG. 1.—Details of Test Specimens.
it possible to locate and measure the
 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE or MILD STEEL

instantaneous diameter at the critical true strain of zero. After the compression
section (Fig. 1). loading, the test section in the precom-
pressed state was enlarged and had a
Description of Tests: new diameter, dc, and a corresponding
In Fig. 1 two types of C-2 specimens plastic true strain of qd . At this stage,
are shown. The conventional threaded some of the specimens were re-machined
specimens were used first, but when to approximately the original size and
specimens with large precompressive shape. These specimens with a new

Virgin State
^
Q.
^r-'^k'-^'^i

r Re-mochriing

=^=1 '- Precompressed Stote

At Frocture

S
55

Q. iSl,
Q- q.

"tl^
A = 2—. n ^
'"A. d. "f^

's.
%-'"A^'^'"d^Sr'"^'^'"d;

FIG. 2.—Strain-Calculation Procedure for One-Cycle Test.

strains failed in the threaded section, the
specimen with flat ends was adopted to
provide more bearing areas at the ends.
In testing these latter specimens, the
tensile forces were transmitted through
pin connections and compressive forces
were applied on the flat ends.
The strain calculation procedure for
"one-cycle" tests is illustrated in Fig. 2.
In the virgin state, the test section had
an original diameter of da and a plastic
diameter, dr, are assumed to possess a
plastic prestrain of ^^i • The specimens,
either in as-compressed or in re-machined
condition, were then loaded in tension to
fracture. The specimen diameter at the
fractured section, d/, was used for the
computation of the plastic true strain at
fracture, ga , and the tensile change in
plastic true strain, Agn , with the re-
lationships shown in Fig. 2.
All one-cycle tests were conducted on
10 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
C-2 type specimens. To prevent buckling
of the test section at extremely high
compressive loads, a special guide
assembly was used (Fig. 3). The whole
assembly was placed in the testing
machine, and then a dial-type diameter
gage was manipulated through the
key-hole of the "sleeve" to measure the
minimum diameter of the specimen.
FIG. 3.—Compression Fixture.
When the specimen was removed from
the fixture, the diameter of the specimen
was again measured in two perpendicular
directions with an optical diameter-
measuring device and the average value
used as the basis for strain computations.
In general, the specimens remained
relatively straight after precompression.
A typical precompressed specimen (q^ =
— 51 per cent) is shown with a virgin
specimen in Fig. 4.
The subsequent tension tests were
conducted in the same testing machine
and using the same fixtures. After the
specimen failed, the diameter at the
fractured section was again measured
with the optical diameter-measuring
device.
Cyclic strain tests were conducted at
constant relative-strain ratios of —J,
FIG. 4.—Typical Precompressed Specimen
{left) and Virgin Specimen.
1
2> I, and -1. Schematic g-w (strain
versus cycles) diagrams illustrating the
cyclic strain for each of these r ratios
are shown in Fig. 5.
A 50,000-lb lever-type fatigue testing
machine, geared down to a speed of
about 0.4 rpm, was used for the cyclic
strain tests of specimens with lives
greater than 30 cycles. A set of special
reversed-load pull-heads was used to
transmit the loads to the test specimens
 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL 11

by transmitting the tensile forces through DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF TEST

pin connections and the compression RESULTS
forces to the end of the specimen through ^^ ^
special wedging compression blocks. A "One-Cycle" Tests:
special gage with SR-4 strain gages was The data for one-cycle tests with
mounted at the minimum section of the various degrees of precompression are

n = 3 ( Three-cycle Test)

n = 4 (Four-cycle Test)
n = I (One-cyde Test)

n = I (One-cycli
Test)

2V 3 4 5 i
i.i.
n = 5 ( Five-cycle' Test )

r =-l J i- = - l
n= I (One-cycle Test] n = 4 (Four-cycle Test)

H Failure
FIG. 5.—One-Cycle and Cyclic Strain Tests with Various Relative-Strain Ratios.

specimen to measure the change in its
diameter. The electrical output of the
gage and that of the load dynamometer
of the fatigue machine were recorded on
an X-Y recorder. This record was used
for control purposes in the conduct of
the tests. Typical stress-diameter dia-
grams selected from the record of test
C-2-CN522 are shown in Fig. 6.
plotted in Fig. 7 for each of the steels
tested. From these figures, the tensile
change in plastic true strain at w = 1
may be obtained for any relative-strain
ratio. For example, in Fig. 7(c) the
values of A^^ are 66 per cent and 75 per
cent for relative-strain ratios of — 1 and
_ i , respectively.
12 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

100 XIO'
Specimen No. C-2 -CN 5 2 2
r » - l , Aq, • 5 % , r = 130 / /I
" /I r\ ^ f ( ( / / [1
40
~l_ o o o o
i£
1
'1-
II - II II
II
rocvj
II II

- ^
t
-20 _ _ „ _ — -—

-40 —
, -
/ , 1
1
-80
- / / uzy
/ / /
/
/
j
/ y / y
-100
- Plastic Chonge n Specimen Diameter, i^d= 0.012-in. 1/ ^
J90
FIG. 6.—Typical Stress Versus Diameter Diagrams.

1
(a) c
"o

100 ^1 lOOK

\- •••tf-- "?! i
--k
80 :^

. 60

- 6 0 ^ 8 0
Plastic True P r e c o m p r e s s i v e Strain < \\< per.cent

(a) ABS-C as-roIIed (CA) steel.

FIG. 7.—Tensile Change in Plastic True Strain and Plastic True Strain at Fracture versus Plastic
True Precompressive Strain.
YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL 13

100

Plastic True Precompressive Strain, q . , per cent

cl
(/)) A B S - C normalized (CN) steeL

100

"0 ^20 ^40^ -60 -80 -100

Plastic True Precompressive Strain, a ., per cent

(c) Rimmed (E) steel.

FIG. 7.—Continued.
14 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Cyclic Strain Test: Aqt versus log n plots but with various
The hypothesis presented here for slopes. To verify this observation 35
constant relative-strain ratios suggests specimens were tested in cyclic strain
that linear relationships exist for log tests at constant values of r. The results

•| ip "iOC Two
Number of Applications of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n

(a) ABS-C as-rolled (CA) steel.

100

\
N (b)
hN
^r =-!
\„

r •• -

10
^

v \ .

I V

V r =- 1 ^^

10 100 1000
Number of Applications of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n

(b) ABS-C normalized (CN) steel.

FIG. 8.—Cyclic Strain Test Results.
 YAO AND M U N S E ON L O W - C Y C L E AXIAL FATIGUE OF M I L D STEEL 15

100

^,
"<x (c)

--r = - |
^
1
r • — •

5"
10
\ "^ "^

o
O^
o r =- 1

10 100 1000
Number of Applications of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n

(c) Rimmed (E) steeL

FIG. 8.—Continued.

100

10

Materiol r = - ^ r=-^ r=-^

CA A A A A 4
CN V ^ 1
E « o :
_J I L_J I I L
I 15 TOD "TOO
Number of Applications of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n

FIG. 9.—Cyclic Strain Test Results for All Test Materials.

16 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

FIG. 10.—Various Fractures Resulting from Cyclic Strain Tests.

 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL
of these tests are plotted in Fig. 8 for
the three steels tested. These data may
be further combined by dividing all
Aqi values by the corresponding values
of Aqa . Figure 9 is a diagram of this
normalized cyclic tensile change in
plastic true strain plotted against « on a
log-log scale for all three steels tested.
All of these figures indicate that straight
lines with slopes varying with r ratios
2.0
1.8
TL=l-0.86r-
Ttr 1.6
1.4
/
1.2
/
^'
/
/
/
1.0 /
-0.2
Relative-Strain
FIG. 11.—Variations of l/m with Respect to the Relative-Strain Ratio, r.
fit the test points quite well and that
there does not seem to be any effect of
material on the slopes of these relation-
ships.
A group of the fractured specimens
is shown in Fig. 10. In the top row,
three one-cycle test specimens are pre-
sented, one for each material. Vertical
cracks often appeared on the surfaces of
the E-steel specimens when large com-
pression loads were employed, but only
on the E-steel specimens. In the second
17
row, three CA-steel specimens are shown
after being tested at relative-strain
ratios of -0.25, -0.50, and -0.75.
These gave lives of 10, 14, and 17 cycles
respectively. All six of these specimens
exhibited cup-and-cone type of fractures.
In the bottom row of Fig. 10 are shown
specimens of the three steels tested with
r = — 1. These specimens gave lives of
more than 260 cycles and failed with
/
V
/
/
x'
7^
-a4 -0.6 ^T
Ratio, r
propagating fatigue type cracks. There
was evidence of numerous surface cracks
on the specimens, thereby demonstrating
that these specimens were close to failure
at a number of locations.
Analysis of Test Results:
Evans (22) obtained a constant true
strain at fracture in his repeated tension
tests, regardless of the number of cycles
applied prior to fracture. In the program
reported here, it was observed that for a
18 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

group of C-2 type CN-steel specimens
subjected to various amounts of repeated
tension, regardless of the number of
cycles of tensile load before fracture, the
final value of plastic true strain at frac-
ture was more or less a constant for low-
cycle tests. Therefore, it would seem
reasonable to assume that for tests with
repeated tension only (r = 0), the cyclic
C-2 type CN-steel specimens were tested
in reversed-load low-cycle fatigue tests.
The plastic true strain history for each
of the specimens is shown in Fig, 12. By
evaluating each strain-cycle of the tests
and summing, the quantity
i~i [\Agn/ J.

M i n i !"i I T'l

4
-I
=1

si
til

VXi
^^//*
.K,OT///^**
Note- Solid Points Show Tests With
Initial Load Applied in Tension
11 i I i j . ' 11 ' I J - ' ' ' ' ' J - ' '' ' ' L'' *-''
li 18 ^T ^Sg ^SS^ ^ 46
Number of Applications of Tensile Load, i

FIG. 12.—Strain History for Reversed-Load Low-Cycle Fatigue Tests.

tensile change in plastic true strain is for these tests was found to vary from
linearly cumulative, that is i/m = 1. 0,94 to 1.08, which was close to the
The slopes of the four lines in Fig. 9 value 1.0 presented in the hypothesis.
may be described in the form of Eq 6
and give values of l/w equal to 1.22, CORRELATIONS WITH OTHER DATA
1.43, 1.65, and 1,86, respectively, for Data in the literature are generally
r values of —J, — j , —f, and —1. When reported for low-cycle strain tests con-
these corresponding values of 1/m and r ducted by cycling the specimen between
are plotted (Fig. 11), the following rela-
a constant maximum plastic strain
tionship is obtained; (jmax or €max) and a constant minimum
plastic strain {qmm or tmin)- In most
1 - 0.86f. .(8) cases, the tests were started with a
tensile load to produce the upper or
With the empirical relationships for maximum strain limit which was fol-
both l/m and Aga with respect to r, the lowed by fully reversed strains. Some
hypothesis is now complete. tests were carried out with constant
To verify the general hypothesis six absolute-strain ratios (R = constant)
 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL 19

while others were carried out with r = 1, l/m = 1.86 (from Eq 8)

constant mean strains (qm or fm = 0).
Since the quantity Aqi is not necessarily
a constant in these tests, these test results = {1 - R) {max
are presented in terms of ^max versus n If we substitute these conditions mto
(for positive ^^ax) or ^min versus n (for Eq 6(a), we obtain
negative ^^ax).
>/max I
Based on the general hypothesis ? ^ + (» - 1) f d - /J) *' 1.0. (9)
presented here, equations have been 9/ L A?,i J
derived for each of the various test Pian and D'Amato (19) tested coupon-
conditions. For constant R ratios the type specimens for 2024 aluminum alloy
100

Teste by Pioi a OlUmoto"^' - - ^ E q 9 (d)~^

s.
I
I 10 iSC IDOO
Number of Applications of. Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n
FIG. 13.—Correlation of Hypothesis with Various Constant-J?-Ratio Tests on 2024 Aluminum
Alloy.

relationship between ^max and n may be at constant R ratios of +0.75, +0.50, 0,

derived as follows: (a) The first cycle and —1.0. The plastic true strain at
(see insert of Fig. 13) is assumed to simple tensile fracture, q^, for this
consist of a single tensile change in particular type of specimen was found
plastic true strain (r = 0); and (i) the to be approximately 34 per cent. Since no
subsequent cycles of strain are then full one-cycle test information is available
reversals (r = —1). for this specimen, it is assumed that
For the first cycle (t = 1), Aqa is a constant and equal to q^ for all
r ratios (Aqa = 9/ = 34 per cent). Then
r = 0, l/m = 1.0 (from Eq 8) from Eq 9, the following relationships
may be obtained:
Aqn = q/
For R = -1-0.75,
Ml — ?max

+^«-4sr
9m a
1.0.. (9(a))
For the subsequent cycles (i > 1), 34
20 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

For R = +0.50, r = -\, 1/m = 1.86 (from Eq 8)

1^ + ^"-'^^fei"'= 1-0 ^9(6))

Aqt = 2 ({max — ?m) = 2(qm — Jmin)

For R = 0, Substituting these conditions in Eq 5(a),

we obtain
ffniax
,
34 + (» -- l ) r ^ ^ T " = 1.0. (9W) •2(?„,
?max
+ (» - 1) ~ ^ =1.0. (10)
For R = -I, A?,i J
9m ax ["gmaxT'
+ («-!) 1.0.. (9(d)) D'Amato (11) reported test results on a
IT 2024 aluminum alloy with constant
These equations are plotted in Fig. 13 mean strains of +27.5, +13.5, +7.5, 0,
along with the corresponding test data and —7.5 per cent. The plastic true
from reference (19). Despite the assump- strain at simple tension fracture, 5/ , was
tion made regarding Aqa , the curves found to be about 38 per cent.
plotted on the basis of this hypothesis Assuming again that A^a = 5/ = 38
fit the test points reasonably well for per cent for all r values, the following
lives up to approximately 200 cycles. equations may be obtained from Eq 10:
Similarly, expressions may be obtained
for tests conducted with constant mean
For q„ == +27.5, —•
strains. For the first cycle {i = 1), the 00

relationships are the same as shown

above for the previous examples. For
the subsequent cycles (t > 1), + (»-!) I 1^ J = 10 . . (10(a))

a.
E
E

1 "TO lOD 1000

Number of Applications of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n

F I G . 14.—Correlation of Hypothesis with Various Constant-Mean-Strain Tests on 2024 Aluminum

Alloy.
 YAO AND M U N S E ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF M I L D STEEL 21

-100

s EqiKd
55
-10

o Tests by D'Amoto (II)

q_= -7.5 per cent

10 100 1000
Number of Applications of Tensile Lood Prior to Fracture, n

FIG. 15.—Correlation of Hypothesis with Negative-Mean-Strain Tests on 2024 .'Muminum

Moy.

10

•Eq IO(e

^ o
1.0
^ 0

^^\^o
o Test< i by Dubiic(l3g
3
(Test points ore plotted on tti( basis
of the plastic er gineering St ain meaiured at 1/2)
m
0.1 SAEIO 30 Steel
10 100 KDOO 10,000
Nurrber of Appllcotlons of Tensile Load Prior to Fracture, n
FIG. 16.- -Correlation of Hypothesis with Tests Conducted on the Basis of Engineering Strains.
22 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

For q„ + 13.5,
y max to be approximately equal, we
38 then obtain.
5iTiax 13.5 1.S6

+ («-!) 19
= 1.0 -(10(6))
1)
I tmaX I
1.0... (10(e))
44

For q„ = +7.5, — In Fig. 16, Eq 10(e) and test points

from reference (13) are plotted in terms
t?rnax 7.5" 1.8R
of the cyclic maximum plastic engineer-
+(«-!) - 1.0. .(10(c))
19 ing strain as measured at half the speci-
men life.
For 9„ = (), - — The excellent correlations of the
hypothesis presented here with the test
ymax
86
results of Plan and D'Amato (19) and
+ (« - 1) = 1.0... .(10(d))
D'Amato (ii) indicate that it may be
10
J
possible to use this hypothesis to describe
Equations 10(a) through 10((f) are the low-cycle fatigue behavior of 2024
plotted in Fig. 14 in terms of gmax and n, aluminum alloy specimens. In addition,
along with the corresponding test data the correlation made with Dubuc's (13)
from reference (11). test data indicates that the hypothesis
For tests with a negative mean strain may be equally applicable to tests of
and a negative maximum strain, the steel specimens conducted on the basis
first load will be in compression (see of engineering strains.
insert of Fig. 15. Assuming that A^c =
qt in the first cycle, the following equa- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
tion may be obtained from Eq 6(a):
1. A general hypothesis describing
2{q„ — qn-.in)
the cumulative effect of plastic deforma-
n\ = 1.0. (11) tions on the low-cycle fatigue behavior
Aqn
of mild steel for lives up to approxi-
Then, for q,, = - 7 . 5 , mately 1000 cycles has been established
and may be expressed as follows:
-7.5 — gmin
= 1.0 .(11(a))
19

Equation 11(a) is plotted in Fig. 15 in

z = 1.0

terms of ^min and n, along with the cor-
responding test data from the same
reference. Excellent correlations are
again obtained.
Dubuc (13) tested SAE 1030 steel
specimens with a gage length of 1 in.
These tests, with «„ = 0, were con-
ducted by controlling the total engineer-
ing strain range. T o apply the present
hypothesis, Atn was assumed to be
constant and equal to the elongation at
static tensile fracture, 44 per cent in this
case. From Eq 10, assuming Smax and
2. For constant relative-strain ratios,
r, a linear relationship exists between
log Aqt and log n.
3. There does not seem to be any
effect of material on the slope of the
relationship between log Aqt and log n.
4. A linear relationship was found
also to exist between the quantities
1/w and r, which for mild steel may be
expressed as 1/w = 1 — 0.86r.
5. Plastic strain-histories obtained
from nine reversed-load cyclic tests
were analyzed in terms of the general
 YAO AND MUNSE ON LOW-CYCLE AXIAL FATIGUE OF MILD STEEL
hypothesis. It was found that the condi-
tions specified by the hypothesis were
satisfied.
6. Correlations of the general hypothe-
sis with various published test data indi-
cate that the hypothesis may be appli-
cable to cyclic strain tests on metals
other than mild steel. However, addi-
tional confirmations of this correlation
would be desirable.
7. Under low-cycle fatigue conditions,
any tensile change in plastic strain is
cumulative, and the manner in which
this accumulation takes place is de-
pendent upon the amount of compressive
plastic strain in each cycle.
A cknowledgment:
The work described in this paper was
conducted in the Structural Research
Laboratory of the Department of Civil
Engineering at the University of Illinois,
REFERENCES
(1) P. P. Benham, "Fatigue of Metals Caused
by a Relatively Few Cycles of High Load
or Strain Amplitude," Metallurgical Re-
views, Vol. 3, No. 11 (1958).
(2) J. T. P. Yao and W. H. Munse, "Low-
Cycle Fatigue of Metals—Literature
Review," Welding Journal, Research Sup-
plement, Vol. 41, p. 182s, April, 1962.
(3) T. B. Kommers, "Repeated Stress Test-
ing," Vlth Congress, International Assn.
for Testing Mats., New York, N. Y.
(1912).
(4) E. Orowan, "Stress Concentrations in
Steel Under Cyclic Loading," Welding
Journal, Research Supplement, Vol. 31,
p. 273 (1952).
(5) S. S. Manson, "Behavior of Materials
Under Conditions of Thermal Stress,"
A'^C.4 TN 2933 (1953).
(6) J. H. Gross and R. D. Stout, "Plastic
Fatigue Properties of High-Strength
Pressure-Vessel Steels," Welding Journal,
Vol. 34, p. 161s (1955).
(7) L. F. Coffin, Jr. and J. F. Tavernelh, "The
Cyclic Straining and Fatigue of Metals,"
Transactions, Metallurgical Soc, Am. Inst.
Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engrs., Vol. 215, p. 794, Oct., 1959.
23
under sponsorship of the Ship Structure
Committee, National Academy of Sci-
ences, through the Bureau of Ships,
U. S. Navy. However, the opinions
expressed in this paper are those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent
those of the Ship Structure Committee
or its member agencies. The investiga-
tion is a part of the structural research
program of the Department of Civil
Engineering, of which N. M. Newmark
is the Head.
The authors wish to express their
sincere appreciation to R. J. Mosborg,
V. J. McDonald, and S. T. Rolfe for
their helpful suggestions in many phases
of this research. Special acknowledgment
is due D. F. Lange, W. F. Wilsky, and
others in the laboratory shop for their
excellent workmanship in making speci-
mens and maintaining the test equipment
in this program.
(8) L. F. Coffin, Jr., "The StabiUty of Metals
Under Cyclic Plastic Strain," Journal of
Basic Engineering, Series D, Vol. 82, No.
3, p. 671, Sept., 1960.
(9) J. F. Tavernelli and L. F. Coffin, Jr., "A
Compilation and Interpretation of Cyclic
Strain Fatigue Tests on Metals," Transac-
tions, Am. Soc. Metals, Vol. 51, p. 438
(1959).
(10) P. P. Benham and Hugh Ford, "Low
Endurance Fatigue of a Mild Steel and an
Aluminum .Alloy," Journal Mechanical
Engineering Science, Vol. 3, No. 2 (1961).
(11) R. D'Amato, "A Study of the Strain
Hardening and Cumulative Damage
Behavior of 2024-T4 Aluminum .\lloy in
the Low-Cycle Fatigue Range," WADD
TR 60-175, April, 1960.
(12) D. A. Douglas and R. W. Swindeman, "The
Failure of Structure Metals Subjected to
Strain CycHng Conditions," Am. Soc.
Mechanical Engrs., Paper 58-A-198 (1958).
(13) J. Dubuc, "Plastic Fatigue Under Cyclic
Stress and Cyclic Strain with a Study of
the Bauschinger Effect," Ph.D. Thesis,
Ecole Polytechnique, Universite de Mon-
treal, Montreal, Canada, Jan., 1961.
(14) A. Johansson, "Fatigue of Steels at
Constant Strain Amphtude and Elevated
24 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Temperatures," Colloquium on Fatigue,
lUTAM, Stockholm, Sweden (1956).
(15) S. I. Liu, J. J. Lynch, E. J. Ripling, and
G. Sachs, "Low-Cycle Fatigue of the
Aluminum Alloy 24S-T in Direct Stress,"
Melals Technology, Feb., 1948.
(16) A. C. Low, "Short Endurance Fatigue,"
International Conference on Fatigue of
Metals, Inst. Mechanical Engrs. (London),
p. 206 (1956).
(17) H. Majors, Jr., "Thermal and Mechanical
Fatigue of Nickel and Titanium," Transac-
tions, Am. Soc. Metals, Vol. 51, p. 421
(1959).
(18) F. J. Mehringer and R. P. Felgar, "Low-
Cycle Fatigue of Two Nickel-Base Alloys
by Thermal-Stress Cycling," Journal of
Basic Engineering, Series D, Vol, 82, No. 3,
p. 661, Sept., 1960.
(19) T. H. H. Plan and R. D'Amato, "Low-
Cycle Fatigue of Notched and Unnotched
Specimens of 2024 Aluminum Alloy Under
Axial Loading," WADC TN 5S-27 (1958).
(20) G. Sachs, W. W. Gerberich, V. Weiss, and
J. V. Latorre, "Low-Cycle Fatigue of
Pressure-Vessel Materials," Proceedings,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 60, p. 512
(1960).
(21) D. C. Drucker, C. Mylonas, and G. Lianis,
"On the Exhaustion of DuctiUty of E-
Steel in Tension Following Compressive
Pre-strain," Welding Journal, Research
Supplement, p. 117s, March, 1960.
(22) E. W. Evans, "Effect of Interrupted
Loading on Mechanical Properties of
Metals," The Engineer London, Vol. 203:
Part I, No. 5274, p. 293; Part 11, No.
5275, p. 325 (1957).
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

T H E E F F E C T OF M E A N STRESS ON F A T I G U E S T R E N G T H OF P L A I N
AND N O T C H E D STAINLESS STEEL S H E E T I N T H E
R A N G E F R O M 10 TO 107 CYCLES

B Y W. J. B E L L 1 AND P . P . BENHAM 2

SYNOPSIS

Stainless steel sheet (18Cr-9Ni) was tested in fatigue under axial-load

cycling in plain and notched conditions. Various stress ratios were used ranging
from R = —1.0 to +0.91, and endurances (see Definitions) from 10 to 107
cycles were covered using testing frequencies of 5 to 15 cpm and 3000 cpm.
The effect of mean stress on notch fatigue strength could not be predicted
empirically solely from unnotched material data; at least one notched fatigue
curve would be required.
A fatigue strength reduction factor based on maximum stress for a particular
mean stress and endurance provided the most reliable correlation between
unnotched and notched data.
Low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue curves matched up only to a limited extent
at the overlap, but there was generally strength reduction at low frequency.
Under certain conditions of mean stress and stress ratio a cyclic creep or
ratchetting mechanism leading to ductile rupture was obtained at low en-
durances.
Simple functions existed in the low-cycle region between stress range and
plastic strain range and total energy and cycles to fracture, both of which
were largely independent of stress ratio.

SYMBOLS AND D E F I N I T I O N N, cycles to failure

K t, theoretical elastic stress concentra-
Symbols: tion factor
Sa, cyclic stress amplitude Kp, theoretical plastic stress concentra-
Sm , mean stress tion factor
Smax , maximum cyclic stress kf , fatigue strength reduction factor for
zero
Sm in , minimum cyclic stress mean stress
R, stress ratio, Smin/Sm&x k/m, fatigue strength reduction factor at
Su , tensile strength constant nonzero mean stress
Sup , tensile strength, plain material Definition:
J
Sun , tensile strength, notched material
Sv , yield or proof stress Endurance, the term endurance has been
So, fatigue strength for zero mean stress used to express the cyclic lifetime of a
epr , repeated plastic strain range specimen. This has been chosen in prefer-
ept, total plastic strain range ence to the more generally accepted
"fatigue life" on account of the proposed
i Development Engineer, Rexall Chemical subdivision of the type of fracture being
Co., Odessa, Tex. . . . . J.r c ,
'Lecturer in Applied Mechanics, Imperial produced into a fatigue fracture and a
College, London, England. ductile rupture or creep failure. The term
25
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
26 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
endurance is used to express cyclic life-
times leading to both types of failure.
Stress concentration and mean cyclic
stress are two important aspects of
metal fatigue that have been studied
extensively in the past, both separately
and in relation to each other. This paper
is concerned with the eSects of local
and general plastic deformation at a
stress concentration in relation to the
mean stress imposed under axial-load
cycling conditions over a wide range of
endurance. Yielding can be caused by
various combinations of mean and
alternating stress, the extreme cases
being a large alternating range of stress
superimposed on a zero or low value of
mean stress, or a high mean stress, which
in itself causes yielding, plus some alter-
nating component. Both generally may
result in failure in a relatively few
cycles, but so far more attention has
been paid to the fatigue-limit region.
Several investigators (1-3)' have studied
high mean stresses with stress concen-
tration for long endurances, and a
theoretical method of predicting a
notched 5a-S„ diagram to allow for
yielding under high mean stress has
been proposed (4).
The information so far available at low
endurances which deals with notched
material is generally only related to
one or two mean stresses {R = — 1 or 0)
(S-7).
lUg (8) has studied the effect of three
mean stresses on notched aluminum and
steel alloys over a range of endurance
from 2 to 10' cycles. The present program
has studied stress ratios from R =
— 1.0 to +0.91 for endurances from 10
to 10' cycles for stainless steel sheet,
plain and notched with several circular
holes. Although these are insufficient
data to propound a general law for
' The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the hst of references appended to this paper. photography from the latter.
predicting notched behavior under mean
stress, it was hoped that the results
would indicate various trends of be-
havior at low and high endurances.
TEST EQUIPMENT
Tests in the range from 5 X 10' to
10' cycles were conducted on a 6-ton
Haigh axial-load fatigue machine. This
operates on the principle of electro-
magnetic excitation of a resonant spring
and mass system at a frequency of
3000 cpm. The required full load can be
set up on the test specimen in about 15
sec.
Tests in the range from 10 to 10' cycles
were carried out on a 6-ton Schenck
TABLE I.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Element Per Cent
Carbon 0.10
Silicon 0.68
Manganese 0.75
Sulfur 0.019
Phosphorus 0.018
Chromium 18.25
Nickel 9.76
Titanium 0.70
axial-load fatigue machine incorporating
a low-frequency mechanical drive of
approximately 10 cpm. This machine is
described in more detail elsewhere (6).
Some of the tests on the Schenck
machine were instrumented to obtain
stress-strain records (hysteresis loops)
automatically during the life to fracture.
The machine is fitted with a dynamome-
ter loop, the deformation of which is
proportional to load. One variable-
inductance probe was mounted across
the dynamometer to record the load,
while a second was attached by exten-
someter clamps to a gage length on the
specimen. The signals from the probes
were fed into amplifiers which gave a
visual reading of displacement, and then
to the X and Y plates of an oscilloscope.
Permanent records were obtained by
 BELL AND BENHAM ON ErPECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 27

Two stages of signal amplification
were available to cover strain ranges of
up to 2 and 20 per cent respectively.
A simple relay and timer circuit was
arranged to obtain automatically a
suitable number of records during a
test.
MATERIAL AND SPECIMENS
Thin sheet material was chosen to give
approximate plane stress conditions,
TABLE I I , — M E C H A N I C A L PROPERTIES,
tained and the number of holes reduced
to two (Fig. i{d)). A photoelastic stress
analysis was conducted for both types
of notched specimen. The stress concen-
tration was the same at each of the
holes in both the triple and double
group, giving Kt = 2.44. Fatigue tests
conducted under the same stress condi-
tions for each type of notched specimen
gave the same average endurance.
For the fatigue tests in which the

Proof Stress, Nominal Tensile Strength,

tons per sq in. tons per sq in. Vickers Dia-
Young's Modulus, Elongation in 2 mond Pyramid
tons per sq in. in., per cent Hardness
0.1 per 0.2 per Rolling Direc- Transverse
cent cent tion Direction

45 57 68.5 70.1 12 X 10^ 4.2 370

and the width of the test specimen was

sufficient for multiple notches. All the l i
test pieces were taken from one batch
-2/3
of as-rolled 18Cr-9Ni stainless steel X
sheet, 0.039 in. thick, to specification 1/3'^ -HK-
DTD166B (now obsolete). The chemical (a) Haigh Machine-
composition and principal mechanical Notched Specimen Used With Schenck Jaws
properties are given in Tables I and II.
The form and dimensions of the
unnotched specimens used on both
machines are shown in Figs. \{b) and
(c). A radiused gage length was adopted 8 Radius Arc-
to avoid persistent failure at the fillet
(b) Haigh Machine-Plain Specimen
radius of a parallel length specimen. A
photoelastic analysis showed a negligible
^---8 "Radius Arc
nonuniformity of stress in the unnotched
specimens. T Width T
r'Min. zVe"
The program was initially planned to * --_L_
run only on the Haigh machine, and a (c) Schenck Machine-Plain Specimen
notched specimen, Fig. 1(a), was de-
signed for this purpose. When the work 6
was extended to include low endurances -*i
1/3
on the Schenck machine, the existing 2/3 T*;l/8"diam il/V'
notched specimen was too large to ob- 1/3
I
tain all the stress ratios required. Rather (d) Schenck Machine-Notched Specimen
than scaling down geometrically and
NOTE,—All dimensions are in inches. Thick-
possibly introducing a size effect at the ness 0.039 in.
notches, similar proportions were re- FIG, 1.—Test Specimens.
28 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

specimen was subjected to some com- (9). Oil-impregnated filter paper at low
pressive loading during the cycle, guide loads, and graphite grease at high loads
plates were used to prevent the test between the specimen and plates kept

70 /
>-»'

f
60

50
/ '^
k
40 III 1

30
\ • static Curve
X Dynamic Curve
20

10

0.5 1,0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 40 4.5 5.0

Strain, per cent
FIG. 2.—Static and Dynamic (Schenck) Stress-Strain Curves.

Cycles, N
FIG. 3.—S-N Curves for Various Stress Ratios, Unnotched Specimens.

specimen from buckling. The design of frictional effects to a minimum. The

the guide plates was based on the com- degree of restraint of the plates was
ments of Brueggeman and Mayer never such as to prevent them being
 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 29

moved quite easily along the specimen and short-term (up to 30 min) room-
when under load. temperature creep tests were conducted

^m^x = 33, R = - 0 . 4 6 , A' = 254 (Haigh

machine). Plastic deformation at root of crack
only.

Smttx = 68, i? = 0.725, A' = 1158 X 10'

(Haigh machine). 45-deg yield b a n d initiated
at crack root.

-Smax = 56.5, R = 0.075, A^ = 16 X 10'

(Haigh m a c h i n e ) . C e n t r a l crack.

-Smax = 65, iJ = 0.075, A" = 19,492 (Schenck

machine).

^,„ax = 59, fi = 0.525, A^ = 3949 X 10'

(Haigh machine). N o fatigue crack.

Smax = 50, R -0.46, A' = 27, 183

(Schenck machine).

-Smax = 68, iJ = - 0 . 4 6 , A' = 28 (Schenck

machine). Broad yielding bands and necked
section resultant from cyclic creep behavior.

F I G . 4.—Typical Plastic Deformation P a t t e r n s and F r a c t u r e s of U n n o t c h e d Specimens.

TENSION TESTS to establish the stress-strain curve

It was soon discovered that the ma- accurately. The test for static nominal
terial had virtually no elastic range, and stress-strain curve in tension (Fig. 2)
consequently a number of static-tension occupied about 30 min.
30 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Unnotched and notched specimens
were also pulled to fracture on the
Schenck machine at the same strain rate
as was used for the low-cycle fatigue
tests, and the load-extension record
obtained from the instrumentation.
The "dynamic" stress-strain curve
(strain rate about 5 in. per in. per min)
for an unnotched specimen is also shown
in Fig. 2 up to 2 per cent strain. The
tensile strength was raised from 68.5 to
70 tons per sq in. at the higher strain
10^
Cycles, N
FIG. 5.—S-N Curves for Various Stress Ratios, Notched Specimens.
rate. Notched specimens gave an even
higher nominal tensile strength, 74 tons
per sq in.
FATIGUE T E S T S
The fatigue program was designed to
cover a wide range of mean and cyclic
stress combinations. The tests were con-
ducted at constant values of stress ratio
of: R = - 1 . 0 , - 0 . 4 6 , +0.075, + 0 . 3 3 ,
+ 0 . 5 , +0.725, and + 0 . 9 1 .
The lower limit of endurance, 5 X 10^
cycles, on the Haigh machine was defined
by the time required to set up a test, or
excessive creep in the high-mean stress
tests. On the Schenck machine the upper
limit of endurance, 10^ cycles, was
selected because of the length of time
required for a test at 10 cpm. The above
limits provided a sufiBxient overlap of
endurance to compare the effect of the
two frequencies and machines. The
results of the tests on unnotched speci-
mens on both machines are plotted as
curves of maximum stress against cycles
to failure in Fig. 3.
In some of the tests at high loads and
10*
short endurance, both at high and low
frequency, the specimens exhibited a
continuous cyclical extension (ratchet-
ting) until failure finally occurred by
tensile rupture rather than fatigue
cracking. In other cases, a small fatigue
crack occurred at one edge or internally
in the specimen, and a small visible zone
of plastic deformation at the tip of the
crack soon spread into one or more yield
bands at 45 deg to the axis of the speci-
men. Some of these fractures are illus-
trated in Fig. 4.
The results of the notched fatigue
tests are plotted as Snax. against N'
 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 31

curves for the various stress ratios and
both frequencies in Fig. 5. In general
the same hmitations on endurance
existed as above for the unnotched speci-
mens.
Fatigue cracks developed on both
could occur on initial setting-up of a
high mean stress, or on introduction of
the alternating component, took the
form of small dimples on either side of
each hole. At higher stresses the dimples
developed into yield bands looped be-

.S,„ax = 72, fl = 0.91, A' = 7400 X 10'

(unbroken). Clearly observable plastic dimples
at edges of all holes at a stress below t h e fatigue
limit.

Smsix = 71.5, R = 0.725, .V = 33. F a t i g u e

cracks at b o t h sides of outside holes. N o t e
dimpling effect at holes and also 45-deg j i e l d
band at edges and looping between holes.

S,„ax = 55.7, R = 0.725, A' = 248 X 10^.

F a t i g u e crack a b o u t b o t h sides of central hole
and also very small cracks at outside holes.
N O T E . — S p e c i m e n s are all of t h e same
dimensions.

F I G . 6.—Typical Plastic Deformation P a t t e r n s a n d F r a c t u r e of N o t c h e d Specimens.

sides of two or all of the holes, with
little preference being shown between
the outside or the central holes. In all
but the very low stress conditions,
intense localized plastic deformation
preceded the crack tip; however, for
very low stresses no permanent deforma-
tion could be observed, and the position
of the crack was difficult to locate. The
localized plastic deformation, which
tween the holes and from outer holes to
the edges of the specimen at 45 deg. In
certain circumstances plastic dimpling
could be obtained at the notches without
any subsequent fatigue failure, while
under other conditions cracks would
develop and propagate without any
prior macroscopic plastic deformation.
Some examples of yield band and crack
formation are shown in Fig. 6.
32 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE DATA havior. The well-known expressions

Owing to the infinity of combinations devised by Goodman, Gerber, and
of mean and alternating stress and the Soderberg were intended to relate to

20 30 40 50 60 70
Mean Stress {Sm),tons per sq in.

(a) Unnotched specimens.

FIG. 7—Sa-Sm Curves for Fatigue Specimens.
enormous amount of experimental work fatigue limit values. However, the
required to obtain fatigue behavior over current need in some fields to design for
a comprehensive range of S^ and Sm finite fatigue life requires a wider appli-
values, there have been many attempts cation of Sa-Sm relationships.
to propound laws, based on simple The above remarks about mean
experimental constants from a few stress apply equally well for both un-
tests, to predict generalized Sa-Sm be- notched and notched specimens. How-
 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 33

ever, fatigue initiated by stress concen- it becomes extremely difficult to obtain a

tration is a complex problem in itself reliable generalized relationship for
for the case of zero mean stress. If the Sa-Sm values in notched material and to

UTS

E
<

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Mean Stress (Sm), tons per sq in.
(b) Notched specimens.
FIG. 7.—Continued.

latter is not zero, there is much specula-
tion and still no certain answer as to the
effect of stress concentration on the
actual local values of mean and alternat-
ing stress. Without this latter knowledge
predict notched values on the basis of
unnotched data.
The results shown in Figs. 3 and 5
are reasonably comprehensive and pro-
vide a basis for detailed graphical
34 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
analysis of the various quantities. This
has been done elsewhere (10), but due to
space limitations only some of the
interesting features can be discussed
here.
From the S-N curves (Figs. 3 and 5)
for unnotched and notched specimens,
the Sa-Sm diagrams in Figs. 7(a) and (J)
have been derived for various values of
endurance. Considering first the diagram
for unnotched specimens, the curves
are bounded by the lines Sa/2 = 0,
5™ = 0, and 5„/2 + 5™ = 5„ = 70, and
their shape is very much dependent on
the relative positions of the 5-A' curves.
For this reason, the rather sharp kink
in the Sa-S^ curves for long endurances
at approximately R = 0 might have
been attributed to a misplaced S-N
curve; however, a study of Fig. 3 indicates
that a fairly unreasonable shift of the
curves would be required to smooth out
the Sa-Sn curves. This has been noticed
on unnotched specimens by other in-
vestigators (3), but it is certainly not the
general rule. A further point of note is
that because the S-N curves intersect
with horizontal line S'max = 70 at various
R values and endurances, the 5o-5„
curves are either asymptotic at low R, or
intersect at high R with the line Sa/2 +
5„ = 70.
Empirical expressions devised by
Peterson (11), Stuessi (12), and Burdon
(13) have each been compared with the
experimental results, the last of those
giving the best correlation. For this
particular material, difficulties arise
because of the sharp inversion of Sa
versus S^ nt R = 0. A relationship of
the form
(1 - R)
-[t]"
where C and n are constants dependent
on N, gives a better fit to the results, but
has the disadvantage of requiring more
initial experimental data for evaluation.
Since there are generally more data on
fatigue at various mean stresses for
unnotched than notched specimens, it is
very useful to have a method for pre-
dicting the effect of mean stress for
notched specimens from unnotched data.
The simplest approach, when consider-
ing, say, a modified Goodman diagram,
is to divide the ordinate and abscissa by
the theoretical stress concentration
factor, Kt, so that
'• • •'• (• - 1 )
becomes
-l('-f^)
The main weaknesses in this approach
are: (1) The strength reduction in
fatigue seldom achieves the value of Kt
and is, therefore, given a separate symbol
Kf (to be defined later); and (2) the
effect of local and then general yielding
around the notch influences the effective
values of Sa and 5„ and hence the
alternating-mean stress diagram. The
general assumption that when local
yielding occurs at the stress raiser the
maximum stress is relieved to some
extent, but that the range of stress is un-
affected implies that the local mean
stress will be reduced and a greater
range of stress can be maintained for a
particular nominal mean stress.
Since the nominal static, tensile
strength of a notched specimen is gen-
erally equal to or slightly higher than
for an unnotched specimen, a better
approach to obtaining the notched
Sa-Sm diagram would be to join the
points Sa = So/Kt or So/kf to Sm =
Su notched by a straight line.
Reference to Fig. 1(b) for the present
tests shows that the above method of
predicting the notched relationship
would be in considerable error. Gunn
 BELL AND BKNHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 35

(4), who has studied this problem, sug-
gests that three distinct stages in a
notched Sa-S^ diagram are: (1) the
condition that the local maximum stress
is still elastic, for which the first part of
These latter parts of the diagram,
described in detail elsewhere (4,14), can
be constructed either by using a plastic-
stress concentration factor, Kp , or the
stress-strain curve for the material and a

E
<

20 30 40 50 60
Mean Stress ( S ^ ) , tons per sq in.
Su Plain^
Su Notched-
(a) iV > 10° (Fatigue endurance limit).
FIG. 8.—Comparison of Experimental and Empirical S„-Sm Curves.

the notched Sa-S^ diagram can be
drawn up to the point of intersection
with the line joining Sa = Sy/Kt to Sm =
Sy/Kt or when local yielding com-
mences; (2) occurrence of local yielding,
with the body of the material remaining
elastic, and (3) general yielding in the
material.
strain concentration factor equal to the
elastic stress concentration factor. The
three stages mentioned above are self
evident in Fig. 7(6) at endurances down
to 10* cycles; while for unnotched speci-
mens the inversion occurs at constant
stress ratio {R = 0), for the notched
curves the change in curvature occurs
36 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

at almost a constant mean stress of
approximately 25 tons per sq in. At
endurances below W cycles, where
maximum stresses are high and more
general yielding is taking place, the
dieted curve and the notched Sa-Sm
curve for high, medium, and low en-
durances is shown in Fig. 8(a), (b), and
(c), respectively. In each case the theo-
retical curve is overly conservative.

10 20 30 40 50 60

Nominal Mean Stress ( S ^ ) , tons per sq in.

(b) .V = 5 X 10* cycles.

FIG. 8—Continued.

Sa-Sm curves are fairly smooth and
parabolic in form.
Gunn's method of analysis avoids the
need of any initial notched fatigue data,
because predictions are made directly
from unnotched results. That approach
was applied to the present results, and
the comparison between Gunn's pre-
principally owing to the use of theoretical
elastic and plastic stress concentration
factors rather than a fatigue strength
reduction factor. The definition of the
latter term is well established in the
case of fully reversed stress cycling,
that is, constant zero mean stress;
however, if various mean stresses also
 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 37

have to be considered, then kj may be N, produced curves of the simplest form

defined in several ways. Different factors for empirical representation,
were evaluated using 5max , Xiean , S^ , The fatigue strength reduction factor
and R in order to find in which terms the will therefore be written as k/m:

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Mean Stress (Sm), tons per sq in.
(c) .V = 5 X 10^ cycles (Schenck machine data).
FIG. 8—Concluded.

ratio of unnotched and notched speci- 5,„ax of unnotched specimens

men results could be most conveniently , ^ for Sm and N
expressed. It was found that the ratio •5'max of notched specimens
of plain 5n,ax to notched S^^^ , for con- f""" *e same S„ and N
stant mean stress 5„,, and endurance, and the values obtained in the present
38 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

tests over the range of mean stress and

endurance studied have been plotted in kfni
Fig. 9. Cross plotting fe/„ against mean n =
stress for constant endurance gives a
series of curves which are relatively in-
C' /v/m ^ un ^ n
dependent of iV above lO'* cycles and
may be represented by the equation: kfm = value of k/m at 10 cycles and zero
mean stress, and
[kfn. 'i'lnax = maximum stress for 10 cycles
+ 5„„
and zero mean stress.
where:
[^/m]avg = average strength reduction Using the above expressions, the

Cyclic Lifetime
FIG. 9.—Strength Reduction Factor (kf^) Versus Cyclic Lifetime.

factor for 10^ <N < and Sa-Sm curves are derived and plotted on
S„, = 0, Figs. 8(a), (i), and (c). For each en-
S — tensile strength of un- durance the agreement with the experi-
notched specimen, and mental points is quite reasonable.
^ up
tensile strength of notched Until there is more detailed informa-
specimen. tion on the local stress conditions, Sa and
•^ un ^^
cycles yielding is no longer S„t, and the way in which these may
Below
localized,10^the mean stress is less effective, alter under elastic and plastic conditions,
and the nominal maximum stress it is not possible to predict accurately
governs k/^ • It is found that a linear notched fatigue data from unnotched
variation of k/„ with 5max fits the results fatigue tests. Thus, a notched fatigue
fairly well and may be expressed as: curve for at least zero mean stress, from
which other mean stress conditions
f^fm — W'Jmax ~\~ ^
might be reasonably derived, is neces-
where: sary.
 B E L L AND BENHAM ON E F F E C T OF M E A N STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
In this section the term fatigue failure
is used to describe cyclic stress failure in
the absence of gross permanent deforma-
tion. Failures which occur due to progres-
sive cyclic creep and have an appearance
as in a monotonic tension test will be
Strain
ESS3 Ap Permanent Loop Area
2Z2Z) Ar Repeated Loop Area
£pt Total Plastic Stroin Range
£pp Permanent Plastic Strain Range
£pr Repeated Plastic Strain Range
Note: With no Cyclic Creep Action Ap=£pp=0
FIG. 10.—Idealized Hysteresis Loops Under
Cyclic Creep Conditions'.
referred to as ductile rupture or cyclic
creep failure.
Referring back to Figs. 3 and 5 and
other confirmations (5,6), it seems that
for load cycling at low endurances there
are two independent deformation mecha-
nisms which can operate. The unnotched
specimen, under certain conditions of
maximum stress and stress ratio accumu-
lates a certain amount of permanent
extension in every cycle which is repre-
sented diagrammatically in Fig. 10.
This type of cyclic creep eventually
39
leads to ductile rupture rather than
fatigue. Failures of the former type are
indicated by the symbol c on the S-1^
curves. I t might be imagined that this
type of behavior would be a function of
positive stress ratios and high mean
stress. However, for this particular ma-
terial, except for a few tests having a
mean stress almost up to the tensile
strength, it appeared that a negative
stress ratio, that is, minimum stress
compressive, and a positive mean stress
were necessary to promote cyclic creep.
In the present tests the major effect
occurred for the S-N curve at i? =
— 0.46. A smooth transition occurs from
ductile rupture to conventional fatigue
at about 2 X W cycles. Some materials
(5,15) exhibit cychc creep without the
presence of compressive stress in the
cycle, and it may be that this behavior
is largely a function of the size and shape
of the hysteresis loop in conjunction with
a tensile mean stress.
With increasing positive stress ratio,
the phenomenon of "minimum fatigue
life" became apparent; in other words
the 5-/V curves would meet the 5niax =
Su line at values of endurance dependent
on the stress ratio, as noted in other
materials (16,17).
The notched S-'N curves tend to
exhibit the minimum fatigue life effect
at lower endurances than for the equiva-
lent unnotched curves. Cyclic creep
failures were not clearly distinguished,
although in some tests cumulative
plastic deformation was noticed locally
around the holes.
Regarding the two different fre-
quencies used, it appears that in both
sets of 5-iV curves the low frequency
gives a shallower slope to all the lines,
while for the notched curves there
appears to be no loss in endurance at
low frequency beyond about 2 X 10*
cycles. However, there is a marked
reduction in life at lower endurances.
The low-frequency curves for unnotched
40 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

specimens are rather remarkable in that
at higher endurances the material has a
greater fatigue strength than at high
frequency. This is completely opposite
to what is usually postulated, and no
conclusive reasoning can be put forward
at this stage.
Fig. 11 for various tests on unnotched
specimens a.t R = —0.46. To observe
the shape of the latter part of the curves
right through to fracture, the above
results plus a few for other stress ratios
have been plotted on a linear cycle scale
in Fig. 12. To some extent these curves

Cyclic Lifefime
FIG. 11.—Cyclic Strain Versus Lifetime at Constant Stress Ratio (R = —0.46).

The instrumentation described earlier recall conventional static creep curves

provided many records of hysteresis
loops, and although these did not lead
to many fundamental observations,
some of the results are presented here
which appear to be of interest. In some
tests in which cyclic creep occurred, the
continuous extension of the gage length
up to 4 per cent strain has been plotted
against number of cycles (log scale) in
in the distinctly different stages of
creep-cycle rate that are evident in
Fig. 12. There is also the remarkable
feature of fracture ductility increased
under cyclic conditions by 200 to 300
per cent over that found in static mono-
tonic tension. This behavior is found to a
lesser extent in other materials (5).
Cyclic creep effects in the notched
 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 41

Y
^ L-!-/Vo. 061 Smax SB R-0.46
X-^No. 064 S„ax 68 R-0.46
[ 1 j
l ^ / V o 066 Smax 68 R-0.33
/

/
\
No. 050
64 R-OA 4

y
7^
/
^
, /
/

No. 063 S„ox

64 R-0.47

i 8
^
Jo. or.? Sma
4 R-l.0.60
y / ^
No. 0 6rs„ ax
66 R -0.33

1 /
/

/
/
/
r
I

A )
^
y
--'
&
.s
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 MOO 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800

Cyclic Lifetime
FIG. 12.—Cyclic Creep Data Plotted to a Linear Lifetime Scale, Plain Specimens.

2.6

\ R-0.46
2.4
Smax rZOi c
R+0.075
2.2
72.0
\ JR + 0 33
S 2.0
Smax 68.0
R-0.46
•^ 1.8
Smox7l.5
o
C
/ R+0.075 M
^ 1.6 8/nox^

'y^J
o> R+O.C775
c
o
ID 1.4

! 1.2 X ^0.0 A
0)
R + 0.525
o
^8ffj ax 60.0
1.0 SmaxSO-O
> - 0.46 R+0075 ~
as • ^

0.6
Cyclic Lifetime
FIG. 13,—Cyclic Elongation, Notched Specimens.

specimens were small and relatively results obtained for very high maximum
localized; however, extensometer meas- stresses and various stress ratios are
urements were made on a Ij-in. gage shown in Fig. 13. Fracture elongations
length across the notched section, and for all the tests lie between 1 and 2.6
42 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

3°
10" 2 5 IQI 2 5 IQZ 2 5 |o3 2 5 ,34 2 5 .QS

Cyclic Lifetime
FIG. 14.—Variation of Total and Repeated Hysteresis Loop Width During Lifetime.

Cyclic Lifetime

FIG. 15.—Variation of Total and Repeated Loop Width During Life.

 BELL AND BENHAM ON EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH 43

per cent, and for a particular stress
ratio elongation increases with the maxi-
mum stress.
From the records of hysteresis loops,
the variation of plastic strain range
during a number of the tests on plain
specimens was determined. It has been
the solid curve is the total plastic strain
range, tj,i (Fig. 10). The difference be-
tween the two curves (Fig. 14) represents
the cyclic creep strain per cycle.
Each curve shows an initial period of
reducing strain range which is greater as
stress ratio changes from negative to

10 20 30 •40
' 4 0 * f5;0 ' ' 7 0 80 100 150
Stress Range, tons per sq in.
FIG. 16.—Cyclic Plastic Strain Range Versus Total Stress Range, Unnotched Specimens.

plotted against number of cycles for a positive. As R varies from —0.46 to

constant maximum stress of 68 tons
per sq in. and various stress ratios in
Fig. 14. Three of the curves, marked F,
lead to fatigue, while the other three
resulted in ductile rupture. In this latter
case two quantities have been plotted
for plastic-strain range. The broken
line in Fig. 14 represents the width of the
closed part of the loop, tpr (Fig. 10), and
+0.48 the values of plastic strain range
diminish. In curves leading to fatigue,
the extensometer was removed from the
specimen in ample time to avoid damage
at fracture; thus the curves represent
only part of the endurance.
Further results are shown in Fig. 15
for two specific stress ratios, R = —0.46
and —0.33, and various maximum stress
44 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

values. As would be expected, plastic- In order to obtain a measure of the

strain range diminished with decreasing
maximum stress.
The two final features of interest are
illustrated in Figs. 16 and 17. In Fig. 16
the average cyclic plastic strain range is
plotted against the stress range for vari-
ous stress ratios; it is seen that a linear
relationship results, including those speci-
energy expended during the low-cycle
fatigue tests, the area of the hysteresis
loops was measured and summed
throughout the life of a specimen. The
total energy to fracture has been plotted
against endurance in Fig. 17. Although
there is quite a spread of points, some
of which may be due to the error in

1.6x10°

1.5 J
• R = -l.00
1.4 » R=-0.60 /
• R=-0.46
].3 0 R = -0.I0 /
» R =+0.075
a R = +0.33 /
1.2 " R-+0.48
c = Creep Faiure
1.0

0.9
•
0.8
w 1
0.7 i o
a
• / (Very Sm ill Loops )
06 Y^ • /
0.5
c 1
0.4 T 9

/
/

•
0.3
A
0.2

0.1 v ^ B
(Very Small Loops)
0.0
2 5 IQS 2 5 |o4

Cyclic L i f e T i m e , f r a c t u r e

FIG. 17.—Total Cyclic Energy to Fracture Versus Lifetime, Repeated Loops (Summation of
Repeated Loop Areas for Each Cycle to Fracture).

mens failing by cyclic creep, in which
case tpr has been used. Over the range
studied, mean stress appears to have
virtually no influence on plastic-strain
range, and the line in Fig. 16 is repre-
sented by the equation:
It is probably mere coincidence that
the constant 141 is almost twice the
tensile strength of the material, which
would give for this steel:
" > = < ? , 0.127
measuring the area of very small loops,
it appears that the results might be repre-
sented by one smooth curve, as shown,
of increasing energy with increasing en-
durance, which again appears to be
independent of stress ratio.
SUMMARY
The effect of local yielding on notched
specimens was to reduce the effective
mean stress and hence increase the al-
lowable stress amplitude for a particular
endurance, as illustrated in the Sa-Sm
 B E L L AND BENHAM ON E F F E C T OF M E A N STRESS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH
diagram. A fatigue-strength reduction
factor defined as the ratio of unnotched
to notched maximum stress at constant
mean stress and endurance gave the
most satisfactory method of correlating
unnotched and notched fatigue data.
The region of overlap between long-
endurance high-frequency and low-cycle
low-frequency fatigue curves generally
exhibited a reduction in fatigue strength
at low frequency, b u t blending in with
the high-frequency curves for unnotched
material beyond endurances of 20 X 10^
cycles. At stress ratios of 0.075 and
— 0.46, the low-frequency notched curves
showed an increase in strength above
REFERENCES
(1) J. 0 . Smith, "The Effect of Range of
Stress on the Fatigue Strength of Metals,"
University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XXXIX,
No. 26 (1942).
(2) B. J. Lazan and A. A. Blatherwick,
"Strength Properties of Rolled Aluminum
Alloys Under Various Combinations of
Alternating and Mean Axial Fatigue
Stresses," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 53, p. 856 (1953).
(3) A. R. Woodward, K. G. Gunn, and G.
Forrest, "The Effect of Mean Stress on the
Fatigue of Aluminum Alloys," Inter-
national Conference on Fatigue, Inst.
Mechanical Engrs., p. 158, Sept., 1956.
(4) K. Gunn, "Effect of Yielding on the
Fatigue Properties of Test Pieces Contain-
ing Stress Concentrations," Aeronautical
Quarterly, Vol. VI, Nov., 1955.
(5) P. P. Benham, "Axial Load and Stran-
Cycling Fatigue of Copper at Low Ein
durance," Journal Inst, of Metals, Vol. 89,
No. 9, p. 328 (1961).
(6) P. P. Benham and H. Ford, "Low En-
durance Fatigue of a Mild Steel and an
Aluminum Alloy," Journal of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 119
(1961).
(7) M. H. Weisman and M. H. Kaplan, "The
Fatigue Strength of Steel Through the
Range from 5 to 30,000 Cycles of Stress,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
50, p. 649 (1950).
45
10'' cycles. The concept of "minimum
fatigue life" was observed for all positive
stress ratios varying from lO"* cycles at
R = 0.075 to 106 (.ycles at R = 0.91.
Under conditions of positive mean
stress but negative stress ratio, a cyclic
creep mechanism leading to ductile rup-
ture occurred up to endurances of about
5 X 10' cycles for unnotched specimens.
Other stress ratios gave conventional
fatigue failures down to 10 cycles en-
durance.
Diagrams of plastic strain range versus
stress range and total energy to fracture
versus endurance show relationships
which are virtually independent of stress
ratio.
(8) W. Illg, "Fatigue Tests on Notched and
Unnotched Sheet Specimens of 2024-T3
and 7075-T6 Aluminum Alloys and of
SAE 4130 Steel with Special Considera-
tion of the Life Range from 2 to 10,000
Cycles," NACA TN 3866 (1956).
(9) W. C. Brueggeman and M. Mayer, "Guides
for Preventing Buckling in Axial F'atigue
Tests on Thin Sheet Metal Specimens,"
NACA TN 931 (1941).
(10) W. J. Bell, "The Effect of Stress Concen-
trations and Local Plastic Deformation
on the Fatigue Properties of Stainless
Steel Sheet," Ph.D. Thesis, London
University (1961).
(11) R. E. Peterson, "Review of F'atigue of
Metals Field," Applied Mechanical Review,
Vol. 5, No. 1 (1952).
(12) F. Stuessi, "Theory and Test Result on the
Fatigue of Metals," Proceedings, Am. Soc.
Civil Engrs., Journal Structures Div., Vol.
85, No. ST8, p. 65, Oct., 1959.
(13) W. H. Burton, "A Practical Method of
Fatigue Stress Analysis," Aircraft Engi-
neering, Vol. XXVII, p. 299, Sept., 1955.
(14) H. F. Hardrath and L. Ohman, "A Study
of Elastic and Plastic Stress Concentra-
tion Factors Due to Notches and Fillets in
Flat Plates," NACA Report 1117 {and TN
2566) (1951).
(15) G. P. Tilly and P. P. Benham, "Load
Cycling in the Low Endurance Range in
46 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Relation to Brittle Fracture of Mild Steel,"
Journal, Iron and Steel Inst., Vol. 200,
No. 3, p. 216 (1962).
(16) H. F. Hardrath, C. B. Landers, and E. C.
Utley, "Axial I^oad Fatigue Tests on
Notched and Unnotched Sheet Specimens
of 615-T6 Aluminum Alloy, Annealed 347
Stainless Steel and Heat Treated 403 Stain-
less Steel," iV/lC4 TN 3017 (1953).
(17) C. T. Mackenzie and P. P. Benham,
"Low Cycle Fatigue of an Aluminum-
Copper Alloy B. S. L65," Journal, Royal
Aeronautical Soc, Vol. 66, No. 614, p. 129
(1962).
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE CHARACTERISTICS OF ULTRAHIGH-

S T R E N G T H STEELS

B Y C. M. CARMAN, 1 D. F. ARMIENTO, 1 AND H. MARKUS 2

SYNOPSIS

The low-cycle fatigue properties (10 to 20 cycles) of Ladish D6A steel at a

yield strength of 240,000 psi were investigated at a constant value of crack-
tip driving force. Two specimen thicknesses (0.160 and 0.075 in.) were studied.
The data were analyzed using Irwin's steady-state model, and a correlation
was found. The behavior exhibited may be divided into two classes: (1)
"thick-plate" and (2) "thin-plate." In the thick-plate behavior the p'ate
thickness is greater than the local plastic-zone size at the advancing tip of the
crack. The elastic constraint, therefore, dominates the rate cf crack propaga-
tion. Because of the lower elastic constraint present in a 45-deg oblique shear
fracture, the rate of crack propagation at a constant driving force is less than
for the cup-cone condition. In the thin-plate behavior, the shear displacement
on the F axis dominates rather than the elastic constraint. The 45-deg ob'ique
shear type of fracture, therefore, results in a greater rate of crack extension
because the vertical shear displacements are larger than for the cup-cone type
of fracture.

MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS fatigue failure has been associated with

g> strain energy release rate ultrahigh-strength steels which are stres-
gc, critical strain energy release rate for fast sed to a high percentage of their yield
fracture and fracture toughness strength.
g / c , plane strain fracture toughness Failures of these materials usually
<r, gross section stress occur by fast fracture in which the origin
W, specimen width of the fracture can frequently be traced
B, specimen thickness to some small flaw or pre-existent crack.
a, \ crack length The science of fracture mechanics as
E, Young's modulus developed by Irwin (l)3 offers a means of
<T,IS , yield strength a t 0.20 p e r cent offset
estimating the maximum allowable crack
N, number of cycles
t, strain size to avoid rapid fracture. Defects
which are subcritical in size before load-
In recent years there has been in- ing may grow by slow crack extension
creased interest in the problem of fail- and possibly reach critical size after
ures that occur after a limited number several loading cycles.
of loading cycles.. This type of low-cycle Since the materials of interest are
1
Metallurgist, Metallurgy Research Labora- heat treated to high strength levels, the
tory, Research and Development Group, Frank- fracture mechanics approach, used quite
ford2 Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa.
Director, Metallurgy Research Laboratory, 3
Research and Development Group. Frankford The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa. to the list of references appended to this paper.
47
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
48 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
successfully for other high-strength ma-
terials problems, would be appropriate
to obtain meaningful behavior data
which would lend itself to analysis.
The basic mathematical model of
fracture mechanics has been carefully
reviewed by Irwin (2). In this review he
has defined the force conjugate to speed
of crack extension as the rate of dissipa-
tion of strain energy with crack exten-
sion, g. The study of the rate of slow
crack extension, as previously advocated
(3), as a function of the g value or crack
tip strain field was followed in this in-
vestigation.
MATERIAL
The material used for this investiga-
tion was D6Ac steel supplied by the
TABLE I.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF D6Ac STEEL.
Carbon, per cent 0.46
Manganese, per cent 0.79
Phosphorus, per cent 0.005
Sulfur, per cent 0.007
Sihcon, per cent 0.18
Nickel, per cent 0.51
Chromium, per cent 0.98
Molybdenum 0.95
Vanadium, per cent 0.07
Ladish Co. Plate samples 0.160 and
0.075 in. thick were obtained by flatten-
ing and grinding roll ring forgings. The
chemical composition of the material is
given in Table I.
Samples of this steel were austenitized
at 1550 F and cooled in an air blast. The
specimens were tempered for 4 hr at
650 F to develop 240,000 psi yield
strength at 0.20 per cent offset.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Centrally notched fracture test speci-
mens 3 by 12 in. from both the longi-
tudinal and the transverse directions,
were used for this investigation. After
heat treatment, a central slot 0.500-in.
long was cut in the specimen by elec-
trical-discharge machining. The speci-
mens were then subjected to reversed
bending in a Krouse plate fatigue ma-
chine to initiate a fatigue crack at the
ends of the notch to act as crack starters.
These fatigue cracks are indicated on the
fracture surfaces in Fig. 1.
Both a flat fracture and a 45-deg
shear lip were present in the fracture of
the 0.160-in. thick specimens, as shown
in Fig. 1. Ink staining indicated that the
flat portion of the crack tunneled into
the specimen a greater distance than the
surface crack. To obtain the relation be-
tween the internal flat crack length and
the surface crack length, a series of
specimens for each thickness and direc-
tion were ink stained or heat tinted, or
both, at various stages of crack exten-
sion. The results for the 0.160-in. thick
specimens are shown in Fig. 2. The ad-
justed crack length, arbitrarily computed
by dividing the area of the actual crack
by the thickness of the specimen rather
than using the surface crack length,
was used to compute values of g.
The results obtained for the 0.075-in.
thick specimens (Figs. 3 and 4) indicate
that the fractures of these specimens
showed full shear.
The initial crack length (notch plus
fatigue crack) of the specimen was
measured with a traveling micrometer
microscope, and the value of load re-
quired to produce a given value of crack
tip driving force, g, was computed by
solving Eq 1 (4) for a:
a--W
Q =
t)
h +
-t- ^
tan I - (1)
E \W 2Wa
The specimen was loaded in uniaxial
tension to the calculated value, held for 3
min, and then released. The surface
crack length, measured with the travel-
ing micrometer microscope, was used to
determine the effective crack length
from Figs. 2 or 4.
The value of the effective crack length
was used in Eq 1 to compute the value
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE or ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 49

of load required to reproduce the same EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND

value of g. The cycle was then repeated.
The g values used for cycling were
kept below the critical value of fracture
toughness, which was predetermined
and is given in Table II.
DISCUSSION
Typical curves of crack growth versus
number of cycles at various 9 values for
the 0.160-in. thick specimens are shown
in Figs. 5 and 6. For these heavier speci-

FiG. 1.—Study of Crack Shape for D6Ac Steel, 0.160 In. Thick; Yield Strength, 240,000 psi.
Arrows indicate extent of heat-tinted crack.
50 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

X A
ff»

o
J3
z
0>

O
LJ fl
01
u
1-
(J
to fa
I -5
y
^ \ ^ N.
,^ < (fl (/J
0) T3
C

>
1-
H
2 H
°g CI J^
tin

\K - H
„ F-l
H Q 1^
1 UJ
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1 z
Q. o
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l\K
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• 1

Nl ' HiONan MOTUO IVNUaiNI

H
6
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Xx-^ H

73
o
lil
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< I^

X T3 tfi
:
zo if M u5
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-1

a.
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t- <

!! M
rt tn M
^
3"
1^
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1 ~;
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[n.Si H
Ni'MisNan Novtio nvNuaiNi J3
 CAKMAN ET AL OK FATIGUE OF ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 51

mens there is a fairly rapid crack growth this phenomenon is associated with the
for the first three to four cycles, after shear lip development. There is an
which the rate of crack growth becomes equilibrium value of shear lip for each
relatively constant. I t is believed that value of 9 3.t which the specimen is

at'-*im

FIG. 3.—Study of Fracture Appearance for D6Ac Steel.

Three longitudinal specimens, 0.075 in. thick, yield strength 240,000 psi.
52 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

O
A
d
o
\ X
\ "*
X N\
\\ ^ 1-
v> o
3
^ a< I: ti5
\\r\ V ^
IN \
•v\i "
1 "
-u
ri
rt
\ <
x\ t«
^hn

te^,'
tn
I
r\i . ~ G S

J 1 \
a.
1
°fe o \ \ E
TS t^
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1-
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\ l\ -a
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oc
c
• 1
\ h-l OS

\ ^u
OS
•n
B
•-<
U
'Nl' H10N3n >OVtl3 nVNb31NI
c
H a
o aj
^ \ V X
a
s H -*J

•n
c

pp

\ X

\ \ •** O
H LJ

3
1^^
~>
a
<
i H
o
w
z
Q. ^ O
0. -»
J3
\I' m 5!
9 M o
h-
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a

. 1
Si
\
tn
J3
-Nl H19N3-I yiytva -iwa^iM
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE OF ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 53

cycled. During the first few cycles of
loading the crack growth is fairly high
until this equilibrium value of shear lip
is attained. This effect is illustrated by
both the curves and small macrographs
in Figs. 5 and 6.
Irwin (5) has suggested a steady-state
length-number of cycles curve in the
linear part, r^s is the plastic zone size
and is equal to E^/irays^, and C is a
numerical constant. In analyzing fatigue
data on 7075-T6 aluminum, Irwin found
that a value for C of 0.02 fit the data
points fairly well.

TABLE II.—FRACTURE TOUGHNESS VALUES AT INSTABILITY FOR D6Ac STEEL

Direction W, in. B, in. Breaking la, in. 8c , in-lb Per Cent

Load,lb per sq in. Shear

Longitudinal 3.00 0.166 28 500 1.042 206 30.3

3,00 0.164 23 300 1.10 150 19.1
3.00 0.075 22 700 1.016 684 100
Transverse 3.00 0.077 24 200 1.076 890 too

NUMBER OF CYCLES,N

FIG. S.—Slow Crack Extension of Transverse Specimen T-22.

Note extent of fatigue crack and shear lip formation (approx XI2).

model to describe crack growth in fa- Corten (3) has modified the expression
tigue, in which the coordinates are fixed to account for the zero intercept as
and the material flows past the co- follows:
ordinates at a fixed rate. Mathematically
this may be expressed as:
da
TN = ^'-
(2)
da
— = 0.02
dN
EQ
^
Tro-ys* ar
where £ic is the plane strain fracture
.(3)

where da/dN is the rate of crack propa- toughness. This expression was used to
gation defined as the slope of the crack analyze the data in this investigation.
54 SYMPOSIUM ON F A T I G U E O F AiECRArx STRUCTURES

Table III summarizes the data ob- mens T5, TB, L l l , L7, L4, and L3. The
tained for the 0.160-in. thick specimens. experimental values of da/dN are con-
In Fig. 7(a) are plotted the values of siderably larger than predicted from Eq

1.24

1.20

G = I25
1.16

1.12

i.oa

1.04

1.00

G =IIS
0.96

0.92

o.ae

0.84

G= 100
0.76

NUMBER OF CYCLES, N

FIG. 6.—Slow Crack Extension of Transverse Specimen T-B.

Note extent of fatigue crack and shear lip formation (approx X12).

da/dN versus g for specimens T22, T24,
L5, L2, L6, and T21, the results of which
are in agreement with the values pre-
dicted from Eq 3. In Fig. 7(6) are plotted
the values of da/dN versus g for speci-
3 using the same value of the constant
C. Scatter will be observed in these data,
but this is not considered unusual in
fatigue phenomena.
In supposedly identical specimens of
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE OF ULTKAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 55

the same material, 50 per cent of the
data agree with calculated values from
the steady-state model, and the re-
mainder show growth rates in excess of
those predicted. The fracture toughness
developed in these specimens does not
vary as inferred by the per cent shear
measured after cycling at g = 125.
Therefore, this effect is not the con-
trolling factor (see Table I I I ) . Further
examination of this table shows that the
fracture contours of the specimens that
agree with predictions from Eq 3 show
crack approaches the surface with a
characteristic lead of the tip to shear
lag, and the crack front shape is estab-
lished (Fig. 8(a)).
Upon unloading, the crack is forced
closed by the surrounding elastic field,
but the y displacements cannot be
zeroed because the crack is propped
open by the crack tip plastic zone. How-
ever, the plastic zone is not about the
axis perpendicular to the sheet surface
but along the tunneled front profile.
Collapse of the load will leave a residual

TABLE III. -SUMMARY OF SLOW CRACK GROWTH DATA FOR 0,160-IN. THICK
SPECIMENS OF D6Ac STEEL.

^ FOR A EQUAL TO ;
SHEAR,
FRACTURE
PER CENT
PROFILE
100 115 125 150 175 185 200 215 225 240

T22 0,0009 0.0009 0.0008 r--,M 25.3

T24 0,001 1 0.0012 0.0012 Mrl 26.2
L5 0.0003 0.0005 0.0003 00016 MM 22.4
L2 0.00006 O0005 0.0008 0.0005 0.0026 0.0031 Mri 237
L6 0.0002 0.0004 0,0007 0.00 1 3 0.0027 0.0027 0-0017 00014
MM 21.3
T2I 0.000 2 0.0007 0.0003 O0027 00026 0.003 MM 246
T5 O002 6 0.0033 0.0033 MM 26.6
TB 0.0015 0.0035 0.0060 MM 22.6
L-ll O.OOII 0.0033 0.0025
j
MM 23.4

^' 000006 00010 0.0090

Mrl 226

L4 00005 0.0006 0.0001 0.0020 0.0051 MM 23.0

L3 0.0017 00035 0.0050

aligned 45-deg obhque shear lips except
for specimen L5; the fracture contour
of the specimens that disagree show
elements of the cup-cone fracture, except
for specimens L7 and L4. These speci-
mens show 45-deg oblique shear lips
which are oriented in opposite directions
on each side of the specimen.
The following tentative phenomeno-
logical explanation has been proposed
(6). I t will be assumed that a more severe
restraint is placed on the plastic strain
zone at the crack tip by the cup-cone
type fracture.
As the load is applied, the crack ex-
tends in the center, shear occurs as the
stress pattern sufficient to accomplish
some compressive plastic strain toward
the tail as shown in Fig. 8{b).
The compressive plastic deformation
occurs to an increasing degree toward
the tail of the crack as the elastic open-
ing, Av, contracts through greater y
displacement toward this region. This
is the irreversible part of the cycle, and
in the case of high elastic constraint
the effect is intensified.
Upon reloading, the yield stress pat-
tern changes; the Bauschinger effect
prevents the tail of the crack tip from
supporting its previous unitensile share
of the load. 9 is intensified at the crack
56 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

z m • •+
UJ <D
z
o
tu lO CD = K ^ •<>
a. 1 1 1 1 I 1
v> 1- H -1 -1 -J -1

1-1

11
0 \
\ a .5
\ 03 >

1
1

ill
-i
<
>
• «i
•

^^'—41"
a • u
u
t-
<
_i

O
_J
JO
<
o

o
b

z
Ui • 0 > 0 x <]
J3
UJ eg M <" C^ U> N
(0 H H J J J h-

a; O

X d
rt J5
1 \. X
o x < \ a
o a o
o
OJ (T u
UJ d
o
1 NyX \
i5 CO Ml
UJ \ 3 a
3 z o
3
O ® 2 - -7^,
UJ
t-
< TS O
O
-J

anoAD dSd'Ni'
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE o r ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 57

tip, and the crack extends to re-estab-

lish equilibrium (Fig. 8(c)).
o.-A -A' The importance of this effect can be
realized from Eq 3. In this expression
STHESSFIELD
the (Xys occurs as a squared term in the
NOT CRACK TIP
VALUE
denominator, and even relatively small
changes in <T„S would produce a large
change in the EQ/ir<Tys' term. The reduc-
tion in yield strength by the Bauschinger
STRAIN FIELD
SPECIMEN
NOT CRACK TIP L-f 0 T-B •
0 9 •
VALUE o zr A
V 22 »
X 24®
+
(o) Initial loading.
i „

1 X
•H- 6^ FOR SPECIMENS NOT
MTI6UE CYCLED
e
9
y-

STRESS FIELD
^

! V^^^<r„ l<^

STRAIN FIELD
100 200 9 00
FINAL A IN-LB PER SO IN. VALUE IN FATIGUE

FIG. 9.—Relationship Between the go Value

for Crack Growth Instability and the Final g
(6) Unloading. Value Used for Cycling.

effect may be relatively large. Nadai (7)

has indicated a substantial loss of yield
ORIGINAL STRESS FIELD
strength.
PATTERN I t has also been observed that the
PATTERN UPON RELOAD IF
STRESS FIELD PLASTIC DEFORMATION g^ values at instability correlate well
IS ABSENT
ACTUAL PATTERN CRACK with the last g value used in cycling
EXTENDS at TO RESTORE
EQUILIBRIUM (Fig. 9).
Typical crack growth-cycle curves
at various g values for the 0.075-in.
thick specimens are shown in Figs. 10
STRAIN FIELD and 11. One specimen shows a very rapid
slow crack growth (Fig. 10) for a few
cycles and then shows a slow and steady
(c) Reloading. rate of slow crack extension. This speci-
FIG, 8.—Stress and Strain Distribution in men showed a cup-cone type fracture.
Crack Tip Region.
58 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRCUTURES

G-600

2 4 fi 8 10 12 14 16 IS 2<
NUMBER OF CYCLES, N

FIG. 10.—Slow Crack Extension of Longitudinal Specimen L-4, 0.075 In. Thick.
Note extent of fatigue crack and fracture formation (approx X12).

G • 600

y
/
NUMBER OF CYCLES, N

FIG. IF—Slow Crack Extension of Transverse Specimen T-3, 0.075 In. Thick.
Note extent of fatigue crack and shear fracture formation (approx X12).
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE OF ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS 59

The other specimen shows a rapid
and fairly constant rate of slow crack
growth (Fig. 11) and a fracture of 45 deg
oblique shear. These specimens could be
cycled at higher values of g than the
heavy 0.160-in. thick specimens. Table
IV summarizes the data obtained for
the 0.075-in. specimens.
In Fig. 12(a) are plotted the values of
da/dN as a function of 9 for 0.075-in.
thick specimens L2, L4, T7, T4, and
T5, which exhibited elements of the
cup-cone fracture. These results are in
than for the cup-cone fracture; thus it
would be anticipated that the 45-deg
oblique fracture profile would show the
faster slow crack-growth rates.
SUMMARY
A correlation exists between the steady
state model as proposed by Irwin and
the results of this investigation. How-
ever, two specific types of behavior are
evident in the data which are a function
of specimen thickness, and they can be
explained to some degree by the con-

TABLE IV.—SUMMARY OF SLOW CRACK GROWTH DATA FOR 0.075-IN. THICK

SPECIMENS OF D6Ac STEEL.

j^ ronh EQUAL TO;

FRACTURE SHEAR,
SPECIMEN PROFILE PER CENT
400 450 500 SZS 600
T-6 0.007 3 0.0147 h h 100
L-l 0.0079 h h 100
' T-1 0.0 ISO h h 100
T-3 0.0220 h A 100
T-7 0.0024 0.0046 M h 100
L-2 0.0012 M h 100
T-4 0.0090 M h 100
T-5 0.0090
n h 100
L-4 0O009 M n 100

qualitative agreement with the predicted
values of Eq 3. In Fig. 12(6) are plotted
the values of da/dN versus g for speci-
mens T6, L I , T l , and T3 which showed
45-deg oblique fracture and much greater
rates of slow crack extension. These
effects are opposite to those observed
for the heavier specimens. The 0.160-in.
thick specimens with the cup-cone type
of fracture showed the greatest rate of
crack growth, whereas the 0.075-in. thick
specimens with oblique shear showed
the largest crack growth rate. These
results, however, are congruent. For the
thin specimens which fail in full shear,
the vertical y displacements are easier
to attain for the 45 deg oblique shear
sideration of two factors: (1) the elastic
constraint present in the specimen, and
(2) the ease with which vertical shear
displacement can be attained.
In the thick-plate behavior, which is
exemplified by the 0.160-in. specimens,
the plate thickness is substantially
larger than the local plastic zone size
at the advancing tip of the crack. The
elastic constraint, therefore, dominates
the rate of crack propagation. Because
of the lower elastic constraint present
in a 45 deg obhque shear fracture, the
rate of crack propagation at a constant
driving force is less than that for the
cup-cone condition.
In the thin-plate behavior, the shear
60 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

1
1
1 hn
ffl
l n
o, >
^"^"^ a
\ fl
Li
Q
1 Cl fi,
1 J2
1
H
U \ u
<>
_J
1 U
; 3

1
• X + <1 Q o o
U
\ u £3
5 •a
|I- _l H t- O lO
_l
•1 0
o 3
-c h

3~I3A3 tl3d Nl '

!
X + <] a
1
^ cj • m
! -
1
J
< •
1 - 1- I \ t §
-+ ' r-V
\
1-

— —A— •i
1
1 \ o PL,
t
1 '
\
1 I

;
)f
-
^ S
CO C J

i
i
I 2
fa
c ) c 10
5
< < :>
313Jk3 H3<j Nl '
 CARMAN ET AL ON FATIGUE OF ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH STEELS
displacement on the y axis dominates
rather than the elastic constraint. T h e
45-deg oblique shear type of fracture,
therefore, results in a greater rate of
crack extension because the vertical
shear displacements are larger than for
the cup-cone type of fracture.
REFERENCES
(1) G. R. Irwin, Encyclopedia of Physics, Vol.
VI, Julius Springer, Heidelberg (1958).
(2) G. R. Irwin, "Relation of Crack Toughness
Measurements to Practical Applications,"
Welding Journal Research Supplement,
November, 1962.
(3) H. T. Corten, "Slow Crack Extension in
High-Strength Steels," Proceedings, Seventh
Sagamore Ordnance Materials Research
Conference, Aug. 16 to 19, 1960, Vol. IV,
p. 117.
61
Acknowledgment:
The authors wish to thank G, R.
Irwin and J. M. Krafft of the Mechanics
Division of Naval Research Laboratory
for their assistance and advice during
the course of this investigation.
(4) "Fracture Testing of High-Strength Sheet
Materials: A Report of a Special ASTM
Committee," ASTM BULLETIN, N O . 243,
Jan., 1960, p. 29; No. 244, Feb., 1960, p. 18.
(5) G. R. Irwin, Lecture Series Presented at the
Department of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, University of Illinois, December,
1961.
(6) J. M. Krafft, private communications.
(7) A. Nadai, Plasticity, McGraw Hill Book
Co., New York, N. Y. (1931).
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

LOW-CYCLE F A T I G U E OF Ti-6A1-4V A T - 4 2 3 F

B Y R. R. H I L S E N , 1 C. S. Y E N , 1 AND B. V. WHITESON 1

SYNOPSIS

To determine the effects of various factors on low-cycle fatigue phenomena

in connection with space vehicle design, axial tension fatigue tests up to 2000
cycles were conducted on titanium alloy, Ti-6A1-4V, at —423 F. The effects of
changing the minimum-to-maximum load ratio and cycling speed for the range
tested were slight. The fatigue strength of pressure-welded specimens was
within 1 per cent of that of the base metal. Fatigue strengths at —423 F were
65 to 68 per cent higher than those at room temperature.
Two types of fractures were observed, depending on the fatigue life. A
transition in the fracture appearance occurred between 700 and 2000 cycles in
which the fracture changed from a cup-and-cone to a more typical surface-
initiated fatigue fracture. Cycling below the ultimate tensile strength tended
to raise the fatigue strength above the static tensile strength. Possible mecha-
nisms are discussed.

Present missile and space system re- vessels, it is necessary to duplicate or

quirements place considerable emphasis
on structural materials capable of with-
standing load repetitions relatively few
in number but high in stress amplitude.
A recent review article by Yao and
Munse (l)2 summarizes much of the work
done on low-cycle fatigue. Wood (2) and
Frost (3) have suggested that a different
mechanism separates material response
in the low cyclic range from the more
familiar high-cycle fatigue. Behavior
observed in the uniaxial fatigue tests of
annealed Ti-6A1-4V reported here pro-
vides additional evidence for the exis-
tence of separate mechanisms.
Annealed Ti-6A1-4V is one of the
materials currently^ used in cryogenic
pressure vessels. In the qualification
fatigue tests of these welded pressure
1
Missiles and Space Systems Division,
Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc., Santa Monica, Calif.
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper.
62
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
simulate the repeated service loads which
cycle from atmospheric to working pres-
sures. The proof test is accomplished by
internal pressurization of the vessel with
gaseous helium while submerged in
liquid hydrogen (—423 F). If the qualifi-
cation tests are conducted with the
minimum pressure slightly above, but
not equal to, atmospheric pressure, then
the pumping system is cheaper and
simpler. This change in minimum biaxial
pressure would be equivalent to varying
the R ratio (ratio of minimum to maxi-
mum load) in an axial fatigue test.
Accordingly, the effect of changing the
load ratio on the fatigue life of welded
Ti-6A1-4V at - 4 2 3 F was determined.
During service, the load at the peak
of each cycle is maintained for a period
that is too long to be practical for proof
testing; therefore, the effect of changing
the hold time or cycling speed on fatigue
life was determined. In addition, com-
 HiLSEN ET AL ON L O W - C Y C L E F A T I G U E OF Ti-6A1-4V A T —423 F 63

parisons between base metal and weld- TEST PROCEDURE

ment and the effect of temperature on Three heats (Table I) of annealed
fatigue strength were obtained. Ti-6A1-4V were tested. The specimens
from one heat (G8549) were obtained
TABLE I.—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION from Ij-in. diameter bar stock. Another
OF Ti-6A1-4V (ANNEALED), WEIGHT
PERCENTAGES. heat (M9779), 3-in. diameter bar stock,
was used for the pressure-welded speci-
Element
G8549, tw- M9779,3- D1700, 34- mens. The third heat (D1700), f-in.
in. Bar in. Bar in. Bar
bar, which was not welded, will be
Aluminum 6.0 6.6 6.2 described later.
Vanadium 4.1 4.1 4.1 Gas-pressure-welding consisted of forc-
Iron 0.19 0.18 0.19
Carbon. . . 0.020 0.028 0.026 ing together under high temperature and
Nitrogen. 0.010 0.020 0.016 high pressure the end surfaces of the
Hydrogen. 0.0048 0.0060 0.0057 segments to be joined. A 1.2-in. diameter
Oxygen. . . 0.11 0.13 0.15
hole was first bored through the center

3%" - 3Vi"

1.5"
r.
r
0.6"
lb) SECTION A-A, AFTER MACHINING, BEFORE WELDING,
TWO SYMMETRICAL PCS.

BORE 1.2' I.D.

(a) CROSS-SECTION OF
"TUBE STOCK" (c) SECTION A-A, AFTER WELDING

FIG. 1.—Tube Weld.

»/4-16 NF-3 THDS (2 PLCS)

BREAK SHARP EDGE BOTH ENDS

~1
0.750- D ,, ,-
0.000- — ( I H-'
0.005- ^^

CHAM 1/16" X 45°

BOTH ENDS

NOTE: 1. THREAD TO BE CONCENTRIC TO 0.250- ± O.OOr D, WITHIN 0.002-

TOTAl INDICATOR READING.
2. FINAL POLISH IN LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION.

FIG. 2.—Typical Fatigue Specimen.

64 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

of the 3-in. diameter bar stock to make and base metal specimens were annealed
it a tube. Then two 3|-in. long tubes for 1 hr at 1300 F followed by air cooling.
were welded together yielding six "tube" A typical fatigue specimen is shown

FIG. 3.—Cryogenic Fatigue Testing Machine.

specimens per "tube stock" (Fig. 1). in Fig. 2. Welded specimens were ma-
This method of welding together tubes chined with the weld located at the
approximates the welding practice used center of the bar where the diameter
on actual pressure vessels. All welded was a minimum (highest stress section).
 (a)

280 000

270 000-

FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR GIVEN LIFE, psi

10 CYCLES 100 CYCLES 1000 CYCLES
273 000 272 500 271 500

A STATIC TENSION
O R = 0.02
o R = 0.2
240 000-

oi
290 000.

(b)
280 000

•%

I 260 000
s
X
<
^ 250 000-
t. STATIC TENSION FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR GIVEN LIFE . psi
O R = 0.02 10 CYCLES 100 CYCLES 1000 CYCLES
O R = 0.2 271,000 270 500 270 0 0 0

(c)

280 000

270 000

FATIGUE STRENGTH FOR GIVEN LIFE, psi

A STATIC TENSION 10 CYCLES 100 CYCLES 1000 CYCLES

250,000 R = 0.2 271 500 269 500 267 500
O R = 0.02, 12 CPM
R = 0.02 263 500 262 500 260 500
• R = 0.02, 0.5 CPM
% CHANGE 3.0 2.7 2.7
O R = 0.2, 12 CPM
240,000-

oi
102 103
CYCLES TO FAILURE

(a) Heat M9779.

(b) Heat M9779, pressure weldments.
(c) Heat G8549.
FIG. 4.—Effect of R Ratio on Fatigue Strength of Ti-6A1-4V at - 4 2 3 F.
65
66 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Static tension tests were conducted on a wave form. Specimens were immersed in
standard universal testing machine. In Uquid hydrogen within a double-wall
the fatigue tests, repeated tension-ten- stainless steel cryostat during testing
sion load was applied by a 15,000-lb at - 4 2 3 F.

280 0 0 0 -

u! 270 0 0 0 - ^O^-^

S 260 0 0 0 - ^ A STATIC TENSION

>< A O 12 CPM
a 0.5 CPM

250 000
10 IC IflJ
CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIG. 5.—Effect of Cycling Speed on Fatigue Strength of Ti-6A1-4V (Heat M9779) Pressure
Weldments at - 4 2 3 F.

290

270-

^ PRESSURE WELDMENTS -423°F R = 0.02

250

^
"2 180-
PRESSURE WELDMENTS ROOM

X
< 160
-1 TEMPERATURE R ^ 0.03

FATIGUE STRENGTH OF PRESSURE, psi

WELDMENTS FOR GIVEN LIFE
(AVERAGE OF SCAHERBANDI
10 CYCLES 100 CYCLES 1000 CYCLES
140
-423°F 271 0 0 0 270 500 270 0 0 0
R.T. 164 0 0 0 162 0 0 0 160 500
% CHANGE 65 200 66 9 0 0 68 2 0 0

10 102 103 10"

CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIG. 6.—Effect of Temperature on Fatigue Strength of Ti-6A1-4V (Heat (M9779) Pressure

Weldments.

hydraulic jack connected to a pump E F F E C T OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON

(Fig. 3). An oscilloscope and a recording FATIGUE STRENGTHS FROM 10
oscillograph connected to a strain gage TO 1000 CYCLES AT - 4 2 3 F
load ring were used to measure the load. The effect of changing the load ratio
The load cycles were essentially a square- from R = 0.02 to R = 0.20 on fatigue
 HiLSEN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF Ti-6A1-4V AT —423 F 67

strength (maximum alternating stress) FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS

was slight. This increase in R ratio caused
a negligible increase in strength (maxi-
mum cyclic stress) for base-metal (Fig.
4(a)) and pressure-welded specimens
(Fig. 4(6)) from heat M9779 and up to
3 per cent for base-metal specimens from
heat G8549 (Fig. 4(c)).
Fatigue strength was not affected
measurably by varying the cycling speed
from 0.5 to 12 cpm (Figs. 4(c) and 5).
The fatigue strength of pressure-welded
TABLE II.—FATIGUE RESULTS, Ti-6A1-4V (ANNEALED).
^ ^ Min Load
Specimen
Max Load
Two types of fatigue fractures were
observed for both base metal and weld-
ments (Fig. 9). A transition range existed
in the number of cycles required to pro-
duce a given type of fracture (Fig. 10).
One type, observed for all failures occur-
ring in less than 700 cycles and some up
to 2000 cycles, was similar to the cup-
and-cone fracture produced by static
tension testing in which the fracture is
Average Fatigue Strength (psi).
Speed, Temperature, Maximum Stress for Given Life
deg Fahr
cpm
10 Cycles 100 Cycles 1000 Cycles

E F F E C T OF LOAD RATIO

Base M e t a L G8549 . . 0.02 12 -423 263 500 262 500 260 500
Base M e t a l , G 8 5 4 9 . . 0.2 12 -423 271 500 269 500 267 500
P e r cent C h a n g e " . 3.0 2.7 2.7
Base M e t a L M 9 7 7 9 . . 0.02, 0.2 12 -423 273 000 272 500 271 500
Weldment, M 9 7 7 9 . . . 0.02, 0.2 12 -423 271 000 270 500 270 000
Weldment, M9779.. . 0.03 12 Room tem- 165 000 163 000 161 500
perature

QUALITY OF WELD

Base M e t a l , M 9 7 7 9 . . 0 02, 0 2 12 -423 273 000 272 500 271 500

Weldment, M9779.. . 0 02, 0 2 12 -423 271 000 270 500 270 000
P e r cent C h a n g e ' ' . . 0.7 0.7 0 6

" P e r cent change in fatigue s t r e n g t h due t o increasing R from 0.02 t o 0.2.

P e r cent difference in fatigue s t r e n g t h between base m e t a l and weldment.

specimens was increased 65 to 68 per center-nucleated. A shear lip existed

cent by decreasing the testing tempera-
ture from room temperature to —423 F
(Fig. 6). The average fatigue strength
of the pressure-welded specimens was
within 1 per cent of that of the base
metal (Table II). The welded micro-
structure (Fig. 7(a)) of plate-like alpha
in a beta matrix was comparable to that
of the base metal (Fig. 7(b)). The differ-
ence in microstructure between the base
metals (Figs. 7(b) and 8) was due to the
size of bar stock from which they were
obtained, the smaller bars having the
finer structure.
around the entire edge of the fracture,
and relatively large reduction in area
occurred. The other type, observed for
some failures occurring only after about
700 cycles, approached a more typical
fatigue fracture in which the the origin
appeared at the surface as noted by the
flat spot where no shear lip existed and
small reduction in area occurred.
To determine at what stage of the
fatigue process the necking occurred,
diameter measurements were recorded
progressively after various numbers of
68 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

cycles. Reduction seemed to occur in FATIGUE STRENGTH HIGHER

spurts rather than at a uniform rate, THAN STATIC
most of it just prior to failure (Fig. 11). In some cases, the fatigue strength is
Similar reductions were also observed higher than the ultimate tensile strength
by Benham and Ford (4) and Morrow (Table III), up to about 5 per cent at

Top: Pressure weldment.

Bottom: Heat M9779.
FIG. 7.—Ti-6A1-4V, Plate-like Alpha in Beta Matrix (X140.)
Etehant: 12 per cent HNO3 + 1 per cent H F + 87 per cent H2O.

and Sinclair (S) in steel at room tempera-
ture. A possible explanation for this be-
havior is suggested by Sines (6) in which
the energy to activate the plastic de-
formation or "cycHc creep" is obtained
from microacoustic waves produced from
dislocation interactions during cycling.
- 4 2 3 F (Table IV). This cannot be
attributed to the statistical scattering
effect, since sometimes the whole group
of fatigue specimens exhibited strength
higher than static. This interesting phe-
nomenon prompted further investiga-
tions using the third heat of Ti-6A1-4V.
 HiLSEN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OE Ti-6A1-4V AT - 4 2 3 F 69

When the fatigue machine was started, machines, static tension tests of six
for usually about three to eight cycles, identical specimens were conducted on
the maximum loads on the specimen both machines. The strain rate on the
were slightly below the designated maxi- fatigue machine was the same as that in

Top: Heat G8549.

Bottom: Heat D1700.
FIG. 8.—Ti-6A1-4V, Primary Alpha in Beta Matrix (X140).
Etchant: 12 per cent HNO3 + 1 per cent H F + 87 per cent H2O.

mum. It seems that the material is
strengthened rather than damaged dur-
ing these few cycles so that it can with-
stand a stress higher than the static.
To be certain that the effect was not
due to strain rate or any other differences
between the universal (1200 lb per min)
and fatigue (about 3,600,000 lb per min)
normal fatigue testing. The average
strength of three specimens on each
machine was the same, 264,000 psi
(Table V).
As further evidence of the strengthen-
ing eilect, six specimens were cycled on
the universal and fatigue testing ma-
chines while the load was increased
70 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

(a) Static tension fracture. Cup-cone.

(b) Low-cycle fatigue fracture. Cup-cone.
(c) High-cycle fatigue fracture. Origin at surface at point where no shear lip exists.
FIG. 9.—Typical Fractures, Ti-6A1-4V, Tested at - 4 2 3 F (X4). Reduced to ^ size in reproductior

CYCLES TO FAILURE

FIG. 10.—Reduction in .Area Versus Cycles to Failure for Ti-6A1-4V at —423 F.

HiLSEN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF Ti-6A1-4V AT - 4 2 3 F 71

COMPLHE FRAaURE -
CENTER NUCLEATED (a)
K-

SPECIMEN 5-4

SPECIMEN 5-3

o-p^^j^tisai^

(b)
< 10- COMPIETE FRACTURE
< (SURFACE NUCLEATEI^)
Z
Z 5 SPECIMEN B-7
O

I02 103 104

30 iO—

(cj
COMPLETE FAILURE -
25-

^ 60 CYCLES

10-

10 lOl 103 104

NUMBER OF CYCLES PROGRESSING

(a) M9779 at room temperature.

(b) G8549 at - 4 2 3 F.
(c) Heat D1700 tested at —423 F, program loaded (specimen Q, Table VI).
FIG. 11.—Reduction in Area Versus Number of Cycles Progressing for Ti-6A1-4V.
72 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

T A B L E I I I . — S T A T I C T E N S I L E S T R E N G T H , Ti-6A1^V (ANNEALED).

Yield Ultimate Elongation

Tensile Reduction
Specimen Temperature, deg tahr Strength, Strength, in 2 in., of Area,
psi psi per cent per cent

[ Room temperature" 138 500 146 000 15.0 36.0

Base M e t a l , G8549 -423 271 000 9.8''
-423 270 400 3.5 28.3
i
f Room temperature'' 139 000 149 000 17.0 30.0
Room temperature" 135 000 147 000 20.0 32.0
Base M e t a l M 9 7 7 9 <
-423 268 200 3.5 22.4
[ -423 262 600 3.0 19.4

[ Room temperature
Room temperature
138 800
138 700
149
149
300
100
9.5
11.5
38.9
41.8
Weldment, M9779 \
-423 257 800 2.5 22.2
-423 257 100 3.0 21.2
I
" Values listed on t e s t report for h e a t of m e t a l .
' F r a c t u r e originated at n o t c h caused b y extensometer grip.

TABLE IV.—COMPARISON OF STATIC TENSION AND FATIGUE STRENGTHS.

Min Load Cycles Fatigue Per Cent

Specimen and Number of Cycles Temperature, deg Fahr Max Load per Min Strength, psi Change*^

BASE METAL, G8549

Average Tensile S t r e n g t h : ' -423 270 700

10 -423 0.02 12 263 500 2.
100 -423 0.02 12 262 500 3,
1000 -423 0.02 12 260 500 3.

10 -423 0.2 12 271 500 -0.

100 -423 0.2 12 269 500 0.
1000 -423 0.2 12 267 500 1.

B.\8E M E T A L , M9779

Average Tensile Strength;* -423 265 400

10 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 273 000 -2.9
100 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 272 500 -2.7
1000 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 271 500 -2.3

WELDMENT, M9779

Average Tensile S t r e n g t h ; ' -423 257 500

10 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 271 000 -5.2
100 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 270 500 -5.0
1000 -423 0.02, 0.2 12 270 000 -4.8

Average Tensile S t r e n g t h : ' Room temperature 149 200

10" Room temperature 0.3 12 165 000 -10.6
100° Room temperature 0.3 12 163 000 -9.2
iooo<- Room temperature 0.3 12 161 500 -8.2

u l t i m a t e tensile s t r e n g t h — fatigue s t r e n g t h
" P e r cent change
u l t i m a t e tensile s t r e n g t h
'' Average tensile s t r e n g t h from static tension t e s t s .
' P a r t of high fatigue s t r e n g t h is p r o b a b l y due to strain r a t e since t i t a n i u m is s t r a i n - r a t e sensitive
a t room t e m p e r a t u r e .
 HiLSEN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF Ti-6A1-4V AT —423 F ?3

periodically as in coaxing tests. Final ening is strain aging due to interstitial

fatigue strength levels (272,000 to
286,000 psi) were always higher than
the static strength (264,000 psi) (Table
VI). Note that specimen D was cycled
on the universal test machine for only
five cycles.
To show that both fatigue and static
strength can be increased by previous
cycling, two fatigue specimens were
stressed at 258,000 and 260,000 psi,
respectively, for 2000 cycles without
failure. When tested to failure on the
universal test machine, both showed an
increase in strength from the 264,000 psi
solute atoms. Lipsitt and Wang (12) in
titanium alloys and Levy and Kanitkar
(13) in mild steel have shown the increase
in static and fatigue strengths and the
formation of a sharp knee in the S-N
curves due to strain aging. Tests are
continuing to determine if the observed
strengthening reported in this paper
T A B L E V I . — E F F E C T OF P R I O R CY-
C L I N G O N T H E S T R E N G T H O F Ti-6A1-
4V A T - 4 2 3 F , H E A T D-1700.
Cyclic Ultimate
Specimen Number of Stress, Strength
Cycles psi After
Cycling, psi

TABLE v . — E F F E C T OF LOAD-RATE
A 2000 258 000 271 000
ON U L T I M A T E T E N S I L E STRENGTH
B 2000 260 000 271 000
O F Ti-6A1-4V A T - 4 2 3 F , H E A T D-1700.

Testing Macliine and Ultimate

Specimen Load Rate Strengtii,
psi Number of
Total Final
Specimen Number of Cycles at Stress,
1 263 500 Cycles Final psi
Stress
2 F'atigue, 3 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 1 264 000
3 [ lb per min ) 264 500
Average 264 000 C 664 20 286 000»
D* 5 1 272 000
4 262 000 F 3.30 30 282 000'=
5 Universal, 1200 270 000 G 270 30 280 000"*
6 lb per min 261 000 I 886 386 275 000
Average 264 000 Q 966 66 279 000

" Specimen broke on a t t e m p t to increase

stress to 288,000 psi.
average ultimate tensile strength to ' T e s t e d on static tension machine in s t e p -
271,000 psi (Table VI). loading.
A review of fatigue literature revealed ° Specimen broke on a t t e m p t to increase
stress t o 284,000 psi.
similar strengthening resulting from ^ Specimen broke on attempt to increase
cycling. Broom, Molineaux, and Whit- stress t o 282,000 psi.
taker (7) reported that fatigue strengths
at over 100,000 cycles were higher than could be caused by strain aging within a
the static ultimate strength on annealed few cycles at —423 F.
commercially pure aluminum at — 297 F This cyclic strengthening could ac-
due to work hardening. This strengthen- count for the "minimum life" phenome-
ing may be similar to that observed by non observed by Hardrath, Landers,
McEvily and Machlin (8,9) in LiF, NaCl, and Utley (14) and Hardrath and lUg
and MgO, by Fegredo and Greenough (15,16). They noted that if a specimen
(10) in zinc, and by Wads worth (11) in cad- did not fail on the first cycle, it would
mium. However, for these crystals, the survive a certain number of cycles called
absence of cross slip prevents normal "minimum life" without failing. This
fatigue failures. effect was observed for both notched
Another explanation for the strength- and unnotched specimens made from
74 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

commercial aluminum alloys and steels.
An explanation is illustrated in Fig. 12.
At the point where the original material
would have failed, sufficient strengthen-
ing has occurred to change the S-N curve
to the upper one.
CONCLUSIONS
At —423 F, for any fatigue life of
annealed Ti-6A1-4V from 10 to 1000
cycles:
suited from decreasing the test tempera-
ture from ambient to —423 F.
5. Cycling below ultimate tensile
strength tended to raise the fatigue
strength above the static tension
strength.
6. A transition in the fracture appear-
ance occurred between 700 and 2000
cycles, where the fracture changes from
a cup-and-cone to a more typical surface-
initiated fatigue fracture.

STRENGTHENED MATERIAL

HYPOTHETICAL MINIMUM LIFE

INO FAILURES DUE TO CYCLIC STRENGTHENING!

N' N

FIG. 12.—Minimum Life Phenomena Explained.

NOTE.—At Ni , where original material would have failed, sufficient strengthening has occurred
to change S-N curve to upper one and delay failure until .V2 •

1. Changing the R ratio from 0.02 to A cknowledgmenl:

0.20 increased the fatigue strength up to
3 per cent.
2. No effects were observed from
changes in the cycling speed (or holding
time at stress) from 0.5 to 12 cpm.
3. The pressure-welded specimens had
fatigue strengths within 1 per cent of the
base metal.
4. A 65 to 68 per cent increase in
fatigue strength of the weldments re-
The authors wish to express their
appreciation to Douglas Aircraft Co.
and National Aeronautics and Space
Administration for permission to pub-
lish this report; to J. L. Waisman and
G. V. Bennett for administrative sup-
port; to George Sines for technical discus-
sion; and to Menasco for their coop-
eration in the development of specimen
welding techniques.
 HiLSEN ET AL ON L O W - C Y C L E F A T I G U E OF Ti-6A1-4V A T —423 F
REFERENCES
(1) J. T. P. Yao and W. H. Munse, Welding
Research Supplement, April, 1962, p. 182-s.
(2) W. A. Wood, Fracture, Technology Press,
Massachusetts Inst. Technology, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., p.
412 (1959).
(3) N. E. Frost, Nature, Vol. 192, p. 446, Nov.
4, 1961.
(4) P. P. Benham and H. Ford, Journal,
Mechanical and Engineering See, Vol. 3,
p. 119 (1961).
(5) JoDean Morrow and G. M. Sinclair, T &
AM Report No. 345, Dept. of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics, University of Illi-
nois, Urbana, 111. (1957).
(6) G. Sines, Discussion of the paper by F. H.
Vitrovec, "Combined Stress Effect at
Elevated Temperatures on Super Alloys,"
presented at SAE Winter Meeting, Detroit,
Mich., 1961.
(7) T. Broom, J. H. Molineaux, and V. N.
Whittaker, Journal, Inst, of Metals, Vol.
84, p. 356 (1955-1956).
(8) A. J. McEvily, Jr. and E. S. Machlin,
Fracture, Technology Press, Massachu-
setts Inst. Technology, John Wiley &
75
Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y,, p. 450
(1959).
(9) A. J. McEvily, Jr. and E. S. Machlin,
Transactions, Am. Inst. Mining, Metal-
lurgical, and Petroleum Engrs., Vol. 221,
p. 1086, Oct. 1961.
(10) D. M. Fegredo and G. B. Greenough,
Journal, Inst, of Metals, Vol. 87, p. 1
(1958-1959).
(11) W. J. Wadsworth, Dislocations and Me-
chanical Properties of Crystals, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., p. 477
(1957).
(12) H. A. IJpsitt and D. Y. Wang, Transac-
tions, Am. Inst. Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engrs., Vol. 221, p. 918, Oct.,
1961.
(13) J. C. Levy and S. L. Kanitkar, Journal,
Iron and Steel Inst,, Vol. 197, p. 296, April,
1961.
(14) H. F. Hardrath, B. C. Landers, and E. C.
Utley, Jr., NACA TN 3017, Oct., 1953.
(15) H. F. Hardrath and W. Illg, NACA TN
3132, Jan., 1954.
(16) W. Illg and H. F. Hardrath, NACA RM
L55D15a (1955).
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE P R O P E R T I E S OF C O M P L E X W E L D E D J O I N T S
OF H I G H - S T R E N G T H 301, 304L, 310, AND AM-355
STAINLESS STEEL S H E E T MATERIALS AT
CRYOGENIC T E M P E R A T U R E S *

B Y J. L. CHRISTIAN, 1 A. HURLICH, 1 AND J. F. WATSON 1

SYNOPSIS

The high-stress, low-cycle fatigue properties of several complex welded joints

were determined on types 301, 304L, 310, and AM-3SS stainless steels at 78,
— 320, and — 423 F. The welded joints were designed to give nearly 100 per cent
static tension joint efficiency and are typical of joint designs of high-strength,
thin sheet materials used in missile and space craft fabrication. The number of
cycles to failure were obtained at 75, 85, and 95 per cent of the typical yield
strength of the parent metal at each corresponding temperature or at 75, 85 and
95 per cent of the static tensile strength of the complex welded joint in the event
that failure occurred below the yield strength of the parent metal. Five repli-
cate fatigue specimens (test section of 4 by 16 in.) were tested in each test con-
dition of temperature and stress level. The average number of cycles to failure
varied from 5 to 1750 depending upon the material and test conditions.
The data indicate that 60 per cent cold-rolled type 301 stainless steel pos-
sesses the most desirable joint fatigue properties at 78 F; at —320 F, types
301, 304L, and 310 stainless steel have nearly identical joint fatigue properties.
At —423 F, 75 per cent cold-rolled 310 and 50 per cent cold-rolled 304L stain-
less steels have the most desirable joint fatigue properties.
The tensile properties of the parent materials and of simple fusion welds
and resistance spot welds were determined at 78, —100, —320, and - 4 2 3 F.
Also, notched tensile strengths were determined with specimens having stress
concentration, Kt, values from 3.2 to 19.0 at the same temperatures. Correla-
tion of the tensile and notched tensile data with the fatigue results are given.

The use of high-strength, thin-gage a few investigations of the fatigue

stainless steel sheet materials for cryo- properties of stainless steels at low
genie tankage in missiles and space temperatures (1-3) ;2 however, the ma-
craft, such as the Atlas I C B M and the terial conditions and environmental
Centaur vehicles, has created a need for parameters studied either were not
low-cycle fatigue data on these materials applicable or were insufficient in scope
at low temperatures. There have been to provide the required data. The stain-
leSS S t e d s
~ ^ H n 7 w o r k was sponsored by the Air Force Presently being used or pro-
Systems Command under Contract No. AF33- p o s e d for use in t h e f a b r i c a t i o n of missile
(616)-7719. fuel tanks are cold rolled to high
1
Senior Engineering Metallurgist, Chief of , , u ,-n <• i on nnn • t -i
Materials Research, and Staff Scientist, re- s t r e n g t h s (Ftu of 180,000 psi or g r e a t e r )
spectively, Metallurgy Department, General
2
Dynamics/Astronautics Div., General Dynam- The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
ics Corp., San Diego, Calif. to the list of references appended to this paper.
76
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS 77

and are of thin gages (0.010 to 0.040 in.
thick). The conditions imposed by
environment and structural design are
cryogenic temperatures, high stresses,
and the use of complex welded joints.
Cryogenic temperatures result from the
use of liquid oxygen ( —297F) as an
oxidizer in the Atlas and Centaur and
liquid hydrogen (—423 F) as a fuel in
the Centaur. To minimize the weight
which gives nearly 100 per cent joint
strength efficiency is used.
The use of stainless steels for cryogenic
tankage therefore created the need for
fatigue data on thin-gage, high-strength
sheet materials over the temperature
range from 78 to —423 F. Because of
the finite operating life of missiles and
most space vehicles, the amount of
fatigue or number of repeated loadings

TABLE I.—HISTORY AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS.

Stainless Steel Alloy

301 304L 310 AM-355

Temper.. 60 per cent" 60 per cent" 50 per cent" 75 per cent" CRT*
Gage, in. 0.025 0.010 0.012 0.020 0.032
Supplier. Washington Washington Rodney Washington Wallingford
Steel Steel Metals Steel Steel
Heat No 49061 57644 33251 43631 38174
Coil No 7450 11976 44942
Rockwell Superficial Hard-
ness, 15N Scale 83.9 81. 76.8 79.3 86.6
Martensite, per cent 76 62 0 0 95
Chemical Composition,
weight per cent:
Carbon 0.07 0.09 0.023 0.060 0.14
Chromium 17.28 17.38 18.04 24.62 15.60
Copper 0.23
Iron balance balance balance balance balance
Manganese 0.66 1.04 1.54 1.60 0.72
Molybdenum 0.32 2.71
Nitrogen 0.031 0.11
Nickel 6.70 7.32 10.39 19.66 4.38
Phosphorus 0.022 0.026 0.030 0.018
Sulfur 0.015 0.011 0.011 0.018
Silicon 0.63 0.66 0.58 0.29

•» Cold rolled.
* Cold rolled and tempered.

of flight vehicles, maximum operating
stresses are about 90 per cent of the
0.2 per cent yield strength. Also use is
being made of low-temperature design
allowables when appHcable. Because
pressurization of the tanks is required
for stabilization and flight operation,
it is necessary to fabricate the tanks by
leak-tight fusion or resistance roll seam
welds. The joint efficiencies of these
welds may be quite low (30 to 80 per
cent). Therefore, to take advantage of
the materials' high strengths, a doubler
to which they are subjected is quite low;
however, the operating stresses are quite
high. Therefore the data of primary
interest are very-high-stress, low-cycle
fatigue. It has been found in past studies
(4) that the complex welded joints
generally have a much shorter fatigue
life than does the parent metal; therefore
the fatigue studies described here were
on welded joints typical of those used in
missiles.
In addition to obtaining the fatigue
data, one of the primary purposes of this
78 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
program was to develop a simple and
inexpensive laboratory test for evaluat-
ing the toughness, or resistance to
brittle fracture, of a number of high-
strength sheet materials at cryogenic
temperatures and to investigate the
possible correlation between toughness
and fatigue resistance. Therefore,
notched specimens having stress-concen-
tration, Kt, factors of 3.2, 6.3, and 19
were tested in tensions at 78, —100,
— 320, and — 423 F. Also tension tests
were made of simple fusion welds, and
FIG. 1.—Parent Metal and Welded Flat Tension Specimen.
tension and shear tests were conducted
on individual resistance spot welds at
the same temperatures. The data from
these evaluation tests were analyzed to
determine which test or tests best pre-
dicted the fatigue life of the materials
investigated. Another objective of this
program was to provide useful engineer-
ing data on the mechanical properties
of several alloys at room and cryogenic
temperatures. Therefore five or more
replicate tests were made and many of
the data were statistically reduced. A
thorough description of the test program
and results may be found in reference (S).
MATERIALS AND TEST SPECIMENS
The history and chemical analysis of
the alloys tested in this investigation are
given in Table I. Types 301, 304L, and
310 stainless steels conformed to AISI
(1959) compositional hmits. The AM-355
steel conformed to the nominal composi-
tion as given in the ASM Metals Hand-
book (Vol. 1, 8th Ed.). Although type 301
is considered an austenitic stainless steel,
this alloy, due to its low nickel content,
undergoes an austenite-to-martensite
solid-state phase transformation during
cold rolling. This transformation is
advantageous for obtaining high yield
and tensile strengths but is also responsi-
ble for the tendency toward decreased
toughness at extreme cryogenic tempera-
tures (—423 F). As may be seen in
Table I, the amounts of martensite
present for the two heats of 60 per cent
cold-rolled type 301 are 62 and 76 per
cent. Nearly 100 per cent martensitic
transformation occurs in the 301 alloy
during tension testing at cryogenic
temperatures. Type 304L stainless steel
contains a sufficient amount of nickel to
be stable during room-temperature roll-
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE or WELDED JOINTS
ing; however, a considerable amount of
martensite forms during tension testing
at cryogenic temperatures (—320F).
The 20 per cent of nickel present in
type 310 stainless steel makes it fully
stable during cold rolling or tension
testing at cryogenic temperatures. Cold-
rolled and tempered AM-355 stainless
steel is nearly 100 per cent martensitic.
The test specimens used in this in-
FIG. 2.—Notched Tension Specimens.
vestigation (Figs. 1 to 4) include: stand-
ard pin-loaded flat tension specimens;
notched tension specimens having three
different notch geometries; cross-tension
and tension-shear specimens of individual
resistance spot welds; and several con-
figurations of large fatigue specimens
(38 in. long) containing complex welded
joints. The notched tension specimens'
dimensions and stress concentration
factors, Ki, as determined by the
w air, by Peterson's equation (6), and by
79
Neuber's concept (7) are given in Table
II.
The cross-tension and tension-shear
specimens used for testing individual
resistance spot welds conform to Specifi-
cation MIL-W-6868A. The fatigue speci-
mens had a test section 16 in. long by 4
in. wide containing a centrally located
complex welded joint. Longitudinal
joint No. 1 was composed of a linear
butt fusion weld (no filler metal) which
was strengthened to nearly 100 per cent
joint efficiency by means of a doubler
sheet attached to the specimen by four
rows of resistance spot welds on each
side of the fusion weld. Longitudinal
joint No. 2 was similar to No. 1 except
that only 2 rows of spot welds were used
to attach the doubler sheet. Transverse
joint No. 1 was composed of an over-
lapping joint made by resistance roll
seam welding with one row of resistance
80 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

V'V<.'

FIG. 3.—Spot-Welded Tension and Shear Specimens.

FIG. 4.—Fatigue Specimens.

 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS 81

spot welds on each side of the seam weld. Figs. 5 and 6 show typical tension and
Transverse joint No. 2 was the same as fatigue testing cryostats.
longitudinal joint No. 1 except that the
material was tested transverse to the EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
direction of rolling. A thorough descrip-
Table III gives the tensile and notched
tion of the test specimens may be found
tensile properties of types 301, 304L,
in reference (5).
310, and AM-355 stainless steels as a
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE function of direction and temperature.
The values reported for 0.2 per cent
The low-temperature tension tests
yield strength, tensile strength, and
were performed in cryostats mounted on
elongation are averages of five replicate
standard universal testing machines.
tests at each condition of testing. The
TABLE XL—DIMENSIONS AND STRESS notched: unnotched tensile strength ra-
CONCENTRATION FACTORS FOR tios were determined by dividing the
NOTCHED TENSION SPECIMENS.
average notched tensile strength by the
Mild Medium Severe
tensile strength. The notched tensile
Notch Notch Notch strengths were also determined by five
replicate tests. Table IV gives the
Total length, in 9 9 8 mechanical properties of linear fusion
Total width, in 1.25 1.25 2.0
Width in reduced sec- welds and resistance spot welds. The
tion, in 0.4 0.4 1.0 weld schedules are given in reference (5).
Width between notches,
2a, in.. 0.2 0.2 0.7
The values reported for the linear fusion
Notch root radius, r, in.. 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 0 2 5 0.001 welds are averages of five tests and are
K, W^r) 3.2 6.3 18.7 averages of twenty tests for the resistance
Ki (Peterson)" 3,8 7.2 21.0
Kt (Neuber)'' 3.9 7.5 spot welds. The elongations reported in
Table IV are total elongations as
" Reference (6). measured over a 2-in. gage length.
' Reference (7).
The results of axial fatigue tests on
Temperatures were maintained by im- complex welded joints are given in Table
mersion in dry ice and alcohol (—100 F), V and Figs. 7 through 9. Two different
liquid nitrogen (—320F), and liquid joint configurations were tested in the
hydrogen ( — 423 F). Details of the longitudinal direction and two in the
apparatus and experimental procedure transverse direction. The static strengths
for performing the tension tests are are results of one or two tests for each
given in reference (8). The axial fatigue condition. The values reported for
tests were conducted on a series of test number of cycles to failure at each
beds equipped with hydraulic rams, temperature and for number of cycles to
cryostats, automatic cycling apparatus, leak at room temperature are generally
and counters. The rate of loading was 6 averages of five tests. The number of
cpm. Leaks were detected by standard cycles to leak at — 320 and — 423 F were
dye penetrant tests. A full description generally determined on only one speci-
of the fatigue test apparatus and testing men and at 50-cycle intervals. Cracks
procedure is given in reference (5), while initiated at the edge of the weld nuggets
82 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

on the outer rows of the spot welds
where eventual specimen failure also
usually occurred. Figures 7 to 9 show
some of the fatigue data in the form of
S-N curves.
to —423 F. The joint efficiencies con-
tinuously decreased with decreasing
temperature from 78 to —423 F (85 to
99 per cent at 78 F, 68 to 80 per cent at
- 3 2 0 F, and 47 to 63 per cent at - 4 2 3 F

FIG. 5.—Liquid-Hydrogen Cryostat for Tension Testing.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS depending upon direction and joint

The static tensile strengths of the
complex welded joints provide a good
indication of the behavior of the ma-
terials at cryogenic temperatures. For
type 301 stainless steel, heat 49061,
the static joint strengths increased with
decreasing temperature from 78 to
— 320 F and then decreased from —320 F
configuration). However, for heat 57644,
the joint strengths for type 301 stainless
steel increased from 208,000 psi (100 per
cent joint eflficiency) at 78 F to 257,000
psi (87 per cent joint efficiency) at
- 4 2 3 F. For both the types 304L and
310 stainless steels, the joint strength
increased with decrease in temperature
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS
from 78 to — 423 F, and the joint effi-
ciencies were above 90 per cent for all
conditions tested. Static strengths of the
complex welded joints of AM-355 stain-
less steel continuously decreased with
decrease in temperature with resulting
joint efficiencies of 84 to 100 per cent at
78 F, 32 to 42 per cent at - 3 2 0 F, and
27 to 29 per cent at - 4 2 3 F.
FIG. 6.—Fatigue Test Bed with Liquid-Hydrogen Test Chamber.
Repeated loading tests on complex
welded joints of type 301 stainless steel
have been found to reproduce closely
the fatigue properties of large test tanks
at 78 and - 4 2 3 F (9). Therefore a large
number of fatigue tests on complex
welded joints of types 301, 304L, 310,
and AM-355 stainless steels were con-
ducted to determine the approximate
service behavior of these materials from
78 to —423 F. The stress levels were
75, 85, and 95 per cent of the typical
yield strength at each corresponding test
83
temperature for types 301 (heat 49061)
and 310 stainless steels and 85 per cent
of typical yield strength for types 304L
and AM-355 stainless steels except for
those cases in which the static tensile
strength of the joint was less than the
yield strength of the base metal. There-
fore, the stress levels for type 301 (heat
49061) at - 4 2 3 F were from 41 to 63 per
cent of yield strength, and 17 to 38 per
cent of yield strength for AM-355 at
- 3 2 0 and - 4 2 3 F. The results of fatigue
tests on longitudinal and transverse No. 1
joint configurations are plotted as S-N
diagrams in Figs. 1 to 6. As may be seen
in Fig. 7, each of the alloys investigated
possesses joint fatigue properties ac-
ceptable for missile structures which are
subjected to high-stress, low-cycle fa-
tigue. However, AM-355 and 301 stain-
less steels have greater joint strengths
and may be loaded repeatedly a greater
number of times to failure at a given
84 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

stress level than 304L or 310 steels; thus strengths and fatigue hfe of types 304L
they are more desirable for room-tem- and 310 are superior to those of type 301
perature application in which weight is (heat 49061). AM-355 has low joint
a critical design factor. efficiencies and poor fatigue properties

TABLE III.—MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PARENT MATERIALS.

Notched: Unnotched
Yield Tensile Strength Ratio
Tempera- Direc Strength Ultimate Elonga- Obtained from Notched
Stain ess Steel Alloy ture, deg tion" (0.2% Strength, tion, Specimens with Kt
Fahr Offset), psi per cent
psi

78 L 200 000 224 000 10.8 1.07 0.94

T 176 000 239 000 7.5 0.84 0,64
-100 L 237 000 253 000 14.7 0.98 0.82
T 197 000 267 000 11.5 0.80 0.54
-320 L 254 000 323 000 19.5 0.92 0.64
T 235 000 326 000 16.1 0.67 0.42
-423 L 308 000 335 000 3.5 0.90 0.61
T 303 000 346 000 4.6 0.63 0,41
78 L 192 000 206 000 6.2 1.07
301 (Heat 57644) I T 170 000 218 000 7.0 0.99
-423 L 264 000 296 000 5.3 0.97
T 246 000 308 000 7.0 0.82

f 78 L 158 000 180 000 2.5 1.11 0.95

T 151 000 194 000 5.0 1.12 0,75
-100 L 179 000 200 000 4.5 1.10 0,97
T 174 000 218 000 5.2 1.11 0.81
304L 242 000 26.5 1.10 0.96
-320 L 195 000
T 201 000 255 000 30.8 1.18 0.90
-423 L 234 000 275 000 1.5 1.13 0,87
T 222 000 295 000 1.8 1.13 0,69

78 L 156 000 180 000 1.10 0,90

T 157 000 200 000 1.00 0,61
-100 L 185 000 203 000 1,10 0,91
T 185 000 224 000 1.08 0,72
310 228 000 253 000 1,10 0,85
-320 L
T 220 000 272 000 1.10 0.64
-423 L 261 000 291 000 1.13 0,72
. T 266 000 314 000 1.05 0.61

78 L 278 000 297 000 5.4 0.85

T 251 000 286 000 7.0 0.81
-100 L 287 000 308 000 17.0 0.89
T 252 000 314 000 11 5 0.77
AM-355. . J -320 L 328 000 353 000 9.5 0.46
T 286 000 342 000 1.9 0.50
-423 L 329 000 347 000 0 0,34
T 319 000 339 000 0 0.37
I
" L = longitudinal; T = transverse.

The joint fatigue properties at — 320 F
are given in Fig. 8. Types 301, 304L, and
310 stainless steel have about the same
fatigue properties for the longitudinal
joint. For the transverse joint the joint
at —320 F and would not be considered
acceptable for structural applications
at this temperature. Figure 9 shows that
types 304L and 310 stainless possess
excellent joint fatigue properties at
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS 85

— 423 F, whereas the joint strengths and amount of martensite present in this ma-
fatigue life of 301 (heat 49061) decreased terial. Heat 49061 had 76 per cent mar-
considerably from —320 to —423 F. tensite in the as-received material as
There is, however, an appreciable varia- compared to 62 per cent for heat 57644.

T A B L E I V . - -MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF LINEAR FUSION

AND RESISTANCE SPOT WELDS.

Properties of Linear Properties of Ind vidual

Fusion Welds Resistance Spot Welds
Tempera- Direc-
stainless Steel Alloy ture, deg tion"
Fahr Ultimate Elonga- Joint Ef- Cross- Tension- Tension-
Strength, tion, ficiency, Tension, Shear, Shear
psi per cent per cent lb lb Ratio

78 L 175 000 2.8 78 662 1052 0.63

T 174 000 2.2 73
-100 L 216 000 5.6 85 593 1281 0.46
T 212 000 2.8 79
301 ( H e a t 49061).
-320 L 298 000 12.0 92 160 1041 0.15
T 291 000 5.3 89
-423 L 202 000 1.0 60 143 821 0.17
T 204 000 1.3 59

78 L 78 400 1.9 44 256 409 0.63

T 77 300 1.9 40
-100 L 144 000 2.4 72 242 510 0.47
T 141 000 2.5 65
304L, L
-320 216 000 3.0 89 265 634 0.42
T 212 000 3.0 83
-423 L 250 000 3.1 91 306 666 0.46
T 269 000 3.3 91

78 L 86 700 2.0 48 509 744 0.68

T 85 500 2.1 43
-100 L 109 000 2.3 54 562 871 0.65
T 110 000 2.2 50
310. L
-320 162 000 2.4 64 582 1096 0.53
T 167 000 2.3 61
-423 L 208 000 1.9 71 533 1224 0.44
T 193 000 2.0 61

78 L 222 000 2.1 75 851 1529 0.56

T 219 000 2.3 73
-100 L 289 000 2.4 94 298 1758 0.17
T 282 000 1.8 90
AM-355. L
-320 271 000 0.8 77 186 903 0.21
T 299 000 1.0 87
-423 L 142 000 0.5 41 162 858 0.19
T 140 000 0.5 41

" L = longitudinal; T = transverse.

tion in the properties of 301 at —423 F The amount of martensitic transforma-

from one heat to another. The joint
strength and number of cycles to failure
upon repeated loading of 301 (heat
57644) at —423 F are much greater than
for heat 49061 (see Table V). The im-
proved properties of heat 57644 are
believed to be primarily due to the lower
tion which occurs in type 301 stainless
steel is dependent upon chemical compo-
sition and processing which explain the
variation in properties from one heat to
another. The excellent fatigue properties
of types 304L and 310 at - 4 2 3 F may
therefore be due to the fact that little,
 TABLE v.—FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF COMPLEX WELDED JOINTS.

Number Number
Temp- Joint Direc- Static of Cycles of Cycles
Stainless Steel Alloy erature, Confi g- tion" Strengtli, psi
Stress Range, psi to First to
deg Fahr uration Leak Failure

f
78 L 222 000 0 to 150 000 473 862
L 0 to 170 000 376 544
L 0 to 190 000 300 420
L 203 000 0 to 170 000 370 590
T 203 000 0 to 132 000 357 405
T 316 366
1 T
0 to 150 000
347
1 -320 L 259 0 0 0
0
0
to
to
170
189
000
000 700 1029
L 0 to 214 000 300 406
L 0 to 239 000 74
301 (Heat 49061) L 244 000 0 to 214 000 147
T 220 000 0 to 165 000 778
T 0 to 189 000 266
T 0 to 214 000 14
-423 L 209 000 0 to 157 000 73
L 0 to 178 000 48 53
L 0 to 194 000 4
L 212 000 0 to 178 000 17
T 164 000 0 to 123 000 79
T 0 to 139 000 22
> T 0 to 156 000 3

78 L 208 000 0 to 140 000 126 418

301 (Heat 57644) |
-423 L 257 000 0 to 140 000 270 553

[ 78 L 182 000 0 to 134 000 167 481

T 266 622
1 -320 L
179
235
000
000
0
0
to
to
134
166
000
000 800 1349
304L I
T 252 000 0 to 166 000 850 1448
-423 L 300 512
I T
251 000 0 to 196 000
500 696
I 269 000 0 to 196 000

' 78 L 187 000 0 to 117 000 545 1251

L 0 to 133 000 242 574
L 0 to 148 000 199 398
L 184 000 0 to 133 000 250 519
T 194 000 0 to 117 000 433 819
T 0 to 133 000 268 483
T 0 to 148 000 160 295
2 T 195 000 0 to 117 000 353 666
2 T 0 to 133 000 217 386
2 T 0 to 148 000 150 256
-320 1 L 259 000 0 to 170 000 851 1745
1 L 0 to 193 000 401 690
1 L 0 to 216 000 302
2 L 256 000 0 to 193 000 302 568
1 T 269 000 0 to 170 000 973
310 < 250
1 T 0 to 193 000 619
1 T 0 to 216 000 253 316
2 T 270 0 0 0 0 to 170 000 672 925
2 T 0 to 193 000 250 507
2 T 0 to 216 000 208 227
-423 1 L 286 000 0 to 199 000 348 794
1 L 0 to 225 000 325
1 L 0 to 252 000 133
2 L 282 000 0 to 225 000 224
1 T 288 000 0 to 199 000 550 763
1 T 0 to 225 000 321
1 T 0 to 252 000 105
2 T 298 000 0 to 199 000 450 452
2 T 0 to 225 000 179
88
I 2 T 0 to 252 000

86
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE or WELDED JOINTS 87

TABLE ^.—Continued.

Number Number
Temp- Joint Direc- Static of Cycles of Cycles
Stainless Steel Alloy erature, Config- tion" Strength, psi Stress Range, psi to First to
deg Fahr uration Leak Failure

78 1 L 290 000 0 to 236 000 100 139

2 L 282 000 0 to 236 000 60 130
1 T 241 000 0 to 213 000 22
-320 1 L 148 000 0 to 126 000 5
AM-355. 2 L 132 000 0 to 112 000 33
1 T 110 000 0 to 94 000 44
-423 1 L 99 000 0 to 85 000 19
2 L 90 000 0 to 77 000 155
1 T 0 to 55 000 258

" L = longitudinal; T = transverse.

300 000
280 000 01 ( H eat 4 9
260 000 V I D 304
O 3 10
240 000
220 000
A
\ ;
M 35

200 000 N, ^
180 OOO'L , • ^ 1?.
160 000
140 000
X^ L^
V -~>. ^

120 000
-V
100 000
80 000
(a)
60 000
300 000
280 000
260 000 [
240 000 \,
220 000
\
200 000 1
180 000' ^.
160 000
^ i^.'
140 000 ' ^ •^
»T>~-^
120 000
100 000
80 000
(b)
60 000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
CYCLES TO FAILURE

(a) Longitudinal J o i n t N o . 1.
(b) T r a n s v e r s e J o i n t No. 1.
F I G . I.—S-N Curve—Stainless Steels a t 78 F .

if any, martensitic transformation occurs the reason for its poor fatigue properties
in these alloys due to the stabihzing at cryogenic temperatures.
influence of large nickel contents. Also, The number of cycles required to
the presence of nearly 100 per cent produce the first through crack, or leak,
martensite in AM-355 is believed to be was determined by dye penetrants to
88 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

provide more information on the fracture not significantly decreased by attaching

behavior of the complex joints as a result
of repeated loading. A large number of
cycles between first crack initiation and
final specimen failure was considered
desirable since slow crack extension is an
indication of toughness, while rapid crack
extension is characteristic of brittle be-
the doubler sheet with only two rows
instead of four rows of resistance spot
welds on each side of the fusion weld.
Specimen failure occurred at a fewer
number of cycles for a given stress level
in the transverse direction than for the
longitudinal direction for types 301,

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

CYCLES TO FAILURE
(a) Longitudinal Joint No. 1.
(h) Transverse Joint No. 1.
FIG 8.—5 iV Curve—Stainless Steels at - 3 2 0 F.

havior. Table V shows that those alloys
which possessed the most favorable
fatigue Hfe also withstood a large number
of cycles from first leak to failure.
The fatigue life of longitudinal joint
No. 2 was nearly the same as for longi-
tudinal joint No. 1 at 78 F. At cryogenic
temperatures the fatigue properties were
only slightly superior for joint No. 1 than
for joint No. 2, indicating that the joint
efficiency and fatigue properties are
310, and AM-355 stainless steels; for
type 304L the reverse was true. Although
transverse joint No. 1 had a different
configuration than the longitudinal
joints, the same configuration was used
for transverse joint No. 2 (type 310 only)
as for longitudinal joint No. 1, and a
fewer number of cycles to failure were
still obtained for the transverse direction.
Based upon the results obtained from
the fatigue testing of complex welded
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS 89

joints, the following alloys may be rec- joint efficiency, and elongation of fusion
ommended for structural applications: welds; and tension and shear tests of in-
types 301, 304L, 310, and AM-355 at dividual resistance spot welds.
78 F; types 301, 304L, and 310 at The results of notched and unnotched
- 3 2 0 F; and types 304L and 310 at tension tests are given in Table III. The
— 423 F. (Type 301 may be acceptable at unnotched data were analyzed to deter-
— 423 F but, due to the variations of mine possible correlations with the fa-
300 000
280 OOO'1 01 (H<
"°"
260 000 V^ \ n 30 4
0 3 10
240 000
220 000
1
K M 35.

200 000
L
I BO 000
160 000 1
140 000
I 20 000
100 000
80 000 V • ( a ) -

60 000
300 000
280 000 I
260 OOo' Q^.
240 000 ^
220 000 ^ r^ ^v;
^
200 000
ISO 000
160 000'
140 000 I
120 000 \,
100 000 \
80 000
60 000
..^ •(b)-
40 000
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 (600
CYCLES TO FAILURE

(a) Longitudinal Joint No. 1.

(6) Transverse Joint No. 1.
FIG. 9. -S-N Curve—Stainless Steels at -423 F.

properties of the alloy from one heat to
another, it requires the evaluation of
each heat of material prior to use.)
Several types of evaluation tests were
conducted to see which test or tests best
predicted the fatigue life of the alloys
investigated at cryogenic temperatures.
The types of tests used included three
different notched tension tests, having
stress concentration factors of 3.2, 6.3,
and 19; the determination of strength,
tigue life of the complex welded joints.
The decrease in tensile strength of AM-
355 from —320 to —423 F indicates a
possible embrittlement of this alloy at
— 423 F. Changes in per cent elongation
correctly predicted a decrease in tough-
ness of 301 (heat 49061) at - 4 2 3 F and
AM-355 at - 4 2 3 F (also - 3 2 0 F for
the transverse direction); however the
decrease in elongation of 304L at — 423 F
did not correlate with fatigue Hfe nor did
90 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
the elongation of AM-355 at — 3 2 0 F
(longitudinal direction) indicate severe
embrittlement. The amount of scatter
in the test data, as quantitatively deter-
mined by standard deviations from a
statistical analysis (5), may also provide
an index to the toughness of the alloys
at cryogenic temperatures. It is believed,
however, that the information provided
by unnotched tension testing is insutfi-
cient to predict correctly the toughness
or fatigue life of complex joints at cryo-
genic temperatures.
The notched tensile strengths and re-
sulting notched : unnotched tension ratios
obtained from the specimens having a
Kt of 3.2 correlated well with the fatigue
life of types 304L and 310 stainless steels
but did not predict the decrease in fa-
tigue hfe of type 301 (heat 49061) at
— 423 F. I t is believed that the notch is
too mild to be able to evaluate correctly
low-temperature embrittlement, and it
is therefore not recommended as an eval-
uation test.
The more severely notched {Kt = 6.3)
tension data evaluate more accurately
the fatigue life of the complex welded
joints of both heats of 301 (except for
the longitudinal direction of heat 49061
at - 3 2 0 F), 304L, 310, and AM-355
stainless steels at cryogenic tempera-
tures. I t is believed that the reason this
particular notched tension specimen cor-
relates so well with the fatigue life of
the complex welded joints is the incor-
poration of the resistance spot welds in
the joint. Failure of the complex joint
nearly always occurs at the outer row
of spot welds, and it is believed that the
stress concentration at the spot weld is
more closely approximated by the
notched specimen having a Kt of 6.3
than by those specimens having a Kt
of 3.2 or 19.
The results of tests using a severely
notched tension specimen with a Kt of
19 did not correlate with the fatigue
data for the transverse direction of type
304L at all testing temperatures, for type
310 at —423 F, and for the longitudinal
direction of type 301 (heat 49061) at
— 3 2 0 F . Although the sharp-notched
tension data did not correlate well with
the fatigue life of the complex welded
joints as evaluated in this investigation,
it is believed that this particular notched
specimen is valuable in determining
crack propagation and fracture tough-
ness data and that there may be a valid
correlation of sharp-notched data with
other types of joint configurations.
The results of tests on hnear fusion
and resistance spot welds are given in
Table IV. The tension data on simple
butt fusion welds correlated well with
the fatigue resistance of complex joints
at cryogenic temperatures. There was a
decrease in the tensile strength, joint
efficiency, and elongation of 301 at
- 4 2 3 F and AM-355 at - 3 2 0 and
— 423 F. The results of the tests on in-
dividual resistance spot welds, in par-
ticular the tension:shear ratio, corre-
lated well with the fatigue life of the
complex joints except for the 301 alloy
at — 3 2 0 F . Wherever the tension: shear
ratio is less than 0.25, as was the case
for 301 at - 3 2 0 and - 4 2 3 F and for
AM-355 at - 1 0 0 , - 3 2 0 , and - 4 2 3 F,
the spot weld is considered to be unsat-
isfactory. The information obtained from
the evaluation tests was valuable in eval-
uating the toughness on fatigue resist-
ance of the alloys tested at cryogenic
temperatures.
CONCLUSIONS
The high-stress, low-cycle fatigue
properties of several complex welded
joints were determined on types 301,
304L, 310, and AM-355 stainless steels
at 78, - 3 2 0 , and - 4 2 3 F. The tensile
properties of the base metal were deter-
mined at 78, - 1 0 0 , - 3 2 0 , and - 4 2 3 F.
Also, several types of evaluation tests
were made over the same temperature
range, including: the determination of
 CHRISTIAN ET AL ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE OF WELDED JOINTS
notched tensile strengths and resulting
notched runnotched tension ratios using
notched specimens with stress concen-
tration factors of 3.2, 6.3, and 19; ten-
sile strengths; joint efficiencies and elon-
gations of linear fusion welds; and the
tensile and shear strengths and resulting
tension:shear ratios of individual resist-
ance spot welds. Based upon the data
obtained in this investigation the follow-
ing conclusions are made;
1. Types 301 (heat 49061 and 57644),
304L, 310, and AM-355 stainless steels
have good weld joint fatigue resistance
at 78 F.
2. Types 301 (heat 49061 and 57644),
304L, and 310 stainless steels possess
adequate weld-joint fatigue resistance
and toughness for structural applications
at - 3 2 0 F.
3. Types 301 (heat 57644), 304L, and
310 have good weld-joint fatigue prop-
erties and resistance to brittle failure at
- 4 2 3 F.
4. The evaluation tests which pro-
vided the most reliable and consistent
correlation with the fatigue properties
of complex welded joints were the
notched {Kt = 6.3) tension data with
REFERENCES
(1) R. J. Favor et al, "Investigation of Fatigue
Behavior of Certain Alloys in the Tempera-
ture Range Room Temperature to —423 F,"
WADD TR 61-132, June, 1961.
(2) J. W. Spretnak, M. G. Fontana, and H. F.
Brooks, "Notched and Unnotched Tensile
and Fatigue Properties of Ten Engineering
Alloys at 25 C and — 196C," Transactions,
Am. Soc. Metals, Vol. 43, p. 547 (1951).
(3) M. G. Fontana, "Investigation of Mechani-
cal Properties and Physical Metallurgy of
Aircraft Alloys at Very Low Temperatures,
Part II: Strength Properties and Hardness,"
USAF Air Material Command Technical
Report No. 5662, October 18, 1948.
(4) J. F. Watson et al, "Correlation of Notched:
Unnotched Tensile Ratios with Tensile
Fatigue Properties of Complex Welded
Joints in High Strength 300 Series Stainless
Steels at Cryogenic Temperatures," Sym-
posium on Evaluation of Metallic Materials
in Design tor Low Temperature Service,
91
resultant notched .'unnotched tension
ratios, and the tensile strengths and per
cent elongations of fusion welds. In
addition, the tensile and shear strengths
with resultant tension:shear ratios of
individual resistance spot welds provide
valuable and informative tests of high-
strength sheet alloys which are to be
fabricated by spotwelding. While no
single test is fully adequate by itself for
evaluating and selecting high-strength
sheet alloys for cryogenic applications,
the notched {Kt = 6.3) tension test and
the notched: unnotched tension ratio ap-
pear to offer most promise for use in the
initial screening of candidate materials
for applications described in this report.
A cknowledgment:
This work was performed at General
Dynamics/Astronautics under Contract
Xo. AF33(616)-7719 sponsored by the
Directorate of Materials and Processes,
Deputy for Technology, Aeronautical
Systems Division with M. Knight and
C. L. Harmsworth acting as project
engineers. The authors gratefully ac-
knowledge the sponsor's permission to
publish this paper.
ASTM STF No. 302, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., p. 129, March, 1962.
(5) J. L. Christian, "Physical and Mechanical
Properties of Pressure Vessel Materials for
.Application in a Cryogenic Environment,"
ASD-TDR-62~258 March, 1962.
(6) R, E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Design
Factors, Appendix A, John WUey and Sons,
Inc., New York, N. Y., pp. 136-138 (1953).
(7) Heinz Neuber, Theory of Notch Stresses,
English Translation, J. W. Edwards, Ann
Arbor, Mich. (1946).
(8) J. F. Watson and J. L, Christian, "Cryostat
and Accessories for Tension Testing at
— 423F," Materials Research & Standards,
Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 87, Feb., 1961.
(9) .\. Hurlich, "Mechanical Model Testing,"
Proceedings, Seventh Sagamore Ordnance
Materials Research Conference on Mechani-
cal and Metallurgical Behavior of Sheet Ma-
terials, Aug. 16-19, 1960, published by
Syracuse University Research Inst.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

E F F E C T OF STRESS STATE ON H I G H - T E M P E R A T U R E
LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE

B Y C. R. KENNEDY1

SYNOPSIS

A study of the behavior of Inconel at 1500 F under realistic dynamic stress

states has been made to evaluate critically the present criteria used to solve
low-cycle fatigue problems and to demonstrate their applicability for the more
complex situations. The relative agreement between the static complex stress-
creep-rupture results and the low-cycle fatigue data is demonstrated. From
the relationships developed for static complex stress-creep-rupture data, it is
shown that the magnitudes of the effects of stress state and frequency on low-
cycle fatigue can be determined.

I t is apparent to those concerned with N"Ae„ = K. .(1)

determining life expectancy of compo-
nent parts that the stress states are
rarely simple in structural applications.
The use of uniaxial data under these
conditions is of little value unless the
effect of the complex states in known.
The study of the effect of complex stress
states on creep rupture has received
some attention; however, the criterion
for creep fracture has not been well
established. The criterion for fracture is
particularly vague when the complex
stress states are dynamic.
Several criteria have been formulated
for evaluating low-cycle fatigue life
based upon various parameters. Coffin
(l) 2 and others (2-5) have demonstrated
that material fatigue life can be related
as proposed by Manson (6) to the plastic
strain range per cycle:
1 peratures below which the mechanical
M e t a l s a n d Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge
N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , O a k Ridge, Ttmri.; oper-
a t e d for t h e U. S. Atomic E n e r g y Commission
b y t h e Union Carbide Corp.
2
T h e boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer
t o t h e list of references a p p e n d e d t o t h i s paper.
92
where:
.V = number of cycles to failure,
Aip = plastic strain range per cycle,
and
n, K = material constants.
Since, in general, thermal-fatigue
problems result from differential strains
during thermal cycling, the plastic strain
range per cycle provides a convenient
parameter for evaluating low-cycle fatigue
life. Equation 1 has recently received
further support (7) from proposed fail-
ure criteria based upon energy concepts
that relate the material constants n and
K to stress-strain data.
The above criterion, however, has not
been demonstrated to be successful in
correlating results under complex stress
states. I t has also been limited to tem-
properties are time-dependent.
The purpose of this investigation is to
examine the criterion for failure under
complex stress conditions at high tem-

Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

 KENNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 93

peratures. The experimental work con- pressure that is thermally cycled in the
sisted of two test series on Inconel tubes axial direction. The stress states applied
at 1500 F. must, therefore, produce an axial strain
cycle about zero strain with the internal
PROCEDURE
pressure held constant. This was done
The material used is the same as that with the stress states shown in Table I.
used in previous investigations of creep All tests were performed with the tan-
under complex stresses (8) and in uni- gential stress equal to 4000 psi for the
axial low-cycle fatigue (3). Specimens complete cycle. The half-cycle square-
were machined from J-in. schedule-40 wave stress states were calculated to
seamless Inconel pipe as shown in Fig. produce principal strains equal and op-
posite in the axial direction; however,
-0.06010.00025
, 50" the radial and tangential strains were
RAD
VB
not equal and opposite. This type of
.^CZT" testing is comparable to standard fatigue
i • • • ' 1

testing with a mean load except that

5 the mean stress is not in the same stress
P-)
O
'' axis.
(D O
O+l In the second test series, tubes were
T 4 torsion cycled with the equipment shown
V'— schematically in Fig. 3. To ehminate
— Vj .—. - (.00 - «-
play normally encountered in mechanical
r" - ' 2 - - _
joints, the specimen was induction
ALL DIMENSIONS
ARE IN INCHES brazed into the torque rods that were
FiG. 1.—Strain-Fatigue Specimen Geometry.
designed to allow axial motion during
test and particularly during heatup
1. The chemical analysis provided by the when the specimen and loading rods
vendor is given below: expanded. Force was applied by the
double-acting air cyhnder controlled by
Weight,
Element per cent solenoid valves and regulators. The tests
Carbon 0.04 were performed by adjusting the regula-
Manganese 0.29 tors to produce the predetermined
Iron 7.56
Sulfur 0.007 square-wave cyclic shear stress. A cyclic
Copper 0.13 timer used to energize and de-energize
Nickel 75.76 the solenoid valves was set at a frequency
Chromium 15.97
of 1 cpm. The specimen was allowed to
The specimens were reannealed at 1950 F deform freely during the constant load
for 2 hr in hydrogen after machining, applications, and the strain was meas-
producing the structure shown in Fig. 2. ured at frequent intervals during the
All tests were performed at 1500 F, well test. The strain was read and monitored
into the creep range of the material. by the use of a 1-m galvanometer mirror
The equipment used for the test series with a 1-m focal length placed on the
in which the tubes were internally pres- torque rod below the furnace. The
surized and axially loaded has been de- plastic strain was determined by releas-
scribed previously (2). The cyclic stress ing the torque at the end of two suc-
states produced in the four tests of this cessive half cycles. Failure was deter-
type simulate a tube under internal mined by the first crack in the wall
94 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OV AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

allowing a pressure of 5 psi to bleed RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

down to 2 psi in 1 min. This pressure loss
was sensed by a pressure switch. The
test apparatus has the potential of per-
forming tests on tubes with combinations
of axial, tangential, and shear stresses.
The objective of the first test series
was to determine the effect of a creep
stress imposed at 90 deg to the stress
imposing the strain cycle. The results of
this test series are given in Table II.

FIG. 2.—Photomicrograph of Inconel Annealed 2 hr at 1950 F Before Test.

TABLE I.—STRESS STATES OF TUBES CYCLED WITH CONSTANT INTERNAL

PRESSURE AT 1500 F.
First Half of Cycle, psi Second Half of Cycle, psi

Test
Axial stress. Tangential Radial Stress, Axial Stress, Tangential Radial Stress,
Stress, OQ Stress, (r0 "R

1 4 000 4000 -285 -285 4000 -285

2 6 000 4000 -285 -2285 4000 -285
3 8 000 4000 -285 -4285 4000 -285
4 10 000 4000 -285 -6285 4000 -285
 KENNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 95

The plastic strain per cycle did in-
crease from the first half cycle, remained
constant for over 75 per cent of the cycles
to failure, and increased again before
fracture. The values reported are the
average plastic strain ranges, considering
all cycles to failure. The effective plastic
strain per cycle, e, was calculated from
the axial strain using the relation-
ships in Eqs 2:

FIG. 3.—Schematic Drawing of Torsion Cycling Test Equipment.

TABLE II.—KESULTS OF FIRST TEST SERIES.

Axial Plastic Effective Plastic
Test Strain Range per Strain Range per Frequency Time Time to Failure, Number of Cycles
Cycle, A«z , per Cycle, Ac, per per Cycle, hr 1/ , hr to Failure, Nf
cent cent

1 0.37 0.74 96 758 7.5

2 0.22 0.30 10 441 44
3 0.33 0.39 2 188 94
4 0.40 0.44 1.1 99 90
96 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

£ / _ gg + <rfl\ ages. It should be noted that the in-

creases in strain per cycle resulted from
the onset of a primary stage of creep
). (2)
that was nonexistent in the first half
a\ 2 ) cycle. The linear rate obtained after the
primary stage, during all except the final
if ffr + ffHJ
cycles, was essentially the same or
slightly less than the initial creep rate.
where: A comparison of all of the cyclic strain
rates with the static creep-strain rates is
given in Fig. 4. This figure also includes
v2 the uniaxial test results for this material
+ (ff» - <rr)2]"^ . (3)
given in previous papers (2,8). The
cyclic strain rates were obtained by
and dividing the total plastic strain per cycle
\/2 by the time per cycle, thus including the
primary stage. As expected, all of the
cyclic data calculated in this manner fell
+ Uo - €s)^]"^- (4) to the right of the curve except for those
where: obtained at very high stresses and strain
rates. The contribution of the plastic
(T = effective stress, strain in the primary stage for the high-
i = effective strain rate, stress tests was essentially nonexistent
0-2, (79, and (TR = axial, tangential, and in comparison to the large total plastic
radial stresses, respectively, and strain per cycle. Unfortunately, com-
u , ie, and tR = axial, tangential, and plete strain-time recordings were not ob-
radial strain rates, respectively. tained for these tests and the indicated
The second test series was that of strain hardening could not be verified.
torsion cycling which yielded the results The apparent strain softening or
shown in Table III. hardening appears to be singly de-
The effective stress d and strain e were pendent upon the strain per cycle and
again calculated using Eqs 2 to 4. The independent of the stress state and fre-
shear strain per cycle 7 also followed the quency. Thus, as is shown in Fig. 4,
same increases throughout the lifetime, cyclic strain-rate data from all tests can
and again the reported values are aver- be represented fairly well by a single

TABLE III.—RESULTS OF TORSION TESTING.

Alternating
Shear Stress, Shear Strain
Effective Stress Effective Strain Time to Failure Number of
per Cycle, A7,
Test
or( ffi

psi'
2
g-A
ffi —- <Ti\
/'
or (e. - esf,
per cent
per Cycle, ^, per Cycle,
A€, per cent
If , hr Cycles to
Failure, N/

15 000 8.6 26 000 4.9 1.30 80

13 500 8.05 23 400 4.6 2.1 140
8 800 2.85 15 250 1.6 30 1 804
7 000 1.2 12 120 0.69 82 4 940
5 000 0.073 8 660 0.042 925 54 390

" (Ti a n d (Tg a r e m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m principal stresses, respectively.

' «i a n d €3 a r e m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m principal strains, respectively.
 KENNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
smooth curve. In correlating service
failure with material properties, it is
important to recognize this dynamic
instabihty of the deformation per cycle.
Figure 4 shows that the calculated strain
per cycle obtained from static creep data
can be in error by as much as a factor of
2. If the plastic strain per cycle as given
by Eq 1 is used as the criterion for fail-
ure, the error is magnified since the
exponent n is less than 1.
Previous results (8) obtained from
4x10^
10 10
EFFECTIVE
FIG. 4.—Creep Rate Versus Stress for Reannealed Inconel at 1500 F.
testing materials under complex creep
stresses tended to indicate that fracture
was controlled by a maximum principal
stress criterion rather than a maximum
shear criterion. However, the data did
not show this conclusively. It is certain
that the principal stress criterion cannot
explain notch strengthening and fracture
initiation in other specimen geometries
where the shear stress is greatest and
the principal stress is at a minimum.
The maximum principal stress crite-
rion is inconsistent with observed frac-
ture characteristics of specimens having
stress gradients that produce the maxi-
mum shear stress and maximum princi-
97
pal stress in different regions. Examples
of the failure of this criterion in this
respect are those involving notch
strengthening and the initiation of fail-
ure on the inside surface of tubes pres-
surized internally. The notched bar, in
comparison with a smooth bar, has a
much larger maximum principal stress;
however, the shear stress is less for the
notched bar and its rupture life is ex-
tended. In a tube under internal pres-
sure loading, the maximum shear stress
-i UNIAXIAL FATIGUE
• TORSIONAL FATIGUE
o UNIAXIAL TUBE CREEP
DATA
* INTERNAL PRESSURE
PLUS A X I A L CYCLE ,
10 10 10
STRAIN RATE , t , per cent per hr
exists at the inside surface and a maxi-
mum principal stress exists at the out-
side surface. For these tests, the creep
failure of moderately heavy to thin-wall
pressurized tubes was always found to
initiate on the inside surface.
Similar considerations also indicate
that the shear stress alone cannot be
used as the sole criterion for failure in
view of the large evidence of data for
torsional loads (9,10) which show rup-
ture lives much larger than predicted.
In addition, consider that in two in-
vestigations (9,11) no evidence of a
failure under uniaxial compressive creep
loading could be found. In both investi-
98 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCKAFT STRUCTURES

gallons, metallographic examination re- nucleation of voids, and that a tensile

vealed that no evidence of damage, void stress is required for their growth in
formation at grain boundaries, was in- directions normal to the tensile stress
troduced by the uniaxial compressive axis. The following expression suggested
stresses. by the work of Hull and Rimmer was

2x10"
! 1 1
i
!
10" 1
—t[-f 1 _i-1
8 ^.' 1 .r'*!
I 1 1
^H
6 t-p-rr^ o
<
i .°§ 11
•s.
)
1 0
1
! 1 S.j|!
4 AXIAL UNIAXIAL TES rs ; rii
o TANG ENTIAL UNIAXIA L TESTS ' i Ii 1 . X-
o :c MP LEX STRESS-RUPTURE TESTS ^ATIC OF 00 TO •2) :
1 1
1
1
10"
0
10 10 .(
10 10 10 10"

RUPTURE TIMEx-|^,hr

FIG. 5.—Stress-Rupture Properties of Reannealed Inconel Under Complex Stresses at 1500 F .

2x10^

10 2 5 10 10

RUPTURE TIME x - j - , s e c

FIG. 6.—Stress-Rupture Properties of Copper at 410 C Under Complex Stresses

Hull and Rimmer (11) have reported developed to satisfy the requirements of
that void formation under the same shear considering both the shear and tensile
stress is a simple function of the maxi- stresses:
mum tensile stress. From this study and
the other evidence cited, it was apparent
that a shear stress and its accompanying
deformation are responsible for the
(0'^) .(5)

where:
 KKNNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 99

Ir = time to rupture, resulting from not considering the

o"! = maximum principal tensile
stress,
a = effective stress, and
B, P = material constants.
This equation is the shear-stress cri-
terion modified by the ratio, a/ai, for
stress states other than uniaxial tension
having a principal stress not equal to the
effective stress. This equation states that
under compressive uniaxial loading the
greater tangential stress increase with
deformation.
The problem of comparing fatigue test
results to static constant-load creep-
rupture data is that the stress changes
under the constant-load tests. Unless a
true stress-rupture curve is available, a
comparison cannot be made. The true
stress-rupture curve can, however, be
approximated from constant-load tests.
It can be assumed that small segments of

4x10'

o UNIAXIAL FATIGUE
• TORSIONAL FATIGUE
V STATIC TORSION TEST " ^
A PRESSURIZED TUBE AXIALLY
CYCLED FAILURE NORMAL TO -.'-r-
AXIAL STRESS
* PRESSURIZED TUBE AXIALLY CYCLED '
FAILURE NORMAL TO TANGENTIAL STRESS

3x10"^
0.1 10.0 100 1000 10,000

RUPTURE TIME x -?-. hr

FIG. 7.—True Stress-Rupture Properties of Reannealed Inconel at 1500 F.

time to rupture is infinite since ai = 0. the uniaxial time stress-rupture curve

It also predicts failure on the inside sur- can be represented by
face of internally pressurized tubes. For
the tube geometry used in this investiga-
tion, the time required to rupture at the
inside surface should be 0.86 of the rup- where :
h
'i^rc^ .(6)

ture life of the outside surface. 1/ = time to fracture,

The fit of Eq 5 to complex stress-rup-
ture test data is shown in Figs. 5 and 6
in which rupture time is multiplied by
ai/a- and plotted versus the effective
stress. Figure 5 gives results of tubes
pressurized internally and loaded axially,
whereas Fig. 6 gives Hull and Rimmer's
results on copper wires tested under
tension and hydrostatic pressure. Equa-
tion 5 fits the data with sufficient ac-
a' = true effective stress,
ai = true maximum principal stress,
and
B', fi' = material constants.
The true stress {&' = a' for uniaxial
tests), which at zero time is equal to the
engineering stress, increases as a func-
tion of the strain rate is given by
0-' = ffod -^ e) = <To(l + it) (7)

curacy, although there is some scatter where;

100 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE
o-Q = stress at zero time,
e = strain, and
6 = strain rate.
Using Minor's hypothesis of damage sidered separately. The damage pro-
accumulation under variable stresses,
B'^' = / a'^' dt (8)
•'o
Combining Eqs 7 and 8,
B'O' ao^' f (1 + «')«' di (9) axis and not influence the life expect-
which integrates to:
The true fracture stress under constant
load is,
<7f' = <ro (1 + itf) (11)
and,
Combining Eqs 10 and 12 and reducing
terms,
The true stress-rupture curve developed
from Eq 13 is shown in Fig. 7.
By use of Eq 5 the cyclic data under
complex stresses can now be compared
to static data developed by Eq 13 and
plotted in Fig. 7. In this plot the time
scale again has been modified by the
ratio (Ji/o- so that direct comparisons
can be made. The time plotted for the
cycle data is only that time accumulated
under the principal tensile stress causing
failure in the specimens. The uniaxial
cyclic creep-rupture tests have tensile
stresses acting on the specimen for only
one half of the total rupture hfe; thus,
the time available to produce damage is
only one half of the total time. For the
or AiRCRArx STRUCTURES
complex stress conditions where tensile
stresses are acting in more than a single
principal stress axis, the damage accu-
mulations in each axis have to be con-
duced and accumulated in a specimen
under creep conditions consists essen-
tially of grain-boundary voids and cracks
normal to the tensile stress axis. Thus,
the damage accumulated in one stress
axis will be parallel to the other stress
ancy in these axes. Damage accumula-
tion in the complex stress tests is then
determined for each stress axis inde-
pendent of the other axis. The torsion-
fatigue life is determined, as in the
TABLE IV.—DETERMINATION OF
DIRECTION OF FRACTURE.
Test
0"
2—
Direction Normal
to Fracture
1 1.07 2.14 Tangential
2 1.39 1.85
3 1.79 1.70 Axial
4 2.21 1.77
uniaxial fatigue tests, by considering
only one half of the actual life. The
damage accumulation for the internally
pressurized tubes axially cycled is no
different; however, the tangential stress
is constantly applied and the damage
accumulation in this direction is the
total time under test. The damage in the
axial direction is accumulated for only
one half of the time since the tensile
stress is apphed for only this period. The
two axes have to be compared to deter-
mine which axis will first accumulate
sufficient damage for fracture. Table IV
lists the ratios of a/crg and 2^/0-2, the
smallest value of which will determine
the axis normal to the fracture.
Table IV also indicates that the agree-
ment in direction was correct in each
test. Thus, two of the tests failed due to
 KENNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 101

static creep and two failed as a result of data from the complex stress tests using
a cyclic axial stress. Results of tests 1 a parameter based on effective strain
and 2 are plotted in Fig. 7 with the other range per cycle. These data demonstrate
fatigue tests; however, since failure was that both the effect of frequency and
a result of a static load, they should be stress state must be considered before a
compared with the data in Fig. 5. If this direct comparison can be made.
is done, these two points fall in the Although it has been demonstrated
middle of the scatter. Tests 3 and 4, how- that the cyclic creep test results do not
ever, failed due to the axial tensile stress, follow the static creep results implicitly,
and, as shown in Fig. 7, the rupture static creep-rupture relationships can be

lO'-

<
a:
? ID"

ISl

< 10"'
Q.
11
UNIAXIAL FATIGUE,
TORSION FATIGUE
PRESSURIZED TUBES AXLALLY
to" CYCLED, FAILURE NORMAL TO -la ^t
AXIAL STRESS ^ "3:
PRESSURIZED TUBES AXlALLY CYCLED, ^
3
FAILURE NORMAL TO TANGENTIAL STRESS

10
10" 10' 10^ 10-=' IC 10=
NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE

F I G . 8.—Strain Cycle Test Results.

times are comparable to those based on used to indicate relative magnitudes of

the axial fatigue data. Thus, the direc- the effects of frequency and stress states.
tion and time of failure of the four tests At 1500 F, the test temperature, the
were correctly determined by assessing material creep behavior can be closely
and comparing damage accumulation in approximated by:
each axis independently.
The discussion thus far has dealt only .(14)
with stress-rupture correlations. It would ' &
be profitable to analyze these results
where:
with respect to their strain-cycle be-
havior. The uniaxial data given pre- tc = effective creep strain,
viously (3) for this material are shown in t — time, and
Fig. 8 in which they are compared with A, a = material constants.
102 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Figure 4 indicates that the fatigue
data do not follow the static creep data
exactly; however, the lack of agreement
does not appear to be associated with
frequency or stress state. The cyclic
creep tests can then be represented by:
(15)
'""'^ = ( l )
where:
Acj, = effective plastic strain range, and
Ic = time per cycle.
Equation 5 is solved for the effective
stress to obtain,
'-(ra)"'
The time, frequency, and number of
.(16)
cycles are related depending upon the
type of stress cycle. For those cases
where the specimen fails as a result of a
tensile stress acting on the specimen for
half of the cycle, the relation is:
.(17)
2v '•
where 17 = frequency.
For those cases where the failure is a
result of a static tensile stress acting on
the specimen, the relation is:
N,
= I,. .(18)
Considering the case of cyclic stresses,
Eqs 16 and 17 are combined to obtain:
'-(r,rC^)"' (19)
This equation can now be substituted
into Eq 15:
(20)
This equation is of the same form as Eq
1 and, if the cyclic creep tests agreed
explicitly with the static creep results, n
should be equal to aj^. This is not the
case, since aj^ = 1.45 and n from Fig. 8
is equal to 0.762. Regardless of the agree-
ment of the cyclic creep with the static
creep constants, a and /3 are almost equal
to one another and the values of a./^ and
(a — )3)/|8 will not vary significantly.
Thus, the effects of stress state and fre-
quency can be generalized.
The solution for the second case, that
of a static stress causing failure, is ob-
tained by combining Eqs 15, 16, and 17
in a similar manner to obtain:
a \«lf
iV/""* At
>-©1-fe) .(21)
Thus, to compare the results from tests
1 and 2, in which fracture resulted from
the static tangential stress, to uniaxial
cyclic data, both Eqs 20 and 21 must be
used. A comparison is accomphshed by
considering the effect of differing fre-
quencies and stress states on tests with
the same plastic strain range. The com-
parison for tests 1 and 2 with the uni-
axial fatigue data is
.(22)
^iii \nu/ \5/ii
(Subscript I for uniaxial data and sub-
script II for tests 1 and 2.)
The value of the exponent for Inconel
at 1500 F was determined to be
= 0,31. .(23)
Since the exponent is less than 1, the
number of cycles to failure should not be
seriously affected by small changes in
frequency. The factors obtained from Eq
22 for tests 1 and 2 are:
<:^)"" (?)„
0.94 = 30.4
Test 1 32.4
Test 2 18 0.64 = 11.5
 KENNEDY ON EFFECT OF STRESS STATE OK LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
The same type of comparison is made
for tests 3 and 4 to yield the factors
\VinJ Vo'/iil
Test 3. 4.4 X 1.11 = 4.94
Test 4. 3.7 X 1.13 = 4.18
(Subscript III for tests 3 and 4.)
The comparisons can now be made,
and the results are shown in Fig. 8 in
which the factors determined above are
multiplied by the number of cycles to
failure. As expected, the data do not
correlate exactly owing to the discrepan-
cies between the fatigue and static data.
This method of adjusting data with
respect to stress state and frequency
does, however, demonstrate the magni-
tude of these effects on life expectancy.
The torsional results can be compared
in a similar manner using Eq. 20 to ob-
tain:
^ / i = A^/iv (r)^
(Subscript IV for torsion test data.)
or
Nn = Nnv (0.577)
The broken line in Fig. 8 is the strain
fatigue data expected from testing under
cyclic torsion. As seen in this figure, the
data all fall slightly above this line on
the conservative side. The relative agree-
ment adds further support to the applica-
bihty of this method to determine the
magnitude of the effect of stress state
upon the strain cycle behavior.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Two test series were performed on
REFERENCES
(1) L. F. Coffin, Transactions, Am. Soc. Me-
chanical Engrs., Vol. 76, p. 931 (1954).
(2) C. R. Kennedy, "Plastic Strain Absorption
103
Inconel at 1500 F to furnish failure test
data under complex dynamic stresses at
high temperatures. The results obtained
from these series have been correlated
with the results of previous static and
dynamic stress tests. This investigation
has furnished a general method of solv-
ing complex stress creep problems in-
volving both static and dynamic stress
states. The general solution is based upon
the developed relationship.
'-(?)'(•,)•
and upon Minor's damage accumulation
hypothesis. The damage accumulation,
however, was shown to be independently
additive in each principal stress axis.
The conclusions of this investigation
are:
1. An expression has been developed
for creep rupture under complex stress
states.
.(24) 2. A method for generating true stress
rupture data from constant load data is
given.
3. The effect of cyclic stresses upon
strain rate is demonstrated.
(25) 4. Results of the two test series
demonstrate the independence of damage
accumulation in each principal stress
axis.
5. A method for determining the
magnitude of the frequency effect on the
number of cycles to failure is given when
the plastic strain range is used as a cri-
terion for fracture.
6. A method is given for determining
the magnitude of the stress state effect
on the cycles to failure when the plastic
strain range is used as a criterion for
fracture.
as a Criterion for High-Temperature De-
sign," in High-Temperature Materials,
Their Strength Potentials and Limitations,
104 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Proceedings, Fourth Sagamore Ordnance
Materials Research, Syracuse Research
Inst., New York, N. Y., p. 193 (1957).
(3) R. W. Swindeman and D. A. Douglas,
Transactions, Am. Soc. Mechanical Engrs.,
Vol. [D]81, No. 2, p. 203 (1959).
(4) R. W. Swindeman, "Strain Fatigue Prop-
erties of Inconel. Part II. Isothermal Tests
with Constant Hold Time," ORNL-3250,
March 29, 1962.
(5) A. E. Garden and S. H. Sodergren, "The
Failure of 304 Stainless Steel by Thermal
Cycling at Elevated Temperatures," Paper
61-WA-200, Am. Soc. Mechanical Engrs.
Annual Meeting, Nov. 26-Dec. 1, 1961,
New York, N. Y. (1961).
(6) S. S. Manson, "Behavior of Materials
Under Conditions of Thermal Stress,"
NACA TN-2933 (1953).
(7) G. R. Halford and JoDean Morrow, "Low-
Cycle Fatigue in Torsion," Proceedings,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats. Vol. 62, p. 695
(1962).
(8) C. R. Kennedy, W. O. Harms, and D. A.
Douglas, Transactions, Am. Soc. Mechani-
cal Engrs., Vol. [D]81, No. 4, p. 599 (1959).
(9) A. E. Johnson, S. Henderson, and V. D.
Mathus, The Engineer, Vol. 196, p. 261
(1956).
(10) A. E. Johnson and S. Henderson, "Complex
Stress Creep, Relaxation, and Fracture of
Metallic Alloys," Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, Edinburgh (1962).
(11) D. Hull and D. E. Rimmer, Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 8, No. 14, p. 673 (1959).
Round Table Discussion
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE

Following the presentation of the papers in the symposium, a panel dis-
cussion was held. Panel members included the authors of the papers as well as Mr. Ivan
Rattinger, Aerospace Corp., and Mr. H. J. Grover, Battelle Memorial Inst. Mr. Rat-
tinger served as chairman of the panel. A record of the panel discussion follows.—Ed.

Ms. R. E. PETERSON. 1 —I should like a mean stress equal to zero Kj decreases

to ask a question of Mr. Yao. In the at high cycles to failure. Mr. Bell has
summary of his paper, a relationship is arbitrarily drawn a level line through
given that he considers valid up to 1000 the high-cycle range, essentially negating
cycles. How far beyond 1000 cycles could this drop in strength reduction factor.
the relationship be used without serious Why should a reduced strength reduction
error? factor at these relatively high cycles of
MR. J. T. P. YAO2 (panelist) —The failure be experienced? We know that
1000 cycle limit, set somewhat arbi- the fatigue stress concentration factor is
trarily, is about the life at the transition generally higher at the high cycles to
beyond which a propagation type of fail- failure than at low cycles to failure; a
ure will probably be encountered. Fur- curve of strength reduction factor versus
thermore, the tests we conducted were of number of cycles to failure will not tend
only several hundred cycles duration. to drop off at high-cycle levels. Does Mr.
Consequently it is not known whether Bell have any comments as to why his
the hypothesis can be extended beyond test data indicate a decrease in the
1000 cycles. In these tests the plastic high-cycle range?
deformation at the critical section of the MR. W. J. BELL 4 (panelist).—The
specimens was measured and then used to easiest way to explain this decrease is to
determine the true strain values. Once examine the appropriate curves of which
cracks initiate under fatigue loading, it is this factor is a ratio. On plots of range
difficult to measure the strain at the tip of stress versus mean stress, zero mean
of these cracks. Therefore it is doubtful stress is represented by the vertical axis.
that the hypothesis can be extended to W7e are talking about long lifetimes near
beyond 1000 cycles and into the usual the fatigue limit of the material. Figure
fatigue fracture range. 7(a) presents the unnotched data and
3 Fig. 7(b) the notched data. Of concern
MR. M. F. SYMONDS. —I have a
question to ask Mr. Bell with respect to are the solid curves which represent the
Fig. 9 of his paper. Considering the plot Haigh machine data; the lower of these
of the number of cycles to failure versus represents lifetimes near the fatigue limit.
fatigue strength reduction factor, Kj , for Thus, we are in an area in which there
1 is a second change in slope, with a
Manager, Mechanics Department, Research
Laboratory, Westinghouse Electric Corp., tendency for the curves to drop. When
Pittsburgh, Pa.
2
extrapolated to a lower mean stress, this
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil would appear to indicate a reduction of
Engineering, University of New Mexico, Al-
buquerque, N. Mex.
3 4
Senior Structures Engineer, Hiller Aircraft Development Engineer, Rexall Chemicals
Corp., Palo Alto, Calif. Inc., Odessa, Tex.
107
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
i08 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
the range of stress that is greater in the
unnotched than in the notched specimen
data. Clearly, the ratio factor is thus
reduced in accordance with the curves.
Although I have no strong opinion to
express as to the cause of this phenome-
non, I seem to remember that others
have recorded failure data of this type.
I think perhaps Mr. Grover produced
fatigue strength reduction curves of the
same form as shown in this paper.
M R . H . J. GROVER^ (panelist).—Some
years ago we conducted some experi-
ments on a box-beam type of structure.
In connection with these, we also tested
a number of coupons of the material
from which the beam was made, of which
some were notched. I n general, we found
in the notched coupons, and more
particularly in some of the riveted ones,
there was redundancy and the possibility
of load sharing and redistribution, but
notably in the box beam, the same kind
of a curve for the fatigue strength re-
duction factor as Mr. Bell has indicated.
I am not quite sure why this occurs, b u t
I should like to add that we found some-
thing equivalent to this in a structure,
so that it may have practical implica-
tions in structures at long lifetimes.
M R . LEONARD M O R D F I N . ^ — M y paper
on fatigue tests of box beams does not
include a figure of Kf versus cycles to
failure, but we also found that the fatigue
strength reduction factor started to fall
oii a t high cycles.
M R . H . F . HARDRATH.'—Discussion of
how the stress concentration factor
varies with life might be putting the
shoe on the wrong foot. I tend to look
at stress concentrations as being stress-
dependent. Some of the work that we
^ Research Supervisor, Battelle Memorial
Inst., Columbus, Ohio.
* Aeronautical Research Engineer, Engineer-
ing Mechanics Section, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, D. C.
' Fatigue Branch, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Langley Station, Va.
did in our laboratory, which Mr, Bell
cites in his paper, would suggest that the
stress concentration factor reduces as a
result of plastic flow. If this is truly the
case, then Mr. Symonds' comment is a
valid one. You would expect this factor
to level off or reach its maximum value
when you are definitely in the elastic
range. I should like to suggest to those
who are finding drop-offs of the nature
under discussion here, that if they were
to assume, as Mr. BeU did in his paper,
that a maximum value does exist and
persists over some range of lifetimes or,
preferably, range of elastic stresses, then
it does not take a major refairing of the
S-N curve to straighten out the curva-
ture. To do this one might have to adjust
the S-N curves by 1000 psi or so. Quite
frequently our data are no more reliable
than that. I do not know how many
tests Mr. Bell made in this particular
case nor the amount of refairing that
might be required. However, I think that
this technique might work in many
cases.
M R . GROVER.—In the box-beam tests
mentioned previously and in some other
experiments I have seen, I do not be-
lieve refairing of the S-N curve is a valid
explanation of the variation of Kf ; there-
fore at the risk of disagreeing with Mr.
Hardrath, I do not think this technique
would work for Mr. Bell's data.
MR. C . R . SMITH.*—One of the most
confusing things in fatigue is the effective
stress concentration. Perhaps a more
reliable understanding could be had by
visualizing the concentration in terms of
strain rather than stress. We would un-
doubtedly find that the strain at the
notch was nearly the theoretical concen-
tration times the nominal strain, even
though localized plastic deformation
occurred during the first cycle.
M R . HARDRATH.—I agree with most of
' Fatigue Laboratory, General Dynamics/
Convair, San Diego, Calif.
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
what Mr. Smith has said, but I think the
point under discussion here has to do
with what is happening in the elastic
range, in which we would not find
measurable plastic deformations. When
we go to higher stresses and shorter lives,
this effect comes into play and can be
rather significant. The question was
asked primarily with respect to com-
pletely reversed loading. For this type
of loading the plastic actions are prob-
ably symmetrical. Mr. Bell could choose
to talk about a strain concentration fac-
tor or a stress concentration factor, but
he would find changes in value in the
plastic range either way.
MR. GROVEE.—In the box-beam ex-
periments we found a more certain maxi-
mum in the Kf-vevsus-N curve when
there was some redundancy in our speci-
men. Mr. Bell had some specimens with
double notches, and I wonder if he has
any comment concerning possible dual
modes of cracking for such specimens.
MR. BELL.—All notched specimens
used in these tests had at least two holes;
the Haigh machine data, which are of
particular interest, are for three-hole
specimens. Figure 6 of my paper shows
some types of plastic deformations which
occurred in the notched specimens. At
high stresses these deformations tend to
encompass the entire cross-section of the
specimen. Three typical examples of
plastic deformation are shown in this
figure. The smallest or least noticeable
type of deformation appeared as small
dimples at the sides of each hole and
was, in this respect, highly localized, as
might be expected. With increasing
stressing conditions, there was a tend-
ency to develop a more extensive type
of deformation pattern that developed
in a looping action between the holes
and extended to the edges of the speci-
men as two bands at 45 deg to the speci-
men major axis. It is not necessarily true
that this can be tied in exactly with the
109
lower stresses and long endurances at
low mean stresses. Under the conditions
of long endurance and zero mean stress,
we did not experience any looping type
of plastic deformation with the notched
specimens; however, these remarks all
refer to macroscopic deformation. It was
all "as observed" by microscope and
naked eye, no close measurements being
made, and it might well be that an inter-
action between neighboring holes does
occur long before there is any noticeable
deformation.
MR. W . H . MUNSE^ (panelist).—
There are several questions I should like
to ask Mr. Bell. The first concerns the
Fig. 7(b) we have been discussing. I
wonder if Mr. Bell has any comments as
to what might happen to some of his
information if it were to be extended into
the negative mean stress range. There
has not been much work done in this
direction; however, I know that there has
been a little thought given to this sub-
ject. Some of the information I have seen,
indicates that these fatigue relationships
begin to change very markedly in the
negative mean stress range, particularly
when the members contain stress con-
centrations such as exist in the specimens
shown in Fig. 7(b). The second question
concerns the type of information that
was obtained in these tests, particularly
at the lower number of cycles. I wondered
whether there were any strain data ob-
tained by which this information might
be examined in terms of strain rather
than stress. At the lower number of
cycles we have often seen that strain
provides a much better correlation,
whereas with stress we get rather flat
curves, such as those in Fig. 5 of Mr.
Bell's paper.
MR. BELL.—I believe in your first
question that you were looking for a
theoretical approach to what is happen-
' Professor of Civil Engineering, University
of Illinois, Urbana, 111.
no SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
ing based upon an extrapolation of the
data for a negative mean stress. I t is
always better to study the plain data
first, because the notched data are
plotted as nominal stresses and tend to
present a certain amount of confusion in
their interpretation. At present, I do not
feel confident to make any extrapolations
with regard to anything other than small
increments of negative mean stress for
which I would expect an extrapolation
of a curve that may be tending more
toward the horizontal as it is shown for
the higher lifetime. The idea is that an
extrapolation of the shorter lifetime
curves might follow the pattern of the
long lifetime curves at small positive
mean stresses, except that the change in
slopes will occur for negative stresses.
With regard to the latter question, not
a great deal of strain data, or not enough
to make any serious analysis, is available
over a complete range of lifetimes. This
test program was arranged in a rather
progressive manner. The program was
scheduled to last for one year only.
However, I liked it so much that I con-
tinued and the work progressed. The
introduction of the instrumentation
occurred only in the latter part of the
program. I t was found that this material
was not subjected to very large cyclic
plastic strains; hence, its measurement
was rather difficult. This accounts for
the emphasis that was placed on the
creeping condition and the short life-
times and high stress conditions in which
we have a reasonable amount of data for
all the curves. For these conditions the
cyclic strain range and the maximum-
minimum strains at the end of each cycle
are known and the continuous loops are
recorded. As indicated in the paper,
analysis of these data has led to the
suggestion that correlation of lifetimes
with cychc plastic strain should be re-
stricted to the "repeated" portion of the
plastic strain only.
CHAIRMAN IVAN RATTINGER.^"—I have
a question for Mr. Whiteson. I n Fig. 10
of his paper, he indicates a reduction in
area as a function of the number of
cycles to failure, at —423 F . I wonder if
he had a similar figure or could comment
upon how similar curves would appear
at room temperature.
M R . B . V. WHITESON.'^ (panelist).—No
transitional behavior was noted in the
room-temperature low-cycle fatigue tests
up to 2000 cycles. All failures were
accompanied by high reduction in area,
and no failures had their initiation at the
surface of the specimen.
M R . J. ScHijvE.12—Mr. whiteson has
made the statement that in those speci-
mens which failed in a cup and cone
fracture, after considerable number of
cycles, no cracks were observed on the
specimen surface. Does this statement
refer to visual observations or micro-
scopical examination? I t seems from his
evidence that there was no question of
two competing fracture mechanisms; the
specimen failed due to either one mecha-
nism or another. I should like him to
comment on whether he would like to
generalize this type of two different
fracture mechanisms to other materials
and other circumstances. This is similar
to the question raised by Chairman
Rattinger.
M R . WHITESON.—Cracks were not
observed visually or microscopically on
the surface of the tested specimens. This
was true regardless of whether the fatigue
fracture was surface or internally initi-
ated. I n answer to the second part of Mr.
Schijve's question, it would be unwise to
generalize the two different fracture
mechanisms for other materials and other
circumstances.
M R . B E L L . — M y question is generally
'" Aerospace Corp., Los Angeles, Calif.
" Missiles and Space Systems Divisions,
Douglas Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif.
'^ National Aero and Astronautical Research
Inst., Amsterdam, Holland.
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
directed to those who have discussed the
two different types of fracture obtained
at short hfetimes. Taking one particular
example, it appears from Fig. 10 of Mr.
Whiteson's paper that he experienced
greater reduction in area with the ductile
type of fracture. We noticed, as was
shown by the cyclic creep curves as we
call them, that a considerable increase in
the total extension of the gage length of
the material was found with the ductile
or cyclic creep type of fracture. Do the
observations of other experimenters in-
dicate that the more ductile type of
fracture is always associated with an
increase in the elongation of the gage
length?
MR. WHITESON.—No strain measure-
ments were made during the low-cycle
fatigue test; also, the fatigue specimens
were a standard type of specimen con-
figuration as shown in Fig. 2 of the paper.
It should be noted that there is no realis-
tic gage length that could provide reason-
able measurement of uniform elongation.
The tapered shape of the specimen forces
all failures to take place in a very lo-
calized area; thus, any deformation is
quite localized.
MR. C. M. CARMAN" (panelist).—The
appearance of plastic deformation, re-
duction of area, or shear-type fracture
observed during high-stress, short-hfe
fatigue tests as compared to a mixed
mode or flat fracture observed for the
fatigue tests conducted at lower stress
levels appears to be consistent if one
uses the fracture mechanics viewpoint.
In the fracture-mechanics, steady-
state model described in the paper
"Low-Cycle Fatigue Characteristics of
Ultrahigh-Strength Steels," the rate of
crack propagation is expressed as a func-
tion of the plastic zone size. The size of
the plastic zone also determines the frac-
ture appearance. A plastic zone size
'^ Metallurgist, Research and Development
Group, Frankford Arsenal, Philadelphia, Pa.
111
which is small compared to the plate
thickness will result in flat fracture,
whereas a shear-type fracture will occur
when the plastic zone size is large com-
pared to the plate thickness. The plastic
zone size is also a function of the stress;
therefore high stresses result in a large
plastic zone together with faster crack
propagation and shear-type failure. On
the other hand, the lower stress levels
result in the opposite type of material
behavior.
It is felt that this approach should be
given greater consideration when at-
tempting to analyze fatigue data. Paris
and Anderson of Boeing have used a
fracture mechanics approach in the
analysis of fatigue studies of aluminum
panels, with good results. Their results
show the more familiar flat fracture and
were run at lower values of the crack tip
driving force.
MR. H . B . DUNTHORNE.I^—I would
like to ask a very general question that
would combine the talents of the entire
panel as well as a little prophetic work.
As we move into the supersonic area in
aircraft, we shall experience a lot of
thermal cycling, a very wide range of
temperature, and designs operating very
close to the yield strength; therefore, the
cycles to failure are bound to be low.
Because of the thermal cycling nature,
the frequency will be relatively low. We
will be in temperature ranges in which
it has been found that a thermally in-
duced strain aging metallurgical in-
stability type of phenomenon can occur,
and this has sometimes led to unusual
brittleness. When all these factors are
combined, would the panel care to offer
an opinion, based upon their many
researches, as to when we could expect
any untoward effects, any cumulative
results, showing a sudden or sharp
loss in the otherwise expected properties?
" Metallurgy Department, Curtiss-Wright
Corp., Woodbridge, N. J.
112 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
MR. SYMONDS.—In our normal low-
stress, high-cycle, fatigue-type failures,
we have a mechanism of failure for
which there is still considerable discus-
sion with respect to exactly how the
fatigue fracture starts. However, the
failure is usually associated with a surface
type of discontinuity, an inclusion, or
FIG. 1.—Typical Electron Fractograph Taken from Center of Internally Nucleated Fatigue Frac-
ture Surface (X 18,490).
some other type of stress raiser. But
with respect to this other phenomenon
of the fatigue crack starting right in the
center of a specimen that is loaded to a
fairly high stress level and that fails at a
low number of cycles, would anyone
care to comment on what type of fatigue
crack growth mechanism was occurring
in the center of this particular specimen?
Would this be considered a random
phenomenon that could occur at any
location, or was the fact that it occurred
right in the center significant?
MR. WHITESON.—Analysis of the failed
specimens using electron fractographic
techniques (see the accompanying Fig.
1) indicates that no fatigue-crack pro-
gression occurred when fracture was
internally nucleated. The fractographic
analysis showed no difference in fracture
surface appearance between a static
tensile failure and the internally nucle-
ated fatigue failure. Surface-nucleated
fatigue failures showed the normal
arrest lines associated with high-cycle
type of fatigue failure, indicating that
stable fatigue crack propagation took
place before catastrophic failure of the
specimen (see the accompanying Fig. 2).
MR. SMITH.—The fact was mentioned
 P A N E L DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 113

that the necking type of failure origi-
nated in the center. Was that estabHshed
in fact, or could it be under the surface,
but not necessarily at the center? If it
were not, then it is possible that we
might have sources for nucleation al-
most anywhere inside the material.
M R . WHITESON.—Electron fracto-
years ago and getting a normal S-N
curve at room temperature. At 450 F,
however, the tests produced a near-
straight-line curve with essentially no
slope out to 10^ cycles. The failures in
this instance had an appearance identical
to that of creep fracture, with consider-
able necking down and no evidence of

FIG. 2.—Typical Electron Fraclograph Taken from Initiation Point of Surface Nucleated Fatigue
Fracture Surface (X25,900).
Note the fatigue arrest markings.

graphic examination failed to reveal any surface nucleation or gradual failure

areas of fatigue crack propagation in the
flat zone of the fracture surface for those
specimens which had internally initiated
failure origins. If any stable fatigue crack
propagation had occurred it would have
been evident when fractographic analysis
was performed.
M R . E . H . SCHUETTE^°—I recall test-
ing a magnesium-thorium alloy some
progression from such a nucleus. We
spoke of this at the time as progressive
creep.
M R . Y A O . — I have no opinion on what
the low-cycle fatigue failures should look
like, but if you refer to Fig. 10 of the
paper by Mr. Munse and me it will be
" Staff Engineer, Lockheed Aircraft Corp.,
Sunnyvale, Calif.
114 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGXIE o r AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
seen that there is a flat portion in the
center, and in the following figures pro-
gressive fatigue-type cracks are shown.
Both types were found in the tests.
M R . T . J. DOLAN1«—This question is
one that should be related to the existing
stress state. I t is well known that when a
specimen begins to neck locally, the
stress state changes rather drastically.
You are really building a circumferential
notch into the specimen as it begins to
neck down. The interior then is subjected
to a rather complex three-dimensional
state of stress which varies with the
degree of reduction caused by the neck-
ing down. Under cycHc loading at the
higher stresses, the necking may cause
fracture by a high degree of three-di-
mensional stress in the center, initiating
the interior fractures, whereas at slightly
lower stresses, necking is restricted and
you are repeating a surface stress which
becomes the criterion for failure. I t seems
quite logical that one can expect either
of these failure types, depending on the
amount of necking which occurs. This
would mean, of course, that the type of
failure would vary considerably from one
material to another depending on the
degree of ductility exhibited by the
material. There has been evidence even
in ordinary static tests that ductile and
semiductile materials frequently fracture
from the interior rather than from the
surface after they have necked down and
caused this complex three-dimensional
interior state of stress.
M R . B E L L . — I n some of his previous
work, Mr. Benham found that under
certain conditions in which he obtained
a cyclic creep-type failure during which
he was observing cyclic extension and
cyclic strain, by slightly decreasing one
of the minimum stresses by only about 1
per cent of the minimum stress, he was
" Professor and Head, Department of The-
oretical and Applied Mechanics, University' of
Ilhnois, Urbana, 111.
able to reduce this creeping mechanism.
The resulting fracture appeared as a
standard fatigue-type of fracture, and
the lifetime was extended to that which
would be anticipated by extrapolation of
the short, steeply sloping portion of the
standard fatigue curve. There seems to
be more evidence in favor of the hy-
pothesis of having two separate failure
mechanisms, both of which can progress
simultaneously under certam stress con-
ditions. An extrapolation from this
might be that you simply have two
criteria for failure and it is a matter of
which one reaches its critical condition
first.
M R . HARDRATH.—Is it reasonable to
expect to see crack progression at these
extremely high stresses? I t seems to me
that, in the fatigue failure mechanism we
are discussing, some phenomenon not
completely understood makes the first
couple of atoms let go of each other to
initiate a crack. This crack then grows in
some manner for some time, and the net
effect is to reduce the residual static
strength of the specimen. Working this
specimen through rather heavy plastic
deformations depletes a large amount of
the ductihty in many cases. Conse-
quently, the sensitivity to whatever
crack is present is very much increased.
Since we are working very close to the
ultimate tensile strength of the material,
a very large crack should not be needed to
reduce the static strength to the stress
level being applied to the specimen.
Thus, it seems to me that we should not
expect to see much crack progression at
these high stress levels; and perhaps the
over-all mechanism is not necessarily
different from that which applies at
lower stress levels.
MR. SYMONDS.—If we had a tiny
crack starting and propagating rapidly,
we might, at random, expect our crack to
start occasionally at the surface of these
high-stress low-cycle specimens. We
 P A N E L DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE
would find a certain scatter with re-
spect to where this crack did first start.
However, it does seem to be the opinion
of the investigators that the crack had a
tendency to start at the center of the
specimen, or at least that the total
fracture surface tended to look as if it
were a static specimen. Mr. Whiteson
comments very appropriately that we
might be describing a situation in which
the reduction in area, due to necking
down, was such that a static fracture
occurred after a few hundred cycles.
M R . SCHIJVE.—We have tested un-
notched aluminum alloy sheet specimens
at endurances as low as about 5000
cycles. We fitted a set of two microscopes
to the fatigue machine and were able to
discern readily the amount of crack
propagation starting at the surface. Our
present definition of whether a failure is
a creep failure or a fatigue failure is
that a fatigue failure generally is sup-
posed to be transcrystalline and a creep
failure, in general, is supposed to be
intercrystaUine. Have Mr. Bell and his
staff made any observations of this
type, especially in the low-cycle fatigue
range? Did he observe any crack propa-
gation at all and, if so, could he say
whether this was transcrystalhne or
intercrystaUine?
MR. BELL.—We did not make any
microscopic examinations of the speci-
men. However, for those specimens which
did finally fail in a ductile manner and
produce a fracture with a ductile ap-
pearance, there was no observed propa-
gation of the crack. We observed these
only with a magnifying glass, but we
were able to look continuously and quite
closely at the slow-cycle tests at 10
cycles, 15 cycles, and up to 100 cycles.
There appeared to be a continued in-
crease in the strain and a final fracture
which gave all the appearance, at the
last cycle, of a tension test.
M R . G . R . G O H N . " — I would like to
FATIGUE 115
take exception to the remarks of Mr.
Schijve that, in general, creep fractures
are intercrystaUine and fatigue fractures
are transcrystalline. T h a t assumption
cost the Bell System a lot of money
before it was demonstrated that this is
not necessarily true. When cable sheath
was shipped across the country a lot of
fractures developed which were trans-
crystalline, whereas normally fatigue
cracks in cable sheath are intercrystal-
line. It was therefore assumed that these
failures during shipping were not fatigue
cracks. However, upon study it was
found that when fatigue was due to low-
cycle straining, such as occurs in cable
sheath due to daily and seasonal tem-
perature changes, the failures are inter-
crystaUine—that is, they resemble creep
failures in appearance—but high-cycle
failures induced by flat wheels on freight
cars are transcrystalhne. Studies on
lead sheath and aluminum sheath tested
at J cpm for lives ranging from 200 to
40,000 cycles (the latter represents 100
yr life) indicate that almost invariably
these materials fail in fatigue with an
intercrystaUine type of failure. In such
tests the materials are strained in the
plastic range. The transition and the type
of failure appear to be dependent upon
whether the test is made in the plastic
or the elastic range. If fatigue failures
occur in the elastic range the type of
failure is predominantly transcrystalline,
but if the failure occurs in areas that are
strained plastically the type of failure
seems to be predominantly intercrystal-
line. This has been observed in high-
purity aluminum (99.99+ per cent
aluminum) down to the commercial
grade ( 9 9 + per cent aluminum) and in
many of the leads and lead alloys, such
as pure lead, chemical lead, lead-silver,
lead-calcium, and lead-antimony. This
^' Supervisor, Mechanical Testing Laboratory,
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., New York,
N. Y.
116 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
has been observed over and over again
so that I believe the wrong conclusion
would be drawn if attempts were made
to distinguish between fatigue and creep
failures on the basis of whether the failure
is transcrystalline or intercrystalline.
MR. SCHIJVE.—I think Mr. Gohn is
quite right in saying that for the more
pure materials the intercrystalline failure
is much easier to initiate than the trans-
crystaUine failure. I also agree that in-
creasing the stress amplitude may favor
the intercrystalline failure. Increasing
the temperatures also favors the inter-
crystalline failure. Whether failure is a
creep failure or a fatigue failure might be
a question of definition. The definition I
gave before could not be generalized,
but it seems to work in our experience
for those materials that have a limited
amount of ductility, which usually
applies in materials used in aircraft
structures.
MR. SMITH.—We are actually talking
about creep. This may be a little beside
the point, but I have a question on Mr.
Kennedy's paper. It seems that all his
data start at about f hr for rupture time.
Were there any shorter times?
MR. C . R . KENNEDYIS (panelist) .—The
definition of an ultimate strength at this
particular temperature is dependent on
the stress-strain test itself. This particu-
lar specimen was loaded to about 95 per
cent of the ultimate tensile strength. The
normal tension test is run at about a
strain rate of 100 per cent per hr with a
resulting close representation of an
ideally plastic material. It starts elas-
tically, begins yielding, and the strain
hardening coefficient is very small. It
flows out at the stress that will produce
the strain rate that is introduced by the
tension test, and creep tests were not
run faster than this. To do so would
involve some question as to the time of
^* Metals and Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
loading and things of this nature. Some
of the fatigue tests were run at much
shorter durations. One run at 0.18 hr
resulted in a stress of about 29,000 psi;
this is much higher than the actual
ultimate tensile strength normally de-
termined for the material.
MR. GROVER.—In the past several
years there have appeared many ad-
vantages in considering the stages of
crack initiation and of crack propagation
for fairly long-cycle fatigue, although the
defining line between them is not clear.
To what extent is this sort of thinking
useful in low-cycle fatigue? To what ex-
tent is it desirable to study carefully the
crack propagation stage? Does anyone
have any ideas about the cycle limits
where this procedure would begin to be
less helpful?
MR. SMITH.—It does not appear worth
while to do much study at the crack
propagation rate at low-cycle fatigue
except as it influences the propagation
rate at the low level or long-cycle fatigue
strength. For example, a very high load
would introduce a residual compressive
stress at the end of a crack which would
certainly retard the crack growth at
lower loads. To study this problem,
quantitative measurements of the re-
sidual stress produced as a result of
these high loads would be required. As
yet, there is no way of measuring this,
but there is some talk about getting
strain gages that measure stress instead
of strain. This might be a good place for
one.
MR. SCHIJVE.—Our study of crack
propagation under low-cycle fatigue was
to see whether a fatigue mechanism
that was valid for low-stress-amplitude
fatigue could also be applicable to high-
stress-amplitude fatigue. We were in-
terested in this problem in view of the
well-known cumulative damage problem;
and restricting our studies to an alumi-
num alloy, we observed that there was
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
probably not very much difference in
fatigue behavior. It is generally supposed
that the fatigue phenomenon at high
endurances and low amphtudes is quite
a localized phenomenon and not a bulk
phenomenon. However, at high stress
amplitudes, speaking in terms as used
in the paper by Munse and Yao, start-
ing from plastic strains, you are definitely
considering bulk properties. Still, we did
observe crack propagation at those high
stress amplitudes, but I would not like
to suggest that at these high stress
amplitudes fatigue is a localized phe-
nomenon. On the contrary, we did ob-
serve quite a lot of fatigue cracks all
over the specimen. I do not think this
will answer the question raised by Mr.
Grover. At any rate, this is our evidence.
MR. MUNSE.—In recent studies at the
University of Illinois on the question of
crack propagation, consideration was
given to what type of loading cycle
might be used in studies of this problem.
In a number of cases in which we used a
constant-load cycle in our tests, the
stresses changed remarkably as the
cracks propagated. This had a marked
effect on the type of behavior that we
observed. It is rather difficult to apply
this type of information to an actual
structure that may be much larger than
the test member. To overcome the
problem of increasing stress we con-
ducted tests in terms of a constant-net-
section stress and a constant-stress load-
ing. In the latter case the applied load
was adjusted on the basis of the changing
net section in tension and the original
net section in compression, thus giving a
constant stress range during the test.
We found quite a difference in the crack
propagation rates under these different
loading conditions.
Looking at the crack propagation
data, we found a small region that
initially has a changing rate of crack
propagation. Then, over a rather long
117
range of crack propagation, even where
the constant stress condition exists, we
find a linear rate of crack propagation.
This type of information may be of con-
siderable help when we reach the design
of larger structures.
Another part of this program was
concerned with the strain patterns in
the members under the different loading
conditions. Photostress and strain gage
studies were made to check these condi-
tions and to show how these fields change
as the cracks propagate. These strain
patterns verify the assumed condition of
constant stress. A constant stress is ob-
tained if the compressive load is based
on the original net section and if the
Bending
Moment
Cycles, N
FIG. 3.—Bending Moment Required to Bend
the Specimen.
tensile load is based on the changing
section. However, this matter needs a
great deal more study before it can be
tied directly into the behavior of an
actual structure.
MR. GOHN.—Is there a significant
difference between crack initiation and
crack propagation? Crack propagation
in thin sheets was studied in terms of
loss of bending moment using a device
that strains a specimen through a con-
stant amplitude and simultaneously
indicates the bending moment required
to bend the specimen. If the bending
moment is plotted against the number of
cycles (this varied from one to something
less than 10,000 cycles), three types of
curves can be obtained as shown in the
accompanying Fig. 3. Depending upon
the initial strain, cases were observed
(see Fig. 3) in which (1) there is no
118 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
damage at all (curve / ) ; (2) there was
some improvement and then the bend-
ing moment fell ofi (curve 2); and (3)
there was apparently some cracking
which started immediately and propa-
gated very rapidly as indicated by the
loss in bending moment (curve J).
For the same material, it is possible to
go from one of these representative
types of failure to the other merely by
changing the speed at which the test is
made. These phenomena were observed
at testing speeds ranging from a 4-min
cycle to 75 cpm.^"
MR. SYMONDS.—It might be very
possible that we really should be defining
three different regions of fatigue crack
propagation. The first region would be
at the extremely low cycles to failure in
which would be found a certain amount
of necking down in the specimen. The
propagation that Mr. Whiteson de-
scribed would be of this type. We would
get necking down and a fatigue failure
that would appear to be a static failure.
The second region would occur if we
tested at a stress level slightly below the
previous level, such that we would not
have any appreciable necking in our
specimen. In this case, we would find
that a typical surface propagation of the
fatigue crack would start. We would
then find a crack propagation mechanism
such as Mr. Hardrath described. Once
the fatigue crack started, the net reduc-
tion in cross-sectional area due to the
fatigue crack would appreciably affect
the strength of the specimen and we
would then get extremely rapid crack
propagation to failure. Finally, the third
region would be the typical low-stress,
high-cycle fatigue crack propagation
mechanism in which it would take a long
time for the crack to grow. Thus, there
might really be three areas of investiga-
^' "Discussion on Bending Fatigue Strength,"
Proceedings, Am. See. Testing Mats., Vol. 56.
p. 1034 (1956).
tion rather than two as we have been
discussing.
MR. WHITESON.—I concur with Mr.
Symonds. In the high-stress, low-cycle
fatigue evaluation, the maximum fatigue
stresses were generally within 98 per cent
of tensile ultimate stress or higher. A loss
of only 2 per cent of the cross-sectional
area would increase the net section stress
to a level where catastrophic failure
could occur. At this point, it then be-
comes a problem of the material's notch
sensitivity, or its ability to withstand
the presence of a small surface flaw,
without showing a decrease in load-
carrying ability. This would vary con-
siderably with the material and the
testing environment. Fracture toughness
considerations might be a good model for
determining critical flaw size for fast
fracture under high-stress, low-cycle
fatigue once a fatigue crack has initiated.
I would like to ask Mr. Schijve if he
saw any reduction of area on those
specimens he tested that had surface
nucleated fatigue cracks?
MR. SCHIJVE.—There was almost no
reduction of area.
MR. WHITESON.—This would also con-
firm our observations that once a surface
crack has nucleated, failure is accom-
panied by very little reduction of area.
MR. R . F . BRODRICK.^"—Our observa-
tions were similar for Inconel specimens
that were subjected to completely re-
versed strain of an amplitude resulting
in failure in about 500 cycles. There were
a multitude of cracks, and some of those
adjacent to the ultimate failure were
quite large. Although no accurate meas-
urements were taken, some of these
cracks covered about 30 per cent of the
area. Furthermore, for those specimens
with relatively long, straight, slender sec-
tions, the area of maximum reversed
strain seemed to move along the speci-
^° Senior Project Engineer, Lessels and As-
sociates, Inc., Boston, Mass.
 P A N E L DISCUSSION ON L O W - C Y C L E FATIGUE 119

men as testing progressed. This area possible to observe them through the
started a t one location and moved to a number cycles to failure since they are
new location as the number of cycles inside the furnace. However, they are of
increased, probably due to some strain relatively uniform appearance with re-
hardening of the part that was subject to spect to the strain. The failure is pri-
plastic straining. This result may also be marily an intergranular failure, and it is
experienced in the work presented in Mr. not exactly the same as you obtain under
Kennedy's paper; I wonder if it is not static creep conditions. Under fatigue or
possible that in a complex stress state low-cycle fatigue conditions it is often
you would experience some strain hard- observed that the specimen has only one
ening in one direction and even transfer crack which has gone through the wall.
the failure from one stress direction to Under creep conditions the specimen has
another. In such highly strained states, many intergranular cracks all over the
the strains in the two directions can be specimen; in this respect, it is possible to
drastically different. I n cylinders under get nucleation of the first crack which
pressure, for example, where you may then begins propagating throughout the
get 5 per cent plastic strain in a matter specimens before the others can begin to
of tens of milliseconds, you m a y also
nucleate. With respect to strain harden-
get as much as a 50:1 difference in strain
ing under complex stresses, a number of
in the two directions. We have accom-
experiments have been performed. An
pHshed such cycling under shock load-
example is tension testing at low tem-
ing, and high differences in the strain in
peratures under complex stresses in which
the two directions have been the result.
the shear stress - shear strain relation-
MR. KENNEDY.—Are you talking ships are relatively uniform except in
about the effect of stress state on work those cases where anisotropic effects
hardening? exist. This implies that the strain harden-
M R . BRODRICK.—I first remarked that ing under complex stress states would be
the area of maximum strains can ap- essentially the same, regardless of the
parently migrate, at least in a straight stress state. I t can always be expected
cyhndrical specimen subject to axial that one particular unit or small section
loading. Therefore, I wonder if there in a specimen will yield just on a statis-
could be, perhaps, a change in direction tical basis, and in turn, it will probably
of the worst condition under biaxial strain harden. If it doesn't strain harden,
loading. or if there is an absence of strain hard-
MR. KENNEDY.—Are you talking ening, localized yielding results in neck-
about high-velocity loadings? ing. This is observed to a large extent
M R . BRODRICK.^—The first set I men- in materials which have been strain hard-
tioned was cycled at low speeds with ened or cold worked considerably. When
fully reversed strain. In the second case, these materials are tension tested, their
the only occurrence has been in high strain hardening ability is reduced to such
velocity in one-shot loading of high an extent that the first yielding pro-
velocity. I was wondering if there would
duces necking and failure. This is a
be some interaction at lower speeds under
large reduction of area rather than a
a biaxial stress type of test. These re-
brittle failure. You may be seeing a
marks are based upon room-temperature
condition of essentially localized strain-
testing.
ing, localized yielding on a statistical
M R . K E N N E D Y . — F o r the particular
basis, and then strain hardening to the
specimens in this report, it was not
120 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIKCRAFT STRUCTURES
point where yielding begins in some
other area.
MR. DOLAN.—Would Mr. Kennedy
clarify conclusion 4 of his paper? This
conclusion states that results of the two
test series demonstrate the independence
of damage accumulation on each princi-
pal stress axis. This needs seme clarifica-
tion because we have been running
experiments at Illinois on specimens of
tubing roughly 5 in. in diameter by 6 ft
long suspended at the top and loaded at
the bottom by a fixed dead weight
which incurs a nominal axial stress be-
low the elastic strength of the tubing.
The tubing is then subjected to alter-
nating torsion (plastically twisted) under
either controlled strain cycles or con-
trolled load cycles. Surprisingly enough,
the axial load with low nominal stresses
is sufiicient to extend the tube by very
large amounts; extensions can be meas-
ured with a yardstick. Unlocking the
plastic deformation by the torsional
action causes large extensional strains
for very low tensile stresses. In this case,
the addition of effects from an axial
load independently of those from the
torsional load is not a legitimate summa-
tion; in fact, the deformations are so
large that there is no simple plasticity
theory that can explain them. This is a
case in which the principal stress axes are
at 45 deg to each other, rather than at
90 deg to each other as I understand they
were in Mr. Kennedy's tests. Is the
statement that these are independent in
the accumulation on each principal stress
axis meant to imply some special cases,
or is this type of phenomenon explainable
on this basis?
I have in mind the case in which the
axial load is a constant, steady load. The
torsional load builds up from zero to
maximum and has been completely re-
versed, on a sinusoidal loading basis.
MR. KENNEDY.—Do not the principal
stress axes vary with that stress cycle?
I have thought about this condition, but
I have not come to any conclusions on
how to handle principal axes that are
rotating. This is essentially what you
have—the shear stress from the torsion
builds up, and the principal axes are
rotating. Again, this is a high-tempera-
ture phenomenon and this holds true
only when Eq 5 in my paper, for creep
rupture, is appHcable.
MR. DOLAN.—The tests we have been
making are at room temperature on
copper and aluminum tubing, and the
large amounts of plastic strain are rather
surprising. Similar results were obtained
by Coffin in some tests which used a
cylindrical specimen with a small torque
applied to the specimen which was then
plastically cycled in the axial direction.
In this case, his principal stress directions
were again at odd angles, producing large
twists for small steady stress.
MR. KENNEDY.—CoflSn's test condi-
tions were very poorly defined. I do not
believe he thoroughly analyzed this
particular test. The shear stresses or the
effective stress on these particular oc-
casions can be quite large; if they are
compared in this respect, surprising
amounts of strains are found.
MR. MoRDFiN.—Some years ago Voor-
hees, at the University of Michigan,
handled a problem in which the principal
stress axes were changing with time due
to deformation of the specimen; how-
ever, this was more of a creep test than a
fatigue test. He took an average initial
octahedral shear stress and obtained
good agreement with test results for a
notched specimen. This was tried at the
National Bureau of Standards with
simple riveted joints, and, using this
idea of an average stress, we obtained
results that were satisfactory for en-
gineering purposes.
MR. C. P . BAUM.2'—A question Mr.
2' Aerospace Engineer, Bureau of Weapons,
U. S. Navy Department, Washington, D. C.
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE 121

Grover asked earlier deserves a little ticularly in the case of very low-cycle
more discussion in view of the emphasis fatigue. Work on the factor of cumulative
on fatigue in the Department of Defense. plastic strain has been going on at the
The Air Force has put a lot of its money University of Illinois under Mr. Dolan.
and effort into this subject. Since 1959, Also, Mr. Bell reported some data on
fatigue work has been accelerated ap- this subject. The second factor involved
preciably, and answers to Mr. Grover's is that the modified shear strain is
question wovild be helpful in giving some probably higher at the surface of a
guidance; this group could provide such uniaxially loaded specimen. The third
guidance in this particular case. Per- factor is the introduction of residual
haps Mr. Grover may wish to restate his stresses, and the fourth one is the initia-
question. tion and propagation of cracks. Finally,
MR. GROVER.—What is being done the fifth effect is the critical static crack
with regard to crack propagation versus length, or the unstable crack length.
crack initiation; and of what use is this This last factor is associated with the
work from the point of view of practical reduction of the tensile strength. The
application? I shall propose a couple of final fracture may differ depending upon
thoughts I pretend to believe; however, which mechanism overrides the others.
I do not want to say outright that I In the case of very low cycles, the yield
believe them. In the intermediate range, point at the surface, I believe, is some-
at least, there seems sometimes to be what less than in the interior. After a
much more reproducibility in the rate of certain number of cycles, compressive
crack propagation than in the number stresses develop at the surface of a plain
of cycles required to initiate the crack. specimen, and tensile stresses in the
For this purpose, let me define a crack interior. Then under certain conditions
as something 0.001 in. long. If you the cracks first form internally because
measure the growth from 0.001 in. to 0.1 of this high internal tensile stress. When
in. you may get, for a given loading these cracks reach a critical length, an
condition, quite a lot of reproducibility "instantaneous" propagation occurs, the
from one specimen to another in the specimen fails in the center by a cohesive
rate of growth. However, if you measure failure, and the typical shear lip failure
the number of cycles at which you first is exhibited at the edges of the specimen.
see this small crack, you will get a lot At a somewhat higher number of cycles,
of scatter. Does this mean that our we do not get enough plastic strain
statistical scatter is wholly explained by accumulation at the surface to cause an
the very early stages of cracking? Does internal rupture. As a result, you have
it mean that we must apply statistics to the so-called local sore spots which
crack initiation and can forget about initiate fatigue cracks, and there are a
them for crack growth? Are there any multiplicity of these cracks on the surface.
comments from others along any such In this case I think the fatigue cracks
line as this? join together to cause the final failure.
MR. F . B . STULEN.22^1 think there
Thus, there are two mechanisms of
are a number of mechanisms that are failure, an internal failure that Professor
competing in low-cycle fatigue, and I Dolan and Mr. Hardrath were talking
should like to list several of the factors about, and a failure that starts from a
that may enter into this problem, par- multiplicity of surface cracks that Mr.
Schijve discussed, and which occurs
^* Chief Scientist, Curtiss Division, Curtiss- probably at a somewhat higher number of
Wright Corp., Caldwell, N. J.
122 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
cycles. Thus, the reduction of area de-
pends on the type of failure. In the case
of a notch, Mr. Smith brought some of
these points out. A unidirectional plastic
strain near and at the edge of the hole is
developed, and this plastic strain results
in a mean compressive stress which
inhibits crack initiation propagation. If
this occurs for R = —1, for example,
there is a bias strain, that is, you might
say there is more yielding in the tensile
strain resulting in a mean compressive
stress. If this condition continues long
enough it may explain the anomaly that
came up earlier where the Kf factor,
when plotted against .V, actually seemed
to decrease a bit. This may be a result
of the accumulation of a mean compres-
sive stress at the edges of the discon-
tinuity. To introduce an externally ap-
plied mean compressive stress in the
specimen would result in an accumula-
tion of plastic strain in such a way as to
give rise to a residual tensile stress at the
notch, so that there is actually a reduc-
tion in the fatigue strength compared
with what one would expect for the
smooth (unnotched) condition. I do not
know whether this clarifies the subject
but I think there may be several con-
cepts that may explain the various
phenomena that we have seen.
MR. SMITH.—In my paper, short-cycle
fatigue data are used to predict the life
of full-scale structures for any desired
life or any load history. In so doing, it
introduces something that is quite
foreign to most of our thinking. I should
like to compliment Mr. Bell on his
presentation of data in this manner.
This is the very type of data that I re-
quire to make the system work. Actu-
ally, it uses plastic flow data of the type
shown by Mr. Bell and makes use of the
fact that when a specimen failed at a
certain number of cycles, we know
definitely that yielding had taken place.
MR. DOLAN.—When one discusses
crack propagation versus crack initiation,
one immediately gets into a complex
field because of difficulties in understand-
ing scale effects and actual terminology.
If we regard cracks as something visible
to the naked eye, we are talking about
one set of phenomena. If we look on the
microscopic scale within crystals, we are
talking about a different observational
level and the things we see are different.
If we go a step further and look at the
atomic arrangement within the crystals,
again we are looking at another type of
phenomenon; thus it is hard to say what
a crack is and when it does initiate.
The present discussion represents a
mixture of phenomena also, in that we
are looking at fracture resulting from
very few cycles of loading. These are in
the realm of sudden brittle fractures or
sudden ductile fractures—an area that
has been under constant study by the
A S T M Committee on Fracture Testing
of High-Strength Steels. This committee
is looking at the characteristics of crack
propagation in slow or rapid fashion
using built-in simulated cracks and
notches, and it is finding the field ex-
tremely complex with just a single static
application of loading, or with two or
three static applications of loading. This
is not a cycle-dependent phenomenon as
much as it is involved with the material
ductility characteristics, the build-up of
shear lips on the running crack, and the
toughness characteristics of the material
in resisting the propagation of a flaw once
formed. Again, let me emphasize that the
fracture is essentially that for a single
application of gradually increasing load.
When we develop low-cycle fatigue, we
are introducing or adding to this the
progressive type of cumulative damage
which is cycle dependent. The phenom-
ena observed are different at each of the
observational levels, and we are mixing
in low-cycle fatigue a combination of
both the static fracture and the pro-
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
gressive cracking. The sudden fracture is
evidence of the flaw size reaching a
critical level and causing the toughness
characteristics of the material to be over-
come. To reach that flaw size in a low-
cycle fatigue test, we are also generating
cycle-dependent flaws which may be
quite random in character and rather
complex.
If a specimen is repeatedly cycled
with fairly uniform stress over a large
zone, the result is not one fatigue crack;
at the various levels of observation there
are hundreds of fatigue cracks rather
randomly distributed. The rate of growth
of each flaw on a microscale is very
erratic; it does not grow with uniform
modes of growth. Even if you start a
single crack in a sheet by putting a sharp
notch and loading it cyclically, careful
observations indicate it does not grow
uniformly but by erratic jumps. One
usually puts a smooth curve through
these points. However, it is quite fre-
quently observed that the curve is not
of a uniform growth character per cycle.
Engineers like to look at models of
things in an idealized fashion and think
in terms of linear relationships. Here,
however, we are dealing with phenomena
that are very complex and nonlinear; if
we talk about propagation of a crack we
are looking at a zone around the tip of
the crack and in advance of the crack
that has suffered some damage from
plastic deformation. This plastic zone in
the advance of the tip of the crack, de-
pending upon the rate of growth, may
actually contain microscopic flaws or
voids caused by the progressive damage
under the previous cycling. Therefore,
the whole field is extremely complex,
particularly in the low-cycle range in
which the cycle-dependent flaw propaga-
gation mixes with the sudden running
fracture under a static load.
M R . GOHN.—Mr. J. A. Bennett of the
National Bureau of Standards has made
123
some movies showing the propagation of
fatigue cracks. I do not know whether
these were high-cycle or low-cycle tests
but the movies show this jumping phe-
nomenon. If the surface is observed,
there is no crack in a given area and then
suddenly a crack in an adjacent section
jumps over a rather extensive area. This
movie is available for those who want to
borrow and study it. More details can
be obtained from Mr. William Hols-
houser of the Civil Aeronautics Board.
MR. W . L . HOLSHOUSER.-'—The movie
dealt with high-cycle fatigue. It was
made in connection with the study of the
origin of fatigue cracks around a small
hole. The movie shows that slip lines
appear in certain areas around the hole
and that the cracks originate in the slip
lines and progress in a rather discon-
tinuous fashion.
MR. SMITH.—Mr. Dolan made a
statement that the final failure is not
necessarily at the crack that came into
view first. This is especially true in
large-scale structures. With increasing
numbers of cycles the first crack just
stops growing and another crack appears
elsewhere; maybe even a third crack will
culminate in the final failure. This might
have been visualized as being typical of
smooth specimen data, but it is also true
in full-scale structures.
MR. STULEN.—About 1957 we ran
some fatigue tests on smooth rotating-
beam specimens and carefully photo-
graphed the whole surface of each speci-
men at frequent intervals. At a given
stress level, if the crack length was
plotted against the number of cycles, we
found exactly what Mr. Dolan described,
that is, the crack was initiated at an
inclusion. At the beginning of the cychng,
the crack would hesitate for a long period
and then it would appear to jump. It
seemed to grow rather rapidly for a few
^' Metallurgist, Civil Aeronautics Board,
Washington, D. C.
124 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
ten thousandths of an inch and then
hesitate for a long time. The hesitation
periods would continue during growth,
but they would become shorter as the
number of cycles increased. Because
measurements were taken every 5000
cycles, the hesitation periods later in the
process would not be apparent and the
growth appeared continuous. If we took
another specimen that happened to have
a somewhat larger inclusion, of the order
of 0.002 in. compared with the previous
inclusion of 0.001 in., the initial crack
growth would be more rapid, and the
curve of growth versus cycles would be
above and to the left of the previous
curve. The crack growth on a number of
specimens tested at the same cyclic
stress was measured; it was found that
the crack curves above about 0.003 in.
could be shifted laterally so that they
were more or less coincident. If the
starting point of the propagation curve
is taken at No cycles and the correspond-
ing crack length k , the relation obtained
is:
log
(0= ks'iN - iV„)
Frost and Dugdale in England pub-
lished this same formula and experimen-
tally determined the exponent, a, to be
3. By using some plastic calculations at
the tip of the crack and making some
rather simplifying assumptions, the ex-
ponent a should either be equal to 3
based on the concept of depletion of
ductility at failure or should be equal to
3 plus the strain-hardening index, as-
suming the total specific damping is
constant at failure. We do not know
quite what the correct value for this
exponent is because the strain-hardening
index is usually about 0.1 and it is
difficult to distinguish between the
theories. However, this relationship was
developed for the case of zero stress
gradient. When there is a stress gradient,
there is probably some other value for
the exponent.
The other phenomenon was that the
high variability in fatigue was caused by
the initiation period. Practically 70 or
80 per cent of the variance is caused by
the initiation period which, in turn,
depends upon the variation in the sizes
of the flaws. If you were to drill a small
hole in a smooth specimen, say of the
order of 0.005 in. (larger than an inclu-
sion), no doubt you would get the same
type of crack propagation relationship
that you have in the smooth specimens,
except the crack probably starts earlier.
You can rationalize the old French dam-
age line on this basis and show that there
is a specific crack length that can exist
in a material at a given cyclic stress
level without propagation. If a step test
is run on a specimen with a crack in it,
it will have very large life up to a certain
critical alternating stress value, depend-
ing on the crack length. If this threshold
value or fatigue limit of the crack length
is plotted against the stress level on log-
log paper, a linear relationship is ob-
tained. The fatigue limit of a crack in a
given material is inversely proportional
to its length raised to a given power.
Therefore a certain maximum length of
crack or defect in a given material will
not affect the fatigue hmit of the ma-
terial. This observation indicates that
the French damage line is a convenient
method of dividing the crack initiation
stage and crack propagation stage by
the specific crack length that does not
affect the fatigue strength. To introduce
small holes artificially is to start out
with a larger critical dynamic crack,
thus lowering the original fatigue limit.
Very clean steel raises the threshold
value and the fatigue hmit. Steel with
small notches that are larger than the
inherent defects produce a lower fatigue
limit. These threshold values may not be
horizontal; they may actually dip a bit.
 P A N E L DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE
depending upon whether it is ferrous or
nonferrous and depending upon whether
there is strain aging or not.
MR. GROVER.—How far up in high
strain and how low down in number of
cycles do you think this kind of model
usefully apphes?
M R . STULEN.—This model gets con-
fused when you go up to a higher stress
level because there is a multiplicity of
cracks forming in a smooth specimen as
mentioned by previous speakers. A
large crack can start from a large defect
first, b u t if the many cracks starting
from the small defects happen to join
together quicker than the initially formed
crack, they will cause the failure. Single-
nucleus failures will occur in most prac-
tical devices because holes, notches, or
stress raisers are present in everything
that is built, and the crack will start as a
single-nucleus crack. Even in plain speci-
mens, as Mr. Dolan has pointed out, at
the low values of stress, a very large
number of cracks will be found all over
the specimen, b u t the one that gets
started first is usually the one that
dictates the failure. However, this is not
true at the high stress levels, in which
many cracks start; it is not necessarily
the first one that starts, but rather those
that happen to line up and join that
dictate the failure.
CHAIRMAN RATTINGER.—Would Mr.
Christensen, who is actively engaged in
similar work, like to comment on this
topic?
M R . R . H . CHRISTENSEN.2^—The dis-
cussion on the sporadic nature of crack
growth versus a continuous behavior
reminds me of a similar discussion when
Mr. Wilkov presented his paper on
Mechanism of Fatigue Failure^* at the
Fatigue Session in Atlantic City during
the 1961 Annual Meeting. Mr. Wilkov
^* Staff Assistant, Strength Engineering De-
partment, Space System Division, Douglas
Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif.
FATIGUE 125
claimed the fatigue crack growth period
was about 2 to 5 per cent of hfe, while
a discussion claimed that the cracking
phase represented 90 to 95 per cent of
the hfe. Actually both were correct in
their statements; what was not made
clear at the time was that one was re-
ferring to the behavior on plain (high
apphed stresses) specimens while the
other was observing crack formation in
notched (low apphed stresses) specimens.
In defense of Mr. Dolan's comments
concerning erratic and spurting growth
of cracks, I will agree because I have
observed this type of behavior in many
materials. I also believe that scatter in
the crack growth phase is low, so here
again we may be intermixing our dis-
cussions about two separate things. T h e
spurting and erratic growth in the micro-
phase is continuing in an orderly fashion,
if it is possible to describe it in this way,
and these curves can be translated one
upon the other as Mr. Grover has
mentioned.
Did I get the correct impression from
Mr. Kennedy's paper that the compres-
sion half of the cycle in the combined
creep and fatigue program at low-cycles
had no effect in damaging the material?
MR. KENNEDY.—That is what was
said, b u t it is not certain about the low-
stress tests that were performed. The
high-stress tests and the torsional tests
did not indicate this.
MR. CHRISTENSEN.—Well, I would
have challenged the statement for long-
time tests because data exist showing
that it does. If fatigue and creep are
conjointly going on, the compression
has a large effect within the fatigue
component when alternating from ten-
sion to compression, whether the load
is a sine wave or a square wave. If the
^*M. A. Wilkov, "New Observations Relat-
ing to the Mechanism of Fatigue Failure,"
Proceedings. Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol. 62,
p. 540 (1962).
126 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGXIE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
effects of material degradation and the
mechanism of creep cracking are occur-
ring simultaneously with fatigue, then I
think these processes going on simul-
taneously and acting one upon the other
certainly would be affected somewhat by
the compression cycle. Was your wave a
square wave?
MR. KENNEDY.—All of the experi-
ments used square waves, and, in this
respect, it simplified analysis consider-
ably.
MR. C H R I S T E N S E N . — I was going to
challenge your taking half of the time as
damaging time on this; b u t I was think-
ing of a sine wave load shape.
I have a question for Mr. Christian.
He tested a considerable number of
notched specimens with Kt of 3, 19,
and so on, at different testing tempera-
tures. Then he ran many fatigue tests.
Does he believe that if he had made a
tension test on the fatigue-cracked panels
he would have obtained strength reduc-
tions similar to the sharp-notch data?
MR. J. L. CHRISTIAN^^ {panelist).—
The use of a static test for correlating
with or predicting a fatigue failure has
been discussed. In the very high-stress
low-cycle fatigue of a complex joint, such
as was tested in the subject investiga-
tion, it appears that a static notched
test is capable of indicating whether the
material is capable of withstanding a
large number of cycles in axial fatigue.
The data indicated that the Kt of 6.3
more closely correlated or more closely
indicated fatigue life than did the Kt of
19. I believe the reason for this was due
to the presence of resistance spot welds
in the complex joints in the fatigue
specimens. H a d there been a fatigue
crack present rather than the notch due
to the resistance spot weld, it is possible
that the sharper notch data would better
predict the fatigue behavior of the com-
^^ General Dynamics/Astronautics, San Di-
ego, Calif.
plex joint. For the type of test conducted,
the notched {Kt = 6.3) data gave the
best correlation. For the very shallow
notch {Kt = 3.0), the stress concentra-
tion was not sufficiently sharp to give
any indication of embrittlement for any
of the materials tested.
MR. CHRISTENSEN.—While this has
appeared to be true for some materials,
the only caution I should like to make is
that there are materials for which the
fatigue crack is the much severer notch,
and at liquid nitrogen or hydrogen tem-
peratures the curve actually flips over
and decreases in strength while the
strength may increase with notches of
Kt of 18.
M R . CHRISTIAN.—In essence, then,
for a sharper (fatigue) notch, the notched
tensile value may decrease rather than
increase with reduction in testing tem-
perature. This seemed to be indicated
from even the three notch configurations
which were tested. There was a decrease
in the notched tensile strength with
reduction in temperature in the follow-
ing cases:
Ki = 3.2 for type 301 stainless steel (heat
49061), transverse direction, at
- 423F,
K, = 6.3 for AM-355, longitudinal and
transverse directions, at — 320 and
- 423F, and
K, = 19 for type 304 stainless steel, long-
itudinal direction, at — 423F, and
types 301 and 310 stainless steel,
transverse direction, at — 423F.
CHAIRMAN R A T T I N G E R . — I should like
to thank the panel for participating; I
think that these thanks are also shared
on the part of the audience. Finally, Mr.
Grover has a few concluding remarks.
M R . GROVER.—I should hke to express
our appreciation to those who arranged
this symposium, to Mr. Hardrath who
has done a lot of work for it, and to
 PANEL DISCUSSION ON LOW-CYCLE FATIGUE
our chairman this morning, Mr. Rattin-
ger.
[CHAIRMAN'S NOTE.—The following
additional remarks were supplied by Mr.
Benham, who was unable to attend the
meeting. They are included for a num-
ber of reasons, not the least of which is
their thought-provoking nature.]
MR. P . P . BENHAM^' (by letter).—Mr.
Bell has dealt quite fully with points
raised on our paper; however, a few
further remarks might be made regarding
the apparent drop in strength reduction
factor, Kf, in the high-cycle range.
Based on theoretical and static experi-
mental elastic and plastic stress concen-
tration factors, one would expect fatigue
strength reduction to be greatest at high
cycles and least at low cycles. However,
in the particular multiple notched speci-
mens tested here, there are three fairly
distinct stages of deformation across the
notched section: "elastic," elastoplastic
(local yielding), and fully plastic, related
to high, medium, and low endurances,
respectively. In the second of the three
phases there is some interaction, redistri-
bution, and residual stress between the
notches. Since there is no simple relation-
ship established between Kt and Kf ,
there is no conclusive evidence why there
should not be a peak in some cases in
Kf-N curves. It must be admitted,
however, that the shape of those curves
can be effected by the position of the
S-N curves as drawn, as was pointed out
by Mr. Hardrath.
The remaining comments are mainly
concerned with the nature of fracture in
the low-endurance range, a topic dealt
with by a number of the speakers. A
number of people would define fatigue
as a failure caused by any form of cyclical
application of stress and strain. Yet
Fig. 14 of Mr. Munse's paper and Fig.
^' Lecturer in Applied Mechanics, Depart-
ment of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial Col-
lege, London, England.
127
13 of Mr. Whiteson's paper show two
different forms of fracture that I have
also found.2' It is suggested that the
term fatigue should be reserved for the
classical type of cyclical failure, the
crack area which shows no gross plastic
deformation. This behavior is obtained
at low endurances particularly under
restricted strain cycling conditions.
Alternatively, under load cycling condi-
tions, because strain is "free," an incre-
mental, unidirectional strain can occur
that can overrule the fatigue slip and
cracking mechanism, and eventually
lead to fully ductile failure indistinguish-
able micrographically from static mono-
tonic fracture (cup and cone in tension).
I have also found instances of small
surface-fatigue-type cracks occurring in
the neck of a ductile failure, particularly
in the range of endurance in which there
is the change from the ductile to the
fatigue mechanism.
Mr. Munse's tests are quite fascinat-
ing in conception, and they provide some
valuable information on residual duc-
tility. However, with the exception of the
R = —1 series which may be regarded
as reversed strain cycling after com-
pressive prestrain, the other R ratios
are actually biased cyclical tension tests
resulting in necking and ductile cup-and-
cone fractures. The R = —I tests can
be regarded as true low-cycle fatigue
failures. It is interesting to note that the
relationships derived for predicting
strain and endurance agree well with
Messrs. Pian and D'Amato's results,
which were essentially prestrain plus
reversed strain cycling, and also Mr.
Munse's R = —1 results, but do not
represent the results very well (see Figs.
II to 13) for the other R ratios which
lead to tensile type failure.
Figures 14 to 16 in Mr. Whiteson's
paper parallel the behavior found in
copper and mild steel at room tempera-
128 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

^yj.g28,29 Figure 14 again emphasizes
that under mean load cycling at low
endurances two different mechanisms
can operate in some materials. In the
present tests, fatigue failures were not
obtained earlier than about 1000 cycles.
One aspect of Mr. Whiteson's paper,
not fully understood by me, concerns
the so-called strengthening effect. If
these were constant-load tension cycling
tests, why did the specimen not break
on the first half cycle? In other words,
how can one achieve a fatigue strength
greater than the static strength other
than by coaxing, which is not constant
load cycling, over a number of cycles?
The point at issue is whether the tests
referred to by Hardrath et al., Illg, and
also the writer^'' ^° on aluminum alloys
could have been made to exhibit the
ductile type of failure, by coaxing, at
shorter lives than the minimum fatigue
life quoted, or alternatively whether the
2' P. P. Benham, Journal, Inst. Metals, Vol. test, in that the first few cycles of load
89, p. 328 (1961).
^' P. P. Benham and H. Ford, Journal, Inst.
Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 3, No. 2, designated stress level. We believe that
p. 119 (1961).
™ C. T. Mackenzie and P. P. Benham, Jour- ble for the strengthening effect, due to
nal, Royal Aeronautical Soc, Vol. 66, No. 614,
p. 128 (1962).
fractures would have been true fatigue
type. It may be that some materials just
do not exhibit the ratcheting-ductile
failure mechanism; in fact under various
stress conditions there is a genuine
minimum number of cycles required to
initiate and propagate a true fatigue
fracture.
Finally, in relation to Mr. Kennedy's
paper, I have also found good correlation
between low-endurance reversed torsion
and reversed axial plastic-strain cycling,
on pure copper, on the basis of the Von
Mises equivalent stress - equivalent strain
criterion.
MR. WHITESON.—Mr. Benham is cor-
rect in assuming that tensile failure
would have taken place if we had reached
a stress level corresponding to ultimate
tensile strength of the material during the
first half cycle of loading. However, we
pointed out in the paper that we did not
achieve a constant load cycling type of
application were slightly below the
these first few load cycles were responsi-
some coaxing phenomenon.
Helicopter Fatigue
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

E M P I R I C A L ANALYSIS OF F A T I G U E S T R E N G T H OF P I N - L O A D E D
LUG JOINTS

B Y A. A. MITTENBERGS 1

SYNOPSIS

Fatigue data obtained in an experimental research program on SAE 4340

steel and 2024-T4 aluminum alloy pin-loaded lug joints are analyzed with
respect to stresses at the location of failure. These lug joints were subjected
to a combined load consisting of a steady-tension component and an alter-
nating, reversed cantilever-type bending moment. The paper reviews briefly
the experimental data and presents an approach and an empirical method
for failure prediction in pin-loaded lug joints under the above fatigue loading.
The nominal stresses at failure are expressed as functions of the material
properties, geometric parameters of the joints, and other pertinent factors.
The method developed permits correlation of nearly all observed fatigue-test
results and appears potentially useful for analyses of other experimental
results on pin-loaded lug joints.

This paper is a continuation of the indicated optimum values for various

subject matter discussed in a previous ratios of geometric dimensions to give a
ASTM paper (I),2 which presented results maximum moment-carrying capacity
of an experimental fatigue investigation and thus provided design data for
on simple pin-loaded lug joints subjected judicious choice of geometric variables
to a combined load consisting of a or for proportioning of the lug joints
steady-tension component and a super- under the fatigue-loading conditions.
imposed, alternating, reversed cantilever- The latter data, although significant
type bending moment. The principal and useful by themselves, would have a
objectives of the experimental program more general usefulness and applica-
were to investigate the effects of geo- bility to design problems if they were
metric parameters on the fatigue strength expressed in terms of stresses at failure
of pin-loaded lug joints and to obtain and if these stresses could be predicted
information on the optimum geometric by computations. Since fatigue strength
design for the selected specimen con- of a structural part depends mainly on
figuration. The experimental results the localized peak stresses at critical
were evaluated in terms of moment- locations, a detailed stress analysis and
carrying capacity per unit weight of a thorough knowledge of the fatigue
specimen and were presented as para- behavior of the materials are required
metric curves. These curves generally for this purpose. Because of the com-
1 plexities involved, a detailed theoretical
Senior Program Director. Solid and Struc-
tural Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering Dept., stress analysis of pin-loaded lug joints is
Battelle
2
Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio. virtually impossible at present. Even if
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer a detailed solution of a stress function
to the list of references appended to this paper.
131
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
132 SYMPOSIXJM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

could be obtained, there is not enough SPECIMENS AND TESTING PROCEDURES

basic knowledge of some factors in regard
to fatigue for a complete analysis of the
fatigue behavior of such joints. For
example, effects of fretting between the
surfaces of the pin and the pin hole or
effects of combined stresses are not
known in detail.
The pin-loaded lug joint investigated
in the experimental program is shown
schematically in Fig. 1, and the di-
mensions and geometric ratios for the 20
steel and 8 aluminum specimen con-
figurations (series) tested are listed in
Table I.

Nut tightened with 0.005-in. clearance

a torque of about top and bottom-
3 ft-lb

d-pin installed
with 0.0005-in.
per in. interference

pin diameter,
lug and lever width,
clevis lug thickness,
lever thickness,
throat depth,
fillet radius,
locations of failure origins (Oc , in clevis lugs; OL , in lever),
steady tension load,
alternating bending force, and
distance from centerline of the pin to the point of application of force B.
FIG. 1.—Specimen Configuration.

A rational engineering-type approach
to the problem, therefore, was taken to
establish a correlation between the
nominal stresses at failure and the test
results observed in order to enable pre-
diction of alternating stresses at failure.
This paper describes the approach and
presents the results of an empirical
analysis of fatigue strength of pin-
loaded lug joints investigated in the
experimental program (I).
The clevises and levers were made from
aircraft-quality forged SAE 4340 steel
bars and from extruded 2024-T4 alumi-
num alloy bars. The steel parts were
quenched and tempered to an ultimate
tensile strength of 145,000 psi. The ulti-
mate tensile strength of aluminum alloy
was 82,000 psi. All pins for both steel
and aluminum specimens were made from
aircraft-quahty SAE 8620 steel. They
were carburized, heat treated to a case
 M i T T E N B E R G S ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF P i N - L o A D E D L u G J o i N T S 133

hardness of 58 to 62 R e , and then The loads applied to the specimens

ground. were a steady-tension load {T, Fig. 1)
At assembly, the pin holes were line- and a cantilever-type, reversible, alter-
reamed and an antiseize compound nating (at 1800 cpm) bending moment.
TABLE I.—SPECIMEN CONFIGURATIONS.
See Fig. 1 for dimensions.

Nominal Variable Dimensions, in. Geometric Ratios"

Specimen Series
h/h d/w hlw'' hiv.

STEEI. SPECIMENS

.4-1.... 0.625 2.00 0 . 3 7 5 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.250 0.313 0.188 0.750
A-2.... 0.625 2.00 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.313 0.250 0.750
A-3.. .. 0.625 2.00 0 . 7 5 0 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.500 0.313 0.375 0.750
B-0.... 1.00 2.00 0 . 2 5 0 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.167 0.500 0.125 0.750
B-l. . . 1.00 2.00 0 . 3 7 5 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.250 0.500 0.188 0.750

B-2.. .. 1.00 2.00 0.500 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.500 0.250 0.750
B-3.... 1.00 2.00 0.750 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.500 0.500 0.375 0.750
B-4.... 1.00 2.00 1.000 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.667 0.500 0.500 0.750
C-1.... 1.3125 2.00 0.375 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.250 0.657 0.188 0.750
C-2.. . . 1.3125 2.00 0.500 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.657 0.250 0.750

C-2.5. . 1.3125 2.00 0 . 6 2 5 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.417 0.657 0.313 0.750
C-3.. .. 1.3125 2.00 0 . 7 5 0 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.500 0.657 0.375 0.750
D-2.... 0.625 1.25 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 0.781 0.12 0.333 0.500 0 . 4 0 0 1.200
E-2.. . . 1.3125 2.625 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 1.641 0 . 2 5 0.333 0.500 0.190 0.572
F-1. . . . 1.00 2.00 0 . 3 7 5 1.125 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.500 0.188 0.564

G-3... . 1.00 2.00 0 . 6 2 5 1.875 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.500 0.313 0.937
L-2. . . . 0.75 1.50 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 0.940 0.14 0.333 0.500 0 . 3 3 3 1.000
M-2. . . 0.50 1.00 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 0.625 0.094 0.333 0.500 0 . 5 0 0 1.500
N-2.... 0.8125 2.00 0 . 5 0 0 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.406 0.250 0.750
R-1... . 0.75 1.50 0.281 0.844 0.940 0.14 0.333 0.500 0.188 0.564

ALUMINUM SPECIMEN.?'

AL-A-2. 0.625 2.00 0.500 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.313 0.250 0.750
ALB 0 1.00 2.00 0.250 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.167 0.500 0.125 0.750
AL-B-1 1.00 2.00 0.375 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.250 0.500 0.188 0.750
AL-B-2 1.00 2.00 0.500 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.500 0.250 0.750
AL-B-3 1.00 2.00 0.750 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.500 0.500 0.375 0.750
AL-C-2 1.3125 2.00 0.500 1.50 1.25 0.19 0.333 0.657 0.250 0.750
AL-D-2 0.625 1.25 0.500 1.50 0.781 0.12 0.333 0.500 0.400 1.200
AL-L-2 0.75 1.50 0.500 1.50 0.940 0.14 0.333 0.500 0.333 1.000

" c/io = 0.625 a n d rjw = 0.95 for all specimens.

' T h e ratio tijw = {hiti) ih/w) has been included because of its usefulness for analysis purposes
' T h e eight series of a l u m i n u m specimens were identical w i t h corresponding series of steel speci-
mens. T h e s a m e series designations are used for b o t h , except t h a t t h e designations of a l u m i n u m
specimens h a v e t h e prefix " A L . "

containing molybdenum disulfide was M = Bl. The bending moment was

applied to the pin-hole surfaces. As
indicated in Fig. 1, the pins were
installed with an interference of 0.0005
in. per in. of pin diameter in both the
clevis and the lever.
applied in a plane defined by the pin
axis and the longitudinal direction of the
specimen. The clevis end was held
rigidly, and the loads were applied on the
free end of the lever.
134 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGXJE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Applied bending moment versus life- points are assumed to be the critical
time (Af-.V) curves were developed for locations.
each specimen series up to about The nominal stresses at the critical
15 X 10^ cycles, using three to eleven locations, Oc and OL , are defined as
specimens per test condition. For each follows:
M-N curve the steady-tension load was
kept constant. The alternating bending Sc = ~ .(1)
moments applied at the centerline of the
pins were varied from specimen to
specimen by adjusting the alternating SL = .(2)
bending force (-B, Fig. 1) applied at the
distance / from the pin axis. This
Sbc (3)
distance was 16 in. for the steel and 21 c
11.125 in. for the aluminum specimens.
Mh
(4)
NOMINAL STRESSES AT
CRITICAL LOCATIONS
S,c = (5)
The fatigue failures occurred either
in the lever or in the clevis lugs, de-
pending primarily upon the relative SsL = .(6)
thicknesses of the clevis lugs, h , and
the lever, t^. Thus, the ratio h/li is the where
principal criterion which determines the Sc = Nominal steady tensile stress in
failing component. Generally, at ti/l2 < the net cross-section of the clevis
0.333 clevis failures were predominant; lugs through the centerline of the
at h/k > 0.333 all failures occurred in pin hole, psi,
the levers; and at a ratio of h/h = 0.333, SL = Nominal steady tensile stress in
failures occurred in both components. the net cross-section of the lever
The failures, originating on the inside through the centerline of the pin
of the pin hole for both levers and clevis hole, psi,
lugs (0, Fig. 1), were located roughly in Sbc = Nominal alternating bending
a plane through the pin axis perpen- (tensile and compressive) stress
dicular to the longitudinal direction of at the inside top and inside
the joint with the origins located near bottom surfaces of the clevis lugs
the top or bottom surface of the lever, in the net cross-section through
OL , or near the inner top or inner the centerline of the pin hole, psi,
bottom surfaces of the clevis lugs, Oc • SbL = Nominal alternating bending
Failures at the latter locations were stress (tensile and compressive)
caused by the effects of pin bending and at the top and bottom surfaces of
lug deformations. According to an ele- the lever in the net cross-section
mentary analysis that neglects these through the centerline of the pin
effects, the failures should occur at the hole, psi,
outer fibers of the clevis lugs, since the Ssc = Nominal alternating shear stress
bending stresses are nominally the in the net cross-section of the
highest at the outside surfaces. Although clevis lugs through the centerline
the exact locations of the failure origins of the pin hole, psi,
varied somewhat from the points desig- SsL = Nominal alternating shear stress
nated by 0, OL , and Oc in Fig. 1, these in the net cross-section of the
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LOADED L u G JOINTS 135

lever through the centerline of Ac = Area of the net cross-section of

the pin hole, . the clevis lugs, sq in..
T = Static tension load applied to the AL = Area of the net cross-section of
joint, lb, the lever, sq in..
M = Alternating cantilever-type bend- Ic = Moment of inertia of the clevis
ing moment, applied on the joint net cross-section, in.*,
at the centerline of the pin, II = Moment of inertia of the lever
M = Bl, in-lb, net cross section, in.'', and
B = Alternating bending force applied /a = Lever thickness as specified in
on the joint, lb. Fig. 1, in.

T A B L E II.—FATIGUE D A T A A T 15 X lO^ CYCLES.

Static Load Bending Load

Specimen Series Location of Failure

T, lb M,
5 i , psi in-lb SbC , SbL ,
Sc , psi psi psi

STEEL SPECIMENS

A-1 / 15 450 15 000 7 500 3 250 2 650 6 300 Predominantly clevis

I 30 900 30 000 15 000 2 600 2 120 5 030 Clevis or lever
A-2 30 900 22 500 15 000 2 800 1 490 5 420 Lever
A-3 30 900 15 000 15 000 2 800 770 5 420 Lever
B-0 22 500 45 000 15 000 2 000 3 890 5 300 Clevis

B-1 j 11 250 15 000 7 500 5 700 6 420 15 200 Predominantly clevis

22 500 30 000 15 000 3 700 4 160 9 850 Clevis
B-2 / 15 000 15 000 10 000 7 000 5 150 18 700 Predominantly lever
22 500 22 500 15 000 5 650 4 150 15 100 Predominantly lever
B-3 22 500 15 000 15 000 4 700 1 790 12 550 Lever

B-4 22 500 11 250 15 000 3 900 890 10 400 Lever

C-1 7 730 15 000 7 500 5 700 9 300 22 100 Clevis
15 460 30 000 15 000 3 900 6 360 15 150 Clevis
C-2 15 460 22 500 15 000 4 800 5 100 18 600 Lever
C-2.5 15 460 18 000 15 000 8 200 6 120 31 800 Lever

C-3 15 460 15 000 15 000 7 400 4 110 28 700 Lever

D-2 14 100 22 500 15 000 2 350 2 700 9 900 Predominantly lever
E-2 29 500 22 500 15 000 8 000 4 480 16 250 Clevis
F-1 16 900 22 500 15 000 3 050 4 140 14 300 Clevis or lever
G-3 28 200 22 500 15 000 7 900 3 710 13 500 Lever

L-2 16 900 22 500 15 000 3 350 3 280 11 950 Predominantly lever

M-2 11 250 22 500 15 000 1 150 1 690 6 120 Lever
N-2 26 700 22 500 15 000 3 300 2 040 7 400 Lever
R-1 9 500 22 500 15 000 1 100 3 510 12 400 Lever or clevis

ALUMINUM SPECIMENS

AL-A-2 20 600 15 000 10 000 1 100 590 2 130 Lever or clevis

AL-B-0 15 000 30 000 10 000 350 630 930 Clevis
AL-B-1 15 000 20 000 10 000 1 400 1 575 3 720 Clevis
AL-B-2 15 000 15 000 10 000 1 500 1 100 3 990 Lever or clevis
AL-B-3 15 000 10 000 10 000 1 450 550 3 860 Lever
AL-C-2 10 300 15 000 10 000 1 550 1 650 6 020 Predominantly lever
AL-D-2 9 380 15 000 10 000 700 820 3 010 Lever
AL-L-2 11 250 15 000 10 000 1 350 1 320 4 820 Lever or clevis
136 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

In the calculations for Sbc (Eq 3) and
for / e , the clearances between the lever
and the clevis lugs are neglected since
they are small in comparison with ti and
since the error is insignificant in view of
the normal scatter in fatigue data.
The fatigue data obtained in the ex-
perimental program for the various test-
specimen series at 15 X 10^ cycles are
summarized in Table II. The lifetime of
15 X 10^ cycles was selected arbitrarily
to provide a common basis for comparing
the stresses from pin-interference fits.
Although the tangential stresses at the
pin-hole surfaces from pin interference
of 0.0005 in. per in. of pin diameter are
significant (on the order of 10,000 psi for
steel and 4000 psi for aluminum joints
used in the experimental program), their
effects on the fatigue strength of these
joints are negligible as compared with
joints having closely (metal-to-metal)
fitted pins. It can be shown (2,3) that,
under conditions used in the experi-

80,000
(b) Aluminum (a) Steel
s SA S SA
10,000 18,000 7500 64,200
60,000
15,000 17,500 10,000 64,000
<
</5 20,000 17,000 11,250 63,800
30,000 15.000 15,000 63,000
,-t 40,000 — 18,000 62,600
to 62,000
22,500
30,000 60,000
45,000 55,000
fc 20,000

40,000 80,000 120,000 160,000

Mean Stress, S, psi
(a) SAE 4340 steel, heat treated to 145,000 psi UTS.
(b) 2024-T4 aluminum alloy with 82,000 psi UTS.
FIG. 2.—Soderberg Stress-Range Diagrams for Unnotched Specimens Under Direct (Axial) Load
at 15 X 10« Cycles.

and analyzing the results. The alter-
nating bending moments, M, were taken
from the developed M-N curves. The
applied nominal tensile stresses and the
nominal alternating bending stresses at
failure were computed from Eqs 1 to 4.
The nominal alternating shear stresses
are small (generally less than 10 per cent
for the failing member) in comparison
with the alternating bending stresses;
therefore, they are not included in Table
II, and they are excluded from further
consideration.
Excluded also from this analysis are
mental program, these interference fits
decrease slightly the peak steady (mean)
stresses, but they have no effect on the
amplitudes of peak alternating stresses.
Therefore, the analysis described in this
paper is applicable to both pin-loaded
joints with slight pin-interference fits
and those having a close fit between the
pin and pin hole.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
Generally, the fatigue strength of pin-
loaded lug joints may be influenced by a
large number of factors, many of which
 MiTTENBERGS ON FATIGXIE STRENGTH OF PiN-LOADED LUG JOINTS
may be interrelated or dependent on
each other. The major groups of these
factors are:
1. Material fatigue properties, in-
cluding notch sensitivity.
2. Loads and nominal stresses.
3. Stress concentrations (geometric
and those resulting from pin and part
deflections, part interaction, and surface
finish).
4. Possible localized plastic deforma-
tions accompanied by changes in stress
distribution, cold working of the ma-
terial, and changes in material fatigue
properties.
5. Fretting between pin and pin-hole
surfaces.
6. Geometric configuration and size of
the joints.
7. Factors related to the design, fabri-
cation, and maintenance of the joints.
These include effects of miscellaneous
design details, pin-interference fits, cold
working of the hole surfaces, residual
stresses at the hole surfaces in finished
parts, surface protection and lubricants
employed, and other factors.
One of the basic considerations of this
analysis is the assumption that the
fatigue behavior of the material at the
critical peak-stress locations in pin-
loaded lug joints (or generally in any
structural member containing stress
raisers) can be related to the unnotched
fatigue properties of the material. The
Soderberg-type fatigue diagram was
selected for this analysis because it
affords a rather simple interpretation of
the test results.
Soderberg stress-range diagrams for
unnotched specimens of SAE 4340 steel
and of 2024-T4 aluminum, shown in
Fig. 2, were not taken from any one
specific source but were derived from the
average values (or curves) given in
various sources by interpolation and
extrapolation to the ultimate tensile
strengths and to lifetimes of 15 X 10^
137
cycles. Since the nominal steady (mean)
stresses in this investigation were tensile
stresses, and since the nominal alter-
nating bending stresses reduce to tensile
and compressive stresses, the Soderberg
diagrams selected are those for direct
(axial) stresses. These unnotched fatigue
diagrams are assumed, for the purposes of
this analysis, to be representative of the
materials used.
The relationship between the nominal
alternating bending stress, Sb, at failure
and the unnotched fatigue strength of
the material is defined by:
S, = (7)
KA
where:
SA = Ordinate of the Soderberg stress-
range diagram at a given nominal
tensile (mean) stress, S, psi, and
KA = Over-all fatigue-strength-reduc-
tion factor applied to the alter-
nating-stress component only.
The experimental results indicated a
high effect of steady tensile-stress levels
on the fatigue strength of pin-loaded lug
joints. Such an effect is due to high stress
concentrations, both from pin-loaded
holes and from pin bending under tension
loads. Thus, the actual mean stresses at
critical locations are higher than the
nominal. This implies that a point
representing the nominal stresses, S and
Sb, when plotted within the stress-range
diagram as shown in Fig. 2, is actually
related to some point on the curve
defined by an abscissa larger than 5
and an ordinate lower than SA • Since
the objective of this empirical analysis
is to establish correlation for nominal
alternating stresses at failure at known
nominal mean stresses, the effect of the
peak mean stress levels in decreasing the
alternating-stress ordinate, SA , can in
principle be expressed by an appropriate
factor included in the over-all fatigue-
138 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
strength reduction factor, KA , assumed
as:
LFNQK
K,= .(8)
where:
L > 1^= A factor that represents the
effects of steady load or peak
mean stress levels; it will be
referred to as the steady-load
factor.
F > I = A factor that represents reduc-
tion of the fatigue strength
from the effects of fretting
and will be referred to as the
fretting factor.
A" < 1 = A factor that represents the
effects of notch sensitivity of
the material under given
specific conditions and will be
referred to as the notch-
sensitivity factor.
Q = I = A factor that represents the
effects of surface finish or
treatment or both on the
fatigue strength of pin-loaded
lug joints. For very smooth
hole surfaces with no residual
stresses, a value oi Q = 1 is
assumed. For surfaces such as
those used in this program
Q > 1. For cold-worked,
surfaces, such as shot-peened
or rolled surfaces, Q < 1 is
anticipated. This factor will be
referred to as the surface-
quality factor.
K > i = A factor that represents in-
crease in localized stresses at
the critical locations from the
effects of all stress raisers
(except surface roughness)
and part deformations. This
factor will be referred to as the
over-all stress-concentration
factor.
i ' > 1 = A factor that represents the
increase in the fatigue strength
from the effects of plastic
deformations and will be
referred to as the plasticity
factor.
From Eqs 7 and 8, the relationship
between the nominal alternating stress
at failure, Sb, and the ordinate, SA ,
taken from the Soderberg fatigue
diagram at a given nominal mean stress,
5, becomes:
SL =
PSA
.(9)
LFNQK
If the factors P, L, F, N^, Q, and K were
known, or if they are determined
empirically from experimental results,
the alternating stresses at failure can be
predicted for conditions at which these
factors were defined.
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
The approach used in this analysis is
rational and phenomenological in that
general observations of the experi-
mental program (1,3) were taken into
consideration concerning such items as
alternating stresses at failure, effects of
pin bending and lug deformations on
stress distributions, deviations in the
locations of failure origins from the
assumed critical locations, Oc and OL
(Fig. 1), and occurrence of fretting.
To establish a possibly simple correla-
tion between the experimental results
and the pertinent factors included in
Eq 9, some simplifying assumptions are
made. One assumption is that the func-
tions or the values of the factors P, L,
and F can be expressed or defined inde-
pendently of the joint configuration and
that all geometric effects can be included
in the over-all stress concentration
factor, K. Factors P, L, and F also
should be influenced by the joint
geometry; however, these effects can be
in principle included in the factor K
which then represents stress concentra-
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LoADED LUG JOINTS
tions and all other geometric effects
influencing the fatigue strength of the
joints.
In the experimental program (1), the
joints were evaluated as a unit. Here,
the clevis and lever must be considered
separately because there are two separate
load-stress relationships: one for the
clevis lugs (Eqs 1 and 3) and another
for the levers (Eqs 2 and 4). However,
the fatigue behaviors of these two
elements are interdependent. Therefore,
the interaction between the two elements
and the pin, and the influences of one
element on the fatigue behavior of the
other element, must be considered. An
empirical treatment of the various
factors included in Eq 9 is given below.
Plasticity Factor, P:
As shown in Table II, the nominal
alternating bending stresses at failure,
SbL , at the outer surfaces of the levers
were in all cases considerably higher
than the nominal alternating bending
stresses at failure, Sbc, at the inside
surfaces of the clevis lugs. In those
specimens that failed in clevis lugs, the
nominal steady tensile stresses in the
clevises were higher than those in the
levers. This difference in nominal steady
stresses alone, however, cannot explain
the large differences in the nominal
alternating stresses, even with the effects
of the pin bending considered.
The failure origins in the levers were
generally located some distance from the
outer surfaces toward the inside of the
levers. This indicated that plastic defor-
mations had taken place at the outer
surfaces, alleviating the peak stresses
from stress concentrations and work
hardening the material in the yielded
regions between the origin and the outer
surface. Hence, the levers had sustained
the higher nominal alternating stresses.
No evidence of plastic deformation was
found in the clevis lugs except for some
139
localized yielding suspected in steel
specimens with thin pins. Therefore, a
plasticity factor of Pc = 1.0 (no plastic
deformation) is assumed for all clevises.
The selection of the plasticity factor,
PL , for the levers is based on a com-
parison between the nominal alternating
stresses at failure for clevises, Sbc, and
levers, SbL , for specimen series that had
failures in both elements (see Table I I ) .
Except for the steel specimens A-1 and
B-1, all these series had a tjti ratio of
0.333 and a relationship SbL = 3.6 Sbc
(defined by the /1//2 ratio). The effects
of the various factors in the clevises and
levers should be on the same order of
magnitude, except for the plastic
deformations and the steady stress
levels. The clevises had 50 per cent
higher nominal steady stresses in all
these specimens (with ti/li = 0.333).
Thus, the plasticity factor for the levers
of these series should be somewhat lower
than the value 3.6. For simplicity, a
plasticity factor of PL = 3.0 is assumed
for all levers. Such an assumption may
be in error for levers that do not fail but
should not affect the correlation or pre-
diction of alternating stresses at failure
in levers that fail.
Steady-Load Factor, L:
The effect of steady-load or mean-
stress levels should increase with the
mean stress, S. From test results
obtained on the same steel specimen
configurations (series) at two steady-
stress levels and on other test series at
various steady-stress levels, it was found
by trial that the following simple linear
function affords a rather good correlation
among all experimental results:
35
+ 1. (10)
10*
This relationship is applied to both
clevises and levers in both steel and
aluminum joints. I t should be mentioned,
140 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

however, that no test data were available surface finish and aluminum is usually
at two steady-stress levels for aluminum somewhat less notch-sensitive than steel
specimens. Therefore, the validity of Eq at the strength level used in the experi-
10 for aluminum joints cannot be verified,
except that it appears to fit approxi-
mately the test results.
The selected form of the L-function
fulfills the boundary condition in that L (a) \ w •-Load
becomes 1.0 (no steady-stress effect)
when the steady stress, S, is zero.
Combined Factor, FNQ:
The fretting factor, F, and the notch-
sensitivity factor, ..V, may both change
with the joint configurations and other
factors. The surface-quality factor, Q,

\ (b)

0 0,2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

d/w
FIG. 3.—Theoretical Stress - Concentration
Factor, i f i , as Function of d/w Ratio for Pin-
Loaded Holes.

should be about the same for all steel

specimens and about the same (but
different from steel) for all aluminum
specimens used in the experimental
program.
Fretting factors on the order of 2 to 4
(values as high as 5.0 have been re-
ported) are common in aircraft applica-
tions. Fretting is known to be influenced,
among other factors, by materials,
pressures and magnitudes of relative
strains between contact surfaces, surface
quality, and by the lubricants used. The
surface-quality factor, Q, for specimens
of the experimental program is expected
to be somewhat higher than 1.0 and
higher in steel specimens than in alumi-
num specimens because the holes in
aluminum specimens had a smoother
(c)
b e . nom.
'bC. max.
(a) In transverse plane: Kt = Smux/Sn^m •
(b) Along pin axis under tension load.
(c) Along pin axis under bending moment
(when superimposed over a tension load).
FIG. 4.—Stress Distributions in Pin-Loaded
Lug Joints.
mental program. Because of the latter, it
is also expected that the notch-sensitivity
factor, .V, for aluminum specimens would
be lower than that for steel. In this
analysis, factor .V is defined by the ratio
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LoADED L u G JOINTS
Kf/K, where Kf is a fatigue-notch factor
that does not include effects of steady
stresses, fretting, and surface quality.
The values of the factor A" should be
somewhat lower than 1.0.
Separation of the three factors F, N,
and Q on the basis of the test results
obtained in the experimental program is
nearly impossible unless some arbitrary
assumptions are made. Therefore, these
factors are combined in one, FNQ, and
it is assumed that the combined factor
has a constant value for steel joints and
another constant value for aluminum
joints. With A' < 1.0 and () > 1.0, the
combined FNQ-ta.cior should reflect
mainly the effects of fretting.
The values for the combined factor,
FNQ, were found empirically by trial
computations:
For steel joints, (fiVQ)s, = 2.0 1
.(11)
For aluminum joints, (FNQ)AI = 2.8j
These relatively low values appear to
be realistic because testing was conducted
under laboratory conditions and because
an antiseize compound containing molyb-
denum disulfide was applied to the pin
hole surfaces during assembly. Molybde-
num disulfide is known to alleviate
fretting damage somewhat. The higher
FNQ-va\ue for aluminum joints is
attributable to the higher fretting effect
in aluminum specimens. The combination
of steel (pins) and aluminum is known to
be rather susceptible to fretting.
Over-all Stress-Concentration Factor, K:
The form of this factor, which includes
all geometric effects, is assumed as:
K ^ K,-\- K^. (12)
where:
Kt = Theoretical stress-concentration
factor for a pin-loaded hole which
defines the peak stresses from
stress variation across either clevis
141
or lever in a transverse plane with
respect to the pin axis, and
Kp = A stress-concentration factor
which defines peak stresses from
stress variations in the axial direc-
tion of the pin axis. This factor, a
function of the over-all joint con-
figuration, is influenced by such
factors as pin bending, lug defor-
mation, and constraints.
The values of the theoretical stress-
concentration factor, Kt, were taken
from published data (4) for pin-loaded
holes as a function of the d/w ratio. These
data are plotted in Fig. 3, and they have
been determined for pin-loaded holes in
tension, closely fitting "rigid" pins, and
for rectangular ends. It is assumed that
these Kt values are valid also for the
semicircular ends of clevises and levers
under consideration.
The stress distribution caused by the
theoretical stress-concentration factor,
Kt, is shown schematically in Fig. 4(a).
Figures 4(i) and (c) show the general
nature of stress distributions along the
pin axis under tension load and under a
bending moment, respectively, when the
latter is superimposed on a tension load.
These stress distributions were observed
experimentally by strain surveys (1,3),
and they are caused mainly by bending
of the pin. Figure 4 shows that all dis-
tributions peak at the critical locations.
The large variations in nominal alter-
nating stresses at failure (Table II), even
among specimens with the same ratio of
d/w and for the same failing element,
indicate that each geometric parameter
has an effect on the fatigue strength of
the joints and on the stress-concentra-
tion factor, Kp . These effects can be
determined empirically by selecting a
group of test results obtained under
similar conditions, except for one geo-
metric variable, and studying the effect
of this variable. This effect should be
expressed in a mathematical form as a
142 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
function of the variable under considera-
tion or as a fixed value if such appears
to exist. After a correlation is established
for one variable, the next variable can be
isolated and the procedure repeated.
The final correlation must include simul-
taneous consideration of the over-all
stress-concentration factor, K = Kt -{-
Kp, and the combined factor, FXQ,
already described.
The empirically determined function
of Kp for steel clevises is:
(1 - d/w) (hM^
Kpc-si — 8.3
{d/iv)id/d„) ' ikM^ '
with do = 1 in. .(13)
Except for the numerical constant 8.3
and the ratio d/do, the above stress-
concentration factor is expressed as a
function of the geometric ratios of di-
mensions. The latter has advantage in
computations of Kp for similar joints of
different sizes. The common denomi-
nator, w, for all geometric ratios was
selected for convenience, but any other
geometric ratio containing the four
dimensions, d, w, h , and /2, such as
h/d, ti/d, or ti/h, can be introduced
easily into Eq 13, as:
Following is a brief discussion of the sig-
nificance of each term contained in Eq
13 and of the considerations that led to
the selection of these terms.
The stress concentration from pin
bending was assumed to be proportional
to pin deflections, the latter being pro-
portional to the load or moment applied.
For a given nominal alternating-stress
level, the alternating bending moment is
proportional to the term (w — d), as
can be deduced from Eq 3. For speci-
mens with all dimensions constant
except for the pin diameter, d, the
specimen width, w, is constant. There-
fore, the bending moment and the pin
deflections will be proportional to the
term (1 — d/w). Thus, this term con-
tained in Eq 13 represents the effect of
the applied moment on pin deflections.
As the ratio d/w increases, the pin be-
comes relatively stiffer and the value of
the term (1 — d/w) decreases. When the
value of the d/w ratio approaches 1.0,
the relative pin stiffness approaches
infinity and the value of the term
(1 — d/w) approaches zero. This fulfills
the boundary condition: for a rigid pin,
Kp= 0 and K = Kf
For otherwise similar specimens except
for the pin diameter, d, the pin deflec-
tions will increase with decreasing pin
diameter. The unrestrained pin deflec-
tions are inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia of the pin cross-section
or inversely proportional to d^ or (d/w)*.
In pin-loaded lug joints, the pin de-
flections are partially suppressed by the
restraint from the material surrounding
the pins, and there is relatively more
material around pins in specimens with
low d/w ratios. Therefore, the resulting
or effective pin deflections are expected
to be inversely proportional to some
lower power of d/w. It was found
empirically that a power of unity affords
a satisfactory correlation.
The experimental results indicated
that a dimensional effect attributed to
pin bending exists in steel specimens
and that for geometrically similar
specimens of various sizes, the moment
to weight ratio was higher for the larger
specimens. Since, in this case, all geo-
metric ratios are the same, any one of
the dimensions can be used to express
this effect, but the most logical choice is
the pin diameter. However, in order to
maintain the factor Kp dimensionless, a
ratio of d/do is used in Eq 13, where
do = I in. is that pin diameter for which
the numerical constant of 8.3 is valid.
The ratio h/w included in Eq 13
 M i T T E N B E R G S ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF P i N - L O A D E D L u G J O I N T S 143

represents the clevis-lug flexibility and, original axis of the clevis-lug holes, the
thus, the capability of the lugs to adjust stresses induced at the critical locations
themselves to the pin deflections. At of clevis lugs will be about proportional

T A B L E I I I . — C O M P U T E D A L T E R N A T I N G S T R E S S E S St,c A N D Sti AT FAILURE A N D

STRESS-CONCENTRATION FACTORS.
(L = 3 5 / 1 0 * + 1;K = Ki + Kp)

Clevises, P = [.0 Levers, P = 3.0

Specimen Series
Sc . psi Kpc Sbc , psi Si, , psi KpL SbL , psi

S T E E L J O I N T S , FXQ = 2.0

15 000 2 840» 7 500 9 590

A-1 3.43
30 000 )
4,21 j
2 070- 15 000
I 4.86 I 7 880
A-2. . . . 3.43 22 500 6.50 1 860 15 000 6.49 6 580"
A-3. . . . 3.43 15 000 11.94 1 420 15 000 9.74 4 960"
B-0. . . . 2.46 45 000 0.65 3 760'' 15 000 0.92 19 300

B-1 2.46
15 000 I 1,20 1 5 940" 7 500
1.38
20 700
30 000 4 310° 15 000 17 000
15 000 5 050" 10 000 17 200"
B-2. . . . 2,46 22 500 1.85 1 4 290" 15 000 1,85
15 100"
B-3 2.46 15 000 3.39 3 710 15 000 2.77 12 460°

B-4 2.46 11 250 5.21 3 120 15 000 3.70 10 600°

C-1 1.82
15 000 I 0.48 1 9 440" 7 500
0.55
33 500
30 000 / 6 880" 15 000 27 500
C-2 1.82 22 500 0.74 7 200 15 000 0.74 25 450"
C-2,5... 1.82 18 000 1.03 6 950 15 000 0.93 23 700°

C-3 1.82 15 000 1.36 850 15 000 11 22 250"

D-2. . . . 2.46 22 500 2.34 850 15 000 75 9 040"
E-2. . . . 2.46 22 500 1.61 540" 15 000 07 18 450
F-1. . . . 2.46 22 500 2.13 030" 15 000 38 17 000
G-3 2,46 22 500 1.65 500 15 000 32 13 600"

L-2 2.46 22 500 2.13 030 15 000 30 11 300°

M-2... . 2.46 22 500 2.61 650 15 000 41 6 600"
N-2. . .. 2,80 22 500 3.33 010 15 000 33 10 600"
R-1. .. . 2,46 22 500 2.84 490" 15 000 85 15 100

A L L T M I N U M JOINTS, FNQ = 2.8

AL-A-2 3 43 15 000 3.12 660° 10 000 2.75 380"

AL-B-0. 2 46 30 000 0.50 950° 10 000 0.62 730
AL-B-1. 2 46 20 000 0.92 1 130" 10 000 0.94 380
AL-B-2 2 46 15 000 1.42 1 110" 10 000 1.25 990°
AL-B-3 2 46 10 000 2.61 980 10 000 1.87 420°
AL-C-2 1 82 15 000 0.74 1 690" 10 000 0,65 000"
AL-D-2 2 46 15 000 1.12 1 200 10 000 2,00 320"
AL-L-2 2 46 15 000 1.23 1 140" 10 000 1.67 590°

" I n d i c a t e s t h e failing element or t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y failing element.

low h/w ratios, the lugs will flex more
readily, and therefore, the peak stresses
at the critical locations will be alleviated.
Also, at a given misalignment between
the axis of the deflected pin and the
to the lug thickness, h . Thus, both above
effects cause higher stress concentrations
at higher h/w values.
The ratio t^/w included in Eq 13 repre-
sents the pin fixity provided by the
144 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

levers. At high Ujiio ratios the lever will thus, the stress-concentration factor for
restrict the pin deflections more ef- the clevises depends also on the geo-
fectively than at low fe/w ratios, and metric configuration of the levers.

12,000

fc 2000

d/w
FIG. 5.—Nominal Bending Stress as Function of d/w Ratio for Steel and Aluminum Clevises at
15 X 106 Cycles.

0.300

0.4

t/t^
FIG. 6.—Nominal Bending Stress as Function of /1//2 or /i/w Ratio for Steel and Aluminum
Clevises at 15 X 10" Cycles.
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LOADED LUG JOINTS 145

The Kp function for aluminum clevises A comparison of these two equations

is:
(1 - d/w)
Krti = 6.4
{d/w)
This equation is similar to Eq 13 for
steel clevises except for a lower value of
the numerical constant and an absence
of the term d/da, which implies there is
no dimensional effect in aluminum
joints. Both of these differences can be
explained by the relatively stiifer
behavior of the steel pins in aluminum
joints. Concerning the absence of the
t,/w
with those for clevises (Eqs 13 and 14)
shows similarity in structure, although
{h/wyn
(14) Eqs 15 and 16 are simpler, and these two
{.k/wr functions appear to be independent of
the ratio fe/w and of the lever height,
h. This would mean that the stress
concentrations in levers from pin
bending are dependent on the pin-end-
fixity in the clevis lugs and not on the
pin-fixity in the levers themselves. The
latter may not be entirely true; this
discrepancy, if any, is attributed to the
effects of plastic deformation occurring
in the levers.
0.400
5000

F--I^^^^E-2
5000 4000
R-l^^^

£ 4000 d/w =0500

S S 3000 t,/t2=0.33i
tj/w=0.564
3000 S(,=22,500 psi
2000

FIG. 7.—Nominal Bending Stress as Func- FIG. 8.—Nominal Bending Stress as Func-
tion of t\/w or h/w Ratio for Steel Clevises at tion of Joint Dimensions for Steel Clevises at
15 X 10" Cycles. 15 X 10" Cycles.

term d/d^, the variation in pin-bending
effect for similar aluminum joints of
various sizes should be lower than for
similar steel joints, and it may be
neutralized by the usual "size effect"
found in fatigue applications. No test
data, however, were available to verify
this conclusion.
The stress-concentration factors, Kp ,
for steel and aluminum levers are,
respectively:
(1 - d/w)
K^t-si = 7.4 {h/w) ,
{d/w) {d/d,)
There are close similarities among the
four equations (Eqs 13 to 16) derived
empirically, and the differences among
them can be readily explained. It also
should be pointed out that the stress-
concentration factor, Kp, generally
increases with a decreasing d/w ratio,
as does the theoretical stress-concentra-
tion factor, Ki. Thus, joints with low
d/w ratios have a high over-all stress-
concentration factor, K.
ALTERNATING STRESSES AT FAILURE

with do = 1 in (IS) To evaluate the empirical method

developed, the nominal alternating
(1 - d/w) bending stresses at failure, Sbc and SbL ,
KpL-Al — 5.0 {h/w)... {16)
{d/w) were computed from Eq 9 for the various
146 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

conditions of tlie experimental program, variables involved. The results obtained

These computations were made for all for the various specimen series are listed
specimen configurations and were ex- in Table III.
tended to somewhat wider ranges of the The values of the ordinates, SA , of

30,000

:S 5000
<

FIG. 9.—Nominal Bending Stress as Function of d/w Ratio for Steel and Aluminum Levers at
15 X 10« Cycles.

0.525

t,/t2
FIG. 10.—Nominal Bending Stress as Function of h/h or h/w Ratio for Steel and Aluminum
Levers at 15 X 10« Cycles.
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LoADED LUG JoiNTS
the stress-range diagrams used in the
above computations are listed in Fig. 2.
The steady-load factors, L, were com-
puted from Eq 10; the theoretical stress-
concentration factors, Kt, were taken
from Fig. 3; and those of the geometric
effects, Kp, were computed from Eqs 13
through 16. Table III lists the values of
both factors, Kt and Kp, and gives the
nominal steady-stress levels, Sc and
0.267
FIG. 11.—Nominal Bending Stress as Function of li/w or tt/w Ratio for Steel and Aluminum
Levers at 15 X 10« Cycles.
SL , and the empirical values for factors
P and FNQ.
As can be seen from the table, the
computed geometric factors, Kp, vary
over a wide range (0.48 to 11.94) de-
pending on the joint configurations.
The values for levers, KpL , are of the
same order of magnitude as those for
clevises, Kpc , and are lower than the
latter for some configurations and higher
for others. The computed Kp values for
aluminum joints are generally lower than
those for steel joints of the same geo-
147
metric configurations, thus reflecting the
relatively stiffer behavior of the steel
pins in aluminum joints. As compared to
the theoretical stress-concentration fac-
tor, Kt, the values of Kp may be higher
than Ki (mostly for low d/w ratios) or
lower (for high d/w ratios). Since the
geometric factor, Kp, expresses mainly
the effects of pin bending, it can be
stated that the contribution of pin
t|/W
0.400 0.533
tg/w
bending toward increasing the stress
concentrations in pin-loaded lug joints
is quantitatively significant and, de-
pending on the joint geometry, may be
higher or lower than the effects of the
theoretical stress-concentration factor,
Kt.
A comparison between the computed
alternating stresses at failure (Table III)
and those obtained in the experimental
program (Table II) shows a general
agreement for the failing element (a few
exceptions are discussed below). For the
148 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUK OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
element which did not fail in the experi-
mental program (or where the predomi-
nant failure location was in the other
element), the computed stresses are
higher than those hsted in Table I I in
all cases. In this instance, the computed
values indicate the stress level at which
this element would fail if the failure did
not occur in the other element.
The computed nominal alternating-
bending stresses at failure for ranges of
variables are shown graphically by con-
tinuous curves in Figs. 5 to 11 as func-
tions of the various variables (for the
failing element only). Also shown in the
figures are the data concerning the ma-
terials, steady-stress levels, geometric
ratios, and one of the joint dimensions.
For comparison, the nominal alternating
bending stresses at failure, determined
experimentally (hsted in Table II), are
shown in these figures as single points
designated by the symbols of the various
test series.
As can be seen from Figs. 5 to 8, the
agreement between the computed and
the experimental alternating-stress val-
ues for the clevises is rather good. Some
of the discrepancies could, perhaps, be
attributed to the scatter in the experi-
mental data. In Fig. 6, only one test
point per curve (per steady-stress level)
was available, except for steel clevises at
15,000 psi.
For levers (Figs. 9 through 11), the
agreement is not as good as for the
clevises because of (1) effects of plastic
deformations occurring in the levers and
(2) changes in part interaction in the
series C-2.5 and C-3 joints (1,3). The
alternating-stress distribution pattern in
the series C-2.5 and C-3 specimens was
different from that in other .specimens,
causing lower stress concentrations from
pin bending, and therefore these two lest
points (Figs. 9 and 10) do not fall in the
category of all other specimens.
For series C-2 joints, the experimental
alternating-stress value at failure was
considerably lower than the computed
value (Figs. 9 and 10). All joints of the
C-series had large-diameter pins (high
dlw ratio), and therefore the pin bending
did not cause as high stress concentra-
tions as in the specimens with thinner
pins. For that reason, there was obvi-
ously less plastic deformation and a
smaller effect of plasticity in joints C-2
than that predicted by a plasticity factor,
P — 3.0, used in computations for all
levers. The latter conclusion implies that
for large-diameter pins a smaller plas-
ticity factor should, perhaps, be used.
For example, a plasticity factor of
P = 2.2 would make the computed SbL
value for C-2 joints agree with the experi-
mental value. Because of the limited
experimental data available, however,
no attempt was made to introduce a
variable plasticity factor, P.
With the exception of the discrepancies
discussed above and some minor dis-
crepancies that may be attributed to the
scatter, the correlation between the
coniputed and experimentally deter-
mined alternating stresses for the levers
was satisfactory, as illustrated in Figs.
9 to 11.
SUMMARY
The preceding analysis and discussion
indicate validity of an empirical approach
for failure prediction in pin-loaded lug
joints. It was shown that the nominal
alternating stresses at failure can be ex-
pressed in terms of geometric parameters
and other variables. A rather good corre-
lation was established between computed
and experimental stress values for the
clevis lugs. For levers the agreement was
not so good, mainly because of plastic
deformations occurring in the levers and
because of the change in part interaction.
The observations of the experimental
program, supported by the analysis
results, indicated that pin bending
contributes significantly to the stress
concentrations and, thus, toward lower-
 MiTTENBERGS ON F A T I G U E STRENGTH OF PiN-LOADED L u G JOINTS
ing the fatigue strength of pin-loaded lug
joints, particularly of those with rela-
tively thin pins. The effects of fretting
were significant in lowering the fatigue
strength of both clevises and levers. In
levers, however, the effect of fretting was
more than offset by the effect of plastic
deformations cccurring at the outer
surfaces.
It should be realized that this analysis
was based on a somewhat limited
amount of experimental data (1). Because
of insufficient data, some assumptions
had to be made and some uncertainties
had to be resolved on the basis of
judgment. Therefore, it is considered
that the usefulness of this analysis lies
primarily in the approach used and in
the method developed, rather than in
the numerical values derived for the
empirical constants, which may change
for different conditions.
In this analysis only two variable
numerical factors (the combined factor,
FNQ, and the numerical values included
in Eqs 13 through 16) were used to
establish the correlation. Even then, it
was observed that the method used
permits slight simultaneous changes in
these factors without greatly affecting
the correlation. If more variable factors
were employed, the correlation could be
inaproved further. Thus, the niethod is
quite elastic, and therefore it is believed
that the approach and the method
presented in this paper are potentially
useful for analyses of the fatigue strength
of pin-loaded lug joints in general, under
REFERENCES
(1) A. A. Mittenbergs and I.. G. Beall, Jr.,
"Fatigue Strength of Pin-Loaded Lug
Joints," Proceedings Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol, 62, p. 710 (1962).
(2) S. J. Ligenza, "On Cyclic Stress Reduction
Within Pin-Loaded Lugs Resulting from
Optimum Interference Fits," Experimental
Mechanics, Soc. Experimental Stress Analy-
sis, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 21, Jan., 1963.
149
various conditions. It is also believed
that the basic approach of this analysis
may be applicable to structural members
(other than pin-loaded lug joints) in
general.
At the present, this method can be
used for correlating test data after they
are available. However, if enough similar
analyses were conducted and the various
factors involved were more firmly estab-
lished, a procedure may evolve whereby
these factors could be estimated on some
realistic basis without conducting a large
number of tests. This could lead to design
procedures that do not require prior
testing, except perhaps for some spot-
check or verification tests. Furthermore,
such an approach may eventually lead
to the formulation of an analytical
method for estimating fatigue behavior
of structures.
A cknowledgment:
This research was supported by the
Air Force Systems Command, United
States Air Force, under Contract No.
AF 33(616)-6751, Department of the
Army Project/Task No. 9R38-01-017-22.
It was monitored by the V/STOL
Propulsion Branch, Directorate of De-
fense and Transport Systems Engineer-
ing, Aeronautical Systems Division,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,
with Hollis A. Cochran acting as project
monitor. The original research work was
described in reference (3). Since then, the
author has reworked a part of the
analysis, particularly concerning the
aluminum joints.
(3) A. A. Mittenbergs, L. G. Beall, and H. J.
Grover, "Fatigue Investigation on Pin-
Joined Lug Connections," ASD Technical
Report 61-163, United States Air Force
(1961).
(4) R. E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Design
Factors, John VV'ile)' and Sons, Inc., New
York, N. Y., 1953, p. 99.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF A L I M I T E D N U M B E R OF FATIGUE

T E S T S P E C I M E N S I N C L U D I N G A FACTOR OF SAFETY APPROACH

B Y CARL 0 . ALBRECHT 1

SYNOPSIS

Many full-scale component fatigue limits are developed on the basis of less
than five tests. Use of statistical concepts on such a limited number of speci-
mens would result in extremely low and unrealistic allowable stresses for any
reasonable probability and confidence level.
Fatigue data from element tests and full-scale component tests, where
many specimens have been tested, can be used to evaluate a coefficient of
variation that is representative of the material and type of component being
considered. By use of this information, and with the application of basic sta-
tistical techniques, a design S-N-P (probability) curve can be determined for
components where only a limited number of tests are available, for any proba-
bility and confidence level desired. The methods employed for the evaluation
of available data are discussed.
Typical values of coefficient of variation are tabulated for components of
typical steel and aluminum alloys such as 4130 and 4340 alloy steel, 150,000
to 160,000 psi ultimate tensile strength, and 2024-T4, 2014-T6, and 7075-T6
aluminum alloys, which contain stress concentrations or areas of fretting
corrosion or both.
Suitable probability and confidence levels are selected for components
where a single noninspectable failure would result in a catastrophic loss.
Determination of a design fatigue limit can be obtained directly by using
the method described in this paper or by applying a factor of safety to the
average test fatigue limit that simplifies the determination of an appropriate
design S-N-P curve for the designer and structures engineer. A table is pre-
sented showing the factor of safety required to ensure a minimum desired
probability and confidence level when only a limited number of test specimens
is available.

In the aircraft industry, particularly tests on specific materials with subse-

in the helicopter field, the fatigue
strength of critical structural components
is usually determined by full-scale fatigue
tests. The present state of the art does not
permit complete assurance of the safety
of designs with only fail-safe and no safe
life features. An analytical determina-
tion of fatigue strength of structural
components through use of element
1
Vertol Div., T h e Boeing Co., M o r t o n , Pa.
quent application of stress concentration
factors, fretting factors, size effect
factors, and so on, is not sufficient in
most cases unless the fatigue margin of
safety is extremely high,
In some cases, however, when the
service loads are clearly defined and the
primary mode of failure evident, and if
the precise stress distribution is known,
then the analytical approach may be
Considered satisfactory.

150

Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION; OV TEST SPECIMENS 151

The number of tests performed on can be obtained by testing a minimum

full-scale structural components is number of test specimens through use of
usually limited by economic considera- sufficient statistical data on similar
tions. Full-scale components and equip- components, the approach used for
ment required to conduct these tests are evaluation of element or component data
costly, especially when test loads be- must be defined.
come large. For these reasons, the few
full-scale tests that are performed must Evaluation of Statistical Parameters:
be carefully evaluated to obtain a maxi- A basic statistical approach (1)^ as
mum of information. In any event, indicated below is selected in preference
however, proper evaluation of a working to other available methods because of its
S-X-P curve is required to evaluate simplicity and adaptability to the use
component hfe. of probability paper.
In order to ensure the structural
re lability where fail-safe features can- 5 = 5^. .(1)
not be incorporated, more sophisticated
analysis techniques are required than XiSi - 5)2
are presently available to the designer.
The purpose of this paper is to show
V .(2)

how, by application of basic statistical

I' = ^ (coefficient of variation) - . . . (3)
methods and use of existing test data,
it is possible to establish with reasonable
confidence a working S-N-P curve from
which the service life of components can S = arithmetic mean fatigue limit at
be evaluated. Since most designers and 10' cycles,
structural engineers are familiar with Si= fatigue limit of individual speci-
margin of safety or factor of safety men at 10' cycles,
concepts from static load strength n = number of specimens in a group,
analysis methods, a method that in- and
corporates statistical techniques for cr = standard deviation.
the determination of a required factor Throughout the paper, reference to
of safety is presented. This factor of values of a- and V are for large-scale
safety applied to the average fatigue fatigue tests only.
limit of a limited number of full-scale The above equations determine S and
tests would provide a statistically sound < r for a normal, or Gaussian, distribution.
working S-N-P curve. For a log normal distribution, the
Once a working S-N-P curve has been equations are;
established, a realistic appraisal of 2(log Si)
flight test data must be made and a log 5 .(4)
proper operating schedule must be deter-
mined. The scatter in data for given / 2(log 5 , - log S)'
.(5)
flight conditions should then be eval-
uated statistically. By then applying
V
appropriate cumulative fatigue damage Basic consideration is given to evalua-
theory, fatigue hfe may be evaluated. tion of the S-N curve shape in the area
of the knee since this region of the
DATA EVALUATION METHODS curve is most significant for helicopter
Since the main objective of this paper ' The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
is to show that a design S-N-P curve to the list of references appended to this paper.
152 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

component life evaluation. Since a failure stresses must then be transformed,

statistical evaluation of cycles-to-failure using a standard 5-.Y curve shape, to an
near the fatigue limit cannot be suitably equivalent failure stress at 10' cycles
performed because of the large scatter so that a statistical analysis of stress
in life, a design fatigue limit must be can be performed. The following relation-

TABLE I.—CONSTANT FOR ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION OF S .Y CURVE.

NOTE.—All of the following data are based on tests ranging from a stress ratio oi R = — 1 to
a stress ratio of fl = 0. For applications where mean stresses differ considerably, additional test
data should be reviewed. Some data are available in references (21) to (24).

Material Description ^/S References

Rotating beam:
Smooth 0.40 X 102 0.30 (27)
2024-T4 aluminum. Notched 0.65 X 102 0..35 (27)
Tension-tension:
Smooth, ij = 0 0.40 X 102 0.36 (27)

Rotating beam
Smooth 0.48 X 102 0.30 (27)
2014-T6 aluminum. Notched 0.74 X 102 0.34 (27)
Tension-tension:
Smooth, fl = 0 0.25 X 102 0.30 (27)

Rotating beam:
Smooth 0.76 X 102 0.40 (27)
7075-T6 aluminum. Notched 0.51 X 102 0.30 (27)
Tension-tension;
Smooth, R = 0 1.02 X 102 0.44 (27)
AZ80-A and ZK60-A mag Tension-tension:
Smooth, R = 0 0.23 X 102 0.35 (33)

Rotating Beam:
Smooth, 140 000 psi UTS 3.50 X 10' 1.00 '3)
4340 steel. Smooth, 190 000 psi UTS 2.10 X 10" 1.00 (3)
Notched, 140 000 psi UTS 0.92 X 10* 0.89 (3)
Notched, 190 000 psi UTS 0.47 X 10* 0.85 (3)

Tension-tension:
4130 steel. Smooth, 140 000 psi UTS 3.50 X lO-" 1.00 (25)
Notched, 140 000 psi UTS 0.92 X 10" 0.89 (25)
Tension-tension:
18-8 stainless steel 14 hard Smooth, R = 0 0.13 X 10I* 0 74 (25)

determined and an appropriate 5-.V ships are used for determination of

curve shape evaluated. curve shape (2,13):
Selection of S-N Curve Shape:
Si = S (6)
A suggested statistical evaluation of Ny'
stress at a specific number of cycles,
such as 10', is practical since testing of a where:
limited number of components just 5 = failure stress at .Y cycles,
above the fatigue limit will result in a — constant for specific material,
failures at cycles varying from approxi- N = number of cycles at failure, and
mately 0.5 X 10« to 10 X 10". These 7 = constant for specific material.
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF T E S T SPECIMENS 153

The values given by the above equa- evaluated for various materials (3,25,27,
tion when plotted on semilog paper show 28) and are shown for reference in Table I.
satisfactory correlation for failure To evaluate the constants a and 7,

1.00
Reference (3) Fig. 15
V
0.50 \
1
s . S-S
• \. "' S
1 Slope, T = 1.0
For i4 ^ = 0 1
0.20
a: 0.1 N S
= 0,1(3.5 x i o ' i s
Jiw 0.10 = 3.5x 0<S
1

0.05 \
\ .

0.02
i t \

0.0\
2 5
N, Cycles

FIG. 1.-—Determination of Constants for Analytical Expression of the 5-iV Curve.

loox lo-

go

80

.- 70

'60
(A
= 68 0 0 0 * 3.5X10 ( 6 8 . 0 0 0 )
t/>
4U '- N'-°° -. ^
<n
50

40

30

20

10
10" 5 10° 5 10^ 5 lO' 2 5 10°
0 N, Cycles

FIG. 2.—Comparison of an Actual Mean S-N Curve and an Analytical Equivalent.

stresses not too far above the fatigue a mean S-^ curve is drawn through the
limit. test data using the method of least
The material constants a. and 7 were squares. A plot is then made on log-log
154 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

paper using (5 — S)/S as an ordinate log paper, it varies from tiie mean S-N
and N as the abscissa. The points when curve shape by no more than 5 per cent,
plotted in this manner lie in nearly a An example of such a plot for smooth,

60
Reference (3) Fig, 15.
4 3 4 0 Steel, 140,000 psi
\
50 Ultimate Tensile Strength
Smooth Rotating Beam,R=-l
Normal Curve

J. (a)
W
Log-Normal Curve

li.

o 30

u I
/A
I
\ \

10 viZ
>-^^.
56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78x10^
0
Alternating Stress at i d ' Cycles

(a) Smooth data.

40

Reference (27) Fig.3.3.1c.

30 7 0 7 5 - T 6 Aluminum, 7 9 , 0 0 0 psi
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Notched Rotating Beam, R = - l
Normal Curve
(b) \

i
L o g - N o r m a l Curve
20
%
ja
E
''\
10

li \

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20xl0'
Alternating Stress at I o ' Cycles

(b) Notched data.

FIG. 3.—Typical Frequency Distribution.

straight line. Some curvature does exist, unnotched 4340 steel with a stress ratio
but when the curve is straightened out of i? = — 1 obtained by using data from
and replotted as an S-N curve on semi- reference (3) is shown in Fig. 1. From
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION or TEST SPECIMENS 155

this plot the value of 7 is determined by substitution into a modified version of

obtaining the slope of the curve, since Eq 6. This is given as Eq 7.
(from Eq 6)
S - S
S- s X Ny. .(7)
S ^ Ny
Figure 2 presents a replot of the S-N
thus; curve as defined by the constants eval-
uated in Fig. 1 and illustrates the analyti-
( 5 - 5)
log = - 7 log iV + log cal conformity that can be obtained with
the mean S-N curve.
This can be recognized as a straight line Typical values of a/S and 7, as ob-
of the form y = mx -\- b. tained from the references indicated in
The value of a/S can then be ob- Table I, are given for steel, aluminum,
tained by selecting consistent values of and magnesium alloys, smooth and
(5 — S)/S and N and by subsequent notched.

T A B L E I I . — C O E F F I C I E N T O F V A R I A T I O N , V. F R O M LARGE-SCALE
FATIGUE TESTS.
NOTES:
1. All of t h e following d a t a are based on testing ranging from a stress ratio R = — 1 t o a stress
ratio R = 0. In applications where stress ratios are appreciably greater t h a n 0, test d a t a should be
e v a l u a t e d t o determine effect of m e a n stress on V.
2. N o a t t e m p t h a s been m a d e t o e v a l u a t e t h e effect of stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e notched
coefficient of variation.
3. Failures occurred in areas of fretting.

Ultimate Smooth I Number Notched Number

Material Tensile V, ! of V, of References
Strength, psi per cent ' Tests per cent Tests

(a) RoT.^TiNG B E A M DJ^TX

4340 (steel) 150 000 3.9 144 3.1 139 (3), (25)
2024-T4 ( a l u m i n u m ) . 57 000 9.6 94 14.5 82 (27)
2014-T6 ( a l u m i n u m ) . 60 000 8.5 170 15.2 107 (27)
7075-T6 ( a l u m i n u m ) . 79 000 13.8 131 16.0 112 (27)
AZ80 (magnesium) . . 53 000 6.1 34 7.9 26 (28)
ZK60 (magnesium) . . 48 000 7.1 26 7.1 21 (28)

(b) TENSION-TENSION D.\T,\

4130 (steel) 150 000 6. 11 3.7 (25)

2024-T4 ( a l u m i n u m ) . 57 000 16. 10 (25)

(c) MlSCELL-^NEOUS ( F U L L - S c A L E D.iT.A.)

R o t o r shaft, 4340 steel 150 000 4.8 7 (25)

A N bolts (tension-tension) — 3 , 4,
6, a n d 8, 4130 steel 125 000 15.6 87 (25)
Lugs (3):
4340 150 000 9.2 9 (25)
2014-T6 60 000 22.0 36 (25)
AZ91-T4 34 000 20.0 16 (25)
Welded joints, steel 20.0 53 (1)
156 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Selection of Statistical Distribution:
Data suitable for statistical evaluation
at 10' cycles, contained in the references,
have been reviewed. The data were
evaluated by methods described pre-
viously, frequency of failure distribu-
tion curves were plotted, and normal
and log-normal curves were fitted to
the distribution. The conclusions drawn
by the author are as follows: tests on
smooth, non-fretted components exhibit
normal frequency distributions; and tests
on concentrated, fretted, quality-sensi-
tive components exhibit skewed or log-
Stress
FIG. 4.—Probable Variation of the Mean.
normal frequency distributions. Typical
curves illustrating the above conclusions
are shown in Figs. 3(a) and (b).
Since considerable controversy exists
relative to the above conclusions, further
analysis will consider both normal and
log-normal distributions. The distribu-
tion type significantly affects the factor
of safety requirements, and therefore
the need for a firm establishment of
distribution type is demonstrated.
Large-scale fatigue test data from
both industry files and published data,
with application of the above procedures,
and with evaluation of S, u, and Y (Eqs
1 to 6), provides the basic information
required to evaluate S-X-P curves for
full-scale tests on a limited number of
parts.
Determination of Coefficient of Variation,
V:
A literature survey, including the
references given and Vertol full-scale
component tests, was made and data
were selected for the determination of
the coefficient of variation for various
materials with and without stress con-
centrations. The methods used to obtain
these data were as described previously.
A considerable amount of work is
D-Design
F-Failure
L-Lower Limit
U-Upper Limit
required to define the coefficient of
variation for all of the commonly used
materials and methods of component
fabrication. It is envisioned that further
research will permit evaluation and
tabulation of recommended coefficients of
variation for each material and class of
fabrication such as welded joints, riveted
joints, multiple-bolted joints, single-bolt
or pin-loaded lugs, typical notched
components including radii, threads,
fretting, corrosion, and so on.
Table II summarizes the results of a
survey of coefficients of variation, for
large-scale tests, made by the author
and represents but a partial list of data
made available from technical literature
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION o r T E S T SPECIMENS 157

and industry files. Table I I indicates or

that for aluminum alloys 2014-T6,
2024-T4, and 7075-T6, notched speci- .(8)
SF
mens exhibit a larger coefficient of 1+
variation than smooth specimens. For
4340 and 4130 steel specimens, the
where:
difference is not quite so pronounced.
SL = lower estimate of mean fatigue
Aluminum, however, exhibits a larger
limit,
scatter than steel for all conditions,
SF = mean fatigue limit as determined
smooth or notched. Full-scale testing
from limited test data,
results in values of V that are slightly
a' = probability factor for 90 per cent
higher than values obtained from element
confidence on mean,
tests. This may be attributed partially
(T„ = standard deviation, normal distri-
to the fact that fewer tests were avail-
bution, and
able.
(Tin = standard deviation, log-normal
BASIC STATISTICAL APPROACH FOR distribution.
DETERMINATION OF DESIGN
For a log-normal distribution:
FATIGUE L I M I T S

Variation of Mean Fatigue Limit: log SL = log SF p"

When evaluating the situation for
only one available test specimen, diffi- a' I 1
- log SF ,- log 1
culty arises in the determination of a v« \i — . )
safe mean fatigue limit since the speci-
or
men may be exceptionally good or
exceptionally poor. Once the proper co- SF a' , / 1 \
efficient of variation is selected for the
type of specimen under consideration,
the variation of the mean fatigue limit thus
can be determined.
Figure 4 depicts the variation that can hJ ' )""^" and
exist for the mean fatigue limit, SF ,
when only limited tests are available. A SL 1 (^\
frequency distribution curve can be SF i 1 Y''^"
drawn so that 95 per cent of all speci-
mens tested would fall below the mean
failure stress, SF • The actual mean The key to the derivation of Eq 9 is
corresponding to this distribution would the relationship OLU = log I r^j.
lie at 5 t . A similar distribution can be
drawn representing the upper limit This is an approximate relationship and
conditions at Su • Analytical expressions is evaluated below.
representing the conditions shown in The value of V used for the evaluation
Fig. 4 are as follows: of (iLn is based on the use of Eq 3.
Standard deviation for a log normal
For a normal Gaussian distribution: distribution is defined by Eq 5 as:
a' . a ' zOog s - log sy
5L - p X <r„ = 5 F - —= X F X SL
= 5 f - y/n
\/« V
158 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Standard deviation may also be defined SD 1 - aV

(11)
in terms of stress as: SF a'V

TLn = log 5 - log (S — (r„)

log
1
= log
{M
('-?)
The author has calculated aui using
both approaches indicated above and
found that the error was less than 5 per
cent with values of V less than 0.25. A
90 per cent confidence level, selected
for use in further analysis as a reasonable
figure, implies that if there is a 5 per
cent probability that SF will fall below
1+ T
Values of a can be obtained from any
.(10) statistics text containing a table of
normal distribution functions. Values of
a as a function of probability were
determined from reference (32) and are
presented for reference in Table I I I .
These values, however, are valid only
when (7 or F is known or determined for
a large number of specimens.
For a log-normal distribution:
log SD = log SL — aiLn

w h e r e (from E q 10)
TABLE III—PROBABILITY VERSUS a
RELATIONSHIP (KEFEREN'CES (5) AMD
(32)). "Ln = log
a Probability a Probability
then
0.0 . . 0.500 3.00 . . . . , . 0.99865
l.OO. . 0.84134 3.09 . . . . . . 0.99900
1.28. . 0.90000 3.29.... . . 0.99950 'og -z^ = log
1.64 . , 0.95000 3.72 . . 0.99990 •JO
2.00. . 0.97725 3.89-. .. . , 0.99995
2.05. . 0.98000 4 . 0 0 . .. . . . 0.99997 or
2.33. . 0.99000 4.2(5... . . . 0.99999
2.57 . . 0.99500 4.75 . . 0.999999
^ = ( ^ \ ^ - 1
So V - V) "' SL ~ / 1 Y
SL and a five per cent probability that
SF will fall above Su, then there is a 90 By subsitution of SL from Eq 9
per cent probabiUty that SF will fall
between these limits. ID 1
.(12)
SF / 1 \ {o+a'/V»)
Analytical Evaluation of Design Fatigue
Limit:
With the establishment of SL , the The next requirement imposed on the
next item under consideration is the derivation is the selection of an ap-
determination of the design fatigue propriate survival rate. Since the scatter
limit, SD • that normally exists in full-scale tests,
imposing a requirement of greater than
For a normal distribution:
0.9999 survival with a normal distribu-
SD — SL — aff„ where o-„ = VSL tion would result in an allowable design
stress that can be unrealistically low,
then and in some cases reduce the allowable
SD = SL (1 - aV)
to zero.
A literature review indicates that
By substitution of SL from Eq 8, distributions other than normal have
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF T E S T SPECIMENS 159

Factor of SD
Safety

)9.99 99.9 99 95 90 70 50 30 10 5 0.1 0.01

100 I.Oi
^ -~-~ • ~ - - ,
III 0.90 ^
"^ ^ : \ ^ • ._
^Qo.
1.25 0.80
N L_l
1.43 - 0.70
i^
S ^.
1.67 0.60
(a) \
ZOO

2.50
0.50

0.40
\iA N.
S
333 030
X
500 0.20 ^ \ Is PFR CFN T <: IIRVIV Al
SF
One Test Specimen
1000 J 0.10 /—
90 P« r Cen1 Conf de ice Le vel

0.01 Ol 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 99 9 9 9 99.99
Per Cent Survival

(a) Noi'mal distribution of stress, one specimen.

Factor of SD
Safety ^-
SF

1.00 -^ 1.00
1.1 1 - 0.90 1
1.25 - 0.80 "^ —-^^^.OF.

0.70
\ J
143 -
167 - 0.60 ^^^r^ '^^
2 00 - 0.50 L ^ ^ *
^ v . ' ' -
2.50 - 0.40
(b)
r^
333 - 0.30
4.00 - 0.25

5.00 - 0.20
SD
667 - 0.15 — V i PER CFN1 SURVIV/W
SF
OneTe St Sp«cirnen
Coefficie ntof V ar otion ,\1
90 P er CenI Conf de nee Level
1000 -• 0.10 I 1
0.01 - 0.1 - I 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 99 99.9 99.9?
Per Cent Survival

{h) Log-normal distribution of stress, one specimen.

FIG. 5.—Per Cent Survival Curves.
160 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE o r AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Factor of
Safety
SF
99,99 99.9 9 9 95 90 70 50 30 10 5 Ql 001
1.00 1,00

III 0.90
^ ^
1.25 O80
^vt; 3D/„
1.43 070 ^ N ^

0,60
\/-
1,67 H X

2,00 050
Co)
^1
2.50 040 % '

3 33 - 0.30
So
5,00 - 0.20 — V s PER CENT SIJRVIV l\l
SF
Four Test Specimens
10,00 0.10
90 F'erCent Confidence Level
1 1 1
"0,01 0.1 I 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 99 999 9 9 9 9
Per Cent Survival

(a) Normal distribution of stress, four specimens.

Fbctor of So
Safety

9999 99.9 99 95 90 70 50 30 10 5 Ql OOI

1,00 1,00
111 ,. _ J
090 ^ V
1,25 080 V C"""^ -~-^
1,43 070
1,67 0.60 ^^-o„r
2,00 0.50 \^^."<
^
2,50 0.40
(b) ^
3,33 - 0.30
4.00 - 0.25

5,00 - 0,20
So ,
6,67 - 0.15 — V i PER CENT SU RVIVA
bF
F()ur Tes t'Spe cim ens
Coe ftiden of V irio tion,V
90 F>er Cent Confi dence Lev(!l
1000 0.10
0 01 0.1 5 10 30 50 70 90 95 99 99.9 99.99
Per Cent Survival

Q)) Log-normal distribution of stress, four specimens.

FIG. 6.—Per Cent Survival Curves.
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF TEST SPECIMENS 161

TABLE IV.—DESIGN FACTOR OF SAFETY REQUIREMENTS,

(o) Normal Distribution of Stress (90 Per Cent Confidence).

r = 0.05 V = 0.10

Number of Specimens
Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of
SD Safety SD Safety

1 0.923SF 0. 752SF 1. .33 0. 858SF 0.538Sp 1.86

2 0.945Sf. 0.769Sf 1.30 0.897SF 0 . 5(}2SF 1.78
3 0.956Sp 0.775SF 1.29 0.913Sp 0.572SF 1.75
4 o.moSF 0.782SF 1.28 0.923SF 0.578SF 1.73
10 0.976Sf 0.7945/, 1.26 0.952SF 0.595Sf. 1.68
20 O.SOOSF 1.25 0.964Sf 0. G06SF 1.65
0.9S2SF

V = 0.15 V = 0.20

Number of Specimens
Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of
SL SD Safety SL SD Safety

1 0.803SF 0. 355SF 2.82 0.753SF 0.192SF 5.21

2 0.852SF O.S76SF 2.66 0.812SF 0. 207SF 4.84
3 0.8755F 0.387 SF 2.59 O.SAOSF 0.214SF 4.67
4 0.891Sp 0.394Sf 2.54 0.859SF 0.219Sp 4.57
10 0.9275^ OAIQSF 2.44 0. 906SF 0.231SF 4.33
20 O.MSSF OAISSF 2.39 0.932SF 0.237SF 4.22

(6) Log Normal Distribution of Stress (90 Per Cent Confidence).

V = 0.05 V = 0.10

Number of Specimens
Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of
SL SD Safety SL SD Safety

1 0.917 SF 0.752Sf 1.33 O.SHSF 0.568SF 1.76

2 0.941SF 0.776Sf 1.29 0.885SF 0. 599SF 1.67
3 0.951SF 0.782<Sp 1.28 0.910SF 0. 609SF 1.64
4 0.958SF 0.788Sf. 1.27 0.921SF 0.622SF 1.61
10 0.973SF 0.800S;' 1.25 0.950SF 0.6A1SF 1.56
20 0.982SF 0.807 SF 1.24 0.9645p O.G49SF 1.54

V = 0.15 V = 0.20

Nun^bet of Specimens
Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of Mean Stress, Design Stress, Factor of
SL SD Safety SL SD Safety

1 0.7&5SF 0A17SF 2.40 0.693SF 0.302SF 3.31

2 0.828SF 0.451Sf 2.22 0.772SF 0.335SF 2.98
3 0.857 SF 0A67SF 2.14 O.SlOSf 0.352SF 2.84
4 0.875SF 0A77SF 2.10 0.833SF 0.363SF 2.76
10 0.919SF 0. 500SF 2.00 0.89lSii- 0.388SF 2.58
20 0.942SF 0.513SF 1.95 0.921Sf. OA02SF 2.49
162 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
been suggested to alleviate the un-
realistic results obtained using this
distribution. As mentioned previously,
the log-normal distribution fits the data
reviewed better than a normal distribu-
tion for most cases. Use of 0.9999
probability with a log-normal distribu-
tion yields results that are realistic and
reasonable.
If similar components exist on the
aircraft, each with the same probability
of failure, then for a 0.9999 probability
survival per aircraft, a component
, , ...^ , M - 1 , 0.9999 .
probability of -] is re-
re n
quired. The relationship given was
determined by using only the first two
terms of a binomial expansion and
should, therefore, be limited to proba-
bilities of the order shown for n less
than 100.
Determination of Design Stress Fatigue
Limit Using Probability Paper:
With the aid of probabihty paper,
only a Hmited number of calculations
need be performed in order to plot a
complete family of curves that can be
used for determination of a design
fatigue limit (5).
Figures 5(a) and (b) and 6(a) and (b)
were obtained in the following manner:
Each line was determined by evaluation
of two points. One point was located at
a 50 per cent survival level by plotting
the value of SL/SF as determined from
Eqs 8 and 9. The second point was
evaluated at 99.99 per cent survival by
plotting the values of SD/SF obtained
from Eqs 11 and 12. For these calcula-
tions :
a' = 1.64 for 90 per cent confidence
(equivalent to 95 per cent proba-
bihty) (Applicable only when V is
known),
a = 3.72 for 0.9999 probability (Ap-
plicable only when V is known),
w = 1, 4 test specimens, and
V = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20.
These curves may be used in the
following manner: Use the figure cor-
responding to the appropriate number of
specimens tested. Determine an ap-
propriate value of V from background
testing on large-scale tests or use of
Table I I . Then for the probability level
desired, the ratio of SD/SF is determined
for either the normal or log-normal type
distribution.
Factor-of-Safety Approach to Fatigue
Limit Determination:
With the use of Figs. 5(a) and (6) and
6(a) and (b) and the theory previously
presented, a value of So can be deter-
mined for a 90 per cent confidence level
on the mean and for a 0.9999 probability
of survival. Since most designers and
structures engineers are more familiar
with ultimate or limit load analysis
techniques, it was considered desirable
to relate the So to the average fatigue
hmit, 5f , as determined from test by a
required factor of safety which is a
function of the number of specimens
tested.
For the procedure proposed, the
factor of safety is defined as:
Factor of safety
Average fatigue limit of limited tests
Design fatigue limit
Tables IV(a) and IV(6) hst the factor
of safety requirements for V = 0.05,
0.10, 0.15, 0.20 with 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, and 20
available test specimens.
A review of Table IV indicates the
following:
For values of F = 0.05 (low scatter),
these requirements are not at all severe.
A quick glance at Table I I , however,
will show that values of F = 0.10, 0.15,
and 0.20 are more realistic. For V =
0.20 the factor of safety required using a
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF T E S T SPECIMENS
normal distribution and for a single test
specimen is 5.3. This may seem severe,
but it is statistically correct for the
probability of survival required. For a
log-normal distribution, however, a
factor of safety of only 3.31 is required,
thus justifying the importance of the
proper distribution.
Another item of significance that can
be deduced from Table IV is the effect
of the number of tests conducted. For a
given known coefScient of variation,
very little difference exists between the
factor of safety for 1 specimen or 20
specimens. The most significant change
exists between one and two specimens.
This would not be true if the standard
deviation were estimated from a limited
number of tests, in which case the
number of specimens would have a large
effect on the factor of safety.
Another factor of safety approach is
proposed in reference (37). A factor of
safety approach is also presently a re-
quirement of the FAA Civil Aeronautics
Manual 6, Appendix A (34):
"The minimum number of test specimens
required is dependent on the oscillatory test
level, in the following manner:
"(a) A minimum number of 4 test speci-
mens if the oscillatory level is chosen at 1.1
times the critical oscillatory stress level.
"(b) A minimum of 3 test specimens if the
oscillatory level is chosen at 1.25 times the
critical oscillatory stress level.
"(c) A minimum of 2 test specimens if the
oscillatory level is chosen at 1.5 times the
critical oscillatory stress level.
"(d) One specimen if the oscillatory level
is chosen at twice the critical oscillatory
stress level."
For the above requirement, the lowest
failure level is used as a design fatigue
limit instead of a mean fatigue limit
reduced for given confidence and survival
rates, as proposed in this paper.
Civil Aeronautics Manual 6 (CAM 6)
(34) requires that a conservative defini-
163
tion of the flight load spectrum be used.
For example, only maximum measured
loads resulting from helicopter operation
at the most critical center of gravity,
rotor rpm for each forward speed and
maneuver are to be used in the calcula-
tion of fatigue life. This approach
usually results in reasonable safe life
predictions.
With the aid of references (35) and
(36), an evaluation of mission profiles
and statistical evaluation of flight
stresses can be made. Calculation of
component life using the method of this
paper results in somewhat lower lives
than are determined by using CAM 6
(34). More important than actual life
magnitudes, however, is the better under-
standing and greater reliability in pre-
dicting safe life afforded by the proposed
method.
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT L I F E
DETERMINATION
The life can be determined by first
obtaining the appropriate value of SD
by dividing the average fatigue limit of
the few tests conducted by the factor of
safety required. The allowable S-N-P
curve is then plotted. A modified form
of Eq 6 is used for this purpose:
S = So + Ny
a and y are selected from Table I.
Since a and 7 are based primarily on
tests conducted with a stress ratio R =
0 or i? = — 1 , the design S-N-P curve
should be corrected by use of an ap-
propriate Goodman diagram for the
effects of steady stresses or loads. Cumu-
lative damage theory can then be used
in conjunction with measured data to
determine the life.
In order to be completely fair in the
life calculation, measured load and stress
data should be evaluated statistically. A
164 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

reasonably precise operating schedule Stress ratio = — 1

should be known. As an example, almost Stress concentration factor = 2.5
every dynamic component such as Tests conducted = 2:
blades, hubs, and controls is subjected (o) Failure at 1700 lb at 3 X W cycles.
to fatigue loads at frequencies that are (/)) Failure at 2000 lb at 0.55 X W
cycles.
integer multiples of rotor frequency.
Although all of the equations have been
Magnitudes of loads vary with forward evaluated using stress as an index, compo-
speed, rotor rpm, maneuver, gross nents can still be structurally evaluated
weight condition, and center of gravity with the same equations by using load as an
position. Gusty air results in pulsating index.
loads. If an operating schedule is properly Determination of fatigue limit at 10'
estimated with respect to per cent of cycles (Eq 6):
time at a given forward speed, then
ySi
that per cent should be further broken Si = S -
down to reflect per cent of time operating sm
in smooth air versus time in gusty air,
per cent of time at various rotor rpm's; Si
per cent of time at various gross weights 1 + ^r-
including fuel burn-off, and per cent of SNy
time at various center of gravity posi- specimen J:
tions. Maneuvers should also be broken
down in a similar manner. In addition, ±1700
Si
the number of peak stress cycles that 9200
1 -f
normally occur during a maneuver (3 X 10n)»89
should be estimated and compared to
±1670 lb
total maneuver time.
Specimen 2:
Because of the large scatter in fatigue
data, a statistical treatment of some sort ±2000
is required to establish safe operating Si = -F
9200
component lives. The probability of a 1+ (0.55 X 10i5)«-8''
failure should be extremely remote since
in a helicopter the single failure of a = ±1860 lb
blade, rotor shaft, drive shaft, control 1860 + 1670
system linkage, or other component S, = = ±1765 lb
could be catastrophic. In many cases,
fatigue cracks can be detected prior to Using V assumed to be known = 0.15 the
component failure by proper inspection required factor of safety is 2.22, as obtained
techniques; this is still subject to human from Table IV(A) (log-normal distribution):
error, however, and should not be de- ±1765
pended upon entirely. SD = = ±795 lb
2.22
EXAMPLE.—The following illustrative The design S-N-P curve is then given by
example will serve to demonstrate the 9200"
method proposed for determination of a 5« + 1 ^ = 795 1 + ^0,8
design S-N-P curve. SN^
Assume a hypothetical control system SUMMARY
linkage: _
Material = 4340 steel; a/S = 9200; The statistical approach used here is
T = 0.89 basic and does not get too involved in
 ALBRECHT ON STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF T E S T SPECIMENS
rigorous statistical techniques. This is
necessary in order to prevent an already
complex problem of fatigue life deter-
mination from becoming a problem too
complicated for a typical aircraft de-
signer or structures engineer to handle.
The factor of safety tables and proba-
bihty curves presented make it possible
to determine easily the reduction in
fatigue limit t h a t is required for any
given probabihty and a 90 per cent
confidence level, without requiring a
thorough knowledge of statistics.
REFERENCES
(1) H. Grover, S. Gordon, and L. Jackson,
"Fatigue of Metals and Structures,"
NA VAER 00-25-534.
(2) W. Weibull, "A Statistical Representation
of Fatigue Failures in Solids," Transactions,
Royal Inst. Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, 1949.
(3) H. Cummings, F. Stulen, and W. Schulte,
"Investigation of Materials Fatigue Prob-
lems Applicable to Propeller Design,"
WADC TR 54-531, May, 1955
(4) E. H. Schuette, "The Significance of Test
Results from Small Groups of Specimens,"
Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing Mats., Vol.
57, p. 1304 (1957).
(5) G. J. Schott, "The Statistical Significance
of a Few Fatigue Results," National
Aeronautical Establishment Laboratory Re-
port LR-58, May 26, 1953.
(6) E. Epremian and R. F. Mehl, "Investiga-
tion of Statistical Nature of Fatigue
Properties," NACA TN-2719, June, 1952.
(7) "A Tentative Guide for Fatigue Testing
and Statistical Analysis of Fatigue Data,"
ASTM STP No. 91-A (1958).
(8) H. E. LeSueur, "The Certification of Civil
Transport Rotor Craft with Particular
Reference to Multi-Engines," Journal,
Royal Aeronautical Soc, Aug., 1961.
(9) A. M. Freudenthal, "Fatigue Sensitivity
and Reliability of Mechanical Systems,
Especially Aircraft Structures," WADD
TR 61-53, July, 1961.
(10) J. S. Lariviere, "Method of Calculation to
Determine Helicopter Blade Life," Transla-
tion by J. Koch, Journal, Am. Helicopter
Soc, April, 1961.
(11) H. N . Cummings, "Quahtative Aspects of
Fatigue of Materials," WADC TR 59-230,
Sept., 1959.
165
T h e method proposed for the evalua-
tion of a design S-N-P curve requires
selection of a coefficient of variation
that is representative of the component
being evaluated. Table I I indicates t h a t
values of V for full-scale components are
normally greater than for rotating-beam
and tension-tension tests. The author
wishes to conduct further investigation
into this matter and to obtain a full
spectrum of coefficients that can be used
for evaluation of limited test data with-
out being overly conservative.
(12) H. N. Cummings, "Some Quantitative
.Aspects of Fatigue of Materials," WADD
TR 60-42, July, 1960.
(13) W. Weibull, "Scatter of Fatigue Life and
Fatigue Strength in Aircraft Structural
Materials and Parts," Fatigue in Aircraft
Structures, Academic Press, Inc., New
York, N . Y. (1956).
(14) Symposium on Statistical Aspects of
Fatigue, ASTM STP No. 121, Am. Soc.
Testing Mats. (1951).
(15) Symposium on Fatigue with Emphasis on
Statistical Approach, ASTM STP No. 137,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats. (1952).
(16) T. T. Oberg and E. J. Ward, "Fatigue of
Alloy Steels at High Stress Levels," WADC
TR 53-256, Oct., 1953.
(17) G. E. Dieter and R. F. Mehl, "Investigation
of the Statistical Nature of the Fatigue of
Metals," Af/IC^ TN 3019, Sept., 1953.
(18) J. K. Childs and M. M. Lemcoe, "Fatigue
Investigation on High Strength Steel,"
WADC TR 56-205, July, 1957.
(19) E. H. Schuette, "Fatigue Properties of
Magnesium Alloy Forgings," WADD TR
60-854, D e c , 1960.
(20) H. J. Grover, S. M. Bishop, and L. R.
Jackson, "Fatigue Strengths of Aircraft
Materials, Axial-Load Fatigue Tests on
Unnotched Sheet Specimens of 24S-T3
and 75S-T6 Aluminum Alloys and of 4130
Steel," NACA TN 2324, March, 1951.
(21) H. J. Grover, W. S. Hyler, and L. R.
Jackson, "Fatigue Strengths of Aircraft
Materials, Axial-Load Fatigue Tests on
Notched Sheet Specimens of 24S-T3 and
75S-T6 Aluminum Alloys with Stress
Concentration Factor of 1.5," NACA TN-
2639, Feb., 1952.
(22) H. J. Grover, S. M. Bishop, and L. R.
166 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Jackson, "Fatigue Strengths of Aircraft
Materials, Axial-Load Fatigue Tests on
Notched Sheet Specimens of 24S-T3 and
75S-T6 Aluminum Alloys and of SAE
4130 Steel with Stress Concentration
Factors of 2.0 and 4.0," NACA TN 2389,
June, 1951.
(23) H. J. Grover, S. M. Bishop, and L. R.
Jackson, "Fatigue Strengths of Aircraft
Materials, Axial Load Fatigue Tests on
Notched Sheet Specimens of 24S-T3 and
75S-T6 Aluminum Alloys and of SAE 4130
Steel with Stress Concentration Factor of
5.0," NACA TN 2350, June, 1951.
(24) H. F. Hardrath, C. B. Landers, and E. C.
Utley, Jr., "Axial-Load Fatigue Tests on
Notched and Unnotched Sheet Specimens
of 61S-T6 Aluminum Alloy, Annealed 347
Stainless Steel and Heat Treated 403
Stainless Steel," NACA TN 3017, Oct.,
1953.
(25) Structural Design Manual, Engineering
Structures Memorandum and Test Memo-
randum Report Files, Vertol Division,
Boeing, Morton, Pa.
(26) B. K. O. Lundberg and S. Eggewertz, "A
Statistical Method for Fail Safe Design
with Respect to Aircraft Fatigue," Second
International Congress, International Council
of the Aeronautical Sciences, Pergamon
Press Ltd., London (1960).
(27) "Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements,"
MIL-HDBK-S, Armed Forces Support
Center, Washington, D. C , March, 1959.
(28) Aircraft Fatigue Handbook, Vol. I l l ,
Material, Aircraft Industries Assn., ARTC/
W-76 Aircraft Structural Fatigue Panel,
Jan., 1957.
(29) Mechanical Properties Information Proc-
essing System, "Fatigue of Metals-
Aluminum—Part 1," , 1 5 0 Technical Note
61-117, Part 1, Aug., 1961.
(30) Mechanical Properties Information Proc-
essing System, "Fatigue of Metals—
Corrosion and Heat Resistant Metals—
Section 1," ASD Technical Note 61-117,
Part II, Nov., 1961.
(31) Mechanical Properties Information Proc-
essing System, "Fatigue of Metals—Low
Alloy Steel—Section 1," ASD Technical
Note 61-117, Part III, Feb., 1962.
(32) N. Arley and K. R. Buch, Introduction
to the Theory of Probability and Statistics,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
N. Y. (1950).
(33) Magnesium Design Manual, Dow Chemical
Co. (1957).
(34) Ci'dl Aeronautics Manual 6, Rotorcraft
Airworthiness; Normal Category, Federal
Aviation Agency, Oct. 1, 1959.
(35) B. Truett, S. Back, T. Fricke, and W.
Flowers, "Survey of Strains and Loads
Experienced by the Bell H-13H, Vertol
H-21C and Sikorsky H-34A Helicopters
During Service Operation," WADD TR
60-818, May, 1961.
(36) G. Windolph, "Determination of U. S.
Army Design and Testing Criteria for Heli-
copter Transmissions," Vertol Report
R-189, Dec. 23, 1959.
(37) R. Lusser, "Reliability Through Safety
Margins," Test Engineering; Part I, Feb.
1959; Part II, April 1959; Part III, June
1959; Part IV, July 1959.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

H E L I C O P T E R FATIGUE SUBSTANTIATION P R O C E D U R E S FOR

CIVIL A I R C R A F T

B Y JAMES E. DOUGHERTY 1 AND HERBERT C. SPICER, J R . 1

SYNOPSIS

This paper presents four aspects of the helicopter fatigue problem as viewed
by the Federal Aviation Agency. They relate to: (1) development of the
fatigue requirements for civil helicopters; (2) application of these fatigue
requirements; (.?) history of failures known to have been attributed to or
influenced by fatigue; and (4) future prospects for new and improved means
to cope with fatigue evaluation problems.

Under Section 601(a) (l)2 of the Federal and the current civil certificating au-
Aviation Agency Act of 1958, "The thority, the Federal Aviation Agency.
Administrator is empowered and it shall The standards and their various means
be his duty to provide safety of flight of of interpretation have evolved over the
civil aircraft in air commerce by prescrib- years primarily through the combined
ing and revising from time to time, such efforts of many interested parties in the
minimum standards covering the design, aviation community, both within and
materials, workmanship, construction outside Government, and to the best of
and performance of a i r c r a f t . . . as may our knowledge are reasonable, realistic,
be required in the interest of safety." minimum safety standards.
Section 603(a) of the same act places
DEVELOPMENT OF FATIGUE
the responsibility on the Administrator
REQUIREMENTS
to conduct such findings as are necessary
to establish that the aircraft is of proper The early design criteria for helicopters
design and meets the minimum stand- were based on the experience gained by
ards, rules, and regulations prescribed by the autogiro makers. Cierva in his text-
the Administrator. book, The Theory of Stresses in Autogiro
The airworthiness standards for heli- Rotor Blades, cited two empirical factors,
copters, presented in Parts 6 and 7 of the concerning fatigue, to be used in design.
Civil Air Regulations (2,3), contain One was related to material fatigue
specific provisions on structural fatigue. characteristics and the other was a
These fatigue criteria have been the correction for stress concentrations.
subject of extensive interpretative ma- The first comprehensive set of air-
terial issued by the predecessor agency, worthiness standards for rotorcraft was
the Civil Aeronautics Administration, put forth in Civil Aeronautics Adminis-
tration Engineering Report No. 32,
1 "Proposed Rotorcraft Airworthiness,"
Assistant Chief and Aerospace Engineer,
respectively. Airframe Branch, Engineering and dated Feb. 16, 1943. This document
Manufacturing Div., Flight Standards Service, covered the basic safety parameters
Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D. O.
2 such as speeds, loading conditions, load
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper. factors, proof of strength, autorotation
167
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
168 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
capability, and fatigue. The fatigue
requirement was as follows:
"At the critical helicopter airspeed and
rotor rpm and under hovering conditions the
hub, blade attachments, blade controls
and mechanisms essential to operation as an
autogiro which are under cyclic flexing or
alternating stresses, shall be adequately
investigated for fatigue strength against the
endurance limit of the materials used."
The evaluation was based on materials
data only; no measurment of stresses or
fatigue testing was required. The criteria
in this report served as the basis for
issuance of type certificates for the
world's first civil helicopters—the Bell
Model 47 and the Sikorsky Model S-51.
On April 3, 1946, a certificated heli-
copter with less than 100 hr total time
crashed. The cause was fatigue failure of
the rotor hub. This raised questions
about the validity of the analytical
procedure used, particularly with regard
to the stress levels present and the
strength characteristics of the fabricated
parts. The Civil Aeronautics Administra-
tion subsequently urged that flight strain
measurements be made and that the
results be used in testing full-scale com-
ponents.
When the first Civil Air Regulations,
Part 6, were adopted in May 26, 1946,
there was general agreement within the
helicopter industry and the certificating
agency on the need for strain gage
measurements on all parts of the rotor
system subject to possible fatigue condi-
tions in flight. The specific requirement
read:
"The hub(s), blades, blade attachments
which are under cyclic flexing or alternating
stresses, shall be substantiated to demon-
strate the airworthiness of these parts under
repeated loading conditions associated with
normal operation. The vibration stresses of
critical metal parts shall be determined in
flight and it shall be demonstrated that these
stresses do not exceed safe values for con-
tinuous operation."
This regulation did not imply that
safe life or even infinite lives had to be
established, though the manufacturer
could do so on the basis of fatigue tests
or by rational application of material
fatigue properties modified to account
for stress concentrations.
As additional experience was gained it
became apparent that measured stresses
in some instances were above the
endurance limit of the material and the
evaluation methods using material cor-
rection factors were found to be inade-
quate. It was evident that fatigue testing
to determine safe lives was a vital part
of fatigue evaluation. This provision,
introduced into Section 6.250(a), Part 6,
of the Civil Air Regulations on Jan 15,
1951, reads as follows:
"The hubs, blades, blade attachments,
and blade controls which are subject to
alternating stresses shall be designed to
withstand repeated loading conditions. The
stresses of critical parts shall be determined
in flight in all attitudes appropriate to the
type of rotorcraft throughout the ranges of
limitations prescribed in Section 6.204. The
service life of such parts shall be established
by the applicant on the basis of fatigue tests
or by other methods found acceptable to the
Administrator."
During the early 1950's, the rapid de-
velopment of the helicopter and the use
of the larger rotorcraft in transport-
type operations resulted in a new Part 7
to the Civil Air Regulations effective
Aug. 1, 1956 (3), based on Civil Air
Regulations, Part 6 (CAR 6). Since the
fatigue problems of both categories.
Transport and Normal, are quite similar
in nature, the requirements for main and
auxiliary rotor assemblies read sub-
stantially alike in both documents.
Very recently, CAR 6 was amended to
provide for fatigue evaluation of the
 DOUGHERTY AND SPICER ON FATIGUE SUBSTANTIATION 169

fuselage and rotor pylon structure. The regulation, aimed at determining the
changes contained in Amendments 6-5 magnitude of steady and oscillatory
to Section 6.251(e) of CAR 6, effective stresses associated with normal opera-
May 3, 1962, brought the provisions of tion. Prior to conducting the flight strain
CAR 6 and CAR 7 substantially into
agreement on the matter of structural TABLE I.—FLIGHT MANEUVEKS—
fatigue. PER CENT OCCURRENCE.
Ground Conditions:
APPLICATION OF FATIGUE Rapid increase of rpm on ground to
REQUIREMENTS
quickly engage clutch 0.5
Taxiing with full cyclic control 0.5
With the adoption of the provisions Jump takeoff 0.5
Hovering:
contained in the January 15, 1951, Steady hovering 0.5
version of CAR 6, it was apparent that Lateral reversal 1.0
additional guidance material would be Longitudinal reversal 1.5
Rudder reversal 1.0
necessary to establish a minimum sub- Forward Flight Power On:
stantiation program leading toward Level flight, 20 per cent VNE 5.0
certification and to provide for reason- Level flight, 40 per cent VNE 10.0
Level flight, 60 per cent VNE 18.0
able uniformity in the administration of Level flight, 80 per cent VNE 18.0
this regulation. This was further neces- Maximum level flight (but not greater
sitated by the high cost of testing and the than VNE) 10.0
VNE 3.0
length of time required to perform tests. 111 per cent VNE 0.5
Hence, Appendix A to CAR 6, "Methods Right turns 3.0
Left turns 3.0
of Rotor Service Life Determination," Climb (max continuous power) 4.0
effective May 1, 1951, was developed. Cyclic and collective pull-ups from
This Appendix A has served for years as level flight 0.5
Change to autorotation from power-on
the mainstay for showing compliance flight 0.5
with CAR, Parts 6.221 and 6.250(a). Partial power descent (including condi-
tion of zero flow through rotor) 2.0
Although it would be desirable to stand- Landing approach 3.0
ardize on a method of resolving fatigue Lateral reversals at VH 0.5
problems, it is recognized that variables Longitudinal reversals at VH 0.5
Rudder reversals at VH 0.5
such as new design features, different Climb (takeoff power) 2.0
fabrication methods, and use of new Autorotation-Power Off:
materials have required variations from Steady forward flight 2.5
Right turns 1.0
the recommendations in Appendix A. Left turns 1.0
These variations in all respects have at Lateral reversals 0.5
least provided an equivalent level of Longitudinal reversals 0.5
Rudder reversals 0.5
safety. Cyclic and collective pull-ups 2.0
Landings (including flares) 2.5
In any rational method of determining
fatigue life of a structure, three basic 100.0
factors must be known: (1) the flight
maneuvers and associated stresses to survey, critical stress areas must be
be expected in normal operation, (2) the determined to insure proper distribution
frequency of occurrence of specific load- of the strain gages. Here engineering
ings, and (3) the fatigue strength char- judgment is important and use is made
acteristics of the structure. of such tools as brittle coatings, photo-
Stress levels must be found by care- elastic methods, analysis, and experience
fully controlled, instrumented flight with related projects. When performing
strain measurements, as required by the the survey, factors such as rotor rpm.
170 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
speed, altitude, weight, and center of
gravity must be considered to ensure
complete coverage of critical conditions.
Table I, taken from Appendix A of the
Civil Air Regulations, sets forth a list of
occurrences consisting of some 33 maneu-
vers during which strain measurements
are to be made. The objective is to collect
information on stresses that the heli-
copter will be subjected to during opera-
tion. Each maneuver is ascribed a
percentage of time; therefore integration
of the stress envelope and the frequency
Steady Stress
FIG. 1.—Modified Goodman Diagram.
of occurrence can serve as the basis for a
fatigue test program. The maneuvers are
grouped under the following headings:
ground, hovering, forward flight, and
autorotation, and include conditions
such as clutch engagement, taxiing, level
flight, turns, pull-ups, control reversals,
power recovery, and landing. This ap-
proach is not always applicable to the
problem; our exposures to some industry
segments reveal instances where this
spectrum has to be deliberately altered
in favor of other equally acceptable and
often more sophisticated loading sched-
ules. It is emphasized that this table is
a guide and must be tempered to suit the
anticipated operation of the helicopter,
for example, partial power operation for
multiengine helicopters and the effect
of gust loadings.
In Appendix A of the Civil Air Regula-
tions four simplified approaches are out-
lined to determine the fatigue strength
characteristics. A number of empirical
factors used in these methods were
accepted by those concerned when Ap-
pendix A was adopted as being reason-
able. The service experience to date has
confirmed the validity of these factors.
Method 1.—This curtails the fatigue
Y i e l d Stress
test program by establishing infinite
life for the parts in question at several
measured stress levels. The approach
hinges on construction of a modified
Goodman diagram as shown in Fig. 1,
using polished specimen data for the
material under consideration to establish
the endurance boundary. This boundary
is reduced to account for the appropriate
theoretical stress concentration factor
for the component area involved, and the
failure boundary is then reduced by a
factor of 3. If all of the operating stresses
fall below this boundary, infinite life can
be established and no further testing is
required.
Method 2.—This calls for establishing
 DOUGHERTY AXD SPICEE ON FATIGUE SUBSTANTIATION 171

infinite life through fatigue testing of In this method, the number of speci-
actual parts to show that the most mens tested to determine the endurance
critical stress measured in flight is less limit must be increased as the margin

T A B L E I I . — H E L I C O P T E R A C C I D E N T S , 1950-1961.

Total Struc- Air General Fatal Fatal Fatal Fatal

All Fatal Acci-
Total Total
All Struc-
Total
Fatal tural Carrier Avia-
tion Acci- Acci- Acci- Acci- dents,
Year Active Acci- tural Acci- Fatal F'atal Fatal dents, dents, dents. dents, All
Aircraft dents Acci- dents Acci- Acci- "A"
Acci- Models "B" "C" "D" Other
dents dents dents dents Models Models Models Models

1950 42 9 3 0 0 3 2 0 1 0 0
1951 29 6 4 3 2 2 1 0 2 1 0
1952 26 4 i 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1953 110 17 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1954 137 36 5 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0
1955 165 39 2 3 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 1
1956 256 53 12 3 1 0 3 3 0 0 0 0
1957 302 56 7 10 4 1 9 8 0 0 0 2
1958 370 83 9 12 5 1 11 9 1 2 0 0
1959 459 89 8 7 2 0 7 5 1 0 0 1
1960 543 75 11 12 6 1 11 7 0 1 1 3
1961 651 124 13 13 3 1 12 7 1 0 0 5

Total.... 670 86 71 24 6 65 47 3 7 2 12

T A B L E I I I . — S U M M A R Y OF H E L I C O P T E R A I R W O R T H I N E S S D I R E C T I V E S , "
1950 T O J U N E 1962.
N O T E . — T h i r t y - n i n e per cent of t o t a l Airworthines.s Directives concern airframe s t r u c t u r a l fatigue
discrepancies. Power p l a n t , cowling, drive system, and engine m o u n t discrepancies n o t included in
s t r u c t u r a l category.

Total "A" Models 'B" Models 'C" Models ' D " Models ' E " Models *F" Models
Structural
Total
Fatigue
Year Airwor- Struc- Struc- Struc- Struc- Struc- Struc-
thiness Total tural Total tural Total tural Total tural Total tural tural
Directives Fa- Fa- Fa- Fa- Fa- Fa-
tigue tigue tigue tigue tigue tigue

1950. 3 2
1951. 6 2
1952. 13 3
1953. 4 3
1954. 5 2
1955. 7 4
1956. 13 7
1957. 9 2
1958. 10 3
1959. 8 4
1960. 15 11
1961. 13 0
1962. 5 1

Total 111 44 50 15 19 13 19 10 13

" Issued b y F e d e r a l Aviation Agency.

than the endurance limit, 10' cycles for between the endurance limit and the
ferrous materials or 5 X 10'' cycles for critical flight stress decreases. To account
nonferrous materials. for statistical variation in allowable
172 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

cyclic stress from one specimen to an-
other, if one specimen is tested, a factor
of 2.0 is applied to the cyclic stress level.
This factor can be decreased to 1.5, 1.25,
or 1.1, respectively, if 2, 3, or 4 specimens
are tested.
Method 3.—A finite life is established
for a component based on tests in cyclical
ing stresses, is required to establish S-N
curves for each critical steady stress
level.
In either method 3 or 4, the initial
service life is established at 75 per cent of
the calculated life, or 2500 hr, whichever
is less. If the calculated life exceeds 3333

K
LANDING GEAR ||4%
Z

z TAIL ROTOR BLADE a HUB 1 H^H^^^^H|^H 51 %

o
o
o
u.
MAIN ROTOR BLADE a H U B |
Is. NOTE: BASED ON S6 ACCIDENTS
<
Q:
o FUSELAGE 114%
cc
CONTROL SYSTEM | ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H H 33%
1 \ \ , \
0 10 20 30 40 50
PER CENT

FIG. 2.—Helicopter Accidents—Structural.

1-
LANDING GEAR 1% NOTE: BASED ON 44 DIRECTIVES
ISSUED BETWEEN 19508 1962
z
z
Ul
o TAIL ROTOR BLADE a HUB • l<)%
s
o MAIN ROTOR BLADE a HUB ^ ^ ^ ^ 2 5 %
1-

< FUSELAGE ^ 1 ^ 1 28%

(E
O
o:
^im32%
< •

CONTROL SYSTEM

J 1 1 1 1

PER CENT

FIG. 3.—Airworthiness Directives—Fatigue.

units at a series of stress levels and a
number of cycles to simulate a random
load sequence. Thus, the spectrum is a
sequential loading representative of a
block of time such as 100 hr, repeatedly
applied. The life established is based on
the actual number of blocks completed
in the test program.
Method 4.—Finite life is established by
use of an S-N curve and a cumulative
damage analysis. A minimum of four test
specimens, covering the range of alternat-
hr (2500/0.75), the initial life can be
extended in increments up to 75 per cent
of the calculated life, provided the eval-
uation of service experience on the life-
limited parts warrants such action.
SERVICE EXPERIENCE
The Federal Aviation Agency also has
the responsibility to assure continued
airworthiness of aircraft already certifi-
cated and in service. In the past decade
we have witnessed a many-fold increase
 DOUGHERTY AND SPICER ON FATIGUE SUBSTANTIATION 173

in the number and types of helicopters tion Agency initiated a project to

in service and also the nature of their use. modernize the fatigue evaluation pro-
Usages range from passenger-carrying to cedures outlined in Appendix A to
crop spraying, aerial photography, pipe- CAR 6. This program was the subject of
line patrol, off-shore oil well transit,
crane or hoist operation, and emergency TABLE IV.—REVISED FLIGHT MA-
evacuation. In this era of continually NEUVERS—PER CENT OCCURRENCE.
expanding and varied usage, helicopter Ground Conditions 1.5
Rapid increase of rpm on
operation has not been completely ground to quickly engage
trouble-free. In the period 1950-1961, clutch 0.5
670 helicopter accidents occurred, 71 Taxiing with full cyclic con-
trol 0.5
fatal. This total accident figure cor- Jump takeoff 0.5
responds roughly to the number of civil Hovering 2.0
helicopters in operation at the end of Steady hovering 0.5
Lateral reversal 0.5
1961. Longitudinal 0.5
The typical fatal accident rate was Rudder reversal 0.5
Forward Flight—Power On 87.5
approximately two per 100 helicopters in Level flight, 20 per cent VNE- 10
service per year. Of the 670 accidents, 71 Level flight, 40 per cent VJVE- 3.0
were attributed to structural failure. Of Level flight, 60 per cent FWB . 18.0
Level flight, 80 per cent VNE • 25.0
these, 24 were fatal accidents, and Ma.ximum level flight (but not
approximately one-half of the 71 cases greater than VNE) 15.0
involved the tail rotor system. FNE 3.0
111 per cent VMB 0.5
In this same period the government Right turns, 30, 60, 90 per
issued 106 mandatory Airworthiness cent VxE 3.0
Left turns, 30, 60, 90 per cent
Directives aimed at correcting service Vf/E 3.0
problems. Approximately 40 per cent of Climb (takeoff power) 2.0
the directives were to control or correct a Climb (max continuous
power) 4.0
structural fatigue problem. Change to autorotation from
This situation is depicted more com- power-on flight, 30, 60, 90
per cent VNE 1-5
pletely in Tables II and III, and Figs. 2 Partial power descent (includ-
and 3. Table II presents a summary of ing condition of zero flow
helicopter accidents in the period 1950- through rotor) 2.0
Cyclic and collective pull-ups
1961, and Fig. 2 depicts the structural from level flight 1.0
accidents by principal components. The Lateral reversals at VH 0.5
coding used in Tables II and III (A, B, C, Longitudinal reversals at VH • 0.5
Rudder reversals at VH 0-5
etc.) represents helicopter manufac- Landing approach 3.0
turers. Table III summarizes pertinent Sideward flight 0.5
Rearward flight 0.5
details on Airworthiness Directives, Autorotation—Power Off 9.0
issued by the Federal Aviation Agency, Steady forward flight 2.0
and Fig. 3 presents this information for Rapid power recovery from
autorotational flight 0.5
cases attributed to fatigue. Right turns, 30, 60, 90 per
cent VNE 1•0
FUTURE PROSPECTS Left turns 30, 60. 90 per cent
VNE 1-0
Airworthiness standards, to be realistic Lateral reversals 0.5
Longitudinal reversals 0.5
and meaningful, must keep reasonably Rudder reversals 0.5
abreast of technical developments in the Cyclic and collective pull-ups, 1.0
industry. Landings (including flares). . . 2.0
Over two years ago the Federal Avia- 100.00 100.00
174 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
discussion with industry people and
reflected FAA experience of over ten
years with the procedures in existence.
The following areas were considered to be
deserving of special emphasis at that
time: (1) introduction of a revised Flight
Maneuver Occurrence Table to more
closely reflect the time spent in the
higher speed level flight regime (Table
IV), (2) reduction of the S-N curve by
at least 20 per cent to account for scatter
when testing only four specimens, and
(3) elimination of the arbitrary life
limit of 2500 hr.
Many other areas of lesser concern also
were clarified or amended in the revi-
sion adopted Dec. 14, 1962.
This effort demands even further and
more thoughtful attention by the
Agency. To define the approach to
fatigue evaluation more clearly and
precisely for commerical helicopters, the
program is being actively pursued in the
following key areas:
1. Determination of the extent to
which the fail-safe concept, now ap-
plicable for fixed-wing, transport-type
aircraft (1), can be used in the primary
structure of helicopters. Three general
features inherent in this approach are
the rate of crack propagation, the
residual static strength of the cracked
structure, and the arrangment of design
details to permit early detection before
the failure assumes catastrophic propor-
tions.
2. Continued assessment of results of
primary loading data collection programs
to obtain a better definition of the ex-
pected loading spectrum under landing,
maneuver, and gust loadings. The work
of NACA-NASA now reflects samples of
gust loadings, heretofore not covered in
our Table of Occurrence.
3. Assessment of the effect on fatigue
life of overweight operations conducted
for what are termed restricted or special
purpose operations.
4. Continuation of the search for a
purely analytical solution to the matter
of fatigue life prediction. We have
studied reference (8), in which 20 life
prediction methods are described and
evaluated, and we concur with its con-
clusions 1, 2, and 3. These support (1)
the use of the linear cumulative damage
procedure commensurate with the data
currently available for this type of
analysis, (2) the need for develop-
ment tests for all fatigue-suspect areas
of the structure, and (3) the need
for comparative analysis of laboratory
test results of structures with known
service history. It is highly conceivable
(9), that the need is to "change the target
to be aimed at from attempts to predict
the fatigue life of an individual airplane
and instead direct our efforts to prevent-
ing the occurrence of fatal fatigue fail-
ures."
5. Increased understanding and use of
statistical procedures to cope with the
many variables of fatigue design. This is
a difficult feature to digest and reflect in
a civil airworthiness standard, but once
accepted, leads to a consideration of the
probability concept. Certain aspects such
as gust loading criteria and maneuvering
load factors are based on a probability
of occurrence, with appropriate con-
servatisms introduced. The loads es-
tablished by these criteria have proven
quite reasonable when related to the
service experience record. The desire here
then is to increase emphasis on the de-
velopment of more sophisticated and
more precise approaches, but evidence to
date does not support full adoption of
such procedures at this time.
6. Careful reassessment of the lessons
learned from service experience to assure
that the fatigue problem is dealt with to
the greatest extent in the design stages of
a new type of heUcopter. More emphasis
and importance should be placed on the
 DOUGHERTY AND SPICER OK FATIGUE SUBSTANTIATION
review of detail design to insure removal
of undesirable features of design. A vast
reservoir of useful guidance information
exists in the justification bases used for
issuance of the airworthiness directives
mentioned earlier and the accident
records cited. Hopefully, this can be
made available to designers in a useful
form with the objective of reducing fatal
fatigue failures to an extremely low rate.
7. Encouragement by the FAA of the
installation of fatigue metering equip-
ment capable of recording the load his-
REFERENCES
(1) Civil Air Regulations, Part 4b: Airplane
Airworthiness; Transport Category.
(2) Civil Air Regulations, Part 6: Rotorcraft
Airworthiness; Normal Category.
(3) Civil Air Regulations, Part 7: Rotorcraft
Airworthiness; Transport Category.
(4) "Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements,"
MILHDBK-5, March 1959.
(5) Andrew B. Connor and Leroy H. Ludi, ".A
Summary of Operating Conditions Experi-
enced by Two Helicopters in a Commercial
and Military Operation," NASA TN D 251.
(6) Andrew B. Connor, "A Summary of Operat-
175
tory of the rotor-craft or the damage
effect of loads encountered in service in
an orderly and systematic fashion. The
former should prove useful in establish-
ing a more precise loading spectrum. The
latter would have as its primary objec-
tive failure detection before progression
beyond safe limits, and, with appropriate
service experience, could prove to be an
adjunct to the operator responsible for
the conduct of a helicopter maintenance
program, including life-limited structural
parts.
ing Conditions Experienced by Three
Military and Mountain-based Commercial
Helicopters," NASA TN D-432.
(7) George Sines and J. L. Waisman, Metal
Fatigue, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
New York, N. Y. (1959).
(8) "An Engineering Evaluation of Methods for
the Prediction of Fatigue Life in Airframe
Structures," ASD-TR-61-434, March 1962.
(9) Bo Lundberg, "Fatigue Life of Airplane
Structures," Report 60, The Aeronautical
Research Inst, of Sweden (1955).
Design and Evaluation of
Full-Scale Structures
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

AN ALUMINUM SANDWICH PANEL FATIGUE TEST UNDER MACH-2.4

CRUISING O 3NDITIONS
BY W. D. BUNTIN1 AND T. S. LOVE1

Progress has been made in recent years For example, as part of certification
in studying the effects of aerodynamic requirements, realistic cyclic loads have
heating, which is a relatively new factor been applied to the B-58 bomber at
that must be accounted for in designing rates up to 14 cpm, thus requiring
and testing aircraft structures. A great the operation of as many as 64 hydraulic
deal of effort has been spent to develop rams simultaneously.
analytical methods that include the Since aircraft are designed to fly
effects of elevated temperature. Most continuously in elevated-temperature
such methods, applicable to full-scale environments, repeated-load testing ob-
structures, are approximations at best viously must produce the effects of
and make no accounting for strength accumulated exposure. Such effects in-
degradation due to transient conditions clude: (1) degradation of material
that vary with time. Therefore testing properties; (2) thermal stress, including
that must include time-dependent cyclic thermal stress fatigue; and (3) creep and
loads as well as static loads for maximum stress relaxation and their effects on
conditions continues to be a primary static and fatigue strengths of the struc-
tool of the structures engineer in evaluat- ture.
ing structures designed for sustained A test program for a full-scale alumi-
supersonic flight. num sandwich panel to produce such
Methods and techniques for static effects has been developed and conducted
loading, including simulation of aero- at General Dynamics/Fort Worth on
dynamic heating of full-scale structures, panels similar in construction to those
have been concerned with facilities and that have been proved in supersonic
equipment for heating the structure to a flight on the B-58 bomber. The purpose
given design temperature and then of this test was (1) to show the capability
applying static design loads. Until now, of bonded aluminum sandwich construc-
fatigue test programs of full-scale struc- tion for use in continuous Mach-2.4
ture have not been required to include flight, and (2) to establish the feasibility
aerodynamic heating effects. Attention of testing full-scale panels simulating
has been directed to developing loading cyclic aerodynamic heating in addition
devices which will provide high loading to cyclic loads.
rates for full-scale structures in a realistic A typical flight profile was established,
manner at room temperature. This has and parameters describing an aircraft
been accomplished reasonably well in that could fly such a profile were deter-
several full-scale fatigue test programs. mined. A delta-wing aircraft was as-
sumed with four engines mounted in pods
1
Senior Structures Engineer and Senior Test beneath the wing. Wing panels were
Engineer, respectively, General Dynamics/Fort
Worth, Fort Worth, Tex. assumed to act as fuel tank walls. An

Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

180 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

analytical study was made to estimate thermal gradients, and flight loads on the
the effects of a sustained supersonic test specimen, all of which are outlined
flight environment on the wing panel in the following paragraphs.

t = 200 MIN
M = 2.4
W = 65 000 LB

a 40
t = 2.08 MIN
D 30 M=0.9 t = 206 MIN
W= 185 000 LB M= 1.0
W= 63 200 LB
20
<
10 t =0.85 NUN t = 217 Mm
M-.0.75 M=0.45
W= 190 000 LB W= 60 000 LB
50 100 150 200
TIME , MIN
FIG. 1.—Mach-2.4 Flight Profile.

OUTER V, UPPER
^3 2 SKIN WING SURFACE

100 120 140 160 180 200 220

TIME, MIN

OUTER LOWER
SI^N T4 Tj T ; WING .SURFACE
EDGE ^ ' I.I'l.l'iMia

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

TIME, MIN

FIG. 2.—Wing Panel Temperatures.

structure. The results of these analyses FLIGHT PROFILE

were used to establish the test program, Study has shown that aluminum
which creates realistic temperatures. alloys can be used effectively for sus-
 BuNTiN AND L O V E ON ALUMINUM SANDWICH P A N E L T E S T 181

tained supersonic flights at speeds up to climb-out the airplane is accelerating in

Mach 2.4. Several profiles involving
Mach-2.4 cruising speeds were investi-
gated. The specific detail of each profile
depended upon anticipated usage. For
example, military usage would probably
involve faster acceleration to cruising
the region of the atmosphere where gust
loadings are expected to be most severe.
The aircraft passes through the transonic
zone in this region. After passing through
this zone, aerodynamic heating begins to
build up and continues to be present

20 40 60 100 120 140 160 180 200

TIME.MIN

FIG. 3.—Ig Wing Panel Stresses.

STRESS SPECTRA STRESS SPECTRA

DUE TO GUST DUE TO MANEUVER
^ i Ig
g t+ An
Mil
lo' ^U-1.
Ig - A n
io2

IQl

10°

10

10-2

10-3
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6. 0.4 0 . 8 1.2
' Incremental Gust Positive Incremental
Factor (An) Load Factor (An)

FIG. 4.—Predicted Gust and Maneuver Stress Spectra.

altitude than transport usage. A typical
profile that created the structural
problems that might be expected in
Mach-2.4 cruising operations was se-
lected for study (Fig. 1).
The profile can be divided essentially
into three phases, chmb-out, cruise, and
descent, each of which imposes different
requirements on the structure. During
through the supersonic cruise region.
During the descent phase, the heated
surfaces experience rapid cooling, and
the aircraft once again enters the altitude
regions which produce significant gust
loads.
M A C H - 2 . 4 THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Aerodynamic heating is a function
primarily of Mach number and ambient
182 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
temperature of the air the aircraft is
flying through; thus transient tempera-
tures occurring in the airplane surfaces
are a function of the following: (1)
takeoff temperature, (2) characteristics
of the atmosphere, (3) structural detail
including surface configuration and
insulation characteristics, (4) whether
the surface forms a fuel boundary (if
so, the programmed fuel consumption
will affect transient temperatures), and
(5) solar radiation on the upper surfaces.
Transient temperatures were cal-
culated at several locations on the wing
surface. The calculations were based
upon a finite difference method pro-
grammed for use with an analog com-
(?)SLUG (j^OOTER SKIN
0INNER SKIB
(¥)SPAR CAP
FIG. 5.—Idealized Sandwich Construction.
puter. The transient temperatures shown
in Fig. 2 are for a critical location es-
tabhshed on the basis of the combined
effects of flight load and aerodynamic
heating. Temperatures corresponding to
any point along the flight profile are
given for both upper and lower surfaces.
These temperature profiles show that
for the wing used as an integral fuel
tank, the wing fuel acts as a heat sink,
the structure is at temperatures lower
than the adiabatic wall temperature for
a significant part of the time, and the
temperatures change throughout the
flight. Therefore, strength deterioration
is actually dependent on exposure to at
least two different temperatures. A
considerable temperature differential,
shown in the wing panels at certain
times along the profile, causes thermal
stress; thus a programmed (changing)
temperature profile is required in the
tests.
STRESSES IN THE W I N G PANELS
Stresses developed in the panels a t
the critical wing location are the result
of both flight air loads and temperature.
Flight load stresses can be categorized
generafly into two types: (1) those
corresponding to straight and level
flight, and (2) those which result from
transient gust or maneuver loads.
Stresses that are developed during
straight and level flight, frequently re-
ferred to as 1-g stresses, vary along the
flight profile as a function of gross weight,
Mach number, and altitude. Transient
stresses, caused by maneuvers and gusts,
are a function of the aircraft configura-
tion, speed, and altitude. T h e dynamic
response characteristics of the airplane
wing to random excitation primarily
determines the transient stresses caused
by gust turbulence encountered along
the flight profile.
The 1-g stresses calculated at the
critical location in the assumed delta
wing configuration are shown in Fig. 3.
The numerical values depend upon
design criteria, unit air load data, and
wing inertia loads. The design criterion
selected was that the aircraft should be
able to develop a limit load factor of
2.0 at 190,000 lb gross weight at Mach
1.0. The wing loadings associated with
Mach 1.0 are most critical for the delta
wing studied. Unit air load data and
wing inertia loads were available from
the B-58 program.
Transient stresses resulting from pre-
dicted gust and maneuver loadings were
also calculated. The gust stress spectra
were established using response char-
acteristics of the assumed delta wing to
random turbulence. Response charac-
teristics were estimated by using results
obtained from the power spectral analy-
sis of the B-58 structure. The atmosphere
 BuNTiN AND LOVE OX ALUMINUJJ SANDWICH PANEL TEST 183

described in reference (1)^ was assumed to
be applicable. For convenience, the stress
corresponding to gust loads was ex-
pressed in terms of the calculated \-g
stress for a 190,000-lb, Mach-1.0 condi-
tion at Mach 1.0. The gust and maneuver
spectra are shown in Fig. 4.
The thermal stresses in the wing
panels, caused by transient temperatures
(Fig. 2), are primarily the result of

+ 15 000

+ 10 COO

+ 5 000

- 5 000
INNER SKIN
- 10 000

- 15 000

- 20 000
OUTER SKIN
CO - 25 000 UPPER SURFACE
u
« - 30 000
co

< 4- 15 000
s + 10 000
K
U
K
H + 5 000

- 5 000
INNER SKIN
- 10 000

- 15 000

- 20 000
OUTER SKIN
- 25 000 LOWER SURFACE
- 30 000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
TIME, MIN

FIG. 6.—Calculated Thermal Stresses.

tion. The maneuver stress spectrum was
based on the appropriate frequency of
occurrence data given in reference (1). It
is also expressed in terms of the l-g condi-
" The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper.
differential temperatures between the
outer skin, the internal grid (slug), and
the inner skin. For the purposes of
calculating thermal stresses, sandwich
construction can be considered as an
assembly of elements (Fig. 5). The slugs
184 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

and spar-cap areas are essentially
columns stabilized by the substructure
and the sandwich panel proper. Stress
equations for the elements can be written
in terms of the total strain of the as-
sembly and the effective temperature,
and in terms of over-all panel strain and
temperature. The inner and outer skins
of the sandwich panels are treated sepa-
rately as plates. Stress equations could

Slug and Skins, 2024- T86- Skin Thickness 0,038 and 0.098 in.

in
&< 60 000
Room Temperature

ri 40 000 - -_ 325 F

^z/ •'/ /-r-

1 1/
2000 4000 6000 8000

Exposure at 325 F , h r

FIG. 7.—Compression Panel Strength as a Function of Elevated-Temperature Exposure.

-23-1/2"-

^ ^
\ ~-\ 1^0.75"
SECTION A A

FIG. 8.—Aluminum Sandwich Panel Test Specimens.

 BuNTiN AND LOVE ON ALUMINUM SANDWICH PANEL TEST 185

also be written in terms of over-all panel
strain and temperature. Strains in the
skins could then be obtained by finite-
difference solutions of the plate equations
of equilibrium and compatibility. The
TEST SETUP
conditions were based upon box-beam
tests and resulted in a more severe stress
condition than would develop in an
actual aircraft wing. Calculated thermal
stresses are shown in Fig. 6 for both
surfaces at the selected wing location.
Tensile stresses are shown positive and
compressive stresses negative.

TABLE L—LOAD PROFILES IN NOMINAL

STRESS TERMS.

Test Tem- Applied _ Cycles per

Load Increment perature Stress, psi Block.

T E S T LO.^D B L O C K I

±3 450
±5 940
±3 530
-1-4 620
+7 700

T E S T LO.\D BLOCK II

1 RT ±3 450 4
2 RT ±5 940 2
3 RT ±8 470 45
4 RT ±11 000 12
5 RT ±13 530 3
6 . . RT ±15 379 2
7 ET ±3 530 5
8 ET -f4 620 4
9 ET ±7 060 14
10 ET +7 700 30
11 ET + 10 780 125
12 .... ET + 13 860 38
13 ET + 16 940 13
14 ET + 20 020 4
15 ET + 23 100 2

N O T E S — 1 . R T = room t e m p e r a t u r e , E T =
elevated t e m p e r a t u r e .
2. For test load block I, E T =
F I G . 9.—Test L o a d - T e m p e r a t u r e - T i m e Profiles. 250 F in outside skin.
T e s t Load Block I represents gust a n d ma- 3. For test load block I I , E T =
neuver loads t h a t occur each flight. I t is applied 250 F in outside skin for one half
once each simulated flight. load cycles. E T = 300 F in out-
T e s t L o a d Block I I represents gust and ma- side skin for t h e other half load
neuver loads t h a t occur less frequently. I t is ap- cycles.
plied once each 400th simulated flight.

EFFECTS OF CALCULATED STRESSES ON

assembly solutions (inserts, spar caps,
and skins) must then be combined in
such a manner that total strain of the
assembly is obtained. This leads to
solutions for stresses in each element of
the sandwich panel for given tempera-
tures and gradients. Assumed boundary
THE WING PANEL
The stresses that would develop as a
result of Mach-2.4 flight having been
defined, their effects were considered.
Analyses for both the upper and lower
surface included static strength, creep,
186 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
and fatigue. The ability of the aluminum
sandwich panels to resist static loads as
a function of elevated-temperature ex-
posure is discussed in reference (2). The
compressive strength of the panel con-
figuration chosen for analysis and testing
(Fig. 7) is shown as a function of a 325 F
exposure temperature.
. TEST PANEL
u I I I n I j'l I I I J ^ I r 1 } / n
COLD WATER - 40 F
- IRON MAIDEN
TEST BOX
y QUARTZ LAMPS
I / I 111 / 11 I / I : 11 > I I ! 11 11 / .
•>-t
"ir
\}J t / } t > / f f / / /1 f / I / ! I) >y } / > >
HOT AIR
FIG. 10.—Test Cycle of Temperature Profile.
Fatigue is most significant in the lower
or tension side of the wing. The fatigue
analyses were based upon an approach
which accounted for fatigue strength
degradation due to elevated-temperature
exposure and existing fatigue strength
data for aluminum sandwich construc-
tion. The results of these analyses
indicated that service according to the
chosen profile would be trouble-free in
excess of 15,000 hr. The Miner-Palmgren
cumulative damage rule was used in
estimating the fatigue effects of the
cyclic loads and cyclic thermal stresses.
The maximum permanent strain due
to creep was predicted to be less than
0.1 per cent after 10,000 hr of Mach-2.4
operations. Creep analyses were based on
data obtained from Alcoa Aluminum
Research Laboratory extrapolated to
meet the conditions of the problem.
Relaxation of thermal stresses due to
n 11 f 1
©
APPLIED
/ LOAD
I y
©
©
©
such creep was predicted to occur early
during service for the upper wing panels.
Subsequent flights should then experi-
ence essentially an unchanging pattern.
Such relaxation is expected to be less
than 5000 psi in the outer skin of the
upper surface panels. No relaxation is
expected to occur in the lower panel due
to the combination of lower stresses and
temperatures.
TEST OBJECTIVES
The analyses indicated that the upper
surface would experience: (1) strength
 BuNTiN AND LOVE ON ALUMINUM SANDWICH PANEL TEST 187

degradation as a result of exposure to TEST SPECIMEN

elevated temperature, (2) creep and
stress relaxation as a result of elevated
temperature, applied loads, and thermal
loads, and (3) some fatigue as a result of
cyclic service loads and cyclic thermal
loads. The lower surface case, on the
other hand, appeared to be one primarily
of fatigue, both at room and elevated
temperature. Less strength degradation,
no creep or stress relaxation, and less
severe effects from the cyclic thermal
loads were predicted.
The analysis showed that the highest
combined stress develops in the upper
The test specimen (Fig. 8) consists of
two aluminum sandwich panels spliced
together in exactly the same manner
that production panels would be joined.
The panels were made by using produc-
tion tooling and methods with two
2024-T86 aluminum alloy skins bonded
to fiberglass honeycomb core and to
2024-T86 grids or slugs. The slugs
frame the honeycomb core and provide
means of sphcing the panels and attach-
ing them to understructure—in this case
the test jig. The outer and inner skins
were clad on one side only and had a

f «^-
1 eA
1 ii'i " * 1
( _ _ _ J , . L ^ , — ^ - ^

( ' yi.r- - ^,
1 ®^
1 !'[[ * J
'• (?r - -
® STRAIN GAGES ON OUTER SKIN

• STRAIN GAGE ON INNER SKIN

A THERMOCOUPLE ON OUTER SKIN

A THERMOCOUPLE ON INNER SKIN

F I G . 11.—Test Specimen Instrumentation.

surface panel. In bonded aluminum nominal thickness of 0.038 and 0.098 in.
sandwich panels, the greatest structural respectively. The unclad sides of the
concern is compression and skin buckling skins were bonded to the core and slug.
predictions. Therefore, the upper surface The honeycomb core, made from a glass-
conditions were selected as initial test reinforced plastic using a high-tempera-
conditions. As previously stated, the ture-resistant resin, has a i^-in. cell
objectives of the test were to determine size and weighs 7 lb per cu ft. Greater
if bonded aluminum sandwich construc- detail concerning bonded aluminum
tion could withstand the elevated tem- sandwich construction is given in refer-
peratures and loads associated with the ence (4).
Mach-2.4 profile for a reasonable period
TEST PROCEDURE
of service. To withstand cyclic thermal
loads successfully would mean that no The load-temperature-time profiles
failure would occur, that excessive applied to the test panels are shown in
permanent deformation would not de- Fig. 9. The load profiles, defined in terms
velop, and that the required static of nominal stress at the minimum cross-
strength would remain throughout the section in the specimen, are further
planned service life. described in Table I. The temperature
188 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
profile and test load block I simulate the
environment and flight loads correspond-
ing to one mission. The test time cycle
corresponding to one mission was
shortened to 60 min. The effect of cyclic
thermal loads was of prime concern in
this test. By shortening the test cycle
time, a greater number of such thermal
loads could be achieved within the
planned test span. Test load block II
was substituted for I every 400th applica-
FIG. 12.—Schematic Diagram of Test Setup.
tion in order to account for the higher
loads that occur periodically.
The sequence of events required to
produce the temperature profile in the
test specimen (Fig. 10) is as follows.
1. Cold water is passed into the "iron
maiden" test box and cold air is blown
over the test panel until the starting-
point temperature is reached.
2. Quartz lamps apply heat to the
outer surface of the specimen, simulating
aerodynamic heating. The cold water is
gradually released, simulating the con-
sumption of fuel in an aircraft wing.
3. At the point at which a dry-tank
condition is being simulated, hot air is
blown into the test box to accelerate the
build-up of temperature on the inside
face of the test panel.
4. The quartz lamps and hot air are
turned off and cold air is blown across
the outer surface of the test specimen,
thus simulating deceleration.
These events are repeated for each
simulated flight. The required loads are
applied according to the previously de-
scribed schedules. Each event required
in producing the temperature profile
and the applied loads is automatically
controlled and sequenced by program-
ming equipment.
Instrumentation consisted of both
thermocouples and strain gages (Fig. 11).
The thermocouples were used both for
control and as a means of recording
temperatures in both the skins and
slugs throughout the test. Strain gages
were used to monitor the applied loads
in the panel. Paperback gages were used
and replaced as required. No attempt
 BuNTiN AND LOVE ON ALUMINUM SANDWICH P A N E L T E S T 189

ALUMINUM
TEST PANELS

TRACK

ROLLER BOLTS
-^ AIR,
WATER INLET

WATER
OUTLET REINFORCED
SECTION A A BACKING
PLATE

FIG. 13.—Aluminum Sandwich Panel Mounted on the Iron Maiden Fixture.

LOAD
PROGRAMMER

MA.STER CONSOLE

FIG. 14.—Schematic Diagram of Test Equipment.

190 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
was made to install strain gages that
would remain intact throughout the
test.
DESCRIPTION OF T E S T SETUP AND
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
A universal shear frame (Fig. 12)
reacts the applied loads and serves as a
base on which to mount equipment; the
loading arm is pivoted on a roller-
support to minimize vertical components
of applied loads. The load application
and reaction links are located on the
vertical centerline of the pivoted loading
arm. The panel ends are centered on the
arm and base and encased in half-
round bronze bars. A dry Molykote
powder hand-rubbed into the bronze
bars reduces edge fixity. The compres-
sion loads are therefore evenly distrib-
uted over the ends and enter the speci-
men parallel to the plane of the panel.
The magnitude of the load is moni-
tored with three load sensors as shown
in Fig. 12. The upper sensor measures
the steady-state load which remains
relatively constant throughout the test.
The sensor in series with the hydraulic
ram not only measures the compressive
load in its link, but also feeds a signal
to the control equipment which is
plotted on an electronic recorder. This
plot is a visual display available for
every load cycle, whereas the lower
sensor, beneath the panel, is used for an
occasional check for correct load applica-
tion.
The test panel is mounted on a steel,
air-tight box, commonly referred to as an
"iron maiden" (see Fig. 13). I t is bolted
to the box every 2^ in. along each edge
and down the longitudinal and trans-
verse centerlines. The attaching bolts
are threaded on one end and attached to
2-in. steel rollers on the opposite end.
These rollers permit the panel to deform
lengthwise in the plane of the panel
independently from the "iron maiden"
box. As a result, practically all applied
load is carried by the test specimen and
very httle by the supporting box. The
rollers follow fixed ground tracks inside
the box. Slotted holes are machined in
the box at each bolt location. SiHcone
rubber strips, capable of withstanding
high temperatures, were inserted between
the faying surfaces of the panel and the
box. These strips, applied along each
boltline, form a seal and reduce the fric-
tional load as panel deformation occurs.
The activities of each piece of test
equipment, shown in Fig. 14, are co-
ordinated and sequenced properly by a
master console. External heaters con-
sisting of radiant quartz tubes, spaced
approximately 2 in. apart and backed by
a flat aluminum reflector, are hung 3 in.
above the test specimen. The heater
rectangle overlaps the pane! 3 in. on all
sides. Power to the heaters is provided
by an Ignitron unit controlled by an
arbitrary function generator. The genera-
tor produces its demand signal by com-
paring a thermocouple signal from the
middle of the test specimen to a pre-
selected heating curve mounted inside
the generator. The system has proved to
be very reliable in satisfying the auto-
mated temperature cycling requirements.
Temperature recorders monitor con-
tinuously three thermocouples on the
panel; they also provide a means of
incorporating safety circuits to shut
down the test in the event of overheating.
Hot air, blown inside the "iron
maiden" to accelerate temperature
buildup on the inner face of the test
panel, is provided by a 12-kw calrod-
heater. Control of the air is accomp-
hshed with by-pass valves that direct
the heated air to either the test box or
the atmosphere. The by-pass valves are
 BuNTiN AND LOVE ON ALUMINUM SANDWICH P A N E L T E S T
controlled by the master console box
through motor-driven cam relays. The
air temperature control is accomplished
with a preset thermostat built into the
heater.
The cold air and cold water are sup-
plied by a 5-ton air cooler which is also
controlled with by-pass valves operated
by cam relays in the master console.
The air is dried in existing dehumidifiers
before entering the heat exchangers in
the cooler; this prevents ice from forming
in the coils in the cooling chamber.
Sufficient antifreeze material is added
to the cooling water to prevent freezing
in the cooler's water chamber. The exit
temperature of both the air and the water
is approximately 40 F during the demand
period.
The load programmer controls the
hydraulic ram to apply the spectrum
loading. This programmer supplies step-
input signals to amplifiers controlling a
set of servo valves. The rate of loading is
determined by a function generator built
into the electrical circuit. The amplitude
of each load, as well as the time the load
remains on the specimen, is preset in the
programmer. Once the programmer
receives the "go" signal from the master
console, it completes the desired load
spectrum without further external signal.
The safety circuit to prevent overloading
and the apphcation of an excessive
number of loads is incorporated in the
load recorder.
The equipment that has been described
has functioned as a completely auto-
mated system requiring minimum super-
vision with good reliability. All of the
equipment can be operated manually
to apply arbitrary loads, load-times,
heating requirements, or any combina-
tion of these parameters. Manual opera-
191
tion is required in applying test load
block I I previously described.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As of July 1, 1962, 2750 test cycles
simulating 2750 missions (approximately
10,000 flight hr) have been apphed to
the test specimen. Panel deformation
has been negligible, and no failure has
occurred. The panel was removed from
the test setup after 1500 test cycles and
carefully inspected for failure and as to
flatness. After 2000 test cycles, new
strain gages were installed and load
distributions were checked. For a given
applied load, the distribution across the
panel was found to be essentially the
same as in the beginning of the test.
SUMMARY
The test has demonstrated the capa-
bility of bonded aluminum sandwich
construction to withstand cychc thermal
loads, cyclic applied loads, and elevated
temperatures corresponding to long
service hfe in a Mach-2.4 environment.
The test apparatus and equipment have
proven to be more reliable than antici-
pated. The test procedures are quite
general and can be extended to apply for
flight conditions beyond Mach 2.4.
Time is perhaps the biggest factor in
running tests of this sort. Minimum ex-
pense demands a system that requires
minimum manpower support, and there-
fore one that is automatically controlled
for continuous operation. A large expense
problem occurs in dissipating the heat
energy as required. Refrigeration equip-
ment and materials required quickly
become significant economically. In
conclusion, it is believed that structural
integrity testing of full-scale structure to
include cyclic heating in addition to
cyclic loads is both desirable and feasible.
192 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

REFERENCES

(1) "Airplane Strength and Rigidity Reliability
Requirements, Repeated Loads, and Fa-
tigue," MIL-A-8866 {ASG), May 18, 1960.
(2) W. D. Buntin, "Some Materials and Struc-
tures Problems Associated with Designing
B-58 Type Structure for Supersonic Cruise
Capability," Paper Presented at the Golden
Gate Metals Conference, Am. Soc. Metals
Feb., 1962.
(3) Aluminum Research Laboratories, unpub-
lished creep data, Oct., 1959.
(4) L. M. Smith and C. W. Rogers, "Bonded
Bomber—B-58," SAE Paper Presented at
the National Aeronautics and Space Engi-
neering and Manufacturing Meeting, Los
Angeles, Calif., Oct., 1961.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

E S T I M A T I O N OF FATIGUE P E R F O R M A N C E OF A I R C R A F T
STRUCTURES
BY J. SCHIJVE 1

SYNOPSIS

The simulation of random service loads by cyclic loads is discussed. It is

noted that their similarity can at present be shown on an empirical basis
only. A few test programs are reviewed; a clear picture has not yet been ob-
tained.
The results of program-fatigue tests on notched light alloy specimens and
n
E— values are on the average larger than 1; and macro-
crack propagation in sheet material is slower than predicted by the Palmgren-
Miner rule. In addition to the amount of microcracking, the second damage
parameter of residual stress at the tip of the crack is of great importance.
Both parameters allow a qualitative understanding of the deviations from
the Palmgren-Miner rule.
The rule is a useful tool to make rough life estimates in the early design
stage, but the major difficulty is to obtain relevant and accurate S-N data.
The rule is found to be unreliable in judging whether a certain type of service
loading would contribute substantially to the damage induced by other loads.
Full-scale testing is considered to be indispensable to establish the fatigue
performance of a new aircraft design. With present-day experimental facilities,
a simulation of the anticipated load-time history in service is advised for such
a test. Since program-fatigue testing may be useful for design studies, recom-
mendations are made for planning the load sequence in this type of test.

LIST or SYMBOLS service, and (2) the aircraft structure,

such as its
H, Number of exceedings geometry, dimensions, and
K,, Theoretical stress concentration fac- materials.
tor Statistical data on the loads in service
I, Crack length are available, in general, as distribution
dl/dn, Crack propagation rate functions of the peak loads, but such
n, Number of cycles data do not give any information on the
N, Fatigue life irregularity of the load variations or on
S, Stress t h e s e q u e n c e 0 f t^e p e a k loads. The first
o . , Stress amplitude , ?,, , \ v, lL ,,
c TUT t part of the paper deals with the problems
caused by this lack of information. The
The essential input data for estimating leading questions are: Is it permissible
the fatigue quality of an aircraft are (1) to reduce a random service load to a
the load-time history to be expected in population of cyclic loads, and how
1 s n o u l d tnls
National Aero- and Astronautical Research be done?
Inst., N L R , Amsterdam, The Netherlands. In the second part of t h e p a p e r IS
193

Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org

194 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
discussed the problem of estimating the
fatigue performance of an aircraft struc-
ture either by testing or calculation. No
comments will be made on how the
designer arrived at the layout of his
structure, the dimensions and the selec-
tion of materials, although it is recog-
nized that a good deal of fatigue experi-
ence is required to solve these problems.
Isec
FIG. 1.—Samples of Two Load-Time Histories.
The leading question here is: The struc-
ture and its loads being given, what is its
fatigue performance? Nowadays the
fatigue performance does not simply
mean the fatigue life until failure or the
fatigue life until visible cracking; it also
includes crack propagation data and the
residual strength in the cracked condi-
tion. Crack propagation is discussed to
some extent in this paper, but the
strength of damaged structures will not
be considered. In fact, the latter problem
is a question of strength rather than a
fatigue problem. A discussion of the
accumulation of fatigue damage under
variable-amplitude loading and com-
ments on the usefulness of the Palmgren-
Miner rule for design purposes are pre-
sented. Testing methods for estimating
fatigue properties also are discussed.
The discussion in this paper will be
AIRCRAFT A
AIRCRAFT F
illustrated by some test results recently
obtained at the National Aero- and
Astronautical Research Institute (NLR),
Amsterdam, and by similar data derived
from the literature. Some results of the
NLR were obtained under contracts
with the Netherlands Aircraft Develop-
ment Board (NIV) and with the Aero-
nautical Systems Division, United States
Air Force, European Office, Brussels.
Permission for publication is acknowl-
edged here.
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE
RANDOMNESS OF LOADS IN SERVICE
To illustrate the randomness of service
loadings, the loads on a wing are taken
as an example. Figure 1 shows two sam-
ples of gust load records for a large air-
craft, A, and a medium-sized aircraft, F.
The bending moment at the root of the
wing was measured by strain gages. In
both records the first wing bending mode
is clearly recognized, although aircraft F
shows more damping than aircraft A. In
BENDING MOMENT
tg LEVEL, 2 0 0 KNOTS
£ MOMENT OF TOUCH DOWN
-*-TIME
-H
FIG. 2.—Record of the Bending Moment at the Root of the Wing During a Rough Landing
of Aircraft F.
Fig. 2 an example is shown of a record of
aircraft F landing. During the transition
from air to ground the load at the root of
the wing is decreasing. At the moment of
touchdown there are some extra load
variations and during rolling out, small
irregular taxiing loads occur. Another
type of wing loading stems from ma-
neuvers. A load-time history is thus a
mixture of different types of loads vary-
ing from apparently random loads to
well-defined loads, such as the ground-to-
air cycle.
The data on the load-time history are
needed: (1) to perform fatigue tests, and
(2) to calculate fatigue properties. It is
general practice to reduce service loads
with a certain randomness to a collection
or population of complete load cycles,
195
that is, load cycles characterized by
either a mean load and a load amplitude
or a maximum load and a minimum load.
Such a reduction is convenient for fa-
tigue testing and essential for the calcula-
tion of fatigue properties. Two questions
have to be put forward: (1) Is such a
reduction allowed? (2) How should such
a reduction be performed? Both ques-
tions will be dealt with in the following
paragraphs.
-TAXIING LOADS
V LEVEL AT STAND STILL
OF THE AIRCRAFT
Equivalence of Random and Cyclic Loads:
The question whether a certain collec-
tion of cyclic loads can be equivalent to a
random load is basically a question
whether they will induce the same fa-
tigue damage. A correct answer to this
question cannot be given, since it is as
yet impossible to give an exact definition
of fatigue damage. It is thought that the
fatigue process is qualitatively the same
under both random and cyclic loading.
The quantitative equivalence has to be
derived from empirical evidence. To
elaborate this point further it is neces-
sary to specify in more detail what is
meant by equivalence, by random loads,
and by cyclic loads.
From a practical point of view random
and cyclic loads may be considered to be
196 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

equivalent if they yield the same fatigue
lives, the same crack rates, and if they
indicate the same components of a struc-
ture to be fatigue-critical. Tests to study
these points have just been started at the
NLR and will be discussed later. A
quantitative impression on the equiva-
lence can be obtained at this moment by
comparative testing only.
It is not so easy to give a complete
definition of a random load-time history.
Usually the distribution function of the
peak loads is presented. Although this
gives some information on what has oc-
giving a complete description of a service
loading further complicate the empirical
comparison with cyclic loading.
Although cyclic loads can be defined
very easily they still can be applied in
numerous ways in a fatigue test. In the
conventional fatigue test the mean load
as well as the load amplitude are con-
stant. Some equivalence with service
loading has been claimed (14), but it is
thought that program-fatigue loading as
shown in Fig. 3, as proposed by Gassner
(11), is more likely to be equivalent to
random loading. The loading in a pro-

1 PERIOD

THE LOAD SEQUENCE IN ONE PERIOD IS REPEATED

UNTIL FAILURE

FIG. 3.—Schematic Load Sequence in a Program-Fatigue Test with Increasing and Decreasing
Load Amphtudes in Each Period.

curred during the random loading, it gram-fatigue test is established so that it

does not give any indication of the se-
quence of these peak loadings. Certain
types of loads can be considered as being
caused by a random phenomenon; such a
load is then fully described by its power
spectrum. The assumption has been
made, for instance, for gust loads, taxiing
loads, and buffeting loads (25).^ For
maneuver loads an idea on the sequence
may be deduced from flight plan analysis.
Different types of service loads may have
different degrees of randomness; more-
over, in service there will be a mixture of
several types of loads. The diffi.culties in
^ The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the Ust of references appended to this paper.
has the same distribution of peak loads
(or some other characteristic measure for
the load or the load variation) as the ran-
dom load. However, this leaves several
variables to be selected such as: the
number of cycles in one period, the se-
quence of the load amplitudes in one pe-
riod, the number of load levels, and the
highest and the lowest load amplitude to
be included. All may have some effect on
the fatigue behavior (29).
Empirical research studies on the simi-
larity between fatigue by random loads
and by program-fatigue testing are not
yet numerous. A survey is given later in
this paper. The investigations give useful
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE
information, but the quantitative picture
of the equivalence of random load and
program-fatigue loading is still far from
complete. This is mainly due to the large
variability of the randomness of loads
and the methods of performing a pro-
gram-fatigue test.
Methods of Reducing a Random Load to
Cyclic Loads:
Several methods of reducing a random
load-time history to a collection of cyclic
600
NUMBER OF EXCEEDINGS
FIG. 4,—Comparison of the Load Statistics of a Gust Record Obtained by Various Counting
Methods.
loads have been developed. All these
methods but one involve counting of
certain occurrences: (1) peak loads, or
maxima and minima of the load-time
history, and (2) load variations, or the
differences between maxima and minima.
A further differentiation stems from two
questions: (1) Should all peak loads or
load variations be counted or may a part
of them be neglected? (2) In which way
are counts being made? A survey of
counting methods was recently given by
the author (31). Methods discussed were:
(1) peak count method, (2) mean-cross-
197
ing peak-count method (VGH-recorder,
NASA), (3) range count method, (4)
range-mean count method, (5) range-pair
count method (Vickers strain range
counter), (6) Fatiguemeter count method
(Fatiguemeter, counting accelerometer,
RAE), and (7) level-crossing count
method. Some of these methods are as-
sociated with the pieces of apparatus
indicated in parentheses. Analysis of dif-
ferent types of gust-load traces showed
that the range count method and the
range-mean count method gave results
that are essentially different from the re-
sults of the other methods. It was shown
that these range methods did not give
realistic information. Counting according
to the Fatiguemeter gave almost the
same results as the mean-crossing peak
count method (VGH-recorder), while the
range-pair count method (strain range
counter) gave counts that were about 10
to 20 per cent lower than both previous
methods, except at low load amplitudes
(for an example, see Fig. 4). Reference (31)
presents a more elaborate discussion as
198 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
well as a full description of all counting
methods. The main conclusion reached
there is that probably the range-pair
count method must be preferred from
the fatigue point of view and that it is
fortunate that both best-known methods
for load statistics, by the Fatiguemeter
and the VGH-recorder, offer almost the
same results. This conclusion obtained
for gust loadings will probably also hold
for maneuver loads. An elaboration of
this point is worthwhile.
The fortunate coincidence of the re-
sults of three important counting meth-
ods, as illustrated in Fig. 4, implies that
there is little to choose between them for
making life estimates. The usefulness of
these counting methods can be shown
only by comparative testing, as by com-
paring the fatigue results of random-load
tests with those obtained by program-
fatigue testing or calculations. For the
program-fatigue test the program of loads
is based on such data as those shown in
Fig. 4. For life calculations the same
data, relevant S-N curves, and a cumula-
tive damage rule are required. Such
comparative studies give an empirical
answer to the question whether a reduc-
tion of a random load-time history to a
distribution function of load increments
can be useful for practical purposes.
One method of analyzing a random
trace, other than a counting method, is
by using a mathematical evaluation. It is
assumed that the loading behaves as a
random Gaussian phenomenon (3) which
is fully described by a power spectrum
function. From this function the distri-
bution function of all peak values can be
derived. Some practical difficulties in
applying the theory are described in ref-
erence (31). Further, the theory does not
yet allow the calculation of either the
distribution function of peak values
counted according to the mean-crossing
peak count method, or the Fatiguemeter,
or the distribution function of ranges ac-
cording to the range-pair count method.
Power spectral analysis has advantages
for studying the dynamic behavior of air-
craft, but its possibilities for the evalua-
tion of fatigue properties seem still to be
limited at this moment.
ACCUMULATION OF FATIGUE DAMAGE
UNDER VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE
LOADING
A discussion of the accumulation of
fatigue damage requires a definition of
fatigue damage, although a completely
satisfactory definition cannot be given
at this moment. On the basis of micro-
scopical evidence it has become generally
accepted that microcracks are initiated
very early in the fatigue life. Shanley (34)
assumed that the fatigue damage was
fully determined by the crack length;
and similar ideas have been put forward
by Corten and Dolan (6) and Valluri (36).
In reference (27) an analysis of fatigue
damage and its accumulation has been
presented. Some conclusions were:
1. The fatigue damage cannot be ac-
curately indicated by a single damage
parameter, for instance by the crack
length. More parameters are necessary
to give a complete description of the
fatigue damage. Two additional parame-
ters are the residual stress around the tip
of the crack and the strain hardening in
the same region.
2. The Palmgren-Miner rule
^ N
is not compatible with more than one in-
dependent damage parameter. So its
validity must be discounted for physical
reasons.
In reference (26) data on variable-
amplitude loading of light alloy speci-
mens available in 1955 were summarized.
A conclusion of the review was that un-
notched rotating-beam specimens showed
a cumulative-damage behavior that was
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE 199

T A B L E I.—SURVEY O F I N V E S T I G A T I O N S O N PROGRAM-FATIGUE TESTING

OF NOTCHED LIGHT ALLOY SPECIMEN.
Type of Type of Type of Range of
Type of
Specimen Material Stress Investigator
Loading Load Spectrum
y n (Values)^

2024 rotating gust spectrum 0 . 7 Co 0 . 9

i "ii \ beam maneuver s p e c t r u m Sm = 0
1.0 t o 1.2
G a s s n e r (13)

7075 rotating gust spectrum S^ = 0 ~0.4 H a r d r a t h e t a l (16)

k M ? beam

2024 plane raiidotn n o i s e S^ = 0 0.3 Head and Hooke (17)

k n \ bending

OCJ 2024 plane

bending
random n o i s e Sn, = 0 0 . 7 to 1.1 Kowalewski (19)

1 X — 1 7075 plane
bending
random n o i s e Sm = 0 1.2 to 8 F r a l i c h (9)

plane gust spectrum

[i:xG 2024
bending gus t and maneuvef
spectrum
S^ > 0 0 . 5 t o 1.8
0.6 to 0 . 9
G a s s n e r (12)
Tube w i t h gust spectrum 0 . 3 t o 2 .0
2024 axial gus C and maneuver S^> 0
three holes 0 . 7 to 1.8
spectrum

1 s 1 2024 axial gust spectrum S^> 0 0 . 9 to 3 . 0

Riveted joint 2 024 axial gust spectrum 0.6 to 2 . 3

maneuver s p e c t r u m W a l l g r e n (38)
Smin = c o n s t a n t > 0 1 .2 t o 2 . 3

gust spectrum Sjjj > 0 1.3 t o 3 . 6

Riveted joint 7075 axial
maneuver s p e c t r u m Smin " c o n s t a n t > 0 1.4 t o 2 . 5

Bolted joint 2024 axial maneuver spectrum 3.5 W a l l g r e n and

^min " c o n s t a n t < 0
P e t r e l i u s (39)

\ ° ? 7075 axial Smin = 0 4.1 W a l l g r e n (40)

2024 1.3 to 1 .9
H ^ 7075
axial maneuver spectrum Smin = 0
1.1 to 1 .9
W a l l g r e n and
Svensson (41)
c o n s t a n t S^ and
Riveted joint 2024 axial ground-to-alr- Sn, > 0 --0.5 B a r r o i s (1)
cycle

maneuver s p e c t r u m 1 .0 t o 1.2 Fisher (7,8)

axial
1 : 1 7075
gust spectrum
Smin ~ 0
1.0 t o 1 .5
Sm> °
7075 axial maneuver spectrum ^min = c o n s t a n t > 0 4.9 Smith (35)
1 ° 1
Riveted joint 7075 axial gust spectrum S^> 0 0 . 6 t o 1.1 S c h i j v e and
2024 1.3 t o 2 . 9 J a c o b s (29)

7075 Sm = 0 0.6 to 1.1

axial gust spectrum S^> 0 0.9 to 4.0 Naumann, Hard r a t h ,
1 : 1 2024 Sm= 0 0.4 to 0.6 and G u t h r i e (21)
0.5 to 2 .4

gust spectrum
2024 . axial gus t s p e c t r u m and S^> 0 G a s s n e r and
1 : 1 ground-to-air- Horstmann (15)
cycle

random g u s t spectrum 0.8 to 2 . 7

wing random g u s t s p e c t r u m 1.0 t o 2 . 1 Payne e t a l
Mustang wing 2024 Sm>0
bending and g r o u n d - t o - a i r - (23,24)
cycles 1.0 t o 2 . 6
three level test

Wing s t r u c t u r e 7075 wing maneuver spectrum 1.3 t o 1.6 C a r l and Hegeng

bending Smin " c o n s t a n t > 0
(5)

Commando wing 2024 wing random g n s t spectrum S^ > 0 3.5 Whaley (37)
bending

" The minimum and maximum values of averages of test series are presented.
200 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
noticeably different from that of notched
specimens loaded axially with a positive
mean stress. In tests with unnotched
rotating-beam specimens, X) T7 values
markedly below 1 were not at all seldom.
It is probably owing to these results that
the Palmgren-Miner rule got its bad
STRESS
TEST
SERIES
LOAD HISTORY
- S _ = 20 percent Su
"Values oi "^ — are the average of seven test results.
FIG. 5.—Effect of High Peak Loads on the Fatigue Life of a 2024-T3 Riveted Lap Joint Under
Program-Fatigue Loading.
reputation as being unsafe for life pre-
dictions.
However, tests on axially loaded,
notched specimens with a positive mean
stress very often yield conservative ( > 1)
J2 -^ values. The latter type of testing is
A the test results and to obtain a quahta-
usually a more realistic representation of
the circumstances that cause fatigue
troubles in service. Apparently there is a
large difference between the academic ap-
proach and the practical approach to the
problem of cumulative damage. A test
on an unnotched specimen with zero
mean stress and one change in the magni-
tude of the load amphtude only (two-
step test) is probably the most conclusive
test to check a physical theory. To assess
the practical value of life-estimation
rules which lack a complete physical
background, it is more realistic to adopt
RELATION WITH OTHER TEST
SERIES
TAYLOR'S OUST SPECTRUM
SIMILAR TO SERIES 21, ONE
HIGH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
LOAD AT THE END OF EACH
PERIOD
TAYLOR'S GUST SPECTRUM,
SIMILAR TO SERIES 21 ,
HIGHEST S. OMITTED.
SIMILAR TO SERIES 2 4 ,
ONE HIGH NEGATIVE AND
POSITIVE LOAD AT THE
END OF EACH PERIOD.
testing variables in accordance with
service conditions. It is felt that neither
the academic approach nor the practical
approach should be neglected. At the
NLR the main effort was directed to-
wards the practical side. However, an at-
tempt was made to analyze theoretically
tive understanding of the accumulation
of fatigue damage.
In reference (29) the results of program-
fatigue tests on riveted lap joints of
2024-T3 and 7075-T6 were presented.
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE
Data from all available similar investiga-
tions were compiled and summarized
(Table I). The conclusion to be drawn
from the table is that on the average
values of ^ — obtained for notched light
alloy specimens loaded by a gust or a
maneuver spectrum at a positive mean
stress are larger than unity. Therefore,
it is incorrect to say that the Palmgren-
Miner rule is an unconservative design
rule for aircraft structures. On the other
hand, Table I also shows that the rule is
not very accurate. Before labeling the
rule as inaccurate, what is meant by ac-
curate has to be defined. In reference
(29) it was said that a life prediction which
does not err more than by a factor of 2
(0.5 < J^ ^ < 2) may be regarded as
a good estimate from the technical point
of view. Therefore, the Palmgren-Miner
rule may be considered as a useful tool
for design purposes, and this aspect will
be further discussed later in this paper.
Deviations from the Palmgren-Miner
rule were studied systematically (29); it
was concluded that in addition to the
amount of cracking a second parameter
of great importance for the accumulation
of fatigue damage was the residual stress.
Negative (compressive) residual stresses
decelerate the growth of fatigue cracks,
and positive (tensile) residual stresses
have an accelerating effect. This effect is
illustrated in Fig. 5 (29). A riveted lap
joint was loaded in a program-fatigue
test with four or five different load ampli-
tudes in increasing order representing a
gust spectrum. The result of adding pe-
riodically a positive peak load followed
by a negative peak load (test series 27)
was a considerable reduction of the fa-
tigue life (compare with test series 21).
Adding the same peak loads in the re-
verse order results in a large increase of
the fatigue life (compare test series 28
with test series 24). A positive peak load
201
will induce compressive residual stresses
that are favorable for preventing crack
growth; a negative peak load will induce
tensile residual stresses that will acceler-
ate crack growth. In applying two peak
loads of opposite sign the latter appar-
ently has the dominating effect. Similar
tests with positive peak loads only or
negative peak loads only confirmed the
above reasoning.
Most of the deviations from the
Palmgren-Miner rule could be explained
qualitatively (see reference (29)) by the
effect of residual stresses on the growth
of the fatigue crack, irrespective of
whether this crack was an invisible
microcrack or a macrocrack. Compres-
sive residual stresses, which are favorable,
are induced by tensile loads; therefore a
tensile mean load allows a more easy
creation of favorable residual stresses.
This is one reason why J^ ~ values are
generally over 1 for program-fatigue
tests on notched light alloy specimens
with a positive mean stress. Another
reason is that a residual stress field can
be formed only if there is a nonhomo-
geneous stress distribution (stress concen-
tration). Such a distribution is present
in notched specimens. Both arguments
are compatible with X! T7 values below
unity frequently found for unnotched
specimens loaded at zero mean stress.
The well-known detrimental effect of
ground-to-air cycles can be interpreted
in two ways: (1) These loads periodically
destroy any favorable residual stress
field present; and (2) they may even
form an unfavorable residual stress field.
It has been argued that the Palmgren-
Miner rule need not necessarily lead to
unconservative life estimates for a gust
load spectrum combined with ground-to-
air cycles (29).
Recently tests to study the macrocrack
propagation in sheet specimens under
202 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

i CENTRAL NOTCH

^- 2

,\^'^!^~\ CRACK

NTIP RADIUS

o
©' 0.4
o
SCRIBE LINE MARKINGS:
SPACING,1mm

"• 2 0 2 4 ALCLAD SHEET

SPECIMEN; THICKNESS,
2 mm

t
160 DIMENSIONS IN mm
1 in.= 25 4 m m )

FIG. 6.—Sheet Specimen Used tor Crack-Propagation Studies with Variable-AmpHtude Loading,

150 200 250 300 350 400 450

An.kc
FIG. 7.—Effect of Positive Peak Loads on Crack Propagation under Constant-Amplitude Loading.

variable-amplitude loading have been program-fatigue tests, (2) tests in which

completed. The specimen is shown in the stress amplitude was changed a few
Fig. 6. A positive mean load was applied, times, and (3) tests with a few positive
Three types of tests performed were: (1) or negative or both peak loads. The re-
 SciinVE ON ESTIMATIOX OF F A T I G U E PERFORMANCE
suits, presented in references (32) and
(33), were in good agreement with those
of Hudson and Hardrath (18). The results
fully confirm the importance of residual
stresses around the tip of the crack. A
dramatic illustration is given in Fig. 7,
showing the effect of three intermittent
positive peak loads on crack propagation
in a constant-amphtude test. After the
application of the peak loads the crack
almost refuses to grow for a considerable
time, because it has to break through a
barrier of a residual stress field. Crack
propagation in the program-fatigue tests
with three, four, and i]ve different stress
amplitudes in increasing and decreasing
order was about two to four times slower
than predicted by the Palmgren-Miner
rule; thus the rule seems to be conserva-
tive for macrocrack propagation, al-
though not accurate.
Among all published cumulative-dam-
age theories only the simple Palmgren-
Miner rule has found wide application.
However, this is not only due to its
simplicity; the main argument is that
other theories have not yet succeeded in
gaining more confidence with respect to
their reliability. Some comments on the
most important theories will be made.
It was shown before that the residual
stress is an important second damage
parameter in addition to the micro-
crack length. Since the residual stress
will be changed by all load cycles of a
sufficiently large magnitude, there will be
an interaction between load cycles of dif-
ferent magnitudes. Such an interaction is
excluded by the Palmgren-Miner rule
and also by the theory of Shanley (34).
Theories of Corten and Dolan (6) and
Freudenthal (10) involve an interaction,
although not on the basis of residual
stress. According to Corten and Dolan
the interaction is a consequence of the
number of fatigue crack nuclei, which is
larger for higher stress amplitudes. The
nuclei are supposed to be able to grow at
all amplitudes. This means that the
203
higher load amplitude will increase the
amount of crack extension at the lower
amplitudes by making available a larger
number of nuclei than the lower ampli-
tudes could have created themselves.
Consequently the interaction of high
load amplitudes on low amplitudes would
always be unfavorable. This model may
be applicable to unnotched rotating
beam specimens, but it is not considered
to be an appropriate representation of
the damage accumulation in notched
specimens loaded at a positive mean
stress. For the latter case a favorable
interaction is certainly possible due to
the effect of residual stresses. Freuden-
thal (10) relates the interaction to the
density of slip bands. The density is in-
creased by higher stress amplitudes; this
has an unfavorable effect on the damage
rate at lower stress amplitudes. This con-
cept shows some similarity with the
theory of Corten and Dolan. A theory re-
cently published by Valluri (36), based on
physical arguments, is aimed at the ex-
planation of a large number of fatigue
aspects. One argument is that of the
variable-amplitude loading problem. The
theory includes neither interaction ef-
fects of different stress levels in program-
fatigue tests nor the effect of residual
stresses. Analytical evaluations of the
theories of Corten and Dolan, Freuden-
thal, and Valluri will not be presented
here. The formulas contain some con-
stants which have to be derived from
program-fatigue tests or constant-ampli-
tude tests, unlike the Palmgren-Miner
rule. The formulas therefore allow a bet-
ter adaptation to test results at the price
of somewhat more complication. Their
validity still has to be shown by tests for
all those circumstances for which they
have to be applied. The theories have
been checked for unnotched rotating
beam and wire specimens and did yield
useful results for that purpose. Their
applicability for program-fatigue tests on
204 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
notched specimens loaded with a positive
mean stress has yet to be studied.
Life Estimales wtih the Paltngren-Miner
Rule:
The essential purpose of the Palmgren-
Miner rule and other more advanced
theories is to correlate the life under
variable-amplitude loading with S-I^
data. The large number of extensive test
programs to check such correlations
might unintentionally give the impres-
sion that a reliable cumulative-damage
rule would solve the designer's problem
to make accurate life estimates. How-
ever, for that purpose he would also re-
quire "accurate" S-N data. In general
these data will not be available for the
critical components of a new design and
such components can be fairly numerous.
The determination of accurate S-N
curves is expensive and time-consuming.
The designer will prefer to make a rough
estimate about the S-N curves by em-
ploying existing S-N data for more or
less similar components; possibly he will
perform some check tests to improve his
estimate. The S-N data obtained in this
way will not be of a high precision.
Therefore it is doubtful whether the use
of a more sophisticated life calculation
theory instead of the Palmgren-Miner
rule is justified.
Due to the limited accuracy of the
S-N data and the Palmgren-Miner rule,
life calculation can be considered as a
rough estimate only. The result is cer-
tainly not satisfactory from an airworthi-
ness point of view, although it will give
the designer some guidance. For instance,
if the life estimate for a certain com-
ponent gives an unacceptably short life,
improvement of detail design or other
measures are necessary. On the other
hand, if the estimate gives a very long
life the designer may feel confident that
a life determination on a more realistic
basis (aircraft prototype testing) will
give a satisfactory result. It is believed
that for rough life estimates in the design
stage of an aircraft structure, the
Palmgren-Miner rule is a useful tool; for
more precise life estimates, realistic
testing is indispensable.
Damaging Effect of Different Types of
Fatigue Loads According to the Palm-
gren-Miner Rule:
A test on a full-scale structure or a
component can be considered realistic
only if all types of loads which sub-
stantially contribute to the fatigue
damage are applied in the test. What is
the criterion for judging whether a cer-
tain type of loading will do so? If the
Palmgren-Miner rule was correct it could
be used for this problem. Two cases will
be mentioned to illustrate that the rule
is not reliable for this purpose.
According to the Palmgren-Miner
rule cyclic loads with an amplitude below
the fatigue limit will not do any damage,
since N = «3. This is incorrect, since
load cycles with an amplitude too low for
creating cracks may contribute to the
extension of a crack nucleated by cycles
with a larger amplitude. Moreover the
fatigue limit will not be known very
accurately. Also if fretting corrosion can
play an active role it may be unreaHstic
to omit the numerous loads with small
amplitudes from a test.
On the other hand it was discussed in
reference (29) that load cycles below the
fatigue limit would certainly be more
damaging in program-fatigue tests than
in random-load tests. In a random-load
test, load peaks with a low amplitude are
interspersed between load peaks with
higher amplitudes. In program-fatigue
tests, however, cycles with a low ampli-
tude are applied in large batches in each
period of the program. In the latter case,
the tip of the crack during the low-ampli-
tude cycles will meet material which is
not so intensely affected by the higher
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE 205

loads than in a random-load test. Con- Another problem of assessing a realis-

sequently they can be more damaging. tic test program is offered by ground-to-
In planning a program-fatigue test it is air cycles in addition to gust loads on an
advisable to include cycles with an aircraft wing. For a transport aircraft
amplitude below the fatigue limit, but the damage due to the ground-to-air

REDUCED GUST LOADS

MEAN LOAD OF GUSTS (1-g LEVEL)

GROUND-TO-AIR CYCLE
GROUND LOAD

1 SIMULATED FLIGHT

-•-TIME

FIG. 8.—Load Sequence in a Simplified Flight-Simulation Test.

So
\ 1.S-N CURVE ° DAMAGE DISTRIBUTION

f \ \ 2. LOAD SPECTRUM i \ CURVE

X ^ ^ LEVEL OF MAXIMUM
\H \N ^ / ^ . ^ ^ ^ DAMAGE Som

f-
_^
NmJX
— ^ N (FATIGUE LIFE) —^^ / N ("DAMAGE \
dSo/ \, INTENSITY/
—»-H (NUMBER OF EXCEEDINGS)
TOTAL DAMAGE . T^ ^ /n)<ISa

REDUCED NUMBER n^ AT LOAD AMPLITUDE SQ FOLLOWS FROM:

FIG. 9.—Damage Distribution Curve and Reduction of a Load Spectrum to One Load Level

it seems to be a little bit overdone to in- cycles according to the Palmgren-Miner

clude cycles with an amplitude far below
the fatigue limit. This advice is quantita-
tively not very precise, but with present
knowledge further specifications are not
possible. Experience and intuition should
act as a complementary basis for deci-
sions.
rule may be relatively small as compared
with the damage induced by the gust
loadings. On this basis one might be
tempted to omit the ground-to-air cycles
from the loading program. However,
tests have shown (15,20,29) that these
cycles are far more damaging than the
206 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Palmgren-Miner rule suggests; therefore
it would be unwise to omit these ground-
to-air cycles from the loading program.
Reduction of a Load Spectrum to Cycles
of a Constant Amplitude:
In the last ten years several transport
aircraft in Europe have been tested ac-
cording to a simplified flight simulation
program (24). The loading on the wing in
one flight consisted of the ground-to-air
cycle and a number of gust load cycles
with a constant amphtude (Fig. 8). The
gust spectrum with gusts of various
magnitudes was reduced to an equival-
ent number of gust cycles with the same
amplitude, which cause the same amount
of damage according to the Palmgren-
Miner rule. The procedure is outhned in
Fig. 9. The right-hand part of Fig. 9
shows the distribution of the contribu-
tion to the damage as a function of the
stress amplitude. The maximum contri-
bution occurs at the amplitude Sa^, or the
level of maximum damage. This level is
usually selected for application in tests
as indicated in Fig. 8. It will be clear that
the reduction to one load level and the
level of maximum damage are meaning-
ful only if the Palmgren-Miner rule is
correct. Since it is not, a loading program
according to Fig. 8 has a somewhat ar-
bitrary character. The results of such a
test will give valuable indications, but
good quantitative accuracy cannot be
expected. Still, it is believed that the
results are conservative (29).
TESTING PROCEDURES FOR ESTIMATING
FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF AN
AIRCR.\FT STRUCTURE
Generally, the designer will be satis-
fied with rough life estimates in the early
design stage; he will require more pre-
cise estimates once the design has been
frozen. Therefore a different procedure
will be applied for each stage.
Procedure in Early Design Stage:
The usefulness of employing the Palm-
gren-Miner rule with the aid of existing
constant-amplitude data was discussed
previously and will not be considered
further here.
Constant-amplitude loading is used
frequently in the early design stage when
testing for comparison of several modi-
fications of a component. This method
should be used with caution; for a com-
ponent that is better at a low amplitude
can be worse at a higher amplitude (in-
tersecting S-N curves). For a realistic
comparison a realistic type of loading
has to be applied, and constant-ampli-
tude testing cannot be considered as
such. Program-fatigue testing is strongly
recommended for this purpose provided
that the loading program is carefully
planned.
Testing Methods to Assess Fatigue Per-
formance of a Structure Most Accur-
ately:
An accurate assessment of the fatigue-
life and crack-rate data of an aircraft
structure has to be made after the design
has been completed. Probably prototype
construction already has been started
then. The most accurate data are ob-
tained if service conditions are simulated
as far as possible. This applies to the
representation of the structure as well
as to the simulation of the load-time
history in service. Brief comments will
be made on the first aspect, while the
second one will be described in more
detail.
For any aircraft that has to perform a
long service duty, such as a transport
aircraft, full-scale testing must be
strongly recommended. It is preferred
above component testing for several
reasons: (1) If all cracks found in the test
are repaired, all components that may be
liable to fatigue will successively show
up. Without full-scale testing there is
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE
some danger of misjudging the fatigue
properties of several components. (2) If
components are tested separately there
will be some uncertainty about the exact
simulation of the load transmission into
the component. (3) It is more realistic
and informative to obtain crack propaga-
tion data from a full-scale test than from
component testing.
An exact simulation of service condi-
tions is either impossible or impractica-
ble. It is not feasible to simulate such
factors as the occurrence of rest periods
and the rate of loading which, fortunately
do not have a large effect on the fatigue
life (29). With respect to the crack propa-
gation rate, a small systematic effect of
the load frequency has been found (30) and
should be kept in mind if the loading rate
in service and in the test are largely dif-
ferent. Not very much is known about
the effect of the environmental condi-
tions. Most fatigue failures start at rivet
holes or bolt holes. The environment in
such holes probably is not very much dif-
ferent in the laboratory and in service.
However, once cracks are growing and
are accessible to the open air one may
expect some effect of corrosion or water
vapor. This is a problem that should be
studied. The NLR has recently started
some comparative testing on this topic.
It was pointed out previously that a
service load-time history will be a mix-
ture of several types of loadings varying
from random loads to systematic loads.
With the present-day experimental facil-
ities for large structures, an exact
simulation of such a load-time history
can be faithfully accomplished. For a
large full-scale structure for which a sin-
gle test has to give the most accurate
information for the operation of the air-
craft the following three alternative test
methods can be considered: (1) simula-
tion of the service load-time history, (2)
program-fatigue test (Fig. 3), and (3)
simplified flight-simulation test (Fig. 8).
It can be said that the simpler load se-
207
quences of the second and the third
method do not outweigh the inferior rep-
resentation of the load-time history. In
fact, the only essential difficulty involved
in the first method is to obtain a repre-
sentative load-time history. However
this problem will not be discussed in de-
tail here. It is thought that with the
present knowledge of loads on aircraft
and aircraft response it should be possi-
ble to ascertain a good record. This result
could be improved by recording strains
during prototype flying. Such strain
measurements are also advisable to learn
whether the loads in flight correspond
with their calculated values.
A simplified flight-simulation accord-
ing to Fig. 8 can no longer be recom-
mended, since, at the present time, the
simplification is not excused by the in-
creased experimental effort for a com-
plete simulation of the service loads. For
program-fatigue tests a good deal of ap-
plication is still foreseen because: (1) such
tests can be executed on components at a
much larger speed with commerciaUy
available fatigue machines; and (2) for
rough life estimates and for comparative
testing in design studies the method is
considered acceptable.
In view of the latter argument it is de-
sirable to improve the knowledge of the
similarity between service loading and
program-fatigue loading. Studies of this
similarity might well extend the applica-
bility of program-fatigue testing. Some
test programs on this problem are re-
viewed in the following paragraph. The
load sequence in a program-fatigue test
can be arranged in many different ways.
Some thoughts on this topic are pre-
sented later in this paper.
Comparison of Random-Load Tests and
Program-Fatigue Tests:
The number of investigations to study
the similarity between random loads and
program-fatigue loading is rather limited.
The first study was made some ten years
208 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
ago in Australia (23) on Mustang wings.
Random tests and program-fatigue tests
showed the same weak spots. The com-
parative results for the fatigue lives were
not so conclusive. The random load and
the program-fatigue load did not fully
satisfy the conditions considered here.
In the random tests each gust load re-
turned immediately to the level of the
mean load (l-g level), which is a restric-
tion on the randomness. In the program-
fatigue tests only three different values
of the load amplitude were used; this is
considered to be too small for a correct
respresentation of a gust spectrum.
A second and more recent study was
conducted by Kowalewski (19). Small
light alloy specimens were loaded in
plane bending. The random load was ob-
tained as random noise of a limited fre-
quency band (about 10 to 35 cps).
Kowalewski studied four types of ran-
dom loading with different power spectra.
He derived the program loading from the
random load sequence in two ways. In
the first program the distribution of peak
loads was the same as for the random
load. In the second program the distribu-
tion of ranges (the differences between
successive maxima and minima, P.+i —
Pi) was the same as for the random load.
For the first type of program loading the
life was about half the life under random
loading for all four types of random load-
ing. For the second type of program
loading no systematic correlation was
found. In reference (31) it was stated that
a representation of a random load by its
ranges cannot be expected to be a good
representation. Briefly, the reason is that
a large load variation from Pmin to Pmax ,
which is interrupted by a small load
variation, is split up in three small load
ranges, thus ignoring the large variation
from Pmin to Pmax • Kowalewskl's results
have a Umited applicability, since the
specimen was only mildly notched
(Kt = 1.77) and the loading was plane
bending with Sm = 0.
An extensive test program was con-
ducted by Lockheed (20) on 7075-T6
sheet specimens with a central elhptical
notch. Kt values of 4.0 and 7.0 were
used. Load-time histories studied were
based on gust loads (constant mean load
= l-g load), maneuver loads (constant
minimum load = l-g load), taxiing loads
(random vibrations superimposed on
ground load), ground-to-air cycles (cy-
cles between l-g load and ground load),
and combinations of these loads. The
fatigue machine, designed by Lock-
heed, was fed by a magnetic tape con-
taining the load sequence as a magnetic
signal. The programmed sequence was
derived from the random trace by em-
ploying the mean-crossing-peak-count
method. Load cycles started with the
negative part followed by the positive
part. Load cycles in one period were ap-
plied in a sequence of increasing ampli-
tudes only. The number of variables
studied in these investigations is too large
to allow a quantitative summary of the
results here. The most salient conclusions
were:
1. The ratio of the fatigue life under
random loading and the fatigue life un-
der program loading was found to vary
from values noticeably lower than unity
to values noticeably higher than unity,
depending on the type of loading being
considered. The best agreement was ob-
tained for a severe gust spectrum.
2. The effect of the ground-to-air cycle
was much larger than expected on .he
basis of the Palmgren-Miner rule.
3. A representation of the ground-to-
air cycles in a program-fatigue test by
batches of load cycles between the mean
load in flight and the mean load of the
taxiing loads on the ground underesti-
mates the severity of the ground-to-air
cycle.
The first conclusion indicates that a
unique correlation between random load
and program load was not found. The
 ScHijvE ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE 209

conclusion was arrived at for one method
of reducing the random loads to cyclic
loads and for a certain sequence of the
cyclic loads in the program-fatigue test.
Therefore it cannot be generalized to
other reduction methods and other types
of program-fatigue tests.
Recently the NLR started a program
on full-scale structures using tension-
skin specimens from a predmodification
type of the Fokker F-27 wing. They
consist of the stiffened skin between front
and rear spar of the center section of the
(3) to compare the crack propagation
data, and (4) to study the damaging ef-
fect of the ground-to-air cycle.
The random loading was derived from
a strain-gage record of the bending
moment at the root of the wing of a large
aircraft flying in turbulent air. The
principle of the hydraulic testing machine
with an electronic servo-apparatus,
designed by the NLR (42), is shown in
Fig. 10. The random load sequence to be
applied to the specimen is punched in a
tape as a series of code numbers (binary

WING LOADED IN BENDING

LOAD RECORDER

ELECTRONIC BINARY DIGIT

APPARATUS TAPE WITH
LOAD-TIME
HISTORY

FIG. 10.—Principle of the NLR Random-Load Machine CARLA (Code-Actuated Random Load
Apparatus).

wing. The material is 7075-T6 (material
of the post-modification type is 2024-T3).
The length of the specimen is 8.3 m (27
ft). About 50 per cent of the tension ma-
terial is in the skin; spar caps are rela-
tively light. Some skin splices, cutouts,
reinforcements, and other discontinuities
are incorporated. The specimen is con-
sidered to be representative of a modern
aircraft structure. Three types of tests
planned are: (1) random-load tests, (2)
program-fatigue tests, and (3) random-
load tests with ground-to-air cycles. The
aim of the comparative tests is (1) to see
whether the same components are fatigue
critical, (2) to compare the fatigue lives.
digit numbers) representing all succes-
sive maxima and minima. The oil supply
of the pump to the hydraulic jack is
monitored by the electronic apparatus
which receives its input data from the
tape reader and from the load cell via a
feedback line. The tape reader, the load
cell, the recorder, and the pump were
commercially available. The electronic
apparatus with the code name CARLA
(Code Actuated Random Load Appa-
ratus) was designed and built by the
NLR. Punched tapes for the random-
load tests are made from the strain rec-
ord by a semiautomatic data reading
apparatus and an electronic computer.
210 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

These tapes could also be used for a method has to be preferred from a fatigue
statistical evaluation of the loadings on point of view. Fortunately the results of
the record in accordance with several the mean-crossing-peak-count method
counting methods (31), the evaluation are almost the same. The Fatiguemeter
being performed by the electronic com- and the VGH-recorder give results that
puter. The latter also generates the tapes are almost or exactly in accordance with
for the program loading. A testing ma- the latter counting method. Therefore it
chine operating according to more or less is advised for practical reasons to adopt,
similar principles was developed in the mean-crossing-peak-count method.
Switzerland (4). Further studies on this topic are desir-
Until now only two tests have been able.
completed; therefore it is not yet useful Whether a load cycle should start
to present quantitative data. The speci- with its maximum or its minimum is im-
men is continuously inspected for cracks portant only for the more infrequent
without stopping the testing machine; loads with large amplitudes. The effect,
cracks are far more easily found if the discussed previously, was clearly shown
test is running due to "breathing" of the in Fig. 5, although this figure may prob-
cracks. Very minute cracks have been ably give a somewhat exaggerated im-
found. Quantitative results of the tests pression. The conclusion to be deduced
will be published in due course. from this figure and the earlier discussion
In summary, the knowledge of the on the effect of residual stresses is that a
similarity between random loads and sequence starting with the maximum,
program-fatigue loading is still far from followed by the minimum, will give con-
complete. servative results, and the reversed se-
quence may give unconservative results.
Planning of a Program-Fatigue Test: Although the conservatism of the results
In reducing a service load-lime history is perhaps not a very rational argument,
to a load sequence for a program-fatigue it is recommended to apply load cycles
test there are many questions for which starting with the maximum followed by
no exact answer exists, although most the minimum.
of them have already been touched upon Figure 3 shows a schematic example of
in this paper. Some comments will be a single load sequence in a program-fa-
made on the following questions: tigue test. Other sequences being studied
1. How should the irregular load-time (29) are: increasing load amplitudes only,
history be reduced to a population of decreasing load amplitudes only, and a
complete load cycles? randomized sequence of load amplitudes.
2. Each load cycle comprises a maxi- It was said earlier that damage accum-
mum and a minimum. Which of these lation was largely governed by the
two should be applied iirst? amount of microcracking and the resid-
3. In which sequence will the load ual-stress field around the tip of the
cycles with different amplitudes be ap- cracks. During a random loading there
plied? will be a certain random variation of the
residual stress, which can be considered
The reduction of the service load- as a random variable with an average
time history to cyclic loads has been value depending on the mean value of the
discussed previously. The conclusion random load. It is now suggested that a
reached was that there is neither a ra- load sequence in a program-fatigue test
tional nor an empirical answer for this should be adopted for which it can be
problem. Probably the range-pair count expected that the average residual stress
 ScHijVE ON ESTIMATION or
has about the same value as under the
corresponding random load. Although
this criterion cannot be evaluated quan-
titatively it is thought that a sequence
with increasing amplitudes only or with
decreasing amphtudes only will satisfy
the criterion in an inferior way as com-
pared with the sequence indicated in Fig.
3. A randomized sequence may give some
further improvement, but it is thought
that this complication of the test is prob-
ably of fictitious importance. Therefore
it is advised to perform program-fatigue
tests with a sequence as proposed origi-
nally by Gassner (11) (Fig. 3).
Other variables to be selected for plan-
ning a program-fatigue test are: (1) the
lowest amplitude to be included in the
program, (2) the highest amplitude to be
included in the program, (3) the number
of load steps (five in Fig. 3), and (4) the
size of or the number of cycles in one
period. Comments on the lowest ampli-
tude to be included in the program have
been made previously. With respect to
the highest amplitude to be included, a
^alue which is exceeded about 10 times
in the anticipated fatigue life was some-
what arbitrarily recommended in refer-
ence (28). However, it is felt that cycles
with larger amplitudes are too rare to
contribute noticeably to the fatigue
damage. Moreover, if they occur in serv-
ice their effect will probably be favorable;
but since it is not certain that each air-
craft will meet these rarely occurring
loads their omission in the program-fa-
tigue test seems to be justified.
The number of load steps should be as
large as possible. A minimum of six or
eight steps is probably acceptable. The
size of the period should not be too large;
a maximum of one-tenth of the antici-
pated life is probably still acceptable,
although a smaller size is preferred. Both
these recommendations cannot be justi-
fied on a rational basis and are to some
extent made intuitively, based on the
experience discussed in reference (29),
FATIGUE PERFORMANCE 211
Finally, some comments will be made
on the application of ground-to-air cycles
in a program-fatigue test with a gust-
spectrum loading. In view of the damag-
ing effect of the ground-to-air cycles they
cannot be omitted. The best solution
would be to insert one ground-to-air
cycle at regular periods between the gust
load cycles. This would involve a certain
type of flight simulation. Experimentally
this is not a simple solution because the
number of ground-to-air cycles in one
period would be large. A simpler applica-
tion is possible if the ground-to-air cycle
is considered as being a negative gust
load. The gust spectrum will become
noticeably asymmetric then, but this is
not necessarily an objection for the ap-
plication in a program-fatigue test as
indicated by Payne (23). It implies that
the minimum load of the ground-to-air
cycle is combined with the positive gust
load which is anticipated on the average
once per flight. A similar suggestion was
made by Barrels (2). It is then possible
to apply ground-to-air cycles in batches
of more than one cj^cle. As has been said
before, a combination of the minimum
load of the ground-to-air cycle with the
mean load of the gust loading (1-g level)
is considered to be an underestimation of
the real damage of the ground-to-air
cycle.
The conclusion is that no ideal method
can be given for planning a program-
fatigue test; therefore no guarantee of a
high precision of the data can be obtained
with such tests for the fatigue perform-
ance under service loading. However, the
incorporation of present experience and
understanding of the fatigue damage ac-
cumulation has been attempted.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The values of X! ^ '"^^^ generally
larger than 1 for notched light alloy
specimens tested under program-fatigue
loading with a positive mean stress.
212 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
2. The Palmgren-Miner rule gives con-
servative estimates for the rate of macro-
crack propagation in sheet material un-
der variable-amplitude loading.
3. For notched Ught alloy specimens,
the accumulation of fatigue damage is
considerably affected by residual stresses.
The residual stress at the tip of the
microcrack is considered to be a sec-
ond damage parameter of great impor-
tance; the first parameter, the amount of
cracking.
4. The Palmgren-Miner rule can be
considered a useful tool for obtain-
ing rough life estimates in the early de-
sign stage of an aircraft structure. The
major problem is not the inaccuracy of
this rule but the availability of relevant
S-N data of sufficient accuracy.
5. The Palmgren-Miner rule is unre-
REFERENCES
(1) W. Barrois, "Physical Interpretation of
Metal Fatigue," Minutes of the 5th
Conference, of the International Com-
mittee on Aeronautical Fatigue, Brussels,
October, 1957.
(2) W. Barrois, "The Philosophy of Fatigue
Tests on Large Dimension Aircraft
Structures," Proceedings, Symposium on
FuU-Scale Fatigue Testing of Aircraft
Structures, Amsterdam, June, 1959, p.
239.
(3) J. S. Bendat, Principles and Applications
oj Random Noise Theory, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, N. Y., 1958.
(4) J. Branger, "A Review of Work in Switzer-
land on Aircraft Fatigue During the
Period March 1959-April 1961," EUge-
nossisches Flugzeugwerk Emmen, Report
S-129, May, 1961 (restricted).
(5) R. A. Carl and T. J. Wegeng, "Investiga-
tions Concerning the Fatigue of Aircraft
Structures," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Test-
ing Mats., Vol. 54, 1954, p. 903.
(6) H. T. Corten and T. J. Dolan, "Cumula-
tive Fatigue Damage," International
Conference on Fatigue of Metals, Lon-
don, Inst. Mechanical Engrs., p. 235,
September, 1956.
(7) W. A. P. Fisher, "Some Fatigue Tests on
Notched Specimens with Programme
Loading for a 'Ground-Attack' Air-
liable for judging whether a certain type
of service load will contribute substan-
tially to the damage induced by other
types of loadings.
6. Program-fatigue testing should be
strongly preferred over constant-ampli-
tude testing in comparative design
studies of components. Recommenda-
tions are made for a careful planning of
the load sequence in a program-fatigue
test.
7. Full-scale testing is strongly recom-
mended to assess the fatigue performance
of an aircraft structure. The loading to
be applied should preferably be a simula-
tion of the anticipated load-time history
in service.
8. The simulation of random loads by
cyclic loads is not yet fully understood
and should be studied further.
craft," RAE-Technical Note, Structures
235, March, 1958.
(8) W. A. P. Fisher, "Programme-Fatigue Tests
on Notched Bars to a Gust Load Spec-
trum," RAE-Technical Note, Structures
236, March, 1958.
(9) R. W. Fralich, "Experimental Investigation
of Effects of Random Loading on the
Fatigue Life of Notched Cantilever-
Beam Specimens of 7075-T6 Aluminum
Alloy," NASA Memorandum 4-12-59 L,
June, 1959.
(10) A. M. Freudenthal, "Physical and Sta-
tistical Aspects of Cumulative Damage,"
Colloquium on Fatigue, Stockholm, May
1955, edited by W. Weibull and F. K. G.
Odquist, Springer Verlag, BerUn, p. 53.
(11) E. Gassner, "Festigkeits-Versuche mit
wiederholter Beanspruchung im Flug-
zeugbau," Luftwissen, Vol. 6, p. 61,
1939.
(12) E. Gassner, "Auswirkung betriebsahnlicher
Belastungsfolgen auf die Festigkeit von
Ilugzeugbauteilen," Berichl der DVL, Cf
407/5, August 1941.
(13) E. Gassner, "Some Remarks About Wing
Load Spectra, Program and Flight
Tests," Minutes of the 4th Conference
of the International Committee on
Aeronautical Fatigue, Zurich, May
1956.
 S c H i j v E ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE
(14) E. Gassner and W. Schiitz, "The Signifi-
cance of Constant-Load-Amplitude Tests
for the Fatigue Evaluation of Aircraft
Structures," Proceedings, Symposium on
Fatigue Testing of Aircraft Structures,
Amsterdam, June, 1959, p. 14.
(15) E. Gassner and K. F. Horstmann, "Einfluss
des Start-Lande Lastwechsels auf die
Lebensdauer der boenbeanspruchten F'liigel
von VerlNe>.f flugzeugen," Advances in
Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 4, Pergamon
Press Ltd., London, 1961, p. 763.
(16) H. F. Hardrath, E. C. Utley, and D. E.
Guthrie, "Rotating-Beam Fatigue Tests of
Notched and Unnotched 7075-T6 Alumi-
num Alloy Specimens Under Stresses of
Constant and Varying Amplitudes," NASA
TN D-210, December, 1959.
(17) A. K. Head and F. H. Hooke, "Random
Noise Fatigue Testing," International
Conference on Fatigue of Metals, Inst, of
Mech. Engrs., London, 1956, p. 301.
(18) C. M. Hudson and H. F. Hardrath,
"Effects of Changing Stress Amplitude on
the Rate of F'atigue-Crack Propagation in
Two Aluminum Alloys," NASA TN D-960,
September, 1961.
(19) J. Kowalewski, "On the Relation Between
Fatigue Lives Under Random Loading
and Under Corresponding Program Load-
ing," Proceedings, Symposium on F'atigue
Testing of Aircraft Structures, .Amsterdam,
June, 1956, p. 60.
(20) A. J. McCulloch, M. A. Melcon, W. J.
Crichlow, H. W. Foster, and J. Rebman,
"Investigation of the Representation of
Aircraft Service Loadings in F'atigue
Tests," ASD Technical Report 61^435,
September, 1961.
(21) E. C. Naumann, H. F. Hardrath, and D. E.
Guthrie, "Axial-Load Fatigue Tests of
2024-T3 and 7075-T6 Aluminum Alloy
Sheet Specimens Under Constant- and
Variable-Amplitude Loads," NASA TN
D-212, December, 1959.
(22) A. O. Payne, "Random and Programmed
Load Sequence Fatigue Tests on 24ST
Aluminum Alloy Wings," ARL Report
SM.244, Dept. of Supply, Melbourne,
September, 1956.
(23) A. O. Payne, "Determination of the Fatigue
Resistance of Aircraft Wings by Full-
Scale Testing," Proceedings, Symposium
on F'atigue Testing of Aircraft Structures,
Amsterdam, June, 1956, p. 76.
(24) F. J. Plantema and J. Schijve (Editors),
Proceedings, Symposium on Full Scale
Fatigue Testing of Aircraft Structures,
Amsterdam, June, 1959, Pergamon Press
Ltd., London, 1961.
PERFORMANCE 213
(25) H. Press and J. W. Tukey, "Power Spectral
Methods of Analysis and Their Applica-
tion to Problems in Airplane Dynamics,"
AGARD Flight Test Manual, Vol. 4, Part
IV C, 1957.
(26) J. Schijve and F. A. Jacobs, "Research on
Cumulative Damage in Fatigue of Riveted
Aluminum .\lloy Joints," Nat. Aeronautical
Research Irs!., Amsterdam, Report M.
1999, ]anuav , 1956.
(27) J. Schijve, "Critical Analysis of the
Fatigue Damage Concept and Some
Consequences for Fatigue Testing of
Aircraft Structures," Minutes, 4th Con-
ference of the International Committee
on Aeronautical Fatigue, Zurich, May,
1956, Appendix 2.
(28) J. Schijve, "The Endurance Under Program-
Fatigue Testint-," Proceedings, Symposium
on I'atigue Testing of Aircraft Structures,
Amsterdam, June, 1956, p. 41.
(29) J. Schijve and F. A. Jacobs, "Program-
Fatigue Tests on Notched Light Alloy
Specimens of 2024 and 7075 Material,"
Nat. Aeronautical Research Inst., Amster-
dam, Technical Report M. 2070 (1960).
(30) J. Schijve, "Fatigue Crack Propagation in
Light Alloy Sheet Material and Struc-
tures," Advances in Aeronautical Sciences,
Vol. 3, Pergamon Press Ltd., London,
1961, p. 387.
(31) J. Schijve, "The Analysis of Random
Load-Time Histories with Relation to
I'atigue Tests and Life Calculations," 2nd
ICAF-AGARD Symposium, Paris, 1961,
NLR-Report MP. 201, May, 1961.
(32) J. Schijve and D. Broek, "Crack Propaga-
tion Under Variable-Amplitude Loading,"
Aircraft Engineering, Vol. 34, 1962, p. 314,
and NLR-Report MP. 208, Amsterdam,
D e c , 1961.
(33) J. Schijve, D. Broek, and P. de Rijk,
"Crack Propagation Under Variable-
Amplitude Loading," NLR-Report M.
2094, Jan., 1962.
(34) F. R. Shanley, "A Theory of Fatigue
Based on Unbending During Reversed
Slip " The Rand Corp. Report No. P-350,
Nov., 1952, Supplement, May, 1953.
(35) C. R. Smith, "Fatigue-Service Ijfe Pre-
diction Based on Tests at Constant Stress
Levels," Proceedings, Soc. Experimental
Stress Analysis, Vol. 16, No. 1, p. 9 1958.
(36) S. R. Valluri, "A Unified Engineering
Theory of High Stress Level Fatigue,"
Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 20, 1961, p. 10.
(37) R. E. Whaley, "Fatigue Investigation of
Full-Scale Transport-Airplane Wings,"
and "Variable Amplitude Tests with a
214 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Gust Load Spectrum," NACA TN 4132, Conference of the International Committee

1957.
(38) G. Wallgren, "Fatigue Tests with Stress
Cycles of Varying Amplitude," Report
No. 28, Flygtekniska Fbrsoksanstalten
(the Aeronautical Research Inst, of
Sweden), June, 1949.
(39) G. Wallgren and S. Petrelius, "Program
Utmattningsprov med Bultforband," FFA
Report No. HU-429:2, May, 1954.
(40) G. Wallgren, "Review of Some Fatigue
Investigations at FFA," Minutes, 3rd
on Aeronautical Fatigue, Appendix 9 of
ICAF Doc. 67, Jan., 1955.
(41) G. Wallgren and F. Svensson, "Program
Utmattning med Orenbeslag ov 3526-4
och 3524-5," FFA Report No. HU-771,
Dec, 1958.
(42) "Description of the F'lectronic Equip-
ment Pertaining to the Code Actuated
Random Load Apparatus (CARLA),"
NLR Note MS-62-15, Amsterdam, April,
1962.

DISCUSSION
MR. K . HORSTMANN (presented in
written form)}—These comments on the
paper by Mr. Schijve will show some
results of the tests carried out in the
Laboratorium fiir Betriebsfestigkeit,
Smax/Sm = 2. In thls case, the effect of
the GTAC is large, since the minimum
stress due to gust loads is zero; but the
GTAC will induce stresses in the com-
pressive range (see Fig. 11).^ The GTAC

I02 _, 10^ 10'' 10

S.T^inlST'^C'-'' -* ** H ( number of exceedings)

-10
-12

FIG. 11.—Gust-Stress-F>equency-Distribution for 5m;ixAm = 1, 2, and 5, and the Ground-to

Air-Cycle Frequency.

Darmstadt, Germany. They are con- may then reduce the favorable effects of
cerned with the effect of the ground-to- residual stresses built up at the maximum
air cycle (GTAC) on the fatigue life of
gust-loaded aircraft structures. The - Assumptions in Fig. 11.
•Sm.ix = 20 kg per sq mm = constant (induced
effect of the GTAC depends on the design by a gust load of 40 ft per sec);
characteristics of the aircraft, as will be Sm = stress at 1 — 9 level;
shown in the following: Gust frequenej' distribution = linear relation on
double-log scale from H = 1 at a gust veloc-ity
A normal transport-aircraft structure of 40 ft i)er sec to H = 10° at a gust velocity
may be designed for a maximum stress, of 2 ft per sec; H is the number of exceedings
of the corresponding gust velocity.
Smax (due to gust loads), which is twice Number of GTAC's, n = 150 (see reference
the stress S„i at the 1-g load level, or (15) of the paper);
Minimum stress of GTAC = —4 kg per sq mm;
^ Laboratorium fUr Betriebsfestigkeit, Darm- and
stadt, Germany. Maximum stress of GTAC = Sm .
 DISCUSSION ON ESTIMATION OF FATIGUE PERFORMANCE 215

positive gust loads. Results of recent tests smaller transport aircraft are based on
(see reference (7) of the paper) have the ratio Smax/S„ = 3.5 and even more.
shown a reduction of the fatigue life to Finally the cumulative damage rate
40 per cent of the original fatigue life
without GTAC's (see Fig. 12). Other is better approximated by 2.^ — = 1 at
results of current tests with a gust-load higher values of Smcx/S,,,. Further tests
spectrum, for which Smax/S„ = 1.8, have to be carried out to confirm the
show an even larger effect, the fatigue curve in Fig. 12.
life being reduced to 20 per cent of the MR. J. ScHijVE {author).—Mr. Horst-
fatigue life without GTAC's. mann's discussion is a welcome addition
For the hypothetical case to the paper. His results confirm the
the gust loads do not cause any damage author's statement that the damagitig
and the GTAC theoretically reduces the effect of the GTAC is caused by the
elimination of favorable residual stresses.
The point which he made that the
damaging effect of the GTAC will
depend on the severity of the GTAC, as
compared with the maximum negative
gust loads, is well taken. This is illus-
0 10 2 0 30 4 0 50 6 0 70 8 0 9 0 100 trated in Mr. Horstmann's second figure
Percentage of Fatigue Life Without GTAC (Fig. 12). Although the trend of this
FIG. 12.—Effect of the Ground-to-Air Cycle
figure is qualitatively correct, it should
(GTAC) on the Life of Gust-Loaded Wings be pointed out that the curve will
of Aircraft Structures for Different Ratios of depend, among other variables, on the
magnitude of the load caused by the
life to 0 per cent, as indicated in Fig. 12. GTAC. This load will vary from one type
For large values of Smax/S,,,, the GTAC of aircraft to another. But it will also
will lose its significance, and it? effect vary within a wing structure, even as a
will become negligible at approximately percentage of the 1-g load level. The
Smax/Sm = 5 (sce Figs. U and 12). This author agrees that a further study of the
can be explained since large negative damaging effect of the GTAC is worth-
gust loads will enter the compressive while. We are now performing some
range and will also eliminate the favor- research on this topic.
able residual stresses. Tests carried out It is doubted, however, whether a
by Payne (reference (23) of the paper), curve such as shown in Fig. 12 could have
at Smax/Sm = 2.3, confirm the conclusion, a general applicability, since too many
as can be seen in the curve of Fig. 12, variables are involved. To make a
which shows the trend of fatigue life quantitative estimate of the effect of
reduction by the GTAC. the GTAC the designer will have to give
These conclusions may be important due consideration to his particular
from the point of view of the designer, circumstances. To improve his under-
for many questions on the effect of standing of the problem he needs
GTAC on the life of aircraft structures empirical evidence. Therefore, Mr. Horst-
are still unanswered. Newer designs of mann's data are most welcome.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

A I R C R A F T STRUCTURAL FATIGUE R E S E A R C H I N T H E NAVY*

B Y M. S. ROSENFELD 1

SYNOPSIS

Twenty-six unused fighter aircraft were made available for use in an investi-
gation to determine the fatigue characteristics of a typical fighter airplane.
The primary purpose of this investigation was to obtain fatigue data on full-
scale structures for use in designing new aircraft. The aircraft were disassem-
bled into major components: wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, nose landing
gear, and main landing gear. Constant-amplitude and variable-amplitude tests
were performed on the various components to determine: (1) the degree of
scatter, (2) the effect of cumulative damage and the validity of various cumu-
lative damage hypotheses for full-scale structures, (3) the effect of randomiza-
tion of the load sequence within a spectrum block, (4) the effect of superim-
posing landing loads on a flight load spectrum, (5) the effect of prestressing,
and (6) the effect of varying the mean and alternating loads. A discussion of the
test results and their significance for future design use is included.

Fatigue damage to aircraft structures tures is questionable. The lack of corre-

has resulted in a large increase in mainte-
nance costs and has seriously reduced
the service availability of Naval combat
aircraft. As a result, the old Bureau of
Aeronautics and the current Bureau of
Naval Weapons have seen fit to sponsor
extensive research in this field to obtain
improved combat efficiency.
Initial work in this field was previously
reported by Carl and Wegeng (l).2 At the
same time, a considerable amount of
basic materials research utilizing small
laboratory specimens was also under-
taken. However, the applicability of the
specimen test results to full-scale struc-
* The opinions or assertions expressed in
this paper are the private ones of the writer
and are not to be construed as official or re-
flecting the view of the Department of the Navy
or the Naval service at large.
1
Superintendent, Structures Research Divi-
sion, Aeronautical Structures Laboratory, Naval
Air Engineering Center, Philadelphia, Pa.
2
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the list of references appended to this paper.
lation between the small-specimen data
and data obtained from full-scale struc-
tures may be attributed to the following
factors: (1) manufacturing discrepancies,
(2) the lack of exact knowledge of the
strain distributions in the structure, (3)
biaxiality and triaxiality of the stress
distributions, (4) the lack of knowledge
regarding the interactions among the
design stress concentrations and manu-
facturing defects, and (5) structural com-
plexity. Consequently, a program was
undertaken to study the effects of fatigue
using full-scale aircraft structures ob-
tained through contract termination.
The objectives of this program are (1)
to obtain empirical data on the fatigue
characteristics of full-scale structures for
design use, (2) to determine the applica-
bility to full-scale structures of current
concepts and hypotheses resulting from
basic research, and (3) to determine the
problems requiring further study and

216
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International www.astm.org
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E
research. Three separate investigations
have been undertaken to date. This
paper presents the results obtained to
date from the first of these investigations.
In 1956, 26 new, production, jet
fighter aircraft with no service time were
made available to the Aeronautical
Structures Laboratory (ASL) to deter-
mine the following for future design use:
(1) the scatter in life, (2) the effects of
cumulative damage and the assessment
of the validity of the many proposed
cumulative damage hypotheses, (3) the
effects of prestressing, (4) the effects of
varying mean and alternating stress
levels, (5) the effects of load randomiza-
tion, (6) the effects of ground-air-ground
cycling, and (7) possible simplification of
test requirements.
TEST SPECIMENS
The 26 aircraft were disassembled into
the major components: wing, horizontal
and vertical tail surfaces, aft fuselage,
and nose and main landing gears. This
paper reports the results of tests of the
first three assemblies. The tests of the
nose and main landing gear assemblies
are currently under way.
The wing is of all-metal, full-canti-
lever, stressed-skin construction inte-
grally attached to the center section of
the fuselage. It is a three-spar, two-cell
design with zero dihedral and a geometry
based on a 45-deg sweep angle along the
25 per cent chord line. The materials
used in its construction were primarily
7075-T6 aluminum alloy extrusion, sheet,
and plate. The main spar carry-through
fittings and the main spar splice fittings
are machined 7075-T6 aluminum alloy
forgings. The wingfold fittings are
machined SAE 4340 steel forgings heat
treated to 210,000 to 240,000 psi.
The horizontal tail is an all-movable
longitudinal control surface with a
geometry based on a 45-deg sweep angle
at the 25 per cent chord line. The
217
attachment to the fuselage is statically
determinate. The all-metal, full-canti-
lever, stressed-skin construction is pri-
marily of 7075-T6 aluminum alloy sheet
and plate.
The vertical tail, which has a sweep
angle of 45-deg at the quarter-chord, is
of three-cell, two-spar conventional con-
struction with ribs at an angle of 45 deg
to the quarter-chord and spaced approxi-
mately 7 in. apart. The vertical tail is
fabricated primarily from 7075-T6 alu-
minum alloy sheet and extrusion. Be-
cause of the large number of objectives
and the relatively few specimens avail-
able, a limited number of specimens were
used to determine each of the objectives.
Because the first test of the wing demon-
strated that the wing life was too low
for the intended service use, a number of
wing specimens were diverted from the
program and used to develop suitable
reinforcements. The remaining 20 speci-
mens were then reinforced in the same
manner before fatigue testing. Ten com-
plete wing specimens were used for con-
stant-amplitude tests, eight wings were
used to investigate a given flight spec-
trum for random- and fixed-sequence
loading, and two wings were used to
investigate the effects of ground-air-
ground cycling. In addition to the 26
specimens originally available, 16 hori-
zontal tail specimens were obtained.
Twenty-four horizontal tail specimens
were used for constant-amplitude testing,
twelve for fixed-sequence flight spectrum
loading, and six to determine the effect
of prestressing. All the vertical tail
specimens were used for constant-ampli-
tude testing; ten at a stress ratio R = 0,
eight at i? = ^, and eight at R = — 1 .
TEST METHOD
The loads were applied hydraulically
and distributed through whiffletrees
and tension pads to the skin to simulate
the load distribution corresponding to
218 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E 219

the critical design condition for each
structure. Figure 1 shows the horizontal
tail test setup, which is typical of the
wing and vertical tail test setups b u t less
complicated. This type of setup is
typical for static and fatigue tests of air-
craft structures.
All tests were load-amplitude con-
trolled to simulate actual operating
conditions. Load cycling was automati-
cally controlled by means of micro-
switches installed on the dynamometers.
Actuation of a switch controlled the
Wing specimens were used for con-
stant- and variable-amplitude tests. T h e
minimum load for both types of tests
was established at 1 g (13.33 per cent
limit load) which is the normal, un-
accelerated flight load for this airplane.
The maximum loads for the constant-
amplitude tests ranged from 40 to 120
per cent limit load; 100 per cent limit
load corresponds to 7.5 g for this air-
plane. The static strength of the wing
as determined from the manufacturer's
static tests is 183 per cent limit load;

TABLE I.—TEST SPECTRA SIMULATING 20-HR BLOCK OF FLIGHT LOADS.

Upper Load, per cent Upper Load,

limit load^ I 11 111 IV V VI per cent VII
limit load"

130 1" 125 0.32«

U5 1» 115 0.8"*
100 "3/ 3 3 3 3 105 3
85 17 17 17 17 17 17 95 6
70 65 65 65 65 65 65 85 30
55 172 172 172 172 172 172 75 50
40 283 283 65 90
30 750 55 130
45 190
35 340

2 257 540 1007 537 257" 257« 840.12

" One cycle per lifetime applied as initial load.

' Lower load limit for all tests is 13.33 per cent limit load (1 g).
' Eight cycles applied during each 25 blocks.
"^ Four cycles applied during each 5 blocks.
' Exclusive of prestress.
•'' Numbers in tables are number of cycles at each load level per program block.

Operation of the hydraulic by-pass valve
permitting the load to build up or fall
off as required. The basic load control
and hydraulic systems were previously
described (2).
The load frequency was dependent
upon the magnitude of the structural
deflection for the load applied. For the
wing, the frequency varied from 3 cpm
at limit load to 10 cpm at 40 per cent
limit load. The horizontal tail load
frequency varied from 3 cpm at 150 per
cent limit load to 45 cpm at 40 per cent
limit load. Similar frequency ranges were
used for the vertical tail tests.
this value was used to convert the load
limits from a limit load basis to an actual
static strength basis. The maximum
load-test spectra simulating 20-hr blocks
of flight loads are given in Table I ;
spectra I and V I I were used for the
wing tests. The fixed-sequence tests for
spectra I and V I I were performed by
applying the lowest load in the block for
the required number of cycles and then
successively applying the next higher
load levels for the required number of
cycles. At the completion of each block,
the lowest load was then applied to start
the succeeding block. The random-se-
220 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

quence tests for spectrum I were per- sec. The application of 20 landing-load
formed by using the same simulated cycles per block was arbitrarily assumed
20-hr block size as for the fixed-sequence to represent one landing per hr of flight.
tests, but the maximum loads within Similar constant-amplitude and fixed-

T A B L E II.- - R E S U L T S O F C O N S T A N T - A M P L I T U D E T E S T S O F H O R I Z O N T A L
TAIL SURFACE.

Life After Crack'

Maximum Load^ Specimen Life to Failure, (logiV)
Number cycles (.V)
Cycles Per cent of
total life

33 249 nc
150 ( 8 5 . 2 ) . 34 158 nc
Median 204 1.58

31 553
125 ( 7 1 . 0 ) . 32 313
Median 433 1.77

1 2 252 6 0.27
2 1 382 4 0.29
9 1 371 9 0.66
100 ( 5 6 . 9 ) . 10 352 9 0.67
11 370 7 1.97
12 431 33 2.31
Median 1 376 0.66 1.66 090

5 4 077 5 0.12
6 3 316 170 5.12
80 ( 4 5 . 5 ) . 19 4 180 160 3.83
20 3 811 132 3.46
Median 3 944 146 3.64 1.26 045

3 11 546 194 1.68

4 9 569 299 3.12
60 ( 3 4 . 1 ) . 17 10 611 nil 10.48
18 8 566 769 8.97
Median 10 094 530 6.04 1.35 056

7 72 805 3189 4.38

8 36 195 89 0.25
13 113 973 6473 5.68
40 (22.7). 14 36 295 1185 3.27
15 40 134 1783 4.43
16 36 307 162 0.45
Median 38 220 1484 3.82 3.26 211

" I n per cent of design limit load. N u m b e r s in parentheses are m a x i m u m loads in per cent of static
strength.
' Visible crack.

each block were applied in a random sequence variable-amplitude tests were

fashion. For the ground-air-ground tests,
the same fixed-sequence flight loads of
spectrum I were applied; then 20 cycles
of a constant-amplitude landing load
were applied to simulate landings with a
sinking speed of approximately 13 ft per
performed using the horizontal tail
specimens, which demonstrated a static
strength of 176 per cent limit load in the
manufacturer's static test. The minimum
load for all tests was arbitrarily set at
13.33 per cent limit load to obtain data
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL FATIGUE
comparable to that from the wing tests.
The maximum loads for the constant-
amplitude tests ranged from 40 to 150
per cent limit load. For the variable-
amplitude tests, wing load spectra I to VI
of Table I were used for convenience to
permit direct comparison with the wing
data based on the assumption that the
tail surfaces can be considered as small
wings. This eliminated the complexity of
-
160
"^ *^*^*
80
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ > ^
^^«sr^>^
Horizontal T o l l
40
20
_
-
1 1 1 1 1 111 1 1
10 10'
FIG. 2.—Median Life to Failure, R ^ 0.
coping with the controversial problem of
what constitutes an acceptable horizontal
tail spectrum and permitted direct com-
parison of the fatigue characteristics of
two different structures. The loads were
applied in a low-high-low sequence that
approximated a sinusoidal sequence
insofar as possible within the capabilities
of the loading system.
Only the constant-amplitude tests of
the vertical tail were performed. For all
tests, the maximum load ranged from 40
221
to 100 per cent limit load; the vertical
tail static strength as indicated by the
manufacturer's static tests is approxi-
mately 176 per cent limit load. Tests
were performed for i? = 0, — 5, and —1
with the direction of loading for i? = 0
assumed as positive. The minimum loads
were zero for R = Q, —50 per cent of the
maximum load for R = — | , and — 100
per cent of the maximum (complete rever-
• P5ID Wing (from reference(3))
0 Wfng-Toble Hr
a Vertical Toil,R = 0 - T Q b l e I Z
a Horizontal T a i l - T a b l e U
1 — ' R a n g * of T e s t D o t o
B>>^ ^ ^
L^V^^ ^ - P 5 I D Wing
Wing^
.^V«rtical Tail
R=0
- _.. 1 II mil 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 1 1 III
10" 10^ I0~ 10°
Llf< To Failure , Cycles
sal) for i? = — 1. The first two tests of the
vertical tail were performed with the
vertical tail installed on the fuselage to
obtain data on the load distribution in
the attachment fittings, since the attach-
ment to the fuselage is statically indeter-
minate. These data were used to con-
struct a support jig for the remainder of
the tests; the spring constant of the
support jig closely matched the spring
constant of the fuselage in the vicinity
of the attachment fittings.
222 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

^,e,. -i>»;-^

7«43 CVCLES 72805 CYCLES

FIG. 3.—Typical Crack Progression and Final Failure, Horizontal Tail Specimens.

T E S T RESULTS from 40 to 150 per cent design limit load;

this corresponds to loads between 22.7
Constant'Amplitude Tests: and 85.2 per cent of the actual static
Twenty-four horizontal tail specimens strength of the structure. The results of
were tested at maximum loads ranging these tests are summarized in Table II,
 Life Remaining , Cycles
F I G . 4 . — M e d i a n Life Remaining After Visible Crack.

T A B L E III,—RESULTS OF C O N S T A N T - A M P L I T U D E T E S T S OF W I N G .

Maximum Load* Specimen Life to Failure, Location of A'max

Numbei* cycles (.Y) Failure'^ <• (log .V)
A in In

16L 619 A
120 ( 6 6 . 7 ) , 17L 900 A
Median 760 45

3R 409 B
4R 146 A
100 (55.6) , 5R 345 A
6R 534 A
Median 246 57 090

9L 656 B
80 ( 4 4 , 5 ) , lOL 826 A
Median 241 25

IIL 24 288 A
60 (33,3), 12L 29 558 C
Median 26 923 22

13R 152 007 D

40 (22,2). 14L 147 837 D
Median 149 922 1.03

° I n per cent ot design limit load. N u m b e r s in parentheses are m a x i m u m loads in per cent of
static s t r e n g t h .
' B o t h left (L) and right (R) h a n d sides of each specimen were tested simultaneously. L or R
n e x t t o specimen n u m b e r indicates which side failed.
•^ A = M a i n spar c a r r y - t h r o u g h fitting at wing station 33,25,
B = M a i n spar c a r r y - t h r o u g h fitting a t wing station 25,5,
C = M a i n spar carry-through fitting at wing statioti 3.0, and
D = M a i n spar lower flange at wing s t a t i o n 117,0.

223
224 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
and the life to failure is plotted in Fig. 2.
The failures, which occurred at the
fuselage attachment, were almost iden-
tical (Fig. 3). Attempts were made to
detect initial cracking, but the crack
could not be found before it extended aft
of the leading edge skin as shown in Fig.
3, upper left. The cracking was usually
accompanied by a loud noise during the
FIG. 5.—Main Spar Carry-Through Fitting Failure at Wing Station 33.25.
cycle immediately preceding crack detec-
tion. Data on the life remaining after
crack detection are included in Table I I ;
this life is plotted against maximum load
in Fig. 4. Table I I also includes data
indicating the scatter in lifetime for
identical specimens tested under identi-
cal conditions. Scatter is represented as
follows: in all cases the ratio of maximunT
to minimum life is shown; and where
sufficient data are available, the standard
deviation of the log-life was computed.
Constant-amplitude tests of the wing
were also performed. The maximum
loads ranging from 40 to 120 per cent
design limit load correspond to 22.2 and
66.7 per cent of the wing static strength.
Results are summarized in Table I I I
and plotted in Fig. 2. The failures ob-
tained were not all identical as indicated
in Table I I I ; all failures occurred in the
wing-fuselage attachment except for the
two at wing station 117.0. Ten of the
twelve failures occurred in the main spat
carry-through fitting; seven of these ten
failures occurred at the same location
(Fig. 5). Crack detection prior to failure
was considerably more difficult during
the wing tests than during the horizontal
tail tests, and the data obtained were not
consistent. About halfway through this
test program, an eddy-current crack de-
tector was used to provide a consistent
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL FATIGUE 225

TABLE IV.—RESULTS OF CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE TESTS OF VERTICAL TAIL.

Life After Crack''

Specimen Life to
R Maximum Load" Number Failure, Rear Spar Skin
cycles (N)
Cycles Per cent N Cycles Per cent N

3 5 892 42 0.71 42 0.71

100 (56.9) 1 4 2 863 7 0.24 nc 0.00
Median 4 378 24 0.48 21 0.36 2.05

9 12 731 205 1.61 471 3.70

80 (45.5) 1 10 8 877 810 9.13 409 4.60
I Median 10 804 508 5.37 440 4.15 1.43
0
5 25 456 5 456 21.4 4 456 17.5
60(34.1) j 6 35 716 3 117 8.7 12 911 36.2
Median 30 586 4 286 15.0 8 684 26.9 1.40

7 110 940 9 940 8.96 33 940 30.6

40 (22.7) ] 8 193 494 11 7 7 3 5.56 63 136 32.6
i Median 152 217 10 856 7.26 48 538 31.6 1.74

11 1 387 116 8.36 116 8.36

100 •! 12 976 27 2.77 27 2.77
i Median 1 182 72 5.56 72 5.56 1.42

13 8 509 1 009 11.86 1 009 11.86

14 17 800 1 950 10.96 1 712 9.62
80 1 Median 13 154 1 479 11.41 1 360 10.74 2.09
-y2
15 79 160 12 161 15.36 1 660 2.10
16 30 000 8 075 26.92 8 075 26.92
60 j Median 54 580 10 118 21.14 4 867 14.51 2.64

17 116 427 7 427 6.38 28 427 24.42

18 103 218 7 381 7.15 47 618 46.13
40 Median 109 822 7 404 6.76 38 022 35.28 1.13

19 659 22 3.34 0 0.00

100 1 20 764 74 9.69 14 1.83
Median 712 48 6.52 7 0.92 1.16

21 1 377 729 52.94 480 34.86

80 -1 22 1 901 65 3.42 65 3.42
I Median 1 639 397 28.18 272 19.14 1.38
-1
23 12 120 732 6.04 121 1.00
60 1 24 8 993 322 3.58 1 429 15.89
Median 10 556 527 4.81 775 8.44 1.35

25 43 618 7 202 16.51 6 818 15.63

40 1 26 46 427 3 021 6.51 2 427 5.23
Median 45 022 5 111 11.51 4 622 10.43 1.06

" In per cent of design limit load. Numbers in parentheses are maximum loads in per cent static
strength.
* Visible crack.

crack detection method. The area in- detector was used, cracking was indicated
spected was the inside of the two holes prior to 50 per cent of the specimen life;
through which the most frequent failures however, the crack was not visible for a
occurred. Whenever the eddy-current considerable period of time after this.
226 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

The vertical tail specimens were
divided into three groups: R = 0, —5,
and — 1 . Two specimens of each group
were tested for each jnaximum load,
which ranged between 40 and 100 per
cent design limit load and corresponded
to 22.7 to 56.9 per cent of the actual
static strength. Test results are sum-
the fuselage attachment fitting (Fig. 7).
Prior to failure, initial cracks were de-
tected during most of the tests in the
tension flange of the rear spar at the
upper end of the attachment fitting and
in the skin in the same vicinity. The life
remaining after cracking is included in
Table IV, and these data ior R = 0 are

Life To Failure , Cycles

l"'iG. 6.—Median Life to Failure, Vertical Tail.

marized in Table IV^ and plotted in Fig. plotted in Fig. 4 for comparison with the
6; the life lor R = 0 is also shown in Fig. wing and horizontal tail data.
2 for comparison with the horizontal tail
Variable-Amplitude Tests:
and wing data. In Fig. 6, scatter bands
are indicated for the R = Q and R = —1 An extensive investigation of the
results. It was impossible to draw a horizontal tail was performed for the
logical band ior R = —^ because of the basic and five variations of the basic
great amount of scatter. This scatter was fixed-sequence spectrum. Eighteen speci-
caused by diifiiculty in maintaining the mens were tested, three for each spec-
proper spring constant in the support jig trum, and the results are summarized in
for the 2? = — I group of tests. All failures Table V. All the failures were similar to
were similar and occurred at the upper the failures obtained during the con-
end of the attachment of the rear spar to stant-amplitude tests. Only visual de-
 R O S E N F E L D ON N A V Y R E S E A R C H ON STRUCTURAL FATIGUE 227

tection of cracks was attempted. Al-
though all the constant-amplitude tests
of the tail for maximum loads up to 100
per cent limit load exhibited visible
cracking prior to failure, only eleven of
to minimum lives for each group and as
the standard deviation of the log-life.
The test results for spectra I, II, and
III seem to overlap sufficiently that
there appears to be no significant eiiFect

TABLE v.—RESULTS OF VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE TESTS OF HORIZONTAL

TAIL SURFACE.

Life to Failure Life After Crack'' _

Spec- Sequence'' Specimen <r (log V ^ » 1 ^^e
trum" Number N) LF A'S(
Blocks'^ Cycles CV) Cycles Per cent
A'

[ 23 89 22 682 no 0.00 2.79 0.714

24 . 151 38 629 336 0.87 4.73 1.216
Lo-Hi-Lo.. 1 25 133 33 992 4 437 13.03 4.17 1.070
-•

I I Average 124 31 101 1 591 4.63 1.70 0.121 3.90 1.000

„. f [ 21
22
210
174
113
93
209
770
nc
539
0
0.57
8.02
6.64
1.718
1.423
Lo-Hi-Lo.. 1 26 125 67 309 539 0.80 4.77 1.021
Average 170 91 429 359 0.46 1.68 0.114 6.48 1.387
i [
[ f 27 107 107 560 27 229 25.3 3.92 0.867
28 75" 74 536" 27 561 37.8 2.75 0.601
Lo-Hi-Lo.. 1
"•- 35 109 109 572 nc 0 3.99 0.883
[ I Average 97 97 223 18 260 21.0 1.47 0.095 3.55 0.784

[ 40
41
85
95
45
50
459
883
nc
1
0.0
0.00
3.06
3.43
1.016
1.136
Lo-Hi-Lo I
42 66 35 256 537 1.52 2.38 0.788
- \ [ Average 82 43 849 179 0.51 1.44 0.081 2.96 0.980
If
29 124 31 680 nc 0.0 3.97 0.825
6 5 . 3 per cent
30 144 37 020 nc 0.0 4.61 0.964
v.,J Prestress <
36 157 40 160 10 090 25.1 5.02 1.046
Lo-Hi-Lo .
Average 142 36 287 3 363 8.37 1,27 0.052 4.53 0.945
i
t 37 215 55 019 15 954 29.0 6.89 1.273
7 3 . 8 per cent
38 253 64 833 nc 0.0 8.10 1.500
VI...I Prestress <
39 267 68 430 3 428 5.0 8.55 1.584
Lo-Hi-Lo .
Average 245 62 761 6 461 11.3 1.24 0.049 7.85 1.452

" See T a b l e I .
'' For spectra I, V, a n d V I ; 70, 100 85, 55 per cent limit load
F o r spectra I I : 40, 70, 100, 85, 55 per cent limit load
F o r s p e c t r u m I I I : 30, 70, 100, 85, 55 per cent limit load
F o r s p e c t r u m I V : 40, 70, 85, 55 per cent limit load
' Twent.y-hour p r o g r a m blocks.
'' Visible crack.

the eighteen specimens tested for flight-
loads spectra cracked prior to failure.
For four of these eleven speciinens, the
life remaining after crack detection was
less than 1 per cent of the total specimen
life. Here again, the scatter in life is
presented both as the ratio of maximum
of including loads below 31.3 per cent of
the static strength. The tests for spec-
trum IV, which is identical to spectrum
II except for the omission of the three
cycles per block at 100 per cent limit
load, showed a significant reduction in
life resulting from the omission of these
228 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

three cycles per block. This is contrary to
the effect predicted by the Miner-Palm-
gren cumulative damage hypothesis. The
tests for spectra V and VI indicated that
prestressing can have a beneficial effect,
provided the prestressing is sufficiently
high.
used. Two specimens were tested for
spectrum VII, which is the positive load
portion of the fighter spectrum specified
in the latest design specification, MIL-
A-8866, to determine experimentally the
relative severity of the new and old
flight spectra and to obtain an approxi-

TABLE VI.—RESULTS OF VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE TESTS OF WING.

Life to Failure
Specimen Type A^max a (log A'Se
Spectrum'* Sequence'' Number" of
Cycles Failure* A min A) A|7
Blocks''
(A')

7L 203 52 170 A 3.35 1.097

Lo-Hi 1 8L 157 40 348 A 2.57 0.849
- ! 18L 150 38 549 C 2.48 0.811
Average 170 43 689 1.35 0.071 2.80 0.919

19L 179 45 963 E 2.95 0.967

Random J 20R 200 51 299 A 3.30 1.079
- ( 21R 174 44 765 E 2.87 0.941
Average 184 47 342 1.15 0.031 3.04 0.996
i
24R 98 82 332 A 3.00 0.829
VII Lo-Hi 1 25R 92 77 291 A 2.81 0.779
Average 95 79 812 1.06 2.90 0.804

22L 146 37 575 A 2.41 0.790

G-A-GJ' 23L 227 58 338 F 3.74 1.226
Average 187 47 956 1.55 3.08 1.008

" See Table I.

' For Lo-Hi sequence, all the loads at the lowest load level were applied first, then the next higher
level, etc. For the random sequence the loads were applied in random order within each block. For
the ground-air-ground spectrum, the flight loads corresponding to spectrum I were applied (Lo-Hi)
then twenty applications of the landing loads.
' Both left (L) and right (R) hand sides of each specimen were tested simultaneously. L or R
next to specimen number indicates which side failed.
'' Twenty-hour program blocks.
« A = Main spar carry-through fitting at wing station 33.25,
C = Main spar carry-through fitting at wing station 3.0,
E = Main spar splice fitting at wing station 55.38, and
F = Main spar lower flange at wing station 103.0.
^ Spectrum I then 20 cycles of landing load.

The results of the wing tests for
variable-amplitude loading are sum-
marized in Table VI. The first six speci-
mens were tested for the same spectrum;
three specimens were tested for a fixed
sequence of loading and the other three
specimens were tested for a random
sequence of loads within each block. The
results show no significant difference
between random and fixed sequence
loading for the 20-hr program block
mate correlation factor between the two
spectra for a given structure. The test
results indicate that spectrum VII is
almost twice as severe as spectrum I.
The last two wing specimens were used
for an investigation of the effects of
ground - air - ground cycling. A 20-hr
flight load spectrum, spectrum I, was
applied. At the completion of each block
of flight loads, 20 cycles of a constant-
amplitude landing load, approximately
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E 229

80 per cent of the design limit landing
load, were applied. This test sequence
was continued to failure. The results
indicated no significant effect of super-
position of the landing loads on the
bending moment for the flight load
condition and of the same sign. Here,
again, the data on cracking prior to
failure were inconsistent. The eddy-
current crack detection method indi-

FiG. 7.—Typical Failure of Vertical Tail Rear Spar.

flight load spectrum. This was to be
expected as a result of the landing gear
location and the magnitude of the wing
bending moments in the critical region.
The wing bending moment for the land-
ing condition was equivalent to approxi-
mately 50 per cent of the limit load wing
cated the presence of microscopic crack
prior to 50 per cent of the life. The
failures again were not all in the same
location; however, six of the ten failures
occurred in the same location as the
majority of the constant-amplitude test
failures.
230 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Appearance of Failures: simultaneously and occurred on both

All tests were carried to complete
structural failure. Subsequent to failure,
the fracture surfaces were examined
under low magnification (up to lOX), but
not microscopically because the surface
at the fracture origin was usually
damaged by repeated loading subsequent
to crack nucleation or by the sudden
release of energy at failure.
sides of the holes, resulting in four crack
origins. Evidence of fretting in the bolt
holes was present for all wing tests. The
vertical tail specimens developed cracks
emanating from the two upper attach-
ment bolt holes in the rear spar as shown
in Fig. 7; either one of these cracks
propagated to cause failure. Fretting was
evident in the bolt holes, and the cracks
emanated from both sides of each hole.

0.35

0,30
© Limiting Line
® A u s t r d l i a n Wing T e s t s ) Reference ( 4 )
0.25
N L L Tests of Joints

„ 0.20

0.15

0.10

O.OS

lO"* 10=
Median Life >o Failure , Cycles

FIG. 8.—Standard Deviation of Log N for Constant and Variable-Amplitude Fatigue Tests.

All failures originated at bolt holes DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

located in the region of maximum nomi-
nal stress. In the horizontal tail tests, the
crack that subsequently propagated to
failure started at one of the countersunk
screw holes shown in Fig. 3 attaching
the skin to the front spar; the crack
originated at any one of the screw holes.
No evidence of fretting prior to failure
was apparent because of the countersink
depth. In the wing tests, cracking started
at both inboard bolt holes (see Fig. 5)
Life Scatter:
Figure 2 shows the median load-life
curves for the three types of structures
tested; the horizontal lines indicate the
range of test data. For comparison, the
load-life curve for P-51D wings obtained
by Johnstone and Payne (3) is also shown.
In the tabulated results, all the test data
are included to show the ratio of the
maximum to minimum lives for each
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL FATIGUE
group tested. These ratios range from
1.06 to a maximum of 3.26; the mean
ratio is 1.52 and the standard deviation
is 0.52. These ratios are based on a
limited number of observations for each
group; one group consisted of only two
specimens and only two groups con-
sisted of as many as six specimens. The
results of the spectrum load tests fall
within the same range of maximum to
600
500
400
300
^ 200
100 —t
70 75
Prestress in Per Cent of Stotic Strength
FIG. 9.—Effect of Prestressing.
minimum life ratio as the constant-
amplitude test data and are included in
the determination of the mean and
standard deviation for this ratio.
A better estimate of the scatter can be
obtained from the standard deviation of
the log-life, which was estiniated only for
groups containing three or more speci-
mens. These values are also included in
Tables I I to VI. The values of the
standard deviation are plotted against
the median life for each group in Fig. 8,
231
and the regression line is superposed on
the three regression lines shown by
Freudenthal (4). The regression hne for
the Aeronautical Structures Laboratory
(ASL) tests, which is based on both
constant- and variable-amplitude test
data, falls between the line for the
Australian wing tests and the regression
line for the riveted joint tests. It is
believed that the line for the Aus-
80 85
tralian wing tests might represent a
fair estimate of the standard devi-
ation for new design purposes. Quality
control can seriously affect the mag-
nitude of the standard deviation for a
given population of specimens; therefore,
if the quahty control is exceptionally
good, the standard deviation will ap-
proach the line for the riveted joint
laboratory specimens. If quality control
is poor, then the standard deviation will
probably approach the limiting line.
232 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

One of the test points falls considerably
above the limiting line. The results from
the constant-amplitude test of a single
specimen (horizontal tail specimen 13)
far exceeded the lives of the other five
specimens tested in that group. If the
data from specimen 13 are omitted, then
the standard deviation could be reduced
to cycling for the load spectrum. The
results (Fig. 9) show that the lower value
of the prestress had no significant bene-
ficial effect whereas the high prestress
approximately doubled the life. For
comparison purposes the curves showing
the beneficial effects of prestressing ob-
tained by Payne et al (5) are also shown.

• Wins
O Horizontal Toil
A Wing- Reference (I)

I I I I I 11
I0-' 10^ 10° 10
Life Estimated By Linear Rule , Cycles

I'lG. 10.—Comparison of Actual Life and Life Estimated by the Linear Rule.

from a value of 0.21 to 0.13 for the group
of specimens tested at 40 per cent limit
load.
Effects of Prestressing:
Six horizontal tail specimens were
tested for a fixed-sequence load spectrum
(spectrum I) after application of a single
prestress. Three specimens were pre-
stressed to 65.3 per cent of the static
strength and three were prestressed to
73.8 per cent of the static strength prior
All the curves indicate a beneficial effect
resulting from prestressing, but the
magnitude of this beneficial effect ap-
pears to be as much a function of the
loading subsequent to prestressing as it
is of the magnitude of the prestress itself.
From the curves it is seen that pre-
stressing between 71 and 86 per cent of
the static strength will be required to
double the life of the structure, and each
curve is applicable to a single loading
condition only. For the multiplicity of
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E
loading conditions required for the de-
sign of an airframe, the airframe should
be prestressed for a number of different
loading conditions to obtain over-all
beneficial effects. This is economically
impractical. Furthermore, prestressing
that would introduce a residual stress
with a resultant beneficial effect in one
part for one loading condition could
introduce a residual stress in another
part that would have a deleterious effect.
Therefore, prestressing should not be
used as a means of increasing fatigue life
of a complicated structure.
Cumulative Damage:
In recent years a considerable number
of hypotheses have been proposed for
estimating the fatigue life of aircraft
structural components subjected to re-
peated loads of varying amplitudes. One
of the primary objectives of the ASL
fatigue investigations has been to
evaluate the applicability of these cumu-
lative damage hypotheses to full-scale
structures. All the proposed hypotheses
except four were eliminated from con-
sideration because: (1) the physical
mechanism was not clearly defined so
that the relation did not contain con-
cepts readily identifiable with usable
design concepts, (2) an excessive amount
of experimental data are required for
practical engineering application, or (3)
mathematical calculations are cumber-
some. Three of these hypotheses are
discussed here; the fourth, which is based
upon residual stresses introduced by the
high loads in the spectrum, is discussed
in a paper by C. R. Smith (U).
Miner-Palmgren Method:
Although its validity has often been
questioned, the Miner-Palmgren or
linear rule method for estimating the
effects of cumulative damage is still
widely used because of its simplicity.
The data presented in Tables V and VI
233
were analyzed by this method and the
summation of the damage ratios are
shown. These ratios range from 2.38 to
8.20 based on actual failure of the struc-
tures tested. Figure 10 shows the actual
life to failure plotted against the life ex-
pectancy estimated by this method. A line
was drawn through the lowest test points
to represent the minimum "safe" life for
full-scale structures for i? > 0. Many
investigators have suggested that the
summation of the damage ratios should
be a value X instead of unity; however,
this plot indicates that the summation
of the damage ratios may be a linearly
increasing function of the log-life rather
than a constant. Freudenthal (6) shows
similar plots for rotating-beam specimens
tested for randomly applied variable-
amplitude loads; however, these data
plot below the line representing the life
expectancy determined by the linear
rule. Comparison of the data presented
here and by Freudenthal indicates that
the summation of the damage ratios
might possibly be a function of the
minimum to maximum load ratio and of
the total life. Furthermore, from an
analysis of the data in Table V, it can be
shown that this hypothesis does not
always indicate the direction of life
expectancy change when the loading
spectrum is altered. Thus, the Miner-
Palmgren hypothesis will not produce
valid life estimates for the high-stress,
low-life end of the S-N curve.
Tangent-Intercept Method:
The tangent-intercept method pro-
posed by Schleicher (7) and Bland and
Sandorf fl3) defines the life for variable-
amplitude loading conditions as the
number of cycles under which the cumu-
lative load-frequency curve for a given
time interval can be translated to the
point of tangency with the constant-
amplitude load-life curve. This method
predicts life expectancy with a smaller
234 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
error than the linear rule; however, the
results are still inadequate. One draw-
back of this method is its relative in-
sensitivity to changes in the load spec-
trum. The cumulative load-frequency
curves for spectra I and I I and the mean
load-life curve for the horizontal tail
specimens are tangent in the range be-
tween 40 and 70 per cent limit load.
Variations of the loads above and below
this range, as in spectra I I I and IV, had
no effect on the region of tangency or on
the life prediction even though the actual
test results demonstrated significant
variations in life.
Corlen-Dolan Method:
One of the most recent cumulative
damage hypotheses was proposed bj'
Corten and Dolan (8) and Liu and Corten
(9). This method takes stress history into
account in terms of the number of
damage nuclei initiated by the highest
applied stress and in the propagation of
damage by all subsequent stress cycles.
For these investigations the method re-
quired a number of simplifications.
In the Corten-Dolan hypothesis for
estimating the fatigue life of a part
subjected to cyclic loading for any load
spectrum, the fatigue damage was
visualized as a joining or accumulation of
cracks and was treated in terms of the
number of damage nuclei formed and the
rate of crack propagation. The basic
equation for the estimated life, .V„, is:
A^i
N„ = .(1)
where:
at = proportion of cycles applied at
any stress. Si,
i?;!'" = function of the rate of damage
propagation at stress. Si, and
Ni = fatigue life in number of cycles
at the highest stress. Si, in the
stress spectrum
.(2)
- - ( ! ) '
where:
Si = maximum stress applied by the
stress spectrum.
Si = stress at any level in the spectrum
below 5 i , and
d = experimentally determined con-
stant.
The proportion of cycles applied at any
stress. Si, is given by the relation
.(3)
N'
where:
fti = number of cycles applied at Si
during one program block, and
N = l^tii = total number of cycles per
program block.
The basic equation for the estimated
fatigue life, Ng, now becomes
Ni
N„ = (4)
s (^) (sr
below the proportional Hmit, where Pi is
the highest load in the spectrum and Pi
is proportional to 5 , . To distinguish
between experimental and calculated
values for Ng, the subscripts e and t are
used; thus the experimental life is ^„„
and the calculated (theoretical) hfe is
All quantities in this expression except
Xi and d, are known for any load spec-
trum. The value for Ni is determined
from constant-amplitude fatigue tests of
the part in question. The exponent d
must be determined experimentally. For
this investigation, the value of d was
determined from the spectrum I test
data as follows:
1. Ni/IVgi was plotted against d for
 ROSENFELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH OX STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E
various assumed values of d using the
values of »,•, N, Pi, and Pi from the
horizontal tail data for spectrum I.
2. The average value of .Yi/.Y„^ was
determined using the average values of
the lives (number of cycles) from Table V
and the mean value of -Yi at 100 per
cent limit load (1500 cycles) from Fig. 2.
3. Using this value of Xi/,Y„, , the
value of d was determined from the
iVi/,Y.„, versus d curve for .A'i/.Y„^ =
.Vi/.V,,, . The value oi d = 8.25 for
complete failure was determined by this
method.
For analysis of the data, only the
ratio of experimental to theoretical life
was desired—not an estimate of the
theoretical life. This ratio is obtained
from reference (4) and becomes:
(5)
where:
(6)
Using the value oi d = 8.25, the ratio
of experimental to predicted life was
determined for each wing and horizontal
tail specimen tested using a load spec-
trum, and the results are included in
Tables V and VI. The extreme values of
this ratio are 0.601 and 1.718, the average
value is 1.036, and the median is 0.992.
The proximity of the median and average
values indicates that the data are sym-
metrically distributed. Assuming a nor-
mal distribution of these life ratios, the
estimated standard deviation for the data
in Tables V and VI is 0.272.
Equations 4 and 5 are both functions
of the mean life, .Yi, corresponding to
the maximum load. Pi, of the spectrum.
The arithmetic value of iYi does not take
into account the life distribution that
would be obtained for a large sample
235
tested at P i , nor does the estimated life,
-Y„, , reflect the distribution that would
be obtained if a large sample were tested
for the load spectrum. This introduces an
error in the determination of the life
ratios since the predicted lives used for
this determination were based on the
mean life, Xi, and the test lives are at
unknown points within the distribution
for the load spectrum.
To estimate the possible magnitude of
this error, the life ratios for four speci-
mens were recalculated. The specimens
selected (Nos. 21, 22, 27, and 28 from
Table V) have life ratios more than one
TABLE VII.—MAGNITUDE OF ERROR
IN LIFE RATIO OF HORIZONTAL TAIL
SPECIMENS.
Life Ratios
Specimen
Based on Based on 95 Per
Mean Life cent Coniidence
Limits
No. 21 1.718 1.408
No. 22 1.423 1.167
No. 27 0.867 1.084
No, 28 0.601 0.751
Standard deviation above or below the
average value of 1.036. For specimens 21
and 22, the life ratios were recalculated
with the arbitrary assumption that the
load-life curve for these specimens corre-
sponds to the upper limit of the 95 per
cent confidence interval for the mean,
and the value for Y'l was obtained from
this curve (10). The life ratios for speci-
iTiens 27 and 28 were recalculated simi-
larly, except that the lower limit of the
confidence interval was used. The origi-
nal and recalculated life ratios for these
four specimens are shown in Table VII.
The recalculated values more nearly
approach unity than do the original
values, and the difference between the
values is a measure of the possible error
236 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
in Ng^ when the value of Ni is arbitrarily
taken from the mean load-life curve. To
demonstrate further the effect of the
arithmetic value of A"i used in these
calculations, the life ratios were recal-
culated for all horizontal tail specimens
where the original life ratio differed from
unity by more than 10 per cent. For these
recalculations the value of -Vi was taken
from the appropriate extremes of the 95
per cent confidence interval (10); the
upper limit was used where the life ratio
was more than 1.10, and the lower limit
was used where the life ratio was less
than 0.90. The mean recalculated value
of the life ratio is 1.023, which is almost
the same as the original value, and the
standard deviation is reduced to 0.164
from an original value of 0.311.
Therefore, by judicious selection of the
value of iVi used in the equation for iV^, ,
valid estimates of the life for a load
spectrum may be obtained. This suggests
that a probability function should be
used for Ni in Eq 4 in lieu of the arith-
metic values. The estimated life would
then be a probability function and would
reflect the efifect of scatter.
These results indicate that the Corten-
Dolan cumulative damage hypothesis
can produce valid estimates of the
fatigue life of built-up structures for
load spectra with R > Q. Results of
tests of box-beam specimens for load
spectra including load reversals are
presented in a paper by Mordfin (12).
Crack Propagation:
No systematic determination of crack
propagation rate was attempted; how-
ever, the data obtained on the life re-
maining subsequent to visible cracking
are included in Tables II, IV, and V. The
median constant-amplitude lives sub-
sequent to visible cracking are plotted in
SUMMARY
This program was the first step taken
by the Navy to provide aircraft de-
Fig. 4 for values of J? ^ 0. A similar
curve is shown from the constant-ampli-
tude wing test data; however, these
cracks were initially detected in the
microscopic stage by use of the eddy-
current crack detector and were followed
through their growth until they were
visible. As a result, the cracks in the
wing were visible before they would
normally have been detected unaided,
and therefore the life remaining after
visible cracking is larger than for the
other specimens.
In general, the data on life remaining
after the initial detection of a visible
crack show a large degree of scatter
ranging from no visible cracking prior to
failure to visible cracking occurring
before 50 per cent of the total life has
been used. Consequently, any conclu-
sions drawn from these data should be
viewed in relation to the scatter. Further-
more, it should be apparent that detection
of a visible crack in a major structural
part of service aircraft is sufficient
reason for grounding the aircraft im-
mediately.
The above comments notwithstanding,
it is possible to arrive at the following
qualitative conclusions:
1. Cracks propagate much more rap-
idly in thick-skin structures than in
conventional structures using combina-
tions of thin sheet and stringers.
2. The per cent life remaining after
initial visible cracking is greater for
variable-amplitude loading using a posi-
tive load spectrum than it is for constant-
amplitude loading for i? ^ 0.
3. Based upon constant-amplitude
test data in Table IV only, it appears
that the per cent life remaining after
initial visible cracking is greater for
reversed loading than for tensio -tension
loading.
signers with full-scale data for use in
estimating the fatigue life of aircraft
 ROSENFIELD ON N A V Y RESEARCH OX STRUCTURAL F A T I G U E
structures. Although not enough speci-
mens were used to obtain statistically
valid results for each of the investiga-
tions in this program, it is believed that
sufficient data have been obtained to
substantiate the following conclusions:
1. The scatter in fatigue life for full-
scale structures is not as great as for
simple, polished laboratory specimens.
2. Where only visual methods of in-
spection are used, the life remaining
subsequent to crack detection is much
shorter for thick-skin structures than for
more conventional thin-skin and stringer
structures.
3. The Corten-Dolan cumulative dam-
age hypothesis produces more valid
estimates of structural fatigue life for
tension-tension loading than other cur-
rently used methods.
4. Prestressing a complicated struc-
ture to increase its fatigue life is techni-
cally and economically impractical.
This test program has raised a number
of questions that should be answered by
current and future work. The data
presented are for 7075-T6 aluminum
alloy conventional and thick-skin struc-
tures with aerodynamic shapes. One
current program is to investigate the
nose and main landing gear from these
same aircraft to obtain data for a
REFERENCES
(1) R. A. Carl and T. J. Wegeng, "Investi-
gations Concerning the Fatigue of Aircraft
Structures," Proceedings, Am. Soc. Testing
Mats., Vol. 54, p. 903 (1954).
(2) J. Rudnick and R. Friedman, "Loading
Systems for Conducting FuIl-Scale Aircraft
Fatigue Tests," U. S. Naval Air Material
Center, Report No. NAMATCEN-ASL-
1028 (1960).
(3) W. W. Johnstone and A. O. Payne, "Deter-
mination of the Fatigue Characteristics of
Mustang P-51D Wings," Aeronautical
Research Consultative Committee, Report
No. 30, Melbourne, June, 1953.
(4) A. M. Freudenthal, "Fatigue Sensitivity
and Reliability of Mechanical Systems,
Especially Aircraft Structures," Aero-
237
radically different structural configura-
tion and to determine the characteristics
of high-strength SAE 4340 steel struc-
tures. Another current program will
determine the fatigue characteristics of a
large horizontal tail using 7075-T6
aluminum alloy bonded honeycomb skin
panels; this program may also be ex-
tended to include an investigation of a
complete flight load spectrum, including
load reversals. Additional work is under
way using box-beam specimens in a
statistically designed experiment to ob-
tain statistically valid data comparable
to the data reported here, to study the
effect of block size, and to obtain more
information on random sequence load-
ing. Additional programs are being
planned to investigate the fatigue char-
acteristics of structures fabricated from
the newer materials used in high-per-
formance aircraft.
Perhaps the most important question
yet to be answered relates to thermal
effects, which have been deliberately
avoided in the foregoing attempts to
obtain a clearer understanding of the
structural fatigue problem at room tem-
perature. Consideration is now being
given to expansion of the box-beam
program to include thermal effects, but
planning is still in the preliminary stage.
nautical Systems Division, U. S. Air Force,
WADD Technical Report 61-53 (1961).
(5) A. 0 . Payne, D. G. Ford, et al, "Fatigue
Characteristics of a Riveted 24ST Alumi-
num Alloy Wing, Part V: Discussion of
Results and Conclusions," Aeronautical
Research Laboratories, Report SM 268,
Melbourne (1959).
(6) A. M. Freudenthal and R. A. Heller, "On
Stress Interaction in Fatigue and a Cumu-
lative Damage Rule, Part I: 2024 Alumi-
num and SAE 4340 Steel Alloys," Wright
Air Development Center, U. S. Air F"orce,
WADD Technical Report 58-69, Part I
(1958).
(7) R. L. Schleicher, "Practical Aspects of
Fatigue in Aircraft Structures," Fatigue
238 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
in Aircraft Structures, edited by A. M.
Freudenthal, Academic Press, New York.
N. Y., p. 376 (1956).
(8) H. T. Corten and T. J. Dolan, "Cumu-
lative Fatigue Damage," International
Conference on Fatigue of Metals, Inst.
Mechanical Engrs. (London) and Am. Soc.
Mechanical Engrs. (New York), Sept.
10-14, 1956.
(9) H. W. Liu and H. T. Corten, "Fatigue
Damage During Complex Stress Histories,"
NASA TN D-256, Nat. Aeronautics and
Space Administration (1959).
(10) R. Swartz and M. S. Rosenfeld, "Constant-
Amplitude Fatigue Characteristics of a
DISCUSSION
M R . J. ScHijVE.'—The information on
program-fatigue tests is steadily increas-
ing. Most data are on small specimens
and components. The author's results are
related to maneuver spectra, short
fatigue lives, and a complete structure.
For these circumstances the available
data are rather meager. So it is thought
that the author's investigation really
fills a gap in present-day knowledge.
I t would be interesting to have some
more information on a few minor aspects:
(1) Did all specimens fail at the highest
load level? (2) Did the cracks start from
bolt holes, from rivet holes, or from an-
other type of notch? (3) Could any typi-
cal fatigue characteristic be observed on
the fracture surface? (4) How was the
eddy-current crack-detection method ap-
plied, and which apparatus was used?
It may be interesting to evaluate a ht-
tle further the analytical relation of the
Corten-Dolan theory.
The quantity a,- is in fact the probabil-
ity pi of application of the load level Pi
in the test. Now Eq 1 of the paper can be
rewritten, employing also Eq 2:
N^ ZP,
fer= 1, .(a)
or
^ National Aero- and Astronautical Research
Inst., Amsterdam, Holland.
Slab Horizontal Tail for a Typical Fighter
Airplane," U. S. Naval Air Material
Center, Report No. NAMATCRN-ASL-
1023, Part I (1960).
(11) C. R. Smith, "Small Specimen Data for
Predicting Life of Full-Scale Structures,"
see p. 241.
(12) L. Mordfin and N. Halsey, "Programme;!
Maneuver-Spectrum Fatigue Tesis of Air-
craft Beam Specimens," see p. 251.
(13) Bland and Sandorf, "Control of Life Ex-
])ectancy in Airplane Structures," Aero-
nautical lingineering Rdiew, Vol. 2, No. 8
(1943).
P.N„
E-^T^Ci)'}-
Ni
• (b)
A' is the fatigue life at P , .
Put Hi = piXg = total number of
cycles in test applied at Pi (prime added
in view of author's meaning of w,) and
a. ^
"' ^ [k vJ Ac)
i is a factor depending on cxi and ui only.
Equation h thus reduces to
E id)
This is the form of the equation as
published by Freudenthal.^ Freudenthal
calls oji a stress interaction factor, which,
according to Eq c is a most appropriate
name. With
Ni = Ni/ui .(e)
equation d becomes
•if)
This equation implies that the Palmgren-
Miner rule is applied, employing, how-
ever, a modified Wohler curve, namely,
xYv instead of Ni.
^ International Conference on Fatigue of
^Metals, Inst. Mechanical Engrs., London.
Sept., 1956, p. 262.
 DISCUSSION ON NAVY RESEARCH ON STRUCTURAL FATIGUE
It may be remarked that the physical
model of the Corten-Dolan theory does
not allow a favorable interaction, that is,
CO J < 1, because the number of damage
nuclei m-i at the maximum load P] will be
larger than the number nii created by
the lower level Pi. In accordance with
reference (8) of the author's paper one
may write
> 1, since nii > Wj
It is encouraging to see that the author
could show that the analytical relation of
the Corten-Dolan theory can be made
compatible with favorable interaction ef-
fects. This proves the relation to be more
flexible than the Palmgren-Miner rule,
which is obviously due to the additional
parameter, d.
The similarity of the analytical rela-
tions of Freudenthal, and Corten and
Dolan was previously indicated by me.'
MR. M . S. ROSENFELD (author) .—The
following are answers to Mr. Schijve's
direct questions:
1. All specimens subjected to variable-
amplitude loads failed at the highest load
in the spectrum.
2. As discussed in the paper, all fail-
ures originated at bolt holes.
3. Visual examination of the fracture
surfaces immediately after failure re-
vealed typical clamshell marks surround-
ing the crack nucleation point. This
nucleus always occurred at the juncture
of the outermost surface of the part and
hole surface. Evidences of fretting prior
to failure were detected as discussed in
the paper.
4. The eddy-current detectors used
were the Magnatest ED-500 and an ex-
perimental modification of this unit that
was limited to use with aluminum alloys.
Both devices were used only during the
' International Conference on Fatigue of
Metals, Inst. Mechanical Engrs., London,
Sept., 1956, p. 755.
239
wing tests with the bolt-hole probes sup-
plied with the ED-500. Once the location
of the crack origin was known, all subse-
quent specimens were examined by this
device. Location of the failures is shown
on Fig. 5 of the paper. The two counter-
sunk-head bolts at the failure location
were removed periodically and the in-
sides of the holes were inspected using the
bolt-hole probe. Meter readings obtained
were plotted against cycles, and curves
similar to crack propagation curves were
obtained. Cracks became visible at ap-
proximately 50 per cent of the meter full-
scale deflection.
MR. R. L . BENEDICTO.^—My question
refers to the effect of the lowest load level
in the spectrum on the lives of the hori-
zontal tail specimens and the beam speci-
mens. Table V of Mr. Rosenfeld's paper
shows an increase in life from spectrum
I to II and a decrease from spectra I or
II to III. Mr. Mordfin's paper^ shows a
large decrease in life from spectrum I to
II. The spectra in both papers are the
same, defined in terms of per cent limit
load. Would the author care to comment
on this apparent discrepancy?
MR. ROSENFELD.—The data from the
horizontal-tail tests for spectra I, II, and
III show a considerable overlap and fall
within the scatter normally found in full-
scale tests of structures. Consequently,
it was concluded that loads below 55 per
cent limit load (approximately 31 per
cent of the actual static strength) had
a negligible effect on the fatigue damage
for this spectrum.
This statement appears to conflict with
the results of box-beam tests presented
by Mordfin and Halsey. However, no
conflict actually exists. The apparent
conflict is caused by the difference in the
definition of limit load. For the hori-
zontal-tail tests, 100 per cent limit load
•' Senior Structures Engineer, Republic
Aviation Corp., Farmingdale, L. I., N. Y.
' S e e p . 251.
240 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUK o r
is the design limit load for the structure
and corresponds to 57 per cent of the
actual static strength. For the box-beam
tests, 100 per cent limit load was ar-
bitrarily estabhshed as f of the actual
static strength. If the spectra are ex-
pressed in terms of the static strength, it
is evident that the spectra for the hori-
zontal tail and for the box beam are not
the same.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Mordfin and Halsey concluded that
truncation of the spectrum by elimina-
tion of loads above 40 per cent limit load
(approximately 27 per cent of the actual
static strength) produced unconservative
results. This is in approximate agreement
with the horizontal-tail results from
which it was concluded that loads below
31 per cent of the actual static strength
produced negligible damage.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

SMALL SPECIMEN DATA FOR PREDICTING LIFE

OF FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES
BY CLARENCE R. SMITH1

SYNOPSIS

This paper presents a method for predicting the fatigue life of a full-scale
structure for any combination of loading provided that a single datum point
representing the life of the structure for 104 or fewer cycles is known. The only
additional information required is stress-strain and S-N data for smooth
axially loaded coupons. An illustrative example of the use of this method is the
prediction of lives for tail structures yet to be tested at the Navy Aeronautical
Structures Laboratory, Philadelphia, Pa.

Any method for predicting fatigue life
of a structure for spectrum-type loading
should consider the position of the de-
signer. In the early stages of design he is
fortunate if he has some idea of load mag-
nitude, let along appropriate stresses and
stress concentrations. Usually the de-
signer must estimate concentrations from
configurations that are never quite like
the one chosen in design.
Accordingly it is common practice to
build up a structural component in early
stages of design and subject it to fatigue
or static tests or both. Also, it is common
for the loads used in final design to be
substantially different from those used in
preliminary tests. If the structure had
been subjected to fatigue tests involving
spectrum loading, the problem of then
applying the data to the succeeding de-
sign becomes virtually impossible. This
stems from the fact that the highest load
in the spectrum changes the life of the
structure for all subsequent lower loads,
and the designer does not know the rela-
tive amounts of damage contributed by
each load level in the spectrum.
1
General Dynamics/Convair, Fatigue Lab-
oratory, San Diego, Calif.
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International
Thus, in trying to translate informa-
tion from one loading spectrum to an-
other, the designer does not know which
parts of the spectra are applicable, and
therefore would be in a better position if
he had a single datum point that could
be used for any load spectrum.
This paper presents a method whereby
the results of a constant-amplitude test
on a structure can be used to predict the
life of that structure for any load spec-
trum. This method for predicting the life
of structures is dependent upon the fol-
lowing qualifications: (1) that the datum
point represents a life of less than 104
cycles, and (2) data for smooth axially
loaded coupons of the material are avail-
able.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
For the purpose of this discussion, ma-
terial properties will be those exhibited
by the simple stress-strain curve and
families of S-N curves for smoothly axi-
ally loaded coupons. Material properties
illustrated here will be of 7075-T6 alu-
minum alloy.
Figure 1 is a stress-strain curve for
7075-T6 aluminum alloy. Note that the
241
www.astm.org
242 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

slope of the curve above the yield
strength is approximately 1000 psi per 1
per cent strain.
Four S-N curves are shown in Fig. 2 for
four values of stress ratio, R. Note that
the yield strength for this material equals
the stress at about 10^ cycles for J? = 0
most pertinent in this theory are pre-
sented below:
1. Fatigue failure of a structure will al-
ways occur at a stress concentration. This
assumption should be almost axiomatic;
in fact, if airplane structures were de-
signed without concentrations there

8 3 . 0 ULTIMATE

ao
70 <kp^
(0
•a. 60
in 7075 -T6 ALUMIN JM AL LOY SMEET
en
UJ 50
().09'THICK
ir
1-
(0
40

30

20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S T R A I N , P E R CENT

FIG. 1.—Stress-Strain Curve for 7075-T6 Sheet.

80 1 II
R»0
70

60
-o.5r
50
- L- V
40

30

20

10
1
10^ lO- 10" 10" 10
CYCLES
FIG. 2.— 5-A" Curves for 7075-T6 Sheet.

and that at 10' cycles the stress for i? = 0
is approximately 7000 psi higher than for
10^ cycles. According to the stress-strain
curve shown in Fig. 1, this would amount
to about 7 per cent elongation.
THEORY
Any theory will of necessity employ a
certain number of assumptions; the four
would be no need for preparing this
paper.
2. Strain at a concentration will be pro-
portional to load, even though localized
yielding occurs. This assumption is based
on the premise that locally yielded ma-
terial is adjacent to unyielded material
and is therefore constrained to deform at
the same rate as the unyielded material.
SMITH ON PREDICTING LIFE or FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES 243

FIG. 3.—Photoelastic Model of Strain at Edge of Hole.

FIG. 4.—Model After Removal of Load.

244 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

This has some experimental verification
within nominal limits.
Accordingly, repeated loading (R = 0)
that causes failure of a structure at 10^
cycles is accompanied by a localized
strain cycle of less than 1 per cent, as
shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In order to realize
residual compressive stress at the concen-
tration after load is removed, provided that
the adjacent material is still unyielded.
This can be more easily visualized with
the aid of a photoelastic model. Figure 3,
for example, shows a piece of polyethyl-
ene plastic film loaded in tension. The

= 0.003" INTERFERENCE

PRESTRESS TEST DATA

PREDICTEQ L I F E - 100-

LINEAR STRAIN THEORY

PREDICTED LIFE- 75 —

UJ
u

LU

2 3 4 5
SPECTRUM
i, R = 0, descending spectrum.
2, R = 0.5, descending spectrum.
3, fi = 0, ascending spectrum.
^, B = 0, ascending spectrum (40,000 psi load deleted).
5, iJ = 0, ascending spectrum (40,000 and 34,000 psi loads deleted).
FIG. S.—Results of Spectrum Tests on 7075-T6 Lugs, (Lugs Were Loaded with |-In.-Diameter
Tapered Bolts.).
NOTE.—Data for this figure were acquired under Air Force Contract AF-33(616)-8228, "Research
on Linear Strain Theory of Fatigue Life Prediction."

2 per cent strain, which according to the
stress-strain curve would increase the
stress 2(X)0 psi, a load twice the magni-
tude of that causing failure at W cycles
would be required. A load of that magni-
tude would usually cause the structure to
fail and is beyond the scope of the present
paper.
3. Localized yielding will result in a
dark fringe area is plastically deformed
and will be forced into compression (or
buckling) after load is removed. Being
extremely thin, it chose the latter
(Fig._4).
With the exception of thin shear panels
having lightening holes, buckling in a
fabricated structure cannot occur. There-
fore, the locally yielded material will
 SMITH ON PREDICTING LIFE OF FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES 245

have to go into compression, since there The previous assumptions supply the
is no other place to go. tools for estimating the behavior of a
4. Fatigue damage will be accumulated full-scale structure provided that a
at a linear rate with reference to stresses^ datum point for i? = 0 and a fatigue life
causing failure at constant amplitude. This of less than 10^ cycles were given. This is
means that the damage rate would be best shown by the tests discussed in the
linear if estimated in terms of life after a following paragraphs.
single application of the highest load to
be used in the loading spectrum. FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES
Figure 5 shows the estimated versus
actual lives of lug-type specimens sub- Constant A mplitude Tests:
jected to spectrum-type loading. Speci- In the first of a number of tests cur-
mens were made of 0.1-in.-thick 7075-T6 rently being conducted at the Aero-
sheet. Dimensions afforded a theoretical nautical Structures Laboratory, Naval
stress concentration factor of 3.6 in terms Air Material Center, Philadelphia, Pa.,
of average stress through the net area. one aircraft vertical stabilizer failed after
Loading pins were f-in.-diam taper bolts 1474 cycles of limit loading at i? = 0.^
Since this fin was tested at a load ratio of
TABLE I.—CYCLE LOADING SPECTRUM
U S E D I N T E S T S O N 7075-T6 L U G S .
zero (minimum to maximum load = 0),
it is an especially suitable example for the
Maximum Stress
(Nominal Net), psi Cycles per Sequence purposes of this paper. While the method
described here lends itself to any positive
40 000 3 load ratio, the description for a load ratio
34 000 17 of zero is easier to follow. Also, fatigue
28 000 65 life estimates made in this particular test
22 000 172
16 000 283 are predictions in the true sense of the
word.
in order to simulate swelling of rivets in a In the S-N curves in Fig. 2, note that
riveted structure. Except for the two ior R = 0 and a lifetime of 1474 cycles
cases with interference' (shown in Fig. 5), the stress for a smooth specimen would
the structure lives estimated from the have to be about 80,000 psi, which is sub-
S-N curves, developed after a single stantially above the yield strength for
40,000-psi preload, were very close to the material and could not be obtained
experimental values. Bars indicate av- without elongating the material 5 per
erages of four or more tests in each case. cent or more. The material used for de-
Table I indicates the test spectrum used veloping the S-N curves had a yield
in Fig. 5. strength (0.2 per cent offset) of 74,000
psi.
^ T h i s differs from t h e Miner (1) relationship
only in t h e respect t h a t a c t u a l stress a t t h e con- Since the yielded material is con-
c e n t r a t i o n is considered instead of n o m i n a l strained and is deformed along with the
stress. T h u s , t h e influence of compressive
residual stresses resulting from t h e highest load unyielded material adjacent to the con-
in t h e load s p e c t r u m is considered in life evalua- centration, this theory states that the
tion. Other work b y t h e a u t h o r (2) h a s indicated stress at the concentration could not ap-
t h a t this is a reasonable assumption. L a t e r work
b y C o r t e n and D o l a n (3) introduces these effects preciably exceed the yield strength for
as exponential functions which can be obtained the material without yielding the entire
empirically.
cross-section. Also, according to the tan-
' T h e t a p e r e d bolt was d r a w n u p sufficiently
t o increase t h e hole diameter 0.003 in. Provision
was made t o prevent t h e specimen from binding •* As of J u l y 1962, only one specimen had
in t h e test fixture. failed.
246 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
gent modulus for the material, 1 per cent
strain would amount to less than 1000
psi in the plastically deformed material
at the concentration.
How can it be known whether the en-
tire cross-section was not yielded in the
test that is used as an example? Again
referring to the S-N curves in Fig. 2, note
that the life for cycling at the yield
strength for i? = - 1 (±74,000 psi) is 500
cycles. This represents strain cycling of
from +0.8 to —0.8 per cent, or a total
strain of 1.6 per cent. This amount of
110
100
u 80
60 R = - 1' \
- o
5- R=-2
UJ
u
40
10
P"iG. 6.—Dimensionless S-N Curves for 7075-T6 Sheet.
strain could be experienced in a structure
having a stress concentration factor of 3
subjected to nominal stress cycling of
from 0 to 53,000 psi, or only f of the
yield strength.
It is not known whether the concentra-
tion at the point of failure in the struc-
ture was 3, but it would be safe to assume
that it was not less than 3. Accordingly,
it can be assumed that a structure having
a lifetime of between 500 cycles (life for
i? = — 1) and 10,000 cycles for loading at
-R = 0 experienced local yielding at the
concentration, and that the gross sec-
tional area was still in the elastic range.
Since the life of the test structure was
1474 cycles, it is assumed that the maxi-
mum stress was 1000 psi above the yield
strength' or 75,000 psi. This would indi-
cate that the actual stress cycle at the
concentration was that conforming to a
stress ratio of —0.6, or a range from
+ 75,000 to -45,000 psi. The total stress
range of 120,000 psi can now be prorated
to estimate structure lives at other stress
levels.* To eliminate cumbersome data,
the S-X curves in Fig, 2 are replotted
(Fig. 6) in terms of effective yield
strength of the material. This has the
advantage of presenting numbers that
are easier to deal with, as well as making
II
III
- f (=0
1
Ki ;=o.
t
11 • |
10 10 10 10
CYCLES TO FAILURE
the yield strength a dimensionless param-
eter.
Using the curves from Fig. 6, note that
the total stress range for limit loading
would be 100 per cent — (—60 per cent),
or 160 per cent of yield strength. For a
load level amounting to 80 per cent of
limit, the stress range would be 0.8 X
' H e r e a f t e r called "effective" yield s t r e n g t h .
According t o t h e previous a s s u m p t i o n s , t h i s
would introduce a n error of less t h a n ± 1 0 0 0
psi in stress a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n for lifetime
between ft = 0 a n d ft = 1.
^ T h e stress r a n g e c a n be directly p r o r a t e d
only if t h e bending effects are negligible. I n t h e
case of a lap joint, bending at low stress levels
will c o n t r i b u t e most of t h e stress, while a t high
levels m o s t of t h e bending effects will h a v e been
relieved b y local yielding. I t is assumed t h a t
bending effects for t h e t e s t cited here were
negligible.
 SMITH ON PREDICTING LIFE OF FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES 247

160 = 128 per cent. Since 128 per cent
is still above the yield for the material,
the actual cycle will be from +100 per
cent to — 28 per cent, and the predicted
lifetime will be found at the 100 per cent
load level fori? = -0.28, or 4800 cycles.
For 60 per cent limit loading, the stress
range will be 0.6 X 160, or 96 per cent.
Being below the yield strength, structure
life can now be determined directly from
the R = 0 curves at 96 per cent, or 13,000
cycles. Similarly, the structure life for 40
per cent loading is found to be 60,000
cycles.
Spectrum Tests:
For predicting life under spectrum
loading, the problem will be different in
TABLE II.—CALCULATED LIVES A N D FRACTIONAL DAMAGE P E R
per sequence are tabulated in Table II.
From this, n/N per sequence = 0.0089,
from which total predicted life =
1/0.0089 = 112 sequences.
The remaining three loading conditions
presented in reference (5) are:
Loading condition 2 = Same as 1, except
for addition of 283 cycles of 40 per cent
loading.
Loading condition 3 = Same as 2, except
for replacing 40 per cent loading with
750 cycles of 30 per cent loading.
Loading condition 4 = Same as 2, except
for deletion of 100 per cent loads.
Under conditions 2 and 3, the predicted
life of the structure in the test example
SEQUENCE.

Stress, per cent of yield

Load, per cent Number per A' n/N
Sequence R
of limit
Range Minimum Maximum

100 3 160 -60 100 -0.6 1 474 0.0020

85 17 136 -60 76 -0.79 9 000 0.0019
70 65 112 -60 52 -1.15 16 000 0.0041
55 172 88 -60 28 -2.1 200 000 0.0009

in that the residual stress resulting from
the 100 per cent load (60 per cent of
yield) will be retained throughout the
test. Assuming that the test example will
be loaded in the same manner as that
used for horizontal stabilizers (5),' the
load spectrum for the first loading condi-
tion would contain the following cycles
per sequence:
Load, per cent of limit
100
85
70
55
Using the method described above,
calculated lives and fractional damage
' T h e boldface n u m b e r s in parentheses refer
t o t h e list of references a p p e n d e d t o t h i s p a p e r .
would also be 112 sequences, since the
damage at lower levels was considered
neghgible* in view of the beneficial 60 per
cent residual compressive stress intro-
duced at the 100 per cent limit load. In
the fourth condition, where the 100 per
cent loading was omitted, structure
fatigue lives at other levels would be re-
duced. Also, the 40 per cent loading,
which otherwise does not contribute' to
Cycles per Sequence the fatigue damage, contributes 0.0001
damage per sequence. Total damage per
3
17 * D a m a g e was considered negUgible a t lower
65 load levels only in view of beneficial residual
172 stresses resulting from high-level loading. I t was
assumed t h a t neither s u b s e q u e n t l o a d i n g nor
relaxation due to t i m e would erase very m u c h
of t h e residual stress (60 p e r cent of yield).
R e l a x a t i o n a t room t e m p e r a t u r e should be con-
sidered where t h e residual stress is greater t h a n
t w o t h i r d s t h e yield s t r e n g t h , or where load
reversals a c t u a l l y reverse t h e stress (6).
248 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
sequence would be 0.0162 for a predicted
life of 62 sequences.
Estimates were also made on the hori-
zontal-tail surfaces (5). Ratios of test to
predicted lives were 0.98, 1.35, 0.85, and
1.19 for the four conditions, respectively.
Average for all conditions was 1.09.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
In the test selected as an example for
demonstrating this method of predicting
structure life, only one test point was
available. This does not leave much
choice in a statistical analysis, and it
10 10
CYCLES TO FAILURE
FIG. 7.—Effects of Prestressing on Fatigue Life of Riveted Joints.
will be a problem that most likely con-
fronts the designer. What should he do?
Assuming a standard deviation of log
life equal to 0.15, the structure which
was tested could have failed after only
700 cycles of 100 per cent loading instead
of 1474 cycles, or it might have failed
after 3000 cycles. These structure lives
would represent a spread of approxi-
mately plus or minus two standard devi-
ations from the original datum point.
Using the procedure described pre-
viously, the expected structure life under
the first loading condition (5) would be
70 sequences for the low-life structure
and 220 sequences for the other. The
original calculation of 112 sequences
does not represent a median for the two
estimates.
In the examples discussed thus far,
no consideration was given to the fact
that the mode of failure for low-level
loading may differ from that for high
loading. It is known that small amounts
of preloading on a riveted joint may
lessen its life, while high preloading im-
proves it (7), thus accounting for differ-
ent modes of failure. However, the mode
of failure will be reflected by whatever
influence the highest load in the spectrum
has on the structure.'
Accordingly, where the predicted life
is based on spectrum-type loading, and
10
the highest load in the spectrum is real-
istic with respect to probability of early
occurrence in life, the mode of failure
should be the same for spectrum-type
loading as for loading at the highest
load in the spectrum. Two or more
modes of failure, however, could occur
at one load level, as it is reasonable to
assume that more than one position in
an entire structure could be suffering
the same stress. This would not influence
the predicted life, since for equal stress-
ing the prediction is in terms of first
crack wherever it may occur. For the
structure chosen, so little time elapsed
between first crack and final failure that
failing hfe would be equally applicable.
' Except where low loading is accompanied
by local bending stress. See footnote 6.
 SMITH ON PREDICTING LIFE OF FULL-SCALE STRUCTURES 249

Also, in the examples cited here, high action factor would further reduce the
loading increased fatigue life. This would predicted life.
generally be the case for airplanes having
high maneuver-load factors. In the case SUMMARY
of transport aircraft, maximum loading A method of estimating fatigue life of
may not exceed 1.8 g for a substantial structures for spectrum loading has been
portion of their service life. In the latter presented which requires only: (1) basic
case, a loss in fatigue life would be ex- material properties, and (2) a fatigue
perienced. This is shown by the S-N life for the structure under single-level
curves on riveted lap joints (Fig. 7), loading that causes failure in less than
where a fatigue-strength loss of more ICH cycles. Neither nominal stresses nor
than one third accompanied small concentration factors need be known.
amounts of prestressing (8). Being independent of the load spec-
One explanation for these losses would trum, this method lends itself to use with
be that the tightly driven rivets, which any load spectrum, as long as the load
heretofore prevented stress from return- producing failure at less than 10^ cycles
ing to zero, were loosened to permit full- is representative of one of the loads in
stress cycling. Larger amounts of pre- the spectrum, and the load ratio, R, is
stress introduced residual compressive zero or more. This is a special asset where
stresses which more than offset the effect structural tests are made in early stages
of rivet loosening (8). of design before firm loads are estab-
For spectrum-type testing, the S«/iV lished, and new life estimates are neces-
based on the lower curve was 1.28. Based sitated by later load information.
on the normally accepted middle curve,
the Zn/N would have been 0.23. This A cknowledgmenls:
may be the reason for the service life of The author wishes to express his ap-
some transport airplanes falling short, preciation to M. S. Rosenfeld of the
even though the fatigue life as indicated Naval Air Material Center and Charles
by conventional 5-iV curves would seem A. Davies of the Aeronautical Research
adequate. Laboratories, Office of Aerospace Re-
Although an additional effect of stress search, for permission to use data from
interaction (9) may also influence final Government contracts.
fatigue life, it would seem small in com- Credit is also due G. Garner Green,
parison with changes in residual stress chief structures engineer of General
and stiffness factors. This is particularly Dynamics/Convair, for valuable sug-
true in the case of lugs having interfer- gestions, to Glenn D. Lindeneau, research
ence fit loading pins, where the predicted test engineer, and other members of the
fatigue life fell far short of that shown Structures and Fatigue Laboratories for
in spectrum tests (Fig. 5). A stress inter- obtaining data used here.

REFERENCES
(1) M. A. Miner, "Cumulative Damage in Fa-
tigue," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol.
12, pp. A159-A169 (1945).
(2) C. R. Smith, "Prediction of Fatigue Failures
in Aluminum Alloy Structures," Proceedings,
Soc. Experimental Stress Analysis, Vol. XII,
No. 2, pp. 21-28 (1955).
(3) H. T. Corten and T. J. Dolan, "Cumulative
Fatigue Damage, Proceedings, International
Conference on Fatigue of Metals, Inst.
Mechanical Engrs. (London) (1956).
(4) C. R. Smith, "A System of Estimating
Cumulative Fatigue Damage by Using the
Miner Rule Corrected for Residual Stress,
Preprint No. 353B from 1961 SAE National
Aeronautic Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
April, 1961.
(5) R. P. Swartz and M. S. Rosenfeld, "Variable
250 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Amplitude Fatigue Characteristics of a Slab
Horizontal Tail for a Typical Fighter Air-
plane," U.S. Naval Air Material Center Re-
port No. NAMATCHEN'ASL-1023, Part
II, Sept. 18, 1961.
(6) J. Schijve and F. A. Jacobs, "Program-Fa-
tigue Tests on Notched Light Alloy Speci-
mens of 2024 and 7075 Material," National
Luchtvaarlaboratorium, NLL-TR M 2070,
pp. 1-41 (1960).
(7) C. R. Smith and G. D. Lindeneau, "Riveted-
Joints Fatigue Strength," Papers on Fatigue
of Aircraft Structures, ASTM STP No. 203,
Am. Soc. Testing Mats., pp. 10-25 (1956).
(8) C. R. Smith, "Influence of Residual Stresses
and Stiffness Factors on Fatigue Strength of
Metals and Structures," Proceedings, Third
Annual Engineering Symposium, Brigham
Young University, pp. 321-366, April 21,
1962.
(9) A. M. Freudenthal and R. A. Heller, "On
Stress Interaction in Fatigue and Cumula-
tive Damage Rule," Journal of Aerospace
Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 7, July 1959.
 STP338-EB/Sep. 1963

P R O G R A M M E D M A N E U V E R - S P E C T R U M F A T I G U E TESTS OF
A I R C R A F T BEAM S P E C I M E N S

BY LEONARD MORDFIN 1 AND N I X O N HALSEY 1

SYNOPSIS

Constant- and variable-amplitude fatigue tests were conducted on 7075-T6

aluminum alloy built-up beam specimens in bending to study certain aspects
of spectrum fatigue. Existing cumulative fatigue damage theories were found
inadequate for the dual purpose of predicting spectrum fatigue life and evaluat-
ing the effects of individual load levels in a spectrum. However, the observed
spectrum fatigue properties were consistent with the measured effects of pre-
loading, overloading, and underloading.
Preloading was beneficial when the preload was considerably greater than
the subsequent fatigue loads, and when the preload was applied in the same
direction as the fatigue loads. When the preload and the fatigue loads had op-
posite signs, a reduction in fatigue life resulted. These effects were magnified
by the periodic application of overloads.
The periodic application of repeated low loads was ineffectual when applied
in the same direction as the fatigue loads. When the spectrum included low
loads of negative sign, serious reductions in life resulted.
The most valuable finding, perhaps, was that the fatigue behavior of the
beam specimens was similar to that of certain full-scale aircraft structures.
It was also found that the fatigue properties of the beam specimens were rather
insensitive to variations in testing technique and material.
A pneumatic testing machine and an automatic programmer that were de-
veloped for this investigation are described.

Aircraft structures are subjected to
cyclic loads of various magnitudes and
frequencies due to maneuvers, gusts,
landing and take-off, and so on. The
estimation of fatigue life under these
conditions is one of the more difficult
problems of aircraft design. Many
theories of cumulative fatigue damage
have been proposed over the years to
provide a rational basis for making these
estimates. T h e reliability of these
1
Aeronautical Research Engineer and Physi-
t^T^bJ^T^JS^-
ington, D. c.
Copyright^ 1963 by ASTM International
theories, in general, has been less than
adequate. As a result, full-scale fatigue
testing of aircraft structures under
multiple load levels is generally con-
sidered a necessary step in the estima-
tion of the fatigue life of aircraft under
service conditions.
Thousands of dynamic measurements
have been made on aircraft in flight to
assess the actual loads imposed on the
structure so that realistic load-time
histories could be established for labora-
tory simultation. T h e cost of full-scale
fatl ue testi
§ "g I * * hi .s h '. and > n f d -
is
less to say, the exact duplication of these
251
www.astm.org
252 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE or AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
histories in the laboratory would be too
time-consuming. To convert the service
load histories into more usable form, the
programmed spectrum type of fatigue
test has been widely adopted.
In a spectrum fatigue test, the speci-
men is subjected to repeated applica-
tions of "blocks," a block representing
the load history experienced by an air-
craft during a typical interval of its
service life. The load levels and the
number of cycles at each load level in the
160
\
\ \
120 \
^ 80
40
10'
FIG. 1.—Comparison of Fatigue Properties of Beams Tested by Howard and Katz (1) witli
Those of Various Aircraft Structures and Components; Various Minimum Loads.
block are collectively termed the test
spectrum. Depending upon the size of
the service life interval being represented,
it is common to speak of, say, a 20-hr
block or a 1000-hr block and so on. If a
random test spectrum is used, the se-
quence of application of the various
load levels in the block is approximately
random. More commonly, however, a
programmed test spectrum is used in
which all of the cycles at each load level
in the block are consecutively applied
before the load is changed to the next
level.
The number of consecutive blocks re-
quired to produce failure of the test
specimen provides some measure of the
service life of the structure. This is a
useful measure only if the fatigue damage
produced by the test spectrum is equal
or relatable to the damage produced by
the service loads. Thus, the conversion
of service load histories into test spec-
trums is the critical feature of this tech-
nique. For reasons of economy and
convenience, it is desirable to devise the
simplest programmed test spectrum that
will adequately simulate the fatigue
/ B e a m tpecimtns (ref«r«nce (I) )
Sprtod for various
aircraft ttructurn
ond compontntt
(reference ( 2 ) )
10' 10 I0»
Cycles to failure
damage of the service loads. One of the
questions which must be resolved in the
process concerns the relative effects of
the various discrete load levels in the
programmed spectrum.
This paper describes an experimental
program that was undertaken to evalu-
ate the effects of various load levels in a
given aircraft spectrum and to examine
the capabilities of several cumulative
fatigue damage theories for this evalua-
tion. Spectrum fatigue tests of built-up
beam specimens were carried out as
well as several series of fatigue tests
involving one, two, or three load levels.
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON FATIGUE T E S T S OF B E A M SPECIMENS
DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS
Definitions:
Limit load is the maximum load that is
authorized for an airplane structure or
structural component under normal operat-
ing conditions.
Factor of safety is the ratio of design ulti-
mate load to limit load. A value of 1.5 is
common for military aircraft.
i-g load is the load experienced by a
structural component during straight,
steady, level flight in still air.
Load factor is the ratio of a given load to
the 1-g load. It is a measure of the severity
of the operating conditions. For the beam
specimens tested in this investigation, the
Nofe: All dimensions in inches
FIG. 2.—Dimensions of Beam Specimens.
limit load factor was arbitrarily taken as
7.00, which approximates the values com-
monly used for fighter planes and advanced
trainers. Thus, for this investigation, the
\-g load is equal to 4, or 14.3 per cent of the
limit load.
Symbols:
d, constant in Liu and Corten's damage
theory,
K, constant in Valluri's damage theory,
N, cycles to failure,
S, load level,
Se, fatigue limit.
Si , highest load level in spectrum,
/3, constant in Munse's damage theory
SPECIMENS
In an investigation at this laboratory
several years ago (1),^ fatigue tests were
^ The boldface numbers in parentheses refer
to the Ust of references appended to this paper.
253
conducted on a series of built-up beam
specimens in bending. These specimens
had been designed to represent typical
airframe construction, and their fatigue
properties were found to correspond
quite closely with the fatigue properties
of various types of typical aircraft
structures (2) (Fig. 1). Therefore, it was
considered desirable to use the same type
of specimen in the present investiga-
tion, which is also oriented toward struc-
tures in airframe applications.
The specimen, shown in Fig. 2, is 49
in. long and consists primarily of two
I5 by f by | - i n . channels and two \ by
f^—li^ "1^ 'it? "^ "^ '[t^ it!*
2-in. strips, all of 7075-T6 aluminum
alloy. A f by |-in. steel splice bar sepa-
rates the two channels and is symmetri-
cally positioned with respect to the
median plane of the specimen. The
splice bar diffuses the shear load applied
at the center of the specimen; it adds
little to the bending strength. The
channels and the splice bar are joined
with i^-in. steel aircraft bolts spaced at
3-in. intervals. The strips are fastened
to the channel flanges with 3^-in. brazier
head rivets of 2024-T31 aluminum alloy.
A 1-in. rivet spacing is used throughout
except in the last 3^ in. at either end of
the specimen, in which a |-in. spacing is
used.
The beam specimens were fabricated
in accordance with conventional air-
craft manufacturing practices by the
254 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Aeronautical Structures Laboratory of TEST EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES

the Naval Air Material Center in
Philadelphia; they were received at this Loading and Supports:
laboratory in three separate shipments. A view of the complete test setup is
The specimens in each shipment are be- shown in Fig. 3. The specimen, A, is

FIG. 3.—Laboratory Setup for Fatigue Testing Beam Specimens.

FIG. 4.—Beam Specimen Under Small Load.

lieved to have been fabricated from dif-
ferent batches of materials. Specimens
from the three shipments were desig-
nated 101 to 140, 201 to 220, and 301 to
305, respectively.
simply supported at its ends and loaded
transversely at its center by a pneumatic
cylinder, B.
A close-up of the specimen under a
small applied load is given in Fig. 4.
 MORDFIN AND HAtSEY ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF B E A M SPECIMENS
End fixtures, C, are fastened to the
specimens with j^-in. bolts, and simple
support is achieved by means of bearings,
D, and flexure plates, £, which provide
rotational and translational freedom,
respectively. The flexure plates intro-
duce a longitudinal stress of 100 psi into
the specimen when a transverse load of
5000 lb is applied. The effective length
of the beam specimen, from bearing to
bearing, is 53 in.
EXHAUST
FIG. S.—Pneumatic Circuit Diagram.
The load is applied to the specimen by
a pin, F, which passes through a snug-
fitting hole in the loading fixture, G,
and the specimen. The faces of the load-
ing and support fixtures which contact
the specimen are serrated to prevent
impacting and fretting of the specimen
in load cycles which pass through zero.
Two dynamometers are inserted be-
tween the piston rod of the pneumatic
cylinder and the specimen. One of these,
H, is a commercial load cell used to
monitor the maximum and minimum
loads as they are applied. The second
255
one, / , a hollow tubular member hav-
ing two wire-resistance strain gages
mounted on its reduced section, serves as
the load-sensing element for the spectrum
programmer. The two dynamometers,
one for controlling and one for reading
loads, are isolated electrically from
one another so that independent checks
on the control system can be made.
Cyclic loads were applied at rates of
about 15 to 40 cpm, depending on the
100-120 PSI
amplitudes of the loads. Calculations
revealed that at these rates inertia
loading effects are negligible.
The maximum and minimum loads
experienced by the load cell, H, are deter-
mined with the strain indicator, J,
Fig. 3, which reads the output of the
calibrated strain sensors in the cell.
Observations made with an oscilloscope
showed that the speed of response of
the indicator is more than adequate at
the loading rates employed.
The calibration of the load cell, H,
Fig. 4, underwent gradual changes during
256 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

the course of the investigation, thereby from the spectrum programmer, it

necessitating periodic recalibration. On directs high-pressure air to the top side
the basis of the observed changes in of the piston while exhausting air from
calibration, it is estimated that load the bottom side until the desired maxi-
measurement errors of up to 6 per cent mum positive load is attained. It then
may have been experienced in a few of exhausts the high-pressure air from the
the tests. top side of the piston until the desired
minimum load, if it is greater than zero,
Pneumatic System: is reached. For minimum loads equal to
The air supply system for the pneu- or less than zero, low-pressure air is
matic cylinder is schematically shown simultaneously directed to the bottom
in Fig. 5. The intake, at house pressure, side of the piston until the desired mini-
varies between 100 and 120 psig. The mum load is reached. The cycle is then
air is first passed through an accumulator repeated. When the specimen breaks, a
micros witch is tripped, closing valve 2
TABLE I.—STATIC TEST RESULTS. and sending valve 12 to its neutral
Static Limit
position in which both sides of the piston
Test Series Specimen Strengtli, lb Load, lb are open to the exhaust.
102 6996
For tests which involved a single maxi-
S-l \ 103 7319 mum load level, valve 5 is opened and
\ average 7158 4772 valve 4 is closed. Pressure regulating
201 6936
valve 9 is adjusted manually to provide a
S-2 . . . ,| 202 6976 flow rate through restriction 13 which
I average 6956 4637 gives a suitable piston velocity. If the
302 6746 piston velocity is too high, impact load-
S-3 303 6767 ing of the test specimen results. If it is
average 6756 4504 too low, the test becomes excessively
time-consuming. The optimum piston
to eliminate surges and then through a velocity and, therefore, the optimum
shutoff valve and a strainer. Valve 2 is pressure setting was different for each
opened manually to start a test. The air different maximum load level.
is filtered to remove condensation, For spectrum tests or other tests which
throttled by valve J to a regulated 80 involve more than one maximum load
psig, lubricated to minimize piston fric- level, valve 5 is closed and valve 4 is
tion in the cylinder, and strained to opened. Valve 8, a regulator valve geared
eliminate solid particles. to a programmable motor positioner, is
The circuit now divides into a high- programmed to provide the proper pres-
pressure branch that furnishes the air to sure for each load level.
drive the piston downward and create For tests in which the minimum load
positive forces on the test specimen, and is always positive, valves 6 and 7 are
a low-pressure branch for producing closed, and unloading of the specimen is
negative or upward forces on the speci- achieved by exhausting the air from the
men. top side of the piston. For tests that in-
The air leaving the two branches is volve a single minimum load that is
strained again prior to entering the four- negative or zero, valve 6 is opened, valve
way, five-port valve 12, which is solenoid- 7 is closed, and regulator valve 10 is
controlled and pilot-actuated with a adjusted to the optimum pressure set-
neutral center position. Upon signals ting. For tests that involve two different
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF BEAM SPECIMENS 257

minimum loads that are zero or negative, are opened as needed by signals from
regulating valves 10 and 11 are set for the the spectrum programmer.
respective pressures and valves 6 and 7 The exhaust line from valve 12 leads
TABLE II.—RESULTS OF BASIC CONSTANT-LOAD-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE TESTS.
Loads cycled between 14.3 per cent of limit load and indicated load levels.
Load Level, per Cycles to Failure Deviation from
Test Series Specimen cent of limit load Mean, per cent

107 100 3 117 42

108 100 2 370 8
B-1. 109 100 1 659 -25
212 100 1 902 -14
Geometric mean 100 2 200

105 80 5 955 -0
B-2. 110 80 6 660 6
Geometric mean 80 6 310

104 60 11 915 0
B-3. HI 60 14 672 23
211 60 9 765 -18
Geometric mean 60 11 900

106 40 87 967 3
B-4. 112 40 83 538 -3
Geometric mean 40 85 700

214 -28.6 77 485 2

B-5. 217 -28.6 74 116 _2
Geometric mean -28.6 75 700

120

100

Cycles to foilure
FIG. 6.—Basic Constant-Load-Amplitude S-N Curve for Beam Specimens. Minimum Load:
14.3 Per Cent of Limit Load.
258 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
outdoors and is muffled to reduce noise.
The hand pump connected to the lower
end of the cyHnder is used to raise the
piston for mounting and removing test
specimens.
Static tests were conducted by opening
valve 5 and gradually increasing the pres-
sure on the top side of the piston with
regulator valve 9 while simultaneously
reading the load.
6000
D , CD D
5000
o o
4000
3000
2000
1000
I0»
FIG. 7.—Basic Fatigue Properties of the Beam Specimens as Reported by Several Investigators;
Minimum Loads Between 529 and 780 lb.
Spectrum Programmer:
The function of the spectrum program-
mer (at the right in Fig. 3) is to control
automatically the actuation of solenoid
valves 6, 7, 8, and 12, Fig. 5, so that re-
peated blocks of the desired spectrum
(maximum and minimum load levels
and cycles) are imposed upon the test
specimen until failure occurs.
The programmer, designed and as-
sembled in this laboratory, consists
basically of two circuits: a bridge-type
circuit and a counting circuit. The
bridge is the heart of the unit. Its opera-
tion, described in reference (3), is based
on the action of dynamometer, / , Fig. 4.
The two strain gages on this dynamome-
ter are connected into the bridge. The
bridge is deliberately unbalanced at zero
load so that it becomes balanced when
the desired load is reached. This null
condition triggers a sensitive switching
o Toble II
D Reference (4)
o & Reference ( I )
• • 4D
I0« 10°
Cycles to foilure
circuit which, in turn, signals the four-
way valve in the pneumatic circuit to
move from the loading position to the
unloading position or vice versa.
The bridge unbalance is introduced
prior to the start of a test by means of a
resistance potentiometer. Nine such
potentiometers are available to enable
the application of spectrums involving
up to six different maximum load levels
and three different minimum load levels.
Changing from one load level of the
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E TESTS OF B E A M SPECIMENS 259

spectrum to the next involves the opera-
tion of valves 6, 7, and 8, Fig. 5, plus the
selection of the proper potentiometers in
the bridge circuit. This function is auto-
matically controlled by a six-channel pre-
determining counter which is equipped
with automatic reset.
The primary weakness of the program-
mer is the dependence of the bridge
circuit on the exact values of the re-
for each shipment by applying a 1.5
factor of safety to the measured static
strength values (Table I).
BASIC CONSTANT-LOAD-AMPLITUDE
FATIGUE PROPERTIES
Constant-load-amplitude fatigue tests
were conducted to establish the basic
fatigue properties of the beam specimens.
In each test the load was cycled between

TABLE III.—RESULTS OF CONSTANT-LOAD-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE TESTS WITH

P R E L O A D I N G T O 100 P E R C E N T O F L I M I T L O A D .
L o a d s cycled between 14.3 per cent of limit load a n d indicated load levels.

Test Series Specimen Load Level, per Cycles to Failure Deviation from
cent of limit load Mean, per cent

107 100 116 42

108 100 369 8
B-1. 109 100 658 -25
212 100 901 -14
Geometric m e a n 100 200
117 80 521 -4
P-2. 118 80 942 4
Geometric m e a n 80 730

115 60 27 970
P-3. 116 60 24 054 -7
Geometric m e a n 60 25 900

113 40 248 574 -9

P-4 114 40 444 159 63
213 40 185 760 -32
Geometric m e a n 40 274 000

215 -28.6 38 122

P-5. 216 -28.6 35 963
Geometric m e a n -28.6 37 000

sistances involved. Slight variations in
these resistances occur as a result of
normal variations in room temperature.
Therefore, the potentiometer settings
have to be readjusted slightly to compen-
sate for these variations about three
times a day during a test. By making
these readjustments, the load levels
were maintained constant within 12 lb.
STATIC TESTS
Static tests were made on two speci-
mens from each of the three specimen
shipments. Limit load was calculated
a designated load level and 14.3 per
cent of limit load. The results of these
tests are shown in Table II with the
percentage deviations from the geometric
mean at each load level. The results for
positive load levels are also plotted in
Fig. 6.
Figure 7 compares these results with
results obtained by Howard and Katz
(1) and by the Aeronautical Structures
Laboratory (4) on nominally identical
specimens. This comparison is based on
load, in pounds, rather than on per cent
of limit load. The figure shows that the
260 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

data from the three investigations are reduction in fatigue life is obtained.
consistent despite differences in testing These conclusions were based on uni-
technique and variations in static directional bending tests of unnotched
strength. The fatigue testing machine dad 2024-T3 sheet.
used by Howard and Katz was a deflec- Templin (6) then showed that much
tion-controlled machine rather than a greater increases in life are obtained as a
load-controlled machine as was used in result of prestressing if the specimens
the other two investigations. Static (7075-T6 rod) are notched.
strengths varied from 6615 to 7316 lb, Finally, Payne (7) applied preloads to
and the minimum loads of the fatigue 2024-T3 airplane wings prior to fatigue
cycles varied from 529 to 780 lb. testing and obtained remarkable in-
In view of this consistency, and the creases in fatigue life.
TABLE IV.—RESULTS OF CONSTANT-LOAD-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE TESTS WITH
PERIODIC OVERLOADS TO 100 PER CENT OF LIMIT LOAD.
Loads cycled between 14.3 per cent of limit load and indicated load levels.

Load Level,
Test Series Specimen per cent of Interval, cycles Fatigue Cycles to Deviation from
Failure Mean, per cent
limit load

107 100 220 3 102 42

108 100 220 2 359 8
B-1 109 100 220 1 651 -25
212 100 220 1 893 -14
Geometric m e a n 100 220 2 190

205 80 631 5 418 -2

0-2 ] 206 80 631 5 679 2
1 Geometric m e a n 80 631 5 550

0-3 207 60 1329 140 874

0-4 209 40 8575 > 1 022 099

218 -28.6 7580 42 770 7

0-5 \ 219 -28.6 7580 37 561 -6
\ Geometric m e a n -28.6 7580 40 100

fact that the fatigue properties of the
beam specimens are similar to those of
full-scale aircraft structures (Fig. 1),
it appears that this specimen design has
merit for studying the fatigue behavior
of aircraft structures.
EFFECTS OF PRELOAD
Bennett and Baker (5) showed that the
application of a prestress prior to fatigue
testing produces an increase in fatigue
life providing the prestress is con-
siderably greater than the maximum
stress of the fatigue cycle. However, if
the prestress is only slightly larger than
the maximum fatigue stress, a slight
Tests were conducted in the present
investigation to evaluate the effect of
preloading on the basic fatigue proper-
ties of the beam specimens. Each speci-
men was subjected to one cycle of 100
per cent of limit load immediately prior
to the start of a constant-load-amplitude
fatigue test. In the fatigue test the load
was cycled between a preselected load
level and 14.3 per cent of limit load. The
results of these tests are given in Table
III together with the results for test
series B-1 (from Table II), in which the
first load cycle applied to each specimen
is considered a preload.
The effects of preloading may be eval-
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF BEAM SPECIMENS 261

uated by comparing Tables II and III.
These effects are in agreement with those
found by the other investigators. Fur-
thermore, the comparison shows that
when the preload is applied in a direc-
tion opposite to the maximum fatigue
load, a significant reduction of the fatigue
life takes place. Bennett and Baker (s)
and Templin (6) obtained similar results.
EFFECTS OF PERIODIC OVERLOADS
Heywood (8) attributed the effects of
prestressing to the introduction of com-
load was applied immediately prior to
the start of the fatigue test, and addi-
tional single overloads were applied at
periodic intervals throughout the fatigue
test. The interval was approximately
equal to 10 per cent of the basic fatigue
life of the specimen at the fatigue load
level under consideration. The fatigue
loads were cycled between the preselected
load levels and 14.3 per cent of limit load.
Table IV lists the fatigue load levels,
the intervals between overloads, the
number of fatigue cycles to failure, the

TABLE v.—RESULTS OF CONSTANT-LOAD-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE TESTS WITH

PRELOADING TO 100 PER CENT OF LIMIT LOAD AND PERIODIC UNDERLOADING
TO 25 P E R CENT OF LIMIT LOAD.
Loads cycled between 14.3 per cent of limit load and indicated load levels.

Load Level,
Test Series Specimen per cent of Interval, cycles Fatigue Cycles
to Failure
Deviation from
Mean, per cent
limit load

126 100 238 2 125 1

U-1 • 127 100 238 2 099 1
Geometric m e a n 100 238 2 110

124 80 573 7 049 -12

U-2 ] 125 80 573 9 063 14
I Geometric mean 80 573 7 980

120 60 2 601 27 671 11

121 60 2 601 22 650 9
U-3 \
1 Geometric m e a n 60 2 601 25 000

122 40 34 637 164 156 -19

123 40 34 637 248 638 23
U-4 • Geometric m e a n 40 34 637 202 000

pressive residual stresses. He conjectured deviations from the geometric mean at

that these residual stresses diminish
gradually during fatigue cycling and
that by applying overstresses at periodic
intervals during the fatigue process, the
residual stresses could be restored. Hey-
wood showed that this technique led to
substantially greater effects than pre-
stressing.
A series of fatigue tests was conducted
to investigate the effect of periodic over-
loads on the constant-load-amplitude
fatigue lives of the beam specimens.
The overload level employed was 100
per cent of limit load. One cycle of over-
each load level, and the results for test
series B-1 (Table III) with every 221st
load cycle considered as an overload.
Specimens 206 and 207 failed under
the application of an overload; all other
specimens failed at the fatigue load level
except specimen 209, which did not fail.
A comparison of Tables II, III, and
IV confirms Heywood's contention since,
in general, it shows that when preloading
is beneficial periodic overloading is more
beneficial, and when preloading is detri-
mental, so is periodic overloading.
262 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

EFFECTS OF PERIODIC UNDERLOADING cycling between 25 and 14.3 per cent of

Some tests were conducted to explore
the possibility of obtaining increased
fatigue lives through a combination of
periodic underloading and preloading.
Beam specimens were subjected to a
preload of 100 per cent of limit load and
then fatigue tested with loads cycling
between designated load levels and 14.3
limit load. The intervals were approxi-
mately equal to 10 per cent of the fatigue
life of the preloaded specimens.
Table V lists the fatigue load levels,
the intervals between underloading, the
number of fatigue load cycles to failure,
and the deviations from the mean at
each fatigue load level.

100

90

80
v^
a
o
'^^^
^ 70
\ x^^ Overlooded
" 60
\ >.
C
u ^ N^v
fc.

o. \\ x
\
Bosic \ . Prelooded

uncertointy in load fPrelooded

v-Moximum un
~\ond underlooded

/'^-Moximum »cott»r in li(«

30
10'
10*
Cycles to failure

FIG. 8.—Comparison of S-N Curves for Beam Specimens Subjected to Various Treatments.
Minimum Load: 14.3 Per Cent of Limit Load.

TABLE VI.—COMPREHENSIVE The effect of the underloading may

SPECTRUM, 20-HR BLOCK.
be evaluated by comparing Tables III
Load Range, per cent of XT u t r- \ and V. This comparison reveals no con-
limit load N""'''" °f Cycles sistent effect of periodic underloading
14.3 to 115 1 per lifetime in that no significant changes in fatigue
14.3 to 100 3 per block life occur as a result of cycling at 25
14.3 to 85 17 per block
14.3 to 70 65 per block per cent of limit load.
14.3 to 55 172 per block The number of underload cycles in-
14.3 to 40 283 per block volved in these tests was far too small
14.3 to 25 1000 per block
14.3 to 0 1000 per block to qualify properly as coaxing, which
14.3 to -14.3 280 per block can improve the fatigue strengths of
14.3 to -28.6 3 per block
some materials (9); however, 7075-T6
aluminum alloy is relatively unaffected
per cent of limit load. At equal intervals by coaxing (10).
during each fatigue test the specimen The relative effects of preloading,
was subjected to 100 applications of load overloading, and underloading on the
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF B E A M SPECIMENS 263

fatigue properties of the beam specimens SPECTRUM FATIGUE TESTS

under positive loads are shown in Fig.
8, in which smooth curves are faired
through the mean lives given in Tables
TABLE VII.—TEST SPECTRUMS,
20-HR BLOCKS.
Loads cycled between 14.3 per cent of limit load
and indicated load levels.
Load Level,
Spectrum per cent of
limit load
Six test spectrums were used, all being
variations of the comprehensive aircraft
spectrum given in Table VI. This tabu-
lation represents an early spectrum pre-
pared by the Bureau of Naval Weapons.
Each block was intended to simulate
the loads experienced by a military air-
Cycles per Block TABLE VIII.—RESULTS OF SPECTRUM
FATIGUE TESTS.

f 100
85
3
17 Spectrum Specimen
Blocks
to
Deviation
from
1 Failure Mean,
70 65 per cent
55 172
i [ 128 361 35
1 100 3
1 129 220 -18
85 17 130 242 -10
70 65 Geometric m e a n 268
55 172 i
i 40 283
f 134 141 -13

f 100 3 2 J 135 155 -4

136 196 21
j 85 17 Geometric m e a n 162
3 J 70 65 i
1 55 172
40 283
( 203 126 -5
1I 25 1000
3 \ 204
Geometric m e a n
138
132
5

f
I
100 3 r 139 170 40
85 17

' 1
4 220 86 -29
70 65 Geometric m e a n 121
55 172 i
1 0 1000
-14.3 280
f 138 129 34
I 5 304
305
68
102
-29
6
100 3 Geometric m e a n 96
85 17 i
5 , 70 65 r 131 193 -13
55 172
-14.3 280
6 J 132 282 27
133 202 -9
-28.6 3 Geometric m e a n 222
i
i 115 1»
100 3
6 85 17 craft during a typical 20-hr interval of
70 65 its service life. This spectrum is now
55 172
considered obsolete.
" Prior to start of test. The spectrum fatigue tests were used
to study the effects of the various steps
II to V. Also shown in the figure are the in the spectrum in order to determine
maximum scatter observed in life (test which of them must be included in spec-
series P-4, Table III) and the maximum trum fatigue tests that are intended to
uncertainty in load (6 per cent). For provide estimates of aircraft service life.
most of the test data the scatter and The load levels and the cycles per
the uncertainty were considerably block at each load level for the six spec-
smaller than these maximum values. trums used are given in Table VII. Load
264 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
was cycled between the designated load
levels and 14.3 per cent of limit load.
Within each block the load levels were
applied in descending order from the
highest to the lowest (or most negative)
level. Some effects of this sequence of
load application are discussed in Ap-
pendix I.'
The results of the spectrum tests are
given in Table VIII. Each specimen
failed at 100 per cent of limit load within
the first three cycles of the block fol-
lowing the completed number of blocks
to failure shown in the table.
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS SPECTRUM
LOAD LEVELS
The desire to eliminate unnecessary
load levels from a test spectrum is based
upon the need to minimize the time re-
quired for testing. The apparatus re-
quired to conduct programmed tests
involving, say, eight load levels is not
significantly more complex nor more
costly than that needed for four load
levels.
The basic test spectrum (spectrum 1,
Table VII) consists of four load levels
ranging from 100 to 55 per cent of limit
load; the mean fatigue life of the beam
specimens under this spectrum was 268
blocks.
The 40 and 25 Per Cent of Limit Load
Levels:
Spectrum 2 is identical with spectrum
1 except that it includes one more load
level, 40 per cent of limit load. The mean
fatigue life under spectrum 2 was found
to be 162 blocks, 60 per cent of the life
under spectrum 1. This indicates that
the 40 per cent of limit load step is
rather damaging and that its omission
from the test spectrum results in un-
realistically high estimates of service life.
Spectrum 3 is identical with spectrum
' See p . 270.
2 except that it includes still another
load level, 25 per cent of limit load.
Table VIII shows that the mean life
under spectrum 3 is further reduced to
only 49 per cent of the mean life under
spectrum 1. When this result is viewed
in terms of the scatter in the test data,
however, it appears that the additional
decrement in life may be a manifestation
of the scatter rather than a real attribute
of the 25 per cent of limit load step.
Additional test data would be required
to make this determination with cer-
tainty. Even if the 25 per cent of limit
load step does reduce the spectrum fa-
tigue life, the degree of reduction may
not be sufficiently serious to warrant
the additional testing time required by
its inclusion in the test spectrum.
Zero and Negative Load Levels:
Table VII shows that spectrums 4
and 5 are the same as spectrum 1 except
that they include load cycles to zero
and negative load levels. Table VIII
shows that the inclusion of these steps
reduced the life of the beam specimens
to 45 and 36 per cent of the mean life
under spectrum 1.
If these results are considered together
with the results of the periodic over-
loading tests, it is seen that when high
positive load levels and low negative
load levels are both present in a test
spectrum, each acts to reduce the fatigue
life under the other. In test series 0-5
(Table IV) occasional loadings to 100
per cent of limit load reduced the fa-
tigue life at —28.6 per cent of limit load
by introducing detrimental residual ten-
sile stresses into the subsequent failure
surface. Under spectrums 4 and 5 the
regular application of load cycles to
small negative load levels reduced the
fatigue life under high positive loads,
presumably by causing the beneficial
residual compressive stresses, which were
introduced into the subsequent failure
 MoRDriN AND HALSEY ON FATIGUE TESTS
surface by the high positive loads, to de-
cay more rapidly.
The latter result is similar to that
which is obtained with gust-load spec-
trums and with ground-to-air-to-ground
cycles, which include zero and negative
load levels. Wallgren (11), for example,
showed that when positive and negative
gust loads below the nominal fatigue
FIG. 9.—Typical Failures of Beam Specimens Tested at (o) Higher Load Levels and (6) Lower
Load Levels.
limit are added to an otherwise complete
maneuver and gust loads spectrum, the
fatigue life is reduced by about 20 per
cent. Schijve and Jacobs (12) believe that
this effect is, on the average, closer to
50 per cent. Payne (7) showed that the
addition of periodic negative loads re-
duced spectrum fatigue life significantly.
These results support the recommen-
dation made by Lundberg and Eggwirtz
(13) that, although maneuver loads are
the most important for fighter aircraft,
gust loads should be included in the
test spectrum.
or BEAM SPECIMENS 265
The relative closeness of the lifetime
reductions obtained with spectrums 4
and 5 suggests that the major portion of
the damage done by the zero and nega-
tive load levels is due to the —14.3 per
cent of limit load level, which is common
to both spectrums. However, the test
results are inadequate to confirm this
premise.
The 115 Per Cent of Limit Load Preload:
The effect of a preload of 115 per cent
of limit load on the fatigue life under
the basic 4-level spectrum may be evalu-
ated by comparing the results for spec-
trums 1 and 6. It is seen that the preload
reduced the mean fatigue life from 268
to 222 blocks (17 per cent); this reduc-
tion loses meaning, however, when com-
pared with the variations in fatigue life
obtained from specimen to specimen.
Swartz and Rosenfeld (14) tested full-
scale 7075-T6 aircraft structures under
266 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

a similar 4-level spectrum with and
without a preload to 115 per cent of
limit load. Their results show a 16.5
per cent increase in fatigue life with the
preload, but here, too, the variations in
lifetime from specimen to specimen make
this conclusion questionable.
loading, (joing a step further, Schijve
and Jacobs (12) feel that high loads oc-
curring with a frequency of less than
about ten in the anticipated life should
not be included in the test spectrum.
DESCRIPTION OF FAILURES

These findings are in agreement with Typical failed specimens are shown
the effects of preloading discussed earlier. in Fig. 9. Failures at the higher load
The 4-level spectrum is essentially a levels (150, 100, and 80 per cent of limit
maneuver-loads spectrum which consists load) were similar to that of Fig. 9(a),
of load levels that are relatively high while those at the lower load levels were
compared with the preload. Under these similar to that of Fig. 9(6). Nearly all
failures occurred at the center of the
TABLE IX.—COMPARISON OF TEST specimen or at one rivet spacing away
RESULTS WITH P R E D I C T E D FATIGUE
LIVES UNDER SPECTRUMS 1 AND 2.
from the center.
Frequent inspections usually did not
Blocks to reveal the presence of fatigue cracks
Failure
Reference prior to failure. In the few cases where
Spec- Spec- cracks were detected, at least 93 per cent
trum 1 trum 2
of the ultimate life had elapsed.
Test results Table VIII 268 162 COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH
Linear rule 43 37 PREDICTED FATIGUE LIVES
Tangent (2) 60 60
M u n s e et al (17) 23 21 Numerous theories of cumulative fa-
Gatts (18) 39 37 tigue damage have been proposed. Sev-
Valluri (19) 48 44
66 60
eral of these were used to predict the
Liu-Corten (20)
Henry (21) 64 62 fatigue lives of the beam specimens un-
Smith (22) 76 71 der spectrums 1 and 2. Some details of
Modified Liu-
Corten Appendix I I 181 178
the calculations involved in making the
predictions are discussed in Appendix
11.^ Comparisons of the predicted lives
conditions preloading has a relatively with the test results are given in Table
small effect; however, if the spectrum IX.
contained lower load levels, of the order Insufficient data were available for
of gust loads, or if a higher preload had predictions based on the theories of
been employed, a distinct improvement Richart and Newmark (23), Marco and
in life probably would have been ob- Starkey (24), and Freudenthal and Heller
served as a result of preloading. (25). The method proposed by Manson,
Nicole (15) has expressed the convic- Nachtigall, and Freche (26) is inappli-
tion that the demonstration of sufficient cable.
fatigue resistance should be made with- With the exception of the modified
out the benefits of preloading. Shanley Liu-Corten method, all of the theories
(16) recommended that any beneficial are highly conservative with respect to
loading which is expected to occur but spectrums 1 and 2. Even more significant
once in the life of an aircraft should be is the fact that none of the theories, in-
ignored because of the possibility that
certain aircraft will not experience this ' See p. 270.
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF B E A M
eluding the modified Liu-Corten, prop-
erly accounts for the damage of the 40
per cent of limit load step, which is the
difference between spectrums 1 and 2.
The test results show a reduction in life
of 40 per cent as a result of this step,
while the best prediction of this reduc-
tion (linear rule) is only 14 per cent.
These findings should not be sur-
prising. Most damage theories do not
properly account for the beneficial ef-
fects of the residual compressive stresses
that are introduced by high positive load
levels. Therefore, the theories are con-
servative when applied to spectrums 1
and 2, which consist solely of high posi-
tive load levels.
As suggested earlier, the addition of
negative load levels to a spectrum causes
the residual stresses to decay and thereby
reduces their beneficial effects. Hence,
the theories might be expected to pro-
vide more accurate life predictions when
applied to spectrums consisting of both
positive and negative load levels. The
drawback is that most theories, including
the Liu-Corten, do not contain provision
for handling both positive and negative
load levels.
These considerations suggest that, al-
though a theory may give a safe pre-
diction for fatigue life under spectrum
loading, it is not necessarily capable of
evaluating the relative effects of the in-
dividual load levels in the spectrum.
CONCLUSIONS
The bending fatigue properties of a
7075-T6 built-up beam specimen were
found to bear similarities to the fatigue
properties of certain typical full-scale
aircraft structures. Also, the fatigue be-
havior of the beam specimen is notably
insensitive to minor variations in testing
technique and material.
The test results warrant the following
conclusions regarding the constant-load-
SPECIMENS 267
amplitude fatigue properties of the beam
specimens:
1. Preloading at 100 per cent of limit
load improved the fatigue life of the
specimens at fatigue load levels of 60
per cent of limit load or less, provided
the preload was applied in the same di-
rection as the subsequent fatigue loads.
The effect of this preloading was negli-
gible or slightly detrimental to fatigue
life under load levels of 80 per cent of
limit load or higher. When the preload
and the fatigue loads were applied in
opposite directions a reduction in life
resulted.
2. Periodic overloading at 100 per cent
of limit load affected the fatigue prop-
erties in the same way as preloading did,
only more so. Specifically, under condi-
tions in which preloading was beneficial,
periodic overloading was more beneficial,
and where preloading was ineffective or
detrimental, so was periodic overloading.
3. Periodic underloading at 25 per
cent of limit load with a relatively small
number of cycles produced no significant
changes in the fatigue life under fatigue
loads applied in the same direction as
the underloading.
Spectrum fatigue tests were carried
out on the beam specimens using several
variations of the comprehensive spec-
trum in Table VI. The test results justify
the following conclusions regarding the
necessity of including all of the load
levels in spectrum fatigue tests which
are intended to provide estimates of
service life.
1. The 40 per cent of limit load step
caused significant damage, and its in-
clusion in the test spectrum is necessary.
2. The 25 per cent of limit load step
was less damaging, and under certain
conditions its omission from the test
spectrum may be justified.
3. The zero and negative load levels
268 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
were severely damaging, but there is
reason to suspect that most of this dam-
age may be attributed primarily to the
— 14.3 per cent of limit load level.
4. Preloading at 115 per cent of limit
load did not significantly affect fatigue
life under a truncated spectrum con-
sisting solely of high positive load levels
(55 to 100 per cent of limit load).
None of the currently available theo-
ries of cumulative fatigue damage was
adequate for the dual purpose of pre-
dicting fatigue life under spectrum load-
ing and evaluating the effects of indi-
vidual load levels in a spectrum.
APPENDIX I
EFFECTS OF LOADING SEQUENCE IN PROGRAMMED SPECTRUM
FATIGUE TESTS
In what sequence should the load levels
in each block of a test spectrum be applied
in order to simulate service fatigue most
closely? Probably a random sequence is best.
However, limitations of testing equipment
frequently require that a programmed
sequence be used. In this case, the problem
is reduced to selecting a programmed se-
quence that produces fatigue damage at a
rate approximately equal to the rate at which
a random sequence produces damage.
Selecting a programmed sequence that
meets this requirment is extremely complex,
if not impossible, with the present state of
knowledge. Approaching this problem on an
analytical basis, Rosenthal (27) examined the
residual stresses that are introduced by the
high load levels of the spectrum and the
decay of these stresses at the other load
levels. His findings indicate that the desired
sequence depends on the exact spectrum and
test specimen under consideration.
This unhappy conclusion has inadvert-
ently been confirmed experimentally. Con-
sider, for example, the extreme types of
programmed sequences, namely, those in
which the loads in each block are applied
in ascending order of magnitude and those
in which they are applied in descending
A cknowledgments:
The research program described in
this paper was carried out at the National
Bureau of Standards under the sponsor-
ship and with the financial assistance of
the Bureau of Naval Weapons.
The authors acknowledge the contri-
butions of Silas Katz, who prepared the
basic design of the pneumatic system
for the fatigue testing machine; Richard
H. Harwell, Jr., who patiently fabricated
and refabricated parts for the machine;
and Thomas A. Robusto, Jr., Howard
W. Stone, Jr., Philip Granum, and
Thomas D. Field, Jr., who assisted in
the performance of some of the tests.
order. Schijve and Jacobs (12) found the
descending sequence to be more damaging
than the ascending sequence. Freudenthal
and Heller (28) reached the same conclusion
and also showed that both of these sequences
were more damaging than their random
sequences. On the other hand, Naumann,
Hardrath, and Guthrie (29) found the ascend-
ing sequence more damaging than the de-
scending one, with their random sequences
being intermediately damaging. All of these
investigators worked with gust-load spec-
trums and specimens fabricated from 7075-
T6 aluminum alloy. The most likely con-
clusion is that the disparity in their results
stemmed from differences in their spectrums
and specimen designs.
Payne (7), Kuhn (30), and others have
expressed the viewpoint that whatever the
effect of sequence may be, it would become
smaller as the block size is reduced. Un-
fortunately the available facts do not sup-
port this. The test results reported by
Schijve and Jacobs (12), Naumann, Hard-
rath, and Guthrie (29), and Gassner (31) show
no systematic variation of the sequence
effect with block size.
A sizeable effort, both analytical and ex-
perimental, would be required to establish a
practical understanding of the sequence
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E TESTS OF B E A M SPECIMENS 269

40 60

Blocks to failure

FIG. 10.—Effect of Assumed Value of Fatigue Limit on Predicted Life Under Spectrum 1 Accord-
ing to Valluri (19).

100 F50 200

Blocks to foiture

FIG. 11.—Effect of Assumed Value of d on Predicted Fatigue Life Under Spectrum 1 According
to Liu and Corten (20).
270 SYMPOSIUM ON FATIGUE OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

effect. A better approach would be to con- capable of applying loads of preselected

centrate on the development of apparatus spectrums in random sequences.

APPENDIX II
CALCULATION OF PREDICTED FATIGUE LIVES
These comments refer to the predictions where:
of fatigue life given in Table IX. The follow-
ing interpolations of Fig. 6 were used in 5 = load level,
applying the linear damage rule. .S'l = the highest load level in spectrum,
Sg = the endurance limit, and
K = a. constant.
Load Level, per cent Fatigue Life,
of limit load cycles In the calculations this term was set equal
85. 5 200 to unity, resulting in predicated fatigue lives
70. 8 300 which are closer to the actual ones.
55. 15 600 The Liu-Corten method (20) contains a
constant, d, which, according to its de-
The following interpolations of the pre- velopers, ". . . may be obtained most simply
loaded curve in Fig. 8 were used in applying from a two-stress-level repeated block
Smith's method (22). fatigue experiment of the component or
full-size structure." Accordingly, the con-
Load Level, per cent Fatigue Life, stant, d, was computed from the results of
of limit load cycles
test series 0-2, 0-3, and U-1, and produced
85 4 350 the following values:
70 17 000
55 43 000 Test Series
0-2 4.17
The constant fi for Munse's method (17) 0-3 8.25
U-1 1.58
was calculated to be 0.51 for spectrum 1 and Average. 4.67
0.56 for spectrum 2.
The methods of Gatts (18), Valluri (19), A value of 4.7 was used to predict the fa-
and Henry (21) require use of a fatigue limit. tigue lives shown in Table IX for the Liu-
The effect of fatigue limit on the fatigue life Corten method.
under spectrum 1 as predicted by one of The feeling has been expressed, however,
these methods (19) is shown in Fig. 10. It is that a two-stress-level experiment may not
seen that the prediction improves as the provide the best value of d for spectrum
fatigue limit increases. While it is doubtful fatigue life predictions. In fact, Swartz and
that a true fatigue limit exists for the beam Rosenfeld (32) showed that a value of 8.25
specimens, a value of 35 per cent of limit gave reasonable predictions for a variety of
load was used on the basis of Fig. 8. full-scale aircraft structures under spectrum
The damage function in Valluri's method loadings. The predictions shown in Table I X
(19) contains the following term among for the modified Liu-Corten method were
others: calculated by using a value of 8.25 instead of
4.7 for d.
5, - S, The variation of the predicted fatigue
In life with d is given in Fig. 11 for spectrum 1.
K
For a predicted life of 268 blocks under
5 - Se spectrum \, d = 10.3; with this value the
In
K predicted life under spectrum 2 is 266 blocks.
 MORDFIN AND H A L S E Y ON F A T I G U E T E S T S OF BEAM SPECIMENS
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271
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(15) W. Nicole, "Some Results of Fatigue Tests
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272 DISCUSSION ON FATIGUE T E S T S OF BEAM SPECIMENS
(26) S. S. Manson, A. J. Nachtigall, and J. C.
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DISCUSSION
M R . R . L . BENEDICTO.I—Table V I I I
of the paper shows a large decrease in
life from spectrum 1 to 2. These are the
same spectra as used in the Rosenfeld
paper on "Aircraft Structural Fatigue
Research in the Navy."^ In Rosenfeld's
paper, however, an increase in life from
spectrum 1 to 2 is shown. Could the
authors comment on the reasons for the
difference?
Ms. LEONARD MORDFIN (author).—
The answer to the apparent discrepancy
in the effect of spectrums 1 and 2 in the
two papers is that although the spec-
trums are defined the same in terms of
limit load, limit load is defined differ-
ently in the two papers. Mr. Rosenfeld
called limit load the manufacturer's de-
' Senior Structures Engineer, Republic
-\viation Corp., Farmingdale, L. I., N. Y.
2 See p. 216.
Variable-Amplitude Loads," NASA TN
D-212, D e c , 1959.
(30) P. Kuhn, "Fatigue Engineering in Aircraft
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(31) E. Gassner, "Performance Fatigue Testing
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.\. M. Freudenthal, Academic Press, New
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(32) R. P. Swartz and M. S. Rosenfeld, "Vari-
able Amplitude Fatigue Characteristics of
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Report No. NAMATCEN-ASL-1023, Part
II, Sept. 18, 1961.
sign limit load, which was approximately
57 per cent of ultimate static strength;
we have defined limit load as 67 per cent
of ultimate static strength. Therefore,
the load levels applied in the two series
of tests are not the same. The conclusion
derived from the two series of tests is
that adding cycles of 22.8 per cent of
ultimate static strength did not affect
the fatigue life of the horizontal tail,
while adding cycles of 26.8 per cent of
ultimate static strength caused a sig-
nificant reduction in the life of the beam
specimens.
M R . C . R . SMITH.^—Regarding loss in
life due to negative loading, I have data
showing high negative loads improve
life.
' Fatigue Laboratory, General Dynamics/
Convair, San Diego, Calif.
 i H I S PUBLICATION is one of many
issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials
in connection with its work of promoting knowledge
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