FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

Fundamentals of Mathematics is designed for the student who needs to improve or review basic math
skills and concepts. This course includes computation using integers, fractions, decimals, proportions
and percent, along with an overview of measurement, geometry, statistics and linear equations.
Fundamentals of Math provides the mathematical foundation upon which subsequent studies in
mathematics and other areas depend.

This module will help the student develop the insight and intuition necessary to master arithmetic
techniques and manipulative skills. It was written with the following main objectives:

1. to provide the student with an understandable and usable source of information,

2. to provide the student with the maximum opportunity to see that arithmetic concepts and
techniques are logically based,
3. to instill in the student the understanding and intuitive skills necessary to know how and when to
use arithmetic concepts in subsequent material, courses, and no classroom situations, and
4. to give the student the ability to correctly interpret arithmetically obtained results.
BASIC TERMS AND RULES IN MATHEMATICS

Counting numbers- numbers that we use in counting; also called natural numbers. Using the roster
method, N= (1,2, 3,4, 5.)
Whole numbers-Consists of zero and the counting numbers. Again, using the roster method, W=0,
1,2,3, 4, 5,
Integers- Consists of the counting numbers, their negatives, and zero. Using the roster method, ={..-
2,-1,0, 1,2, 3, 4, 5.)
Operation on Integers
I. Addition
Like Signs- add the absolute values, and prefix the negative sign if the addends are negative

Unlike Signs – get the absolute values of the numbers and subtract the smaller absolute value of the
numbers and subtract the smaller absolute value from the other and prefix the negative sign if the
negative addend has the larger absolute value.

Examples: -5+(-6) = -11 4+(-9) = -(9-4) = -5

3+7 = 7-3= 4

II. Subtraction - -If the minuend and subtrahend are both positive and the minuend is greater than
the subtrahend, proceed to subtrahend forthwith Otherwise, change the sign of the supposed
subtrahend and proceed as in addition
e.g.
8-3=5
4-5-4-(5) =-1
III. Multiplication (Division) to multiply (o divide) two integers with

Like signs-get the product (or quotient of their absolute values

Unlike signs get the negative of the product

(Or quotient of their absolute values eg-5x-4= 20 3x (2) =6 12-(-3) =-4

Divisibility Rule
A divisibility rule is a kind of shortcut that helps us to identify if a given integer is divisible by a divisor
by examining its digits, without performing the whole division process. Multiple divisibility rules can be
applied to the same number which can quickly determine its prime factorization. A divisor of a number
is an integer that completely divides the number without leaving any remainder.
Divisibility by
Divisibility Rule
number
A number is even or a number whose last digit is an
Divisible by 2
even number i.e., 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8.
The sum of all the digits of the number should be
Divisible by 3
divisible by 3.
Number formed by the last two digits of the number
Divisible by 4
should be divisible by 4 or should be 00.
Divisible by 5 Numbers having 0 or 5 as there one’s place digit.
Divisibility by
Divisibility Rule
number
Divisible by 6 A number that is divisible by both 2 and 3.
Subtracting twice the last digit of the number from the
Divisible by 7
remaining digits gives a multiple of 7
Number formed by the last three digits of the number
Divisible by 8
should be divisible by 8 or should be 000.
The sum of all the digits of the number should be
Divisible by 9
divisible by 9.
Divisible by 10 Any number whose one’s place digit is 0.
The difference of the sums of the alternative digits of a
Divisible by 11
number is divisible by 11.
Divisible by 12 A number that is divisible by both 3 and 4.

Prime & Composite Numbers

Definition: A prime number is a whole number with exactly two integral divisors, 1 and itself.
The number 1 is not a prime, since it has only one divisor. (1 is unique)
So, the smallest prime numbers are: 2,3,5,7, ⋯

The number 4 is not prime, since it has three divisors (1, 2 , and 4 ), and 6 is not prime, since it has
four divisors ( 1 , 2 , 3 , and 6 ).

Definition: A composite number is a whole number with more than two integral divisors.
So, all whole numbers (except 0 and 1) are either prime or composite.
Example:
43 is prime since its only divisors are 1 and 43.
44 is composite, since it has 1,2,4,11,22 and 44 as divisors.

Factors
"Factors" are the numbers you multiply together to get another number:

Prime Factorization
"Prime Factorization" is finding which prime numbers multiply together to make the original number.
example:
What are the prime factors of 12?

It is best to start working from the smallest prime number, which is 2, so let's check:
12 ÷ 2 = 6

Yes, it divided exactly by 2. We have taken the first step!

But 6 is not a prime number, so we need to go further. Let's try 2 again:

6÷2=3

Yes, that worked also. And 3 is a prime number, so we have the answer:
12 = 2 × 2 × 3

As you can see, every factor is a prime number, so the answer must be right.

Note: 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 can also be written using exponents as 12 = 22 × 3

Another Method
We showed you how to do the factorization by starting at the smallest prime and working upwards.
But sometimes it is easier to break a number down into any factors you can. then work those factors
down to primes.
Example: What are the prime factors of 90 ?
Break 90 into 9 × 10
The prime factors of 9 are 3 and 3
The prime factors of 10 are 2 and 5
So, the prime factors of 90 are 3, 3, 2 and 5
Factor Tree
And a "Factor Tree" can help find any factors of the number, then the factors of those numbers, etc,
until we can't factor any more.
 And a "Factor Tree" can help find any factors
of the number, then the factors of those
numbers, etc, until we can't factor any more.

Greatest Common Factor (GCF)

The greatest common factor (GCF or GCD or HCF) of a set of whole numbers is the largest positive
integer that divides evenly into all numbers with zero remainder. For example, for the set of numbers
18, 30 and 42 the GCF = 6.

Method 1: Use a list of factors to find the GCF

This method for finding the GCF is quicker when you’re dealing with smaller numbers. To find the
GCF of a set of numbers, list all the factors of each number. The greatest factor appearing on every
list is the GCF. For example, to find the GCF of 6 and 15, first list all the factors of each number.

Factors of 6: 1, 2, 3, 6
Factors of 15: 1, 3, 5, 15
Because 3 is the greatest factor that appears on both lists, 3 is the GCF of 6 and 15.

Method 2: Use prime factorization to find the GCF

You can use prime factorization to find the GCF of a set of numbers. This often works better for large
numbers, where generating lists of all factors can be time-consuming.

Here’s how to find the GCF of a set of numbers using prime factorization:
For example, suppose you want to find the GCF of 28, 42, and 70. Step 1 says to list the prime
factors of each number. Step 2 says to circle every prime factor that’s common to all three numbers
(as shown in the following figure).
As you can see, the numbers 2 and 7 are common factors of all three numbers. Multiply these circled
numbers together:

2 · 7 = 14

Thus, the GCF of 28, 42, and 70 is 14.

The Least Common Multiple (LCM) is also referred to as the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) and
Least Common Divisor (LCD). For two integers a and b, denoted LCM(a,b), the LCM is the smallest
positive integer that is evenly divisible by both a and b. For example, LCM (2,3) = 6 and LCM(6,10) =
30.

The LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number that is evenly divisible by all numbers in the
set.

Listing Multiples Method

A common multiple of two numbers is a number that is a multiple of both numbers. Suppose we want
to find common multiples of 10 and 25
We can list the first several multiples of each number. Then we look for multiples that are common to
both lists—these are the common multiples.
10 :10, 20,30, 40 ,50, 60 ,70, 80 ,90, 100 , 110…
25: 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 …
We see that 50 and 100 appear in both lists. They are common multiples of 10 and 25. We would find
more common multiples if we continued the list of multiples for each.
The smallest number that is a multiple of two numbers is called the least common multiple (LCM). So,
the least LCM of 10 and 25 is 50

Prime Factors Method

Another way to find the least common multiple of two numbers is to use their prime factors. We’ll use
this method to find the LCM of 1212 and 1818.
We start by finding the prime factorization of each number.
12=2⋅2⋅318=2⋅3⋅312=2⋅2⋅318=2⋅3⋅3
Then we write each number as a product of primes, matching primes vertically when possible.
12=2⋅2⋅318=2⋅3⋅312=2⋅2⋅318=2⋅3⋅3
Now we bring down the primes in each column. The LCM is the product of these factors.

Notice that the prime factors of 1212 and the prime factors of 1818 are included in the LCM. By
matching up the common primes, each common prime factor is used only once. This ensures
that 3636 is the least common multiple.
Fraction
a. Part of a whole
b. Indicated division
c. ration
Fractions represent equal parts of a whole or a collection.
Fraction of a whole: When we divide a whole into equal parts, each part is a fraction of the whole.

Kinds of Fractions
As to the relation between the numerator and the denominator

a. Proper-the numerator is less than the denominator e.g., 3/4 b.

b. Improper-the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator. e.g., 5/3

As to the relation of the denominators of two or more fractions

a. Similar the denominators are equal e. g 2/5 and 4/5
b. Dissimilar-the denominators are not equal e.g.,3/7 and 4/9

Other classes
Equivalent fractions- having the same value e.g., 3/7 and 9/21
Mixed composed of a whole number and a proper fraction (e.g., 5 ¼ )

Rules involving Zero

a. Zero numerator and non-zero denominator -the value is zero

b. Zero denominator- no value, undefined
C. Zero value - the numerator is zero

Fraction Operations
To add (or subtract) two fractions:
1) Find the least common denominator.
2) Write both original fractions as equivalent fractions with the least common denominator.
3) Add (or subtract) the numerators.
4) Write the result with the denominator.
To multiply two fractions:

1) Multiply the numerator by the numerator.

2) Multiply the denominator by the denominator.
For all real numbers a, b, c, d (b≠0, d≠0)

To divide by a fraction, multiply by its reciprocal.

For all real numbers a, b, c, d(b≠0, c≠,d≠0)

Mixed numbers can be written as an improper fraction and an improper fraction can be written as a
mixed number.
A fraction is in lowest terms when the numerator and denominator have no common factor other
than. To write a fraction in lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by the greatest
common factor

Decimal
In algebra, a decimal number can be defined as a number whose part and the fractional part is
separated by a decimal point. The dot in a decimal number is called a. The digits following the
decimal point show a value smaller than on

Adding and Subtracting Decimals

Adding and subtracting decimals is easy if you're comfortable with carrying and borrowing. Just line
up the decimal points, and (if necessary) add zeros to the end of one number, so they have the same
number of decimal places. Then add (or subtract) as you usually would.

In your answer, the decimal point should go exactly below where it is in the numbers being added (or
subtracted).

Multiplying and Dividing with Decimals

Multiplying Decimals
To multiply decimals, first just multiply the numbers as if they were whole numbers. (Don't line up the
decimal points!)

Dividing with Decimals

Dividing with decimals is a bit more difficult. These days, most teachers don't mind much if you use a
calculator. But it's good to know how to do it yourself, too, and you always need to be good at
estimating the answer, so you can make sure the calculator's answer is reasonable.

Then count the total number of places to the right of the decimal point in BOTH numbers you're
multiplying. Let's call this number n. In your answer, start from the right and move n places to the left,
and put a decimal point.

Recall that in the problem x ÷ y=z, also written

x is called the dividend, y is the divisor, and z is the quotient.

Step 1: Estimate the answer by rounding. You'll use this estimate to check your answer later.

Step 2: If the divisor is not a whole number, then move the decimal place n places to the right to
make it a whole number. Then move the decimal place in the dividend the same number of places to
the right (adding some extra zeros if necessary.)

Step 3: Divide as usual. If the divisor doesn't go in evenly, add zeros to the right of the dividend and
keep dividing until you get a 0 remainder, or until a repeating pattern shows up.

Step 4: Put the decimal point in the quotient directly above where the decimal point now is in the
dividend.

Step 5: Check your answer against your estimate to see if it's reasonable.

Conversion

How to Convert a Fraction to a Decimal

In a fraction, the fraction bar means "divided by." So, to find the decimal equivalent of a fraction like
1/4 you need to solve the math problem: 1 divided by 4.
1 ÷ 4 = 0.25

How to Turn a Fraction into a Division Problem

Dividing numbers is easy with a calculator. If you need to do long division by hand, put the top
number of the fraction (numerator) inside the division bracket and the bottom number (denominator)
outside, to the left of the division bracket.

The fraction 1/4 becomes 1 ÷ 4. Complete the division to convert the fraction to a decimal.

You can reduce the fraction to lowest terms first to make the long division math a bit easier. For
example, 9/12 = 9 ÷ 12 = 0.75. Using long division to solve this problem by hand or in your head,
reducing 9/12 = 3/4, might make the problem easier. You may even recognize that 3/4 = 0.75
because 3 quarters equals 75 cents.

How to Convert a Decimal to Percent:

Multiply by 100 to convert a number from decimal to percent then add a percent sign %.

Converting from a decimal to a percentage is done by multiplying the decimal value by 100 and
adding %.
Example: 0.10 becomes 0.10 x 100 = 10%
Example: 0.675 becomes 0.675 x 100 = 67.5%

The shortcut to convert from decimal to percent is to move the decimal point 2 places to the right and
add a percent sign.

How to Convert a Percent to a Decimal:

Divide by 100 to convert a percent to a decimal and remove the percent sign %.

Converting from a percent to a decimal is done by removing the percent sign % and dividing the value
by 100.
Example: 15.6% becomes 15.6 / 100 = 0.156
Example: 235% becomes 235 / 100 = 2.35
The shortcut to convert from a percent to a decimal is to move the decimal point 2 places to the left
and remove the percent sign.
Express 0.5 as a percent

The mathematical process in converting a decimal to a percent is as follows:

Convert 0.5 to a percent:
"Percent" means "per 100" or "over 100". So, to convert 0.5 to percent we rewrite 0.5 in terms of "per
100" or over 100.
Multiply 0.5 by 100/100. Since 100/100 = 1, we are only multiplying by 1 and not changing the value
of our number.

0.51×100100=50100
50/100 is 50 over 100 and means 50 per 100.
50 "per 100" means 50 "percent" or 50%.
Therefore, we have shown that
0.5 = 50%

How to Convert a Decimal to a Fraction

Step 1: Make a fraction with the decimal number as the numerator (top number) and a 1 as the
denominator (bottom number).
Step 2: Remove the decimal places by multiplication. First, count how many places are to the right of
the decimal. Next, given that you have x decimal places, multiply numerator and denominator by 10x.
Step 3: Reduce the fraction. Find the Greatest Common Factor (GCF) of the numerator and
denominator and divide both numerator and denominator by the GCF.
Step 4: Simplify the remaining fraction to a mixed number fraction if possible.

Decimal to Fraction
1. For another example, convert 0.625 to a fraction.
2. Multiply 0.625/1 by 1000/1000 to get 625/1000.
3. Reducing we get 5/8.

Convert a Repeating Decimal to a Fraction

1. Create an equation such that x equals the decimal number.
2. Count the number of decimal places, y. Create a second equation multiplying both sides of the
first equation by 10y.
3. Subtract the second equation from the first equation.
4. Solve for x
5. Reduce the fraction.

Ratio and Proportion

Ratio-comparison of two numbers a and b, where b - 0, and expressed as 'a to b", or "a:b or "a/b"
Proportion a statement of equality between two ratios

Given two equal ratios, one comparing a to b and another comparing a to b, the proportion may be
expressed thus:

a: b::c:d, or alternatively, a/b = c/d.

In either of the above forms, a and d are referred to extremes, while b and c are referred to as means.
Note if a/b=c/d its alteration (a/c=b/d) and inversion (b/a=d/c) are both true provided that a, b. c, d = 0

Finding the missing term in a Proportion

We can also use cross products to find a missing term in a proportion. Here's an example. In a horror
movie featuring a giant beetle, the beetle appeared to be 50 feet long. However, a model was used
for the beetle that was really only 20 inches long. A 30-inch-tall model building was also used in the
movie. How tall did the building seem in the movie?

First, write the proportion, using a letter to stand for the missing term. We find the cross products by
multiplying 20 times x, and 50 times 30. Then divide to find x. Study this step closely, because this is
a technique we will use often in algebra. We are trying to get our unknown number, x, on the left side
of the equation, all by itself. Since x is multiplied by 20, we can use the "inverse" of multiplying, which
is dividing, to get rid of the 20. We can divide both sides of the equation by the same number, without
changing the meaning of the equation. When we divide both sides by 20, we find that the building will
appear to be 75 feet tall.

Note that we're using the inverse of multiplying by 20-that is, dividing by 20, to get x alone on one
side

Direct Proportion
The definition of direct proportion states that "When the relationship between two quantities is such
that if we increase one, the other will also increase, and if we decrease one the other quantity will
also decrease, then the two quantities are said to be in a direct proportion". For example, if there are
two quantities x and y where x=number of candies and y=total money spent. If we buy more candies,
we will have to pay more money, and we buy fewer candies then we will be paying less money. So,
here we can say that x and y are directly proportional to each other. It is represented as x ∝ y.

Some real-life examples of direct proportionality are given below:

· The number of food items is directly proportional to the total money spent.
· Work done is directly proportional to the number of workers.
· Speed is in direct proportion to the distance w.r.t a fixed time.
Direct Proportion Formula
The direct proportion formula says if the quantity y is in direct proportion to quantity x, then we can
say y =kx, for a constant k. y=kx is also the general form of the direct proportion equation.

where,

k is the constant of proportionality.

y increases as x increases.
y decreases as x decreases.

Inverse Proportion
The definition of inverse proportion states that "Two quantities are said to be in inverse proportion if
an increase in one lead to a decrease in the other quantity and a decrease in one lead to an increase
in the other quantity". In other words, if the product of both the quantities, irrespective of a change in
their values, is equal to a constant value, then they are said to be in inverse proportion. For example,
let us take the number of workers and the number of days required by them to complete a given
amount of work as x and y respectively.

Numbers of Workers (x) Number of Days Required (y)

16 3
12 4
8 6
4 12

Are the number of workers and the number of days in inverse proportional relation? Let's find out.

Observe the values written in the table carefully. You will find out that for each row, the product of x
and y are the same. That means if there are 16 workers, they will complete the work in 3 days. So,
here x × y = 16 × 3 = 48. Now, we decrease the number of workers, it is obvious that the smaller
number of workers will do the same work in more time. But we see the product of x and y here, it is
12 × 4 = 48. Again, for 8 workers in 6 days, the product is 48. And same for 4 workers in 12 days. So,
the product of two quantities in inverse proportion is always equal.

Inverse Proportion Formula

Inverse proportion formula help in establishing a relationship between two inversely proportional
quantities. Let x and y be two quantities and assume that x is decreasing when y is increasing and
vice versa. Example: The speed is inversely proportional to the time. As the speed increases, the
time taken by us to cover the same distance decreases. Taking speed as y and time as x, we can say
that y is said to be inversely proportional to x and is written mathematically as inverse proportion
formula.

The inverse proportional formula is written as

y =k/x

were

k is the constant of proportionality.

y increases as x decreases.
y decreases as x increases.

Partitive Proportion

Is the partition of a whole into equal or unequal parts based on the ratio
• For example: Ratio of boys to girls is 3:2

If the ratio of boys to girls is 3:2 and the total number of students is 45 How many of each are there?
3x = number of boys
2x= number of girls
=3x+2x=45
=5x=45
=x=9

Percent (%)
Percentage is a term from Latin, meaning ‘out of one hundred’. You can therefore consider each
‘whole’ as broken up into 100 equal parts, each one of which is a single percent.
Example: ¾ =75/100= 75%
Percentage, Base and Rate-In the statement 15 is 30% of 50, three quantities are involved
Percentage (P), Rate (R), and Base (B)
Percentage is that which bears to the base in the same ratio as the rate.
The statement "15 is 30% of 50", is telling us percentage) bears to 50 (the base) in the same ratio as
30% (the ratio) In symbols, 15 = 30% x 50
The basic formula P=RxB, has two other useful forms: R-P/B and B =P/R

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
A. Properties of Real Numbers
1. Closure Property-For any real numbers a and b, a + b and a x b are also real number.
2. Commutative Property For any real numbers a and b ; a+b =b +a and axb=bxa.
3. Associative Property for any real numbers a, b, and c, : (a+b)+c=| a +(b+) and (axb)xc= ax(bxc)
4. Existence of identity Elements-For any real number a, there exist real numbers 0 and 1, such
that a + 0 = a and a x 1 =a.
5. Existence of Inverses-For any real number a, there exists a -a such that a+-a = 0, and a 1/a such
that a x 1/a = 1
6. Distributive Property For any real numbers a, b and c,: a(b +c) = ab+ ac.

Properties of Equality
1. Reflexive-if a is a al number, a=a
2. Symmetric-if a and b are real numbers and a= b, then b= a
3. Transitive-if a, b and c are real numbers and a-b and b = C, then a = c.

Terms to remember
1. Variable-any symbol that is used to represent an element of a set e.g. x,y
2. Domain the set of all elements represented by a particular variable
3. Constant-a symbol with only one element in its domain. e.g. 3, -2, π
4. Algebraic expression a constant, a variable, or any combination of constants and variables
involving indicated operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, or
extraction to a root on them.
e.g., 425x2 -1.30x3- 2xy+ y2-, x-y/4, 2x-1/y
5. Polynomial an algebraic expression consisting only of non-negative Integer powers of
variables, and with no variable in a denominator. Among the examples of the algebraic expression
above, only the last is not a polynomial

6. Term of a polynomial a constant or a constant multiplied by non-negative integer powers of

variables. A polynomial with only 1 item is a monomial polynomial with 2 is a binomial and a
polynomial with 3 is a
trinomial.
e.g -24x y z is a monomial
2x-3y +xy is a trinomial
 7. Numerical Coefficient that constant that is multiplied by the non-negative powers of variables in
a term.
8. Literal Coefficient-the non-negative powers of variables in a term.
e.g. In- 2x2y3, the numeral coefficient is -2, while the Literal Coefficient is x2y3
9. Similar terms-terms with the same literal coefficient If the terms are not similar, they are said to
be dissimilar
10. Degree of a term-sum of the exponents of all variable factors of a term
11. Degree of a polynomial-degree of that term of the polynomial with the highest degree

Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Evaluating algebraic expressions refers to the process of finding the value of the expression upon
substitution of the given values for the respective variables.
e.g.
Evaluate
=X2y3-2y2+ 4 When x = 2a nd y = -1
= (2)2(-1)3 -2(-1)2+4
= 4(-1)-2(1) +4 = -2

Equation- statement expressing the relationship of equality between two quantities

Linear Equations in one variable-an equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0, where a and
b are constants and a is not equal to 0 : e.g. 3x – 4=0, 4-2x = 3x +5

Addition and Subtraction Property of Equality (APE, SPE), If a, b, and c are real numbers and a= b,
then
a +c = b + c
a - c = b - c.

Multiplication and Division Property of Equality (MPE, DPE) If a, b and c are real numbers and a=b,
then
a x c=b x c,
a/c= b/c, provided c is not equal to 0.

Solution of an equation-refers to an element of the domain of the variable that makes the equation
true
Solving Linear Equations refers to the process of finding, using properties of equality, al the solutions
of the equation

Solving Linear Equation

1. Simplify each side of the equation by

a. removing grouping symbols using the distributive law

b. removing fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD of all fractions

2. Use the APE/SPE to have all variables only on one side of the equation and the constants on the
other

3. Use the MPE/DPE to make the numerical coefficient of the variable equal to 1.

Solving Word Problems involving Linear Equation

1. Read the problem carefully

2. Determine what is to be found
3. Choose a variable to represent an unknown usually that which needs to be found.
4. Translate word phrases to algebraic expressions.
5. Formulate the equation.
6. Solve the equation
7. Solve the problem.

Example 1. Three times the sum of a number and five is 21. What is the number?

3(x+5) 21
3x+15- 21
X=2

Example no. 2. Arman is twice as old as Andrea. Two years ago, Arman was three times as old as
Andrea. Find their ages now.
=m=2n
=m-2 = 3(n-2)
=2n-2=3n-6
=4=n