ENGLISH FOR GRAPHIC ARTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Unit I

To SPREAD THE KNOWLEDGE

The spreading of knowledge is an activity that has left its marks in prehistoric caves
and Egyptian tombs, Chinese parchments and Roman tombstones allowing us to have
at our disposal an enormous amount of information, which allows for the
reconstruction of human history.
Once upon a time the Holy Scriptures were transcribed, in ornate handwriting, by
amanuenses, monks of the Middle Ages, in churches and monasteries some of these
books were then enriched with illuminations and miniatures and then artisanal bound.
The art of printmaking and drawing is historically known as "Graphic Arts" and it
can be traced back to the first instances of the stamped image or word. It now refers to
the trade-skills of a pressman, pre-press technician, or typesetter. The term can
include, among others, the trades of lithography, serigraphy and bindery.
Graphic art is the production of a design on a medium, such as rubber or other
materials, in order to transfer the images to the materials of choice as, for instance,
paper, cloth, wood, metals, and plastics etc.

Tang Dynasty and Bi Sheng

Early in the Tang dynasty around about the 7th century, the technique of printing with
carved blocks of wood appeared. It was invented as a way to inscribe thousands of
sheets of rice paper with the name of a beloved Empress so that her people could
never forget her and every sheet of paper was placed on hilltops and shrines all over
China.
Bi Sheng, of the Song dynasty between the years 1041 and 1048, first invented
movable type, invention recorded by his contemporary Sen Koo in his Dreamworld
Essays, and an important contribution to the development of movable type printing
was made by the agriculturist Wang Zheng during the 13-14th centuries.

11
 Movable type was probably first used in Europe in the mid-15th century by
Gutenberg in Germany,
Johannes Gutenberg, in about 1455, invented the movable characters and the
printing press, which had by him been re-adapted from a winepress. This
combination then rapidly spread to the rest of Europe.
This fact marked a revolution for printing and book production.

GLOSSARY

Parchment = pergament tombstone = piatra funerara to

Amount = cantitate
Once upon a time = a fost odată
Handwriting = caligrafie
To bind —bound-bound = a lega
allow = (v) a permite monk =
călugăr
illumination + iluminare mould
= matriţă
to regard = (v) a considera

GRAMMAR FOCUS

ARTICLES
A and AN are the indefinite articles in English. "A" is used before words beginning
with a consonant, "AN" is used before words beginning with a vowel. Eg:

A cat - a door — a girl — a boy But AN elephant — AN angel — AN old house.

THE is the definite article both masculine and feminine, singular and plural. We use
"THE" when it is clear from the situation or context which thing or person we mean
Eg:

/ saw a dog. THE dog I saw was brown.

THE sun is very hot today.
We say Italy, England, Spain but THE U.SA, THE U.K, THE U.E, THE
USSR, THE Netherlands.

12
Exercise 1

Insert A/AN or THE if necessary:

a) ......graffiti in.........prehistoric caves left us a lot of information about

human history.
b) Illuminations used to ornate.... old books..............................books were then
bound.
c) Gutenberg is..........man who invented the printing press.
d) Gutenberg wanted his invention to remain......................secret.
e) After Gutenberg there were no major development in printing until.... Industrial
Revolution.

Exercise 2

Insert THE if necessary:

a) ____Holy Scriptures were transcribed, in ornate handwriting, by

___amanuenses.
b)____amanuenses were monks of________Middle Age.
c) They worked in...............churches and.............monasteries.
d) Johannes Gutenberg, in about 1455, invented____________movable character
and_____printing press.
e) ______printing press was re-adapted by him from a wine-press.

Exercise 3

Translate the following words, then look again at the text and rewrite the sentences
that contain them.

To spread; prehistoric cave; parchments; tombstones; reconstruction; to transcribe;

amanuenses; illumination; miniature; movable character; pressman; pre-press
technician; -skills; empress; rice paper; hilltops; printing-press; book production...

13
Exercise 4

Answer the following questions.

a) What elements help us reconstruct the history of humanity'
b) Where can we find an enormous amount of information?
c) Who were the amanuenses?
d) What enriched some of the books produced?
e) What was invented in about 1455?

Activity

Writing

Translate the following passage.

Once upon a time the Holy Scriptures were transcribed, in ornate handwriting, by
amanuenses, monks of the Middle Age, in churches and monasteries some of these
books were then enriched with illuminations and miniatures and then artisanal bound.
The art of printmaking and drawing is historically known as "Graphic Arts" and it
can be traced back to the first instances of the stamped image or word. It now refers to
the trades kills of a press operator, pre-press technician, or typesetter. The term can
include, among others, the trades of lithography, serigraphy and bindery.
Graphic art is the production of a design on a medium, such as Rubber or other
materials, in order to transfer the images to the materials of choice such as paper,
cloth, wood, metals, etc.

14
Unit II

JOHANNES GUTENBERG

Picture \\Johann (or Johannes) Gdnsfleisch called Gutenberg

Johannes Gutenberg was probably born in Mainz, Germany, in 1398 and died in
1468, he was the son of Friele Gensfleisch vom Hofe zum Gutenberg (after the name
of the family estate) and Else Wirich. His father was responsible for the trade in
precious metals and mining coins. As a matter of fact, Mainz was a very well known
centre for gold and silver work.
He had a good knowledge of Latin and knew a great deal about the classic writers,
but we do not know what education and training he received.
In the autumn of 1438 Gutenberg, who was a German printer and a pioneer,
regarded as the first European to print with hand-set types cast in mould, suggested a
secret plan to his partners.

15
 We only know of a press for wine located at Andrea Dretzin’s place. Shortly after
Dritzen's death, Gutenberg sent a servant there to partially dismantle this press.
The goldsmith Andreas Dunne states that he prepared "matters for printing" for
Gutenberg: tool, mould, lead, and "bits of metal": the cast letters.
Gutenberg was already experimenting in Strasbourg with separate metal letters.
In 1450 Gutenberg took a 800 guilders loan to put his invention into practice.
Between 1452 and 1455, a 42-line Bible was printed in an edition of 180 to 200 copies
of which some 48 still remain, some of them only in part.
Neither the date nor the name of the printer or publisher are mentioned in the book.
Fortunately, we have some sources, which enable us to understand the date. One of
which is a letter from Andrea Silvio Piccolomini, Secretary to Frederik III and also to
the Pope Pius II, which carries the date of 12th March 1455.
Piccolomini writes in his letter that he had seen printed parts of a Bible, probably
between 5th and 31st October 1454 when he visited the Diet in Frankfurt am Main.
On 17th February Gutenberg was received into the court of Archbishop Adolf of
Nassau. He was provided with clothing, grain and wine for the rest of his life.
On 3rd February 1468 Gutenberg died in Mainz. He was buried in the Church of St.
Francis.
The modern printing process caused a revolution in the paper industry and in the
education of the public who, previously had little, if any, access to the few books that
existed. Culture and education were no longer a privilege of the nobles and the
Church, but were accessible to any person interested in them.
The first book: printed was probably the large Latin Bible associated with his name,
as well as some smaller books and leaflets. The Bible, known as Gutenberg Bible,
Mazarin Bible, or 42-line Bible, was probably finished by the end of 1456. Gutenberg
was later forced to give up his press and types to pay off some debts.

16
 Picture 2: Woodblock 1568: the printer on the left is removing a page from the
press while the one on the right inks the text-blocks.

As said above, we have no detailed records of Gutenberg's life and works. The press
here represented is, in fact, an interpretation of Gutenberg's printing press. Nobody
knows exactly what the original looked like since Gutenberg himself made sure his
revolutionary new press invention remained a secret.
The picture represents a full-size, working press built by Steve Pratt of Pratt Wagon
&C Press Works. Steve's reproduction is an extraordinary example of detailed
craftsmanship and is kept at the Crandall Historical Printing Museum in Utah.
Political problems, the sack of Mainz, caused Gutenberg's apprentices to disperse
all over Europe thus spreading the new printing techniques to the various towns
where they settled: Strasburg, Basil, Zurich, Augusta, Ulm, Nurbergh and, in Italy, to
Subiaco where, in 1465 Cicero's "De Oratore" was printed. In Naples, in 1470, Sisto
Riessinger opened the first typography, but it was Aldo Manuzio, in Venice, the first
who substituted the gothic character with which the books were then printed, with the
cursive, or italic type: the "Aldino".

17
GLOSSARY
Printer = printer
Pioneer = pioner
Movable type = tipar mobil
Previously = precedent
Privilege = privilegiu
To modify = (v) a modifica
Full-size = dimensiuni reale
To sack = (v) a comprima
to print = (v) a tipări
leaflet = foaie volantă
to force = (v) a constrânge, a presa
to give up = a renunţa,
a abandona
to make sure = (to make-made-
made) = pentru a fi sigur
printing press = maşină de imprimat,
presă de tipar
craftsmanship = măiestrie, artizanat
calcography = calcografie

GRAMMAR FOCUS

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are used to express the position of objects, the time of the day, the days
of the week etc. AT - ON - IN

AT: at 7 o'clock, at midnight, at lunchtime, at sunset, at midday, at Christmas, at

Easter, at the moment, at the same time. And also:
We are AT the station. AT the end of the street there is a bar.
AT the beginning (of something) there was a lot of noise. AT
first, I did not like him.

IN: in the morning, in the afternoon (but AT night), in 1899, in October, in my life, in
the summer, in the past, in the future. And also:
We are IN the room (inside the room).; There is some water IN the bottle. IN the end
(finally), she accepted to marry him.; We were IN time (for something or to do
something) to catch the train.

ON: On Sunday, on my birthday, on the other hand, on the contrary.

18
WE were ON time (punctual).; The train left ON time,; My birthday is on March 21st.

And also:
The bag is ON the table.; The picture is ON the wall.

TO: We say to go/ come/ travel TO a place. To give/tell/show something

TO somebody.
/ went TO America.; I'll come To your party.; She took me To hospital

FROM: We come/ suffer/ protect FROM something.

/ come back FROM school at five.; Sheila suffers FROM migraine.
Suntan lotion protects your skin FROM the sun.

OF: We accuse/ suspect/ die/ approve/ consist OF something.

Tom accused me OF stealing; His mother died OF a heart attack.; My
parents don't approve OF what I do.

FOR: We pay/ thank, blame or forgive/ apologize to somebody/ FOR

something.
I apologize to you FOR my mistake.; I thank you FOR helping me.
I forgive you FOR breaking my car.

Exercise 1

Insert the correct preposition:

a) Johannes Gutenberg was probably born ................................Mainz, Germany,
.....1398.
b) He was the son ________ Friele Gensfleisch vom Hofe zum Gutenberg
and Else Wirich.
c) His father was responsible.................the trade in precious metals and min
ing coins.
d) .... the autumn of 1438 Gutenberg suggested a secret plan .... his
partners.
e) Gutenberg asked...............a loan to put his invention......................practice.
f) ... 3rd February 1468 Gutenberg died .... Mainz.

19
Exercise 2

Answer the following questions:

a) Who was Johann Gutenberg?
b) Briefly describe his invention.
c) Did Gutenberg invention affect culture and education?
d) Is the printing press represented here the original press invented by
Gutenberg?

Exercise 3

Choose one of the words to complete the definitions, a; full-size; process;

probably; forced; detailed record; revolution;

a) Johann Gutenberg was....................German printer.

b) The modern printing..........................caused a...........................in the education
of the public.
c) The Bible was............................finished in 1456.
d) Gutenberg was..........................to give up his press.
e) We have no............................of Gutenberg's life and work.
f) The..............................reproduction of Gutenberg press is kept at the
Crandall Historical Printing Museum.

Exercise 4

Choose the correct answer.

1) Johann Gutenberg
a) was a German wine producer.
b) was born in Germany.
c) was a revolutionary.

2) His invention of printing using movable type

a) caused a revolution in the education of public.
b) was not original.
c) was boycotted by the Church.

20
 3) The Bible printed by Gutenberg
a) was commissioned by the nobles.
b) was finished in 1398
c) is known as "Gutenberg Bible".

4) The full-scale reproduction of Gutenberg's press

a) was kept a secret.
b) was made by Steve and is kept in Utah.
c) was destroyed.

Writing
Summarize the following passage into no more than 100 words.
Gutenberg, who was a German printer and a pioneer, is regarded as the first
European to print with hand-set types cast in mould.
Gutenberg was already experimenting in Strasbourg with separate metal letters.
In 1450 Gutenberg took a 800 guilders loan to put his invention into practice.
Between 1452 and 1455 a 42-line Bible was printed in an edition of 180 to 200 copies
of which some 48 still remain, some of them only in part.
We have some sources which enable us to understand the date. One of which is a
letter from Andrea Silvio Piccolomini, Secretary to Frederik III and also to the Pope
Pius II, which carries the date of 12 th March 1455. Piccolomini writes in his letter that
he had seen printed parts of a Bible, probably between 5 th and 31st October 1454 when
he visited the Diet in Frankfurt am Main.
On 17th February Gutenberg was received into the court of Archbishop Adolf of
Nassau. He was provided with clothing, grain and wine for the rest of his life.
On 3rd February 1468 Gutenberg died in Mainz. He was buried in the Church of St.
Francis.
The modern printing process caused a revolution in the paper industry and in the
education of the public who, previously had little, if any,

21
access to the few books that existed. Culture and education was no longer a privilege of
the nobles and the Church, but was accessible to any person interested in it.
The first book: printed was probably the large Latin Bible associated with his name,
as well as some smaller books and leaflets. The Bible, known as Gutenberg Bible,
Mazarin Bible, or 42-line Bible, was probably finished by the end of 1456. Gutenberg
was later forced to give up his press and types to pay off some debts.
We have no detailed records of Gutenberg's life and works. Political problems, the
sack of Mainz, caused Gutenberg's apprentices to disperse all over Europe thus
spreading the new printing techniques in the various towns where they settled:
Strasburg, Basil, Zurich, Augusta, Ulm, Nurbergh and, in Italy, in Subiaco were, in
1465 Cicero's ' De Oratore" was printed. In Naples, in 1470, Sisto Riessinger open the
first typography, but it was Aldo Manuzio, in Venice, the first who substituted the
gothic character with which the books were then printed, with the cursive, or italic type:
the "Aldino".

22
Unit III

VENICE: THE CAPITAL OF PRINTING

1500: a period of crisis

In this period all Italian cities underwent a period of crisis.
Only the Republic of Venice survived thanks to its internal organization
and control of the mainland.
Its great humanistic tradition and the developing of printing gave Venice a
predominant position in literature.
The printing privilege, granted by the Senate to Giovanni da Spira, led to
an immediate proliferation of typographic shops which, in Venice, were
more than 200, (compared to 57 in Roma and 32 in Florence).
Thanks also to its contacts with Germany, in Venice, in that period, we
could find experienced typographers. The exchange of texts and codes and
the communication between the two countries has its basis on commercial
and cultural interests. Furthermore, Venice trade with the Eastern countries
in the Mediterranean area and with China, favoured the introduction of
original manuscripts written in Arabic and Greek. The manuscripts, brought
to Venice by rich merchants returning from their trading trips, were
translated and printed in Manuzio's shop and, subsequently, sent all over
Europe.
In 1480 Venice was the biggest typographic centre in Europe.
Typographies, during that time, were not only workshops, but real cultural
centres where scholars, literates and linguists met to read, translate and
discuss books and culture in general.
Between 1480 and 1500, thanks to its technical progress, the printing of
books saw a dramatic increase while their costs became considerably lower.
This allowed the proliferation of typographic shops and attracted scholars
from all over Europe since in Venice they could exchange ideas and
experiences.

23
 Aldo Manuzio

\l ! NY i [\ ■

Picture 3: Aldo Manuzio.

In 1499 Aldo Manuzio published the most elegant illustrated book of 1400:
"Hypnerotomachia Poliphili" by Francesco Colonna or, according to some,
by Felice Luciani. In this book Manuzio started to use, as his typographic
logo, the famous "Anchor with dolphin": among the various types of
anchors used, the most famous is the c.d. "Ancora secca".

The typographic
logo of the
Manuzios.
Picture 4: Aldo Manuzios logo.

The first coding of the Italian language, carried out by Pietro Bembo,
happened at the same time as the typographic experience of Aldo Manuzio.

24
 Aldo Manuzio was born between 1449 and 1450 in Bassiano, Lazio.
His shop was the biggest in Venice and one of the most important in
Europe.
As said above, thanks to the commercial contacts with the Eastern
countries, many Greek and Arab manuscripts were imported into Venice
during the trips by merchants, and here, in Manuzio's shop, translated,
printed and published, thus spreading culture all over Europe and the world.
The first book printed by Aldo Manuzio in 1495 was a grammar of the
Greek language by Lascaris, a Greek scholar. In 1501, Bembo's new edition
of Petrarca's "Rime" was also printed in Manuzio s shop.
In 1501, Aldo Manuzio invented a new format for books' printing, a
pocket edition which used a new italic typeface called "aldino". The books,
in Latin and vulgar, had no comment to the text and, therefore, were smaller,
easier to carry and more enjoyable.
This innovation allowed a new relationship between the book and the
public: books were smaller and people could read them anywhere whereas
before they were too big to carry and had to be read leaning them on a table.
One example was the printing of the Holy Bible.
Only prayer books, destined for intellectuals and people who could read
latin and Greek, generally clergymen, were still printed as before.

GLOSSARY
To undergo = (to go-went-gone) text = text
a suferi
to grant = (v) a acorda considerably = considerabil
To lead-led-led = conduce thus = astfel
Code = cod prayer = rugăciune
Trip = călătorie clergyman = clergyman/cler
Therefore = prin urmare to become-became-become =
a devini
To destine = (v) a destina

25
GRAMMAR FOCUS

TO BE
PRESENT FORM
The form of TO BE is:

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I am (I'm) I am not (I'm not) am I?

You are (You're) You are not (You aren't) are you?
He/It/She is (She's) She is not (she isn't) is she?
We are (We're) We are not (we aren't) are we?
You are (You're) You are not (you aren't) are you?
They are (They're) They are not (they aren't) are they?

To Be is used to describe physical appearance, feelings and sensations, to

tell somebody's age or where somebody comes from as well as to form the
present continuous and the passive tenses. E.g.:

She is tall and beautiful. We are from New Zealand.

My parents are very rich. Patricia isn't happy today. Are
We are hungry and thirsty. they interested in history? You
They are 20 years old. aren't on holiday now

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
It describes an action happening in or around the time of speaking.
It uses time adverbs like: now, in this period, in this moment, this week,
at the moment.
Sheila is cooking in this moment. You aren't driving carefully.
Are they living in Paris now? I am not playing cards; I am studying in
this moment.

26
PASSIVE FORM
In passive sentences we use the correct form of the verb TO BE (is/ are:
was/were; has/have been; will be; would be etc) + the PAST PARTICIPLE
of the main verb (-ED for regular verbs or 3rd column of the paradigm of
irregular verbs). BY can be used to indicate who did or what caused the
action.

ACTIVE FORM PASSIVE FORM

She eats a sandwich A sandwich IS EATEN BY her.
They saw the film The film WAS SEEN BY them.
They will catch the thief The thief WILL BE CAUGHT (by
them)

Exercise 1
Insert the correct form or TO BE Simple Past or Passive Form.
a) In the 1500 in Europe there.............a period of crisis.
b) The position of Venice in literature............predominant.
c) In Venice there...........more than 200 typographic shops.
d) Many books............................(to bring) to Venice by rich merchants.
e) The books .......................... (to print) and ....................(to translate) in
Manuzio's shop.

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences choosing one of the words in the list.
Typographers; internal; scholar; increase; biggest; mainland.

a) The Republic of Venice survived thanks to its______________organiza-

tion and control of the______________.
b) Thanks also to its contacts with Germany, in Venice, in that period,
we could find experienced___________________.
c) Between 1480 and 1500, thanks to its technical progress, the printing
of book saw a dramatic______________________while their costs be
came considerably lower.

27
d) Aldo Manuzio's shop was the_____________in Venice and one of the
most important in Europe.
e) The first book printed by Aldo Manuzio in 1495 was a grammar of
the Greek language by Lascaris, a Greek______________.

Exercise 3
Answer the following questions:
a) What gave Venice a predominant position in literature?
b) What led to an immediate proliferation of typographic shops in
Venice?
c) What were the causes and effects of the great increase in the book
printing production?
d) Who was Aldo Manuzio?
e) What was the first book printed by Aldo Manuzio?
f) What allowed a new relationship between the book and the public?

Exercise 4

Translate the following key words:

Scholar; increase; enjoyable; anywhere; italic; to spread; to happen.

Now find the same words in the text, see how they are used and write down
the sentences that include them.

Activity. Reading/Speaking
Read the passage about Aldo Manuzio aloud, then write down 6 main points
and repeat the content of the text without looking at it.

28
UNIT IV

OLD BOOKS ONLINE

GUTENBERG BIBLE GOES DIGITAL

www.gutenbergdigital.de
www.bl.uk/treasures/gutenberg

Picture 5: The 42 line Gutenberg Bible on display.

The Bible is famous for being the first important text to be printed and
Johannes Gutenberg is generally credited with being the father of modern
printing methods.
In the mid. 15th century, he invented a way of mechanising the production
of printing. Only three perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible, printed on
animal hide, still exist and only a small number of scholars have access to
them.
In about 1455 Johannes Gutenberg printed the B42 after many long years
of experimentations. He published the "42 lines Bible", so called because it
counts 42 lines per column for a total of 1,282 pages per 180 copies, of
which nowadays, only 48, 12 printed on parchment and 36 on paper, still
exist. In Italy there are three copies on parchment paper and one on paper in
the Vatican City, at the Apostolic Library of Vatican.

29
This Latin Bible in two parts (Old and New Testament) is the first book
printed with such a large number of copies using separate metal letters.
For printing the B42 Gutenberg had a total of 290 different character
shapes cast: 47 capital letters, 63 lower letters, 92 types with abbreviation
marks, 83 letter combinations (ligatures) and 5 punctuation marks. The text
was set in two columns of 42 lines, which gives it the name 42-line bible,
or B42, or Mazarin Bible.
The Bible, of which only the New Testament remains, was bought in
1925 by the Gutenberg Museum from the estate of the Counts Solms zu
Laubach.
For the typesetting of the B42 about twenty employees were involved
and approximately 100,000 letter symbols had to be cast.

Icon of printing

Picture 6: Binding of an unknown copy.

Now the Gutenberg Bible is going online to allow scholars to take a closer
look at one of the world's most priceless treasures.
Using digital scanning and high- resolution cameras, every original detail
of typography and surface will be captured to allow scholars the most in-
depth study of the book.

30
 The Gutenberg Bible is an icon of printing and cultural history which
represents the merging of medieval crafts that changed the world.
One of the three copies is housed in the British Library and has been
digitized.
According to Kristian Jensen, acting head of rare books at the library, the
reason for putting such texts on the web goes beyond the value it has to
scholars.
More than one million people visited the site in the first six months.
Previously it was only the privilege of few that could view the Bible and
now it is opened up to all people interested in history and their cultural
inheritance.

Chaucer edition goes online

www.intute.ac.uk

Picture 7: Geoffrey Chaucer.

Geoffrey Chaucer, 13th October 1400, was a knight of the shire of Kent and,
as a member of the king's household, was sent on diplomatic errands
throughout Europe. His travels formed the basis of many of his, often
humorous, tales.

31
 A rare first edition on Geoffrey Chaucer s "The Canterbury Tales",
believed to be the first book ever printed in England, is to be published on
the Internet.
The British Library has agreed to digitize the volume, worth £4.6m, so
scholars and the public can access it.
The book was first published 500 years ago by the man considered the
father of the printing press in England, William Caxton, (1) a wealthy
merchant who made contact with the world of printing in Cologne,
Germany.
William Caxton's first two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales",
probably printed between 1476 and 1489, are both kept in the British
Library.
A team from Keio University in Tokyo, the project's sponsor, are
photographing the work into 1,300 high definition images which will then
be put on the web.

(1) See Appendix LI

"FRAGILE"
Kristian Jensen, head of Western European Printed collections at the
British Library, said:
"This project follows the library's successful digitization of its two
copies of the Gutenberg Bible, a site which received one million hits in its
first six months. This is the beauty of digitization, to take something of
great intellectual value which is rare and fragile, and make it available to
anyone and everyone."
The first edition of 'The Canterbury Tales" is extremely rare and a copy,
in 1998, was sold for £ 4,621,500, which was the highest price ever paid
for a book.
The British Library houses two copies, the first of which is part of the
collection of King George III, which came to the nation in 1828. This is
the only original copy surviving.

32
GLOSSARY
To allow = (v) a permite animal hide = piele de animal

Parchment = pergament chief = șef

To merge = (v) a combina / craft = pricepere / artă / meșteșuguri

a se amesteca /incorpora

Beyond = dincolo de / peste wonderful = minunat

Previously = anterior inheritance = moştenire

To bring-brought-brought = a privilege = privilegiu

aduce

to digitise = (v) a digitaliza together = împreună

Scholar = savant errand = rătăcire/ însărcinare

To survive = (v) a supravieţui available = disponibil

Knight = cavaler to send-sent-sent = a trimite

GRAMMAR FOCUS

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS

Most nouns have both singular and plural forms.
• Usually, to create the plural form of a noun you had an "S" to the
singular form:
Book-books; pen-pens; cat-cats; house-houses; car-cars; window-
windows.

• If the singular noun ends in s, sh, ch, x or z, the plural is formed

by adding ES:
Bus-buses; echo-echoes; potato-potatoes; hero-heroes; tomato-
tomatoes.

33
 • If the singular noun ends in consonant Y, the plural will end in
IES:
Baby-babies; lady-ladies; party-parties;

• If the noun ends in vowel Y, it follows the rule for regular plurals
by adding an S:
Boy-boys; day-days;

• If the singular noun ends in F, the plural noun will nearly always
end in VES:
Leaf-leaves; loaf-loaves; calf-calves; wife-wives - shelf-shelves;
scarf-scarves.

Note well: one common exception is roof-roofs.

Other nouns do not have a plural form as they end in S in their singular
form:
Series; species; headquarters; means; barracks.

Irregular plurals
There are many nouns which have only one form for singular and plural.
Sheep; fish; deer; craft; dice.

Some words that come from Old English form their plural by ending
in EN:
Man-men; child-children; woman-women; ox-oxen.

Some nouns ending in OUSE change their ending in ICE:

Mouse-mice; louse-lice;

Some words which derive from Latin or Greek form their plural in a
different way:
Thesis-theses; curriculum-curricula - medium-media; nucleus-nuclei;
amanuensis-amanuenses.
Cactus-cacti; appendix-appendices (or appendixes); crisis-crises.

34
Exercise 1

Turn the following sentences into the plural form:

1) A perfect copy of the Gutenberg Bible still exists, one scholar has
access to it.

2) In Italy there is one copy on parchment paper.

3) A digital scanning, high- resolution camera captures every original detail

of typography to allow a scholar the most in-depth study of a book.

4) Chaucer's travel formed the basis of his, often humorous, story.

Exercise 2
Form the plural of the words in brackets:
a) In 1455 Gutenberg printed the B42 after many..................(year).
b) The B42 counts 42_____(line) per column.
c) In Italy there are three..............(copy) on parchment paper.
d) Gutenberg used 290 different character............(shape).
e) For the typesetting of the B42 about twenty..................(employee) were
involved.

Exercise 3
Form the plural of the following words:
Scholar; treasure; camera; book; craft; copy; text; person; amanuenses;
site; appendix, box; man; leaf; princess; curriculum: printing-press.

35
Now look at the text and re-write the sentences where you find these
words. Write your own sentences for those words that are not in the
text.

Exercise 4
Answer the following questions:
a) Who was Geoffrey Chaucer?
b) What did he write?
c) Why is "The Canterbury Tales" important?
d) When and by whom was it printed?
e) Why is it an advantage to be able to visualize the book on the Internet?

Activity.

Speaking
Read the text again and write down 20 questions about its content. Then,
ask your partner the questions, write his/ her answers and note down the
mistakes. Report to the class.

36
Unit V
Other famous online manuscripts

Beowulf- page 1

www.bl.uk/catalogues/listings.html

Beowulf is an Old English heroic=eroic epic poem composed in the later

Early Middle Ages=evul mediu timpuriu (in the 8th, 9th or 10th century).
At 3,183 lines, it is notable=notabil for its length=lungime. The poem is
untitled=fără titlu in the manuscript, but has been known as Beowulf since
the early 19th century. As the single major surviving work of Anglo-Saxon
heroic poetry=poezie eroică, the work — in spite=ciuda of dealing=tratare
primarily=în primul rând with Scandinavian matters= — has risen to such
prominence that it has becom= a ajuns la o asemenea proeminență încât a
devenit "England's national epic."1 1) see Appendix I..2

37
The Magna Charta Libertatum - 1215
www.bl.uk/treasures/magnacharta

The Magna Carta,,or Magna Carta Libertatum (the Great Charter of

Freedoms), is an English legal charter=personaj, issued=ieșit in the year
1215. It was written in Latin and is known by its Latin name. The English
translation of Magna Carta is Great Charter.

Picture 9: Magna Charta cum statutis angliae, (Great Charter with

English Statutes) page 1 of manuscript, fourteenth century.

The picture above represents a copy of the original document which the
nobles=nobili and bishops=episcopi of England forced John the
Lackland=Fărațara to sign in 1215 in the meadows=pajiște of Runnymede,
to show that even a king cannot be above the law, as it can be found on
Internet and the integral transcription=transcriere integră of the whole
document.

38
 M

Picture 10; John of England signs Magna Carta.

Illustration from Cassells History of England (1902

While John claimed the royal prerogatives= a revendicat prerogativele

regale of his ancestors=strămoși, his spiritual and temporal lords sought=a
căutat an efficient administration of the laws to prevent=preveni the
anarchy=anarhia of Stephens reign=domnie from happening again, (2)

(2) See Appendix 1.3

New books on line

www.gutenberg.org/

A frightening development Teven King's new story

As Michelle Goldbergh says in "A frightening Development= O dezvoltare
înfricoșătoare " published in the National Post on March 16th 2000,
Steven king's new story, "Riding the Bullet", was released=eliberată in
March 2000 as an Internet-only "e-book". Written by King in the
aftermath=urma of a serious traffic accident= accident rutier grav the year
before in which his leg was shattered=sparta, the story is not only available
exclusively on the Internet, but cannot be printed, thanks to security
software.

Picture 11: The cover of "Riding the Bullet" by S. King.

www.horror.it/king

Attracted by the novelty or by the hunger for horror=foame de groază,

massive numbers of fans appeared willing=dispuși to try the new
technology. The night the story appeared it was almost impossible to
access, the demand=cererile was so great. Apart from king's most devote
fans, though=totuși, most will find that the glow=srălucirea of the monitor
and the click of the mouse preclude=exclude the superb, macabre=fioros
tingle=furnicări that makes scary stories so much fun=distractive. Probably
because the format was so new, King made the story entirely classic in
every other sense.
It begins with a 21-year-old college student called Alan Parker hitch-
hiking=autostop home to see his mother, recently victim of a stroke=insult,
in the hospital. The terror begins when Parker ends up in a cemetery and
comes across=se întâlnește a headstone=piatră de mormânt with a
creepy=înfiorătoare saying of his mother's on it: "Fun is fun and done is
done".
But no matter how gripping=captivant the story is, the medium works
against absorption=absorbției. It is nearly impossible to get lost in a
monitor the way one does in a novel, and, thanks to the security technology
one needs to read the story, it cannot even be printed.
Spending hour after leisure=timp liber hour staring at a screen: That's the
real horror!
(from Michelle Goldberghs "A frightening Development"
National Post, March 16, 2000)

GLOSSARY
Library = biblioteca to follow = (rv)a urmări/ urma
Available = disponibil to survive = a supravetui
Wealthy = bogat ever printed = tipărit vreodată
Site = site already = deja
To lure = (v) a ademeni hunger = foame
Demand = a cere glow = strălucire
To get lost = a fi pierdut/ratacit headstone = piatră de mormânt

Leisure = timp liber to stare = (rv) a ţinti cu privirea

GRAMMAR FOCUS

TO HAVE

PRESENT FORM
The Present Form of TO HAVE is:

Affirmative Form Negative Form Interrogative Form

I have (I've) I have not (haven't) have I?
You have (You've) You have not (haven't) have you?
He/she/it has (she's) She has not (hasn't) has she?
We have (we've) We have not (haven't) have we?
You have (you've) You have not (haven't) have you?
They have (they've) They have not (haven't) have they?

41
It denotes possession and can be followed by GOT.
/ have a car (but more often) I've GOT a car.
She hasn't any money or She hasn't GOT any money.

There is also an idiomatic use of TO HAVE to express actions and

experiences:
To have a coffee/ a party/ dinner/ lunch / breakfast/fun/ a baby (to give
birth)
etc.
In that case TO have is used as an ordinary verb and for the interrogative
and negative forms we normally use DO/DOES.

Exercise 1
Insert the correct form of TO HAVE, then turn the sentences into the
interrogative and negative form.

a) The poem Beowulf has no title.-Does the poem Beowulf have a title?
b) Beowulf has become England's National Epic.-Does Beowulf have
become England’s National Epic?
c) The Magna Charta has the purpose to limit the power of the king.
d) Steven King's novel has A massive number of fans.
e) They have the possibility to read the novel only in the Internet.

Exercise 2

Find words in text that are closest in meaning to the following words:

Text 1 "Beowulf"
Written=composed; important=notable; no title= untitled; hand
written=manuscript; one of the most important=major;

Text 2 "The Magna Charta"

Rich=royal, important people=nobles; church ministers=bishops; to write
one' name=translation; field=meadows; also=to; entire=integral.
Exercise 3
Try to find the correspondent Italian words to the words described in
English in the glossary below:

To release = to make something

available to the public
Aftermath = consequences
(unpleasant)
Glow = bright warm light Tingle
= sight pricking sensation
To shatter = to severely damage
Scary = frightening
To grip = to take a firm hold

Headstone = stone set up at the Creepy = causing horror of fear

head of a grave To hitchhike = to travel seeking free
lift in vehicles
Exercise 4

Answer the following questions.

a) What is peculiar=ciudat about Steven King's "Riding the Bullet" book?
Steven King’s “Riding the Bullet” book is peculiar because it is an Internet-
only "e-book" and thanks to security software it cannot be printed.
b) Was the book more or less successful than the other books by Steven
King?
The book was more successful than the other books by Steven King.
c) When did King write it?
King wrote the book aftermath of a serious traffic accident the year before
in which his leg was shattered.
d) Can readers read the book in a printed format?
The readers can not read the book in a printed format.
e) Who is the main character of "Riding the Bullet"?
The main character of "Riding the Bullet" is a 21-year-old college student
called Alan Parker.
f) What does the author of the article think of the digital books?
The author of the article thinks that it is nearly impossible to get lost in a
monitor the way one does in a novel.

Activity 1.
Reading
Look at King's site on the Internet and read his book (or part of it).
www.horror.it/king
Activity 2.
Speaking

1. Now that you have read the text, what do you think the expression
"frightening=înfricoșător" development=dezvoltare" in the title
refers to? What development?
Why is it frightening?

I think development refers to authors new methods of writing and

reading his books in Internet-format only and frightening to his love
for this genre.

2. What do you think of e-books?

E-book is a new step in technology development, that allow to read

books everywhere and whenever we want, it request less space than
a book with 1000 pages.

Would you like reading them on the

screen or would you rather read them as traditional books?

I would like to read them in a traditional way.

Do you
feel differently about e-books of rare or fragile editions?

Yes I do, because this is the way we can view and read them, I don’t
think in real life we could have such of opportunity, like with the
Gutenberg Bible, it is available to everyone interested in it.
3. Why would you prefer one way or the other?

I prefer to read traditional books because I know that I read will forever
remain on those pages and I do not need to charge the gadget after 3
hours to read another chapter.

4. What do you foresee=prevedea as the future of book-reading?

In my opinion all book will be digitize.