GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 33, L24307, doi:10.
1029/2006GL028479, 2006
Click
Here
for
Full
Article
Three-dimensional velocity structure in the Bungo Channel and
Shikoku area, Japan, and its relationship to low-frequency
earthquakes
Andri Dian Nugraha1 and Jim Mori1
Received 17 October 2006; accepted 14 November 2006; published 21 December 2006.
[1] We used a tomographic inversion to determine P and
S wave structures in the western Shikoku and Bungo
Channel region, for comparison with the locations of low-
frequency earthquakes. The velocity model clearly images
the high velocity subducting slab and we can see the spatial
relation to the low-frequency earthquakes. Under western
Shikoku the low-frequency earthquakes occur at depths
close to the plate interface, but under the adjacent Bungo
Channel region to the west, there is a clear depth separation.
Our interpretation is that the low-frequency events are
occurring in a region of high Vp/Vs that is located above the
subducting slab. The depth separation above the plate seems
to vary depending on the region. Citation: Nugraha, A. D.,
and J. Mori (2006), Three-dimensional velocity structure in the
Bungo Channel and Shikoku area, Japan, and its relationship to
low-frequency earthquakes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L24307,
doi:10.1029/2006GL028479.
1. Introduction
[2] Since the discovery by Obara [2002] of low-frequency
events and continuous tremors at about 30 to 40 km depth
along the Nankai subduction zone, there has been great
interest in the source mechanisms for these events [e.g.,
Katsumata and Kamaya, 2003; Obara et al., 2004; Hirose
and Obara, 2005; Obara and Hirose, 2006; Miyazawa and
Mori, 2006]. One important piece of information is the
depth locations relative to the subducting slab, however,
because of their emergent waveforms, hypocenters are not
precise and depth determination is difficult. It has generally
been thought that the low frequency events are occurring at
depths of several kilometers above the plate interface.
Alternatively, Shelly et al. [2006] concluded that the low-
frequency events in western Shikoku were occurring in a
region of high Vp/Vs that corresponds to the plate interface.
In this study, we use three-dimensional velocity structures
and earthquake locations to investigate this problem in a
region of western Japan where there are numerous earth-
quakes and good station coverage, so that the velocity
structure is well resolved.
2. Data and Methods
[3] In this study, we used local P and S phases to
determine the three-dimensional velocity structure for the
region of Bungo Channel and western Shikoku in Japan. We
1
Disaster Preventions Research Institute, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan.
Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
0094-8276/06/2006GL028479$05.00
L24307
used the program SIMULPS12 [Evans et al., 1994] which
provides a local earthquake algorithm inversion [Thurber,
1983, 1993; Eberhart-Phillips, 1993] to calculate the 3-D
Vp and Vp/Vs structures. The iterative damped least-
squares algorithm simultaneously calculates the velocity
model and hypocentral adjustments. Predicted arrival times
through the 3-D structure are calculated for ray paths using
the psuedo-bending technique of Um and Thurber [1987].
The timing errors for S waves are usually larger than for the
P waves, so that calculation of Vp/Vs using S-P times rather
than from separate estimates of Vs and Vp, is usually a
more robust method [Eberhart-Phillips, 1993].
[4] The data were P and S arrival times compiled by the
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) for 1998 to 2003.
2981 events with 65,503 P and 57,937 S arrival times from
208 stations in the study area were used for the inversion, as
shown in Figure 1a. P and S arrivals times have assigned
picking uncertainties of typically 0.02 to 0.1 s, with
larger uncertainties on the S wave. Events were chosen that
had a large number of picked arrival times (generally over
10 stations) and covered the geographical area as well as
possible. For the inversion, arrivals times that had misfits of
greater than 2.0 sec were greatly down weighted. The
spatial resolution and setting of the grid points depends
on the earthquakes distribution, stations distribution, and
assessing of ray coverage, for the Vp and Vp/Vs models.
We tried several configurations for the grid and found that
spacings of 20 and 30 km2 in the horizontal direction and
10 km in the vertical direction gave a fairly high spatial
density with stable results for the velocity inversion
(Figure 1b).
[5] Damping parameters are needed to stabilize the
solution and optimum values were determined from a
trade-off curve comparing data variance (misfit) with model
variance (Figure 2). The selected values significantly reduce
the data variance with a moderate increase in the solution
variance. The optimal damping value will vary with the
amount and distribution of data, size and spacing of the
model grid [Eberhart-Phillips, 1986].
[6] For the inversion procedure we started with an initial
1-D velocity model derived from the average travel times
and Vp/Vs values assuming the initial locations determined
by JMA. The program SIMULP12 [Evans et al., 1994] was
used to improve the initial 1-D velocity model which was
then used as input for the 3-D inversion. The initial Vp/Vs
model had a constant value of 1.77. No discontinuities or
slab structure were used in the starting 1-D model.
[7] 272 low-frequency earthquakes were used for July
2000 to December 2003 from the Japan Meteorological
Agency (JMA) catalogue to relocate the events. Because of
1 of 5
L24307 NUGRAHA AND MORI: 3-D STRUCTURE AND LOW-FREQUENCY EVENTS
Figure 1. Map of the study area. (a) Ordinary earthquakes
distribution (blue dots), and low-frequency earthquakes
(red dots). (b) Stations distributions (green triangles) and
grid nodes (blue plus).
relatively large uncertainties in the arrival times (picking
uncertainties of typically several tenths to one second) of
the low-frequency events, these data were not included in
the inversion, but were relocated using the 3-D structure
determined from the ordinary earthquakes. For the low-
frequency events, there are more S arrival picks than
P arrivals because of the larger amplitudes. Shelly et al.
[2006] used similar data and a cross correlation method to
determine more consistent arrival times and improved the
locations. In this study we use the original JMA data, how-
ever, the overall depth distribution is not greatly different.
3. Model Resolution
[8] The resolution of the tomographic model is evaluated
using a checkerboard test, in which a regular pattern of fast
and slow velocities is examined using the inversion proce-
dure. The checkerboard pattern was set with alternating fast
and slow velocities at each grid point (Figure 1b) with a
contrast of 10%. A synthetic set of travel time are created
for a checkerboard velocity model using the same ray paths
present in the real data, then the synthetic times are inverted
to see how well the starting model is recovered. We also
applied another technique to estimate model resolution in
the 3-D tomography from the derivative weight sum
(DWS), which is a useful measure of the ray density in
the neighborhood of the nodes [Toomey and Foulger,
1989]. The DWS is similar to the ray hit count, but
2 of 5
L24307
weighted by the ray-node separation and ray path length
in the vicinity of the node.
[9] Vertical cross sections are shown of two slices
through the model (Figures 3a and 3b) for the synthetic
test (checkerboard), and the recovered Vp and Vp/Vs
values, along with the DWS (ray density) for the Vp and
Vp/Vs models. Vp and Vp/Vs are shown as percentage
difference from the initial 1-D model, blue and red colors
indicate fast and slow velocity respectively. Also, blue and
red colors of the DWS indicate high and low ray density,
respectively. We chose to show these two vertical cross
sections because they are in the central portion of the model
where the resolution should be the best and where the
results are important for interpretation of the locations of
the low-frequency events. There is good resolution in the
central part of the cross sections at depths of 10 to 50 km.
The Vp/Vs model recovery is poorer than the Vp model
recovery due to the different quantity and quality of
the data. Prior to 3-D inversion variances of the P and
S-P models were 0.07 km2 s
2 and 0.001 km2 s
2, respec-
tively, with a total data variance of 0.02 s2. The areas
with DWS value less than 50 are not included in the
tomographic inversion.
4. Results
[10] The results for the two well-resolved vertical cross
sections through western Shikoku (AA0) and the Bungo
Channel (BB0) are shown in Figures 4a and 4b, respectively.
In both Figures 4a and 4b the high velocity slab that is
subducting downward toward the northwest, can be seen
fairly clearly, especially in the Vp model. The slab has
P and S velocities that are about 10% higher than the
surrounding mantle. In both profiles, the relocated ordinary
earthquakes appear to be occurring within the slab. These
results for the velocity structures are fairly similar to Shelly
et al. [2006] and Wang and Zhao [2006], although the
range of velocity perturbations is higher than the model of
Wang and Zhao [2006].
[11] For profile AA0 (Figure 4a) the depth separation
between the ordinary and low-frequency earthquakes is
relatively small, about 5 to 10 km, and it is difficult to
judge if the low-frequency earthquakes are occurring
within, at the boundary, or above the subducting slab.
Figure 2. Curves showing data variance versus model
variance for selecting optimal damping value. Damping
value of 70 (solid symbols) for both P-wave and S-P with a
station damping value of 10 is selected. The data and model
variance are computed after one iteration for indicated
damping values.
L24307 NUGRAHA AND MORI: 3-D STRUCTURE AND LOW-FREQUENCY EVENTS L24307

Figure 3. (left) The synthetic model (checkerboard) and recovered Vp and Vp/Vs values. (right) DWS (ray density) for
Vp and Vp/Vs. (a) Vertical cross-section along profile AA0 and (b) vertical cross section along profile BB0.

For profile BB0 (Figure 4b) there is a larger separation
between the ordinary and low-frequency earthquakes in the
central portion of the cross section at depths of 35 to
45 km. In this cross section, the low-frequency events
clearly appear to be shallower than the well imaged slab.
In this profile there are 2 groups of low-frequency events.
The deeper cluster is a continuation of the subduction zone
low-frequency events seen in profile AA0 and the group to
northwest at depths of 20 to 40 km are associated with
Tsurumi volcano. In both profiles, the subduction zone
low-frequency events occur in regions of high Vp/Vs
values of about 1.84 to 1.86. In profile BB0 (Figure 4b)
this region of high Vp/Vs is clearly located above the
subducting slab.
[12] The depth uncertainties on the low-frequency events
are small compared to the scales of the plots in Figures 3
and 4. The formal rms errors in depth from relocations in
the 1-D and 3-D structure are all less than 1 km, since a
relatively large number of stations are used. The average
depth uncertainty when the events are located in the initial
1-D structure is 0.83 km and reflects uncertainty in depth
from the errors in the picked the arrivals. Error showing the
rms errors in depth are plotted in Figures 3 and 4, but are
very small and in most cases smaller than the symbol size
for the hypocenter.
5. Discussion
[13] Figure 5 shows an interpretation of our results for
profile BB0. The plate interface is drawn at the top of the
high velocity zone. The interface may be slightly shallower
if there is a thin low velocity layer, on the top of the
subducting slab, however, it is difficult to make the plate
interface as shallow as the low-frequency earthquakes. The

3 of 5
L24307 NUGRAHA AND MORI: 3-D STRUCTURE AND LOW-FREQUENCY EVENTS L24307

Figure 4. (right) P-wave velocity (dVp) and S-wave velocity (dVs) perturbations plotted as percentage difference from the
initial 1-D model. The Vp/Vs ratio is plotted as absolute values. (left) P-wave velocity (Vp) and S-wave velocity are plotted
as absolute values. The white and red circles indicated ordinary earthquakes and low-frequency earthquakes, respectively.
Gray areas represent regions of poor resolution, where DWS is less than 50. (a) Vertical cross section along profile AA0 for
the western Shikoku area and (b) cross section along profile BB0 beneath the Bungo Channel area.

dotted red line for the island arc Moho is inferred from
the eastward dipping increases of velocities of over 7 km/s.
The low-frequency events are occurring in a region of high
Vp/Vs which may be associated with regions of high pore-
fluid pressure [Christensen, 1984]. This interpretation is
consistent with ideas that the low-frequency events are
associated with fluid movements above the subducting slab
[e.g., Obara, 2002; Katsumata and Kamaya, 2003; Seno
and Yamasaki, 2003; Miyazawa and Mori, 2005]. Takei
[2002] showed that consideration of the small scale pore
geometry is important in interpreting Vp and Vs, and the
parameter d (ln Vs)/d (ln Vp) is diagnostic in interpreting
the role of fluids. For the high Vp/Vs region of the low-
frequency events, there are larger changes in the Vs than
in Vp, compared to the mantle structure to the west, so d
(ln Vs)/d (ln Vp) is relatively large (1.8). This moderately
high value implies conditions that are not texturally equil-
ibrated [Takei, 2002] and suggests that fluid movements
could be a cause of the low-frequency earthquakes.
[14] Shelly et al. [2006] proposed that the low-frequency
earthquakes were occurring at the plate interface in the
western Shikoku region. Our results for the AA0 profile
show similar results for the velocity structures and relative
locations for the low-frequency events. In this region the
low-frequency events are occurring fairly close to the plate
interface. However, in the adjacent area to the west on the
BB0 profile, we show that there is a larger depth separation
of about 10 to 20 km between the subducted plate (as
imaged by the velocity structure) and the locations of low-
frequency earthquakes. Therefore, it seems unlikely that

4 of 5
L24307 NUGRAHA AND MORI: 3-D STRUCTURE AND LOW-FREQUENCY EVENTS
Figure 5. Interpretative velocity structures for Vp and
Vp/Vs ratio beneath Bungo channel area. The white and
red circles indicated relocated earthquakes and LFEs
respectively. Gray areas represent regions of poor resolu-
tion, where DWS value is less than 50. The subduction
zone low-frequency events are located significantly above
the plate interface.
the low-frequency events are occurring on the plate inter-
face for this region. We interpret these results as indicating
that low-frequency events are not occurring on the plate
interface, but instead in a region of high Vp/Vs that is
located above the subducting plate. The depth separation
between the plate and the low-frequency events appears to
vary for different regions.
6. Conclusions
[15] Our tomographic inversion for the P and S wave
structures of the subduction zone in western Shikoku and
the Bungo Channel clearly identify the subducting slab from
local velocity increases of about 10%. The associated
seismicity of ordinary earthquakes appears to be located
within the slab. In contrast, the depths of the low-frequency
events are 5 to 20 km shallower than the ordinary earth-
quakes with the difference increasing toward the west. In
the Bungo Channel area, the low-frequency events are
located significantly shallower than the imaged slab and
we conclude that the low-frequency events are occurring
in a region of high Vp/Vs that is located above the sub-
ducting plate.
[16] Acknowledgments. We gratefully acknowledge the use of phase
data from JMA catalogue. Gratitude is also extended to many members of
the DPRI Kyoto University for the support in field. All figures in this paper
were plotted using MATLAB 7.0.4 software. This work is supported by a
5 of 5
L24307
grant from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology of Japan.
References
Christensen, N. I. (1984), Pore pressure and oceanic crustal seismic struc-
ture, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 79, 411 – 423.
Eberhart-Phillips, D. (1986), Three-dimensional velocity structure in
northern California coast from inversion of local earthquake arrival
times, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 80, 1025 – 1052.
Eberhart-Phillips, D. (1993), Local earthquake tomography: Earthquake
source regions, in Seismic Tomography: Theory and Practice,
pp. 613 – 643, edited by H. M. Iyer and K. Hirahara, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Fla.
Evans, J. R., D. Eberhart-Phillips, and C. H. Thurber (1994), User’s
manual for SIMULPS12 for imaging Vp and Vp/Vs: A derivative of
the ‘‘Thurber’’ tomographic inversion SIMUL3 for local earthquakes
and explosions, U.S. Geol. Surv. Open File Rep. 94-431.
Hirose, H., and K. Obara (2005), Repeating short- and long-term slow
slip events with deep tremor activity around the Bungo channel region,
southwest Japan, Earth. Planets Space., 57, 961 – 972.
Katsumata, A., and N. Kamaya (2003), Low-frequency continuous tremor
around the Moho discontinuity away from volcanoes in the southwest
Japan, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(1), 1020, doi:10.1029/2002GL015981.
Miyazawa, M., and J. Mori (2005), Detection of triggered deep low-
frequency events from the 2003 Tokachi-oki earthquake, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 32, L10307, doi:10.1029/2005GL022539.
Miyazawa, M., and J. Mori (2006), Evidence suggesting fluid flow
beneath Japan due to periodic seismic triggering from the 2004 Sumatra-
Andaman earthquake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L05303, doi:10.1029/
2005GL025087.
Obara, K. (2002), Nonvolcanic deep tremor associated with subduction in
southwest Japan, Science, 296, 1679 – 1681.
Obara, K., and H. Hirose (2006), Non-volcanic deep low-frequency
tremors accompanying slow slips in the southwest Japan subduction
zone, Tectonophysics, 417, 33 – 51.
Obara, K., H. Hirose, F. Yamamizu, and K. Kasahara (2004), Episodic slow
slip events accompanied by non-volcanic tremors in southwest Japan
subduction zone, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L23602, doi:10.1029/
2004GL020848.
Seno, T., and T. Yamasaki (2003), Low-frequency tremors, intraslab and
interplate earthquakes in Southwest Japan—from a viewpoint of slab
dehydration, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(22), 2171, doi:10.1029/
2003GL018349.
Shelly, D. R., G. C. Beroza, S. Ide, and S. Nakamula (2006), Low-
frequency earthquakes in Shikoku, Japan, and their relationship to episo-
dic tremor and slip, Nature, 442, 188 – 191, doi:10.1038/nature04931.
Takei, Y. (2002), Effect of pore geometry on VP/VS: From equilibrium
geometry to crack, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B2), 2043, doi:10.1029/
2001JB000522.
Thurber, C. H. (1983), Earthquake locations and three-dimensional crustal
structure in the Coyota Lake area, central California, J. Geophys. Res.,
88, 8226 – 8236.
Thurber, C. H. (1993), Local earthquake tomography velocities and Vp/Vs
theory, in Seismic Tomography: Theory and Practice, pp. 563 – 583,
edited by H. M. Iyer and K. Hirahara, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.
Toomey, D. R., and G. R. Foulger (1989), Tomographic inversion of local
earthquakes data from the Hengil-Grensdalur central volcano complex,
Iceland, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 17,497 – 17,510.
Um, J., and C. H. Thurber (1987), A fast algorithm for two-point seismic
ray tracing, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 77, 972 – 986.
Wang, Z., and D. Zhao (2006), Vp and Vs tomography of Kyushu, Japan.
New insight into arc magmatism and forearc seismotectonics, Phys.
Earth. Planet. Inter., 157, 269 – 285, doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2006.04.008.























J. Mori and A. D. Nugraha, Disaster Preventions Research Institute,
Kyoto University, Uji 611-0011, Japan. (nugraha@eqh.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp)