AZERBAIJAN STATE OIL AND INDUSTRIAL

UNIVERSITETY

POWER ELECTRONICS
& ELECTRICAL DRIVE

Textbook

1
 YA ALLAH

AZƏRBAYCAN DÖVLƏ YA ALLAH

AZERBAIJAN STATE OIL AND INDUSTRIAL
UNİVERSITETY
YA ALLAH

ZAKIR HASANOV

SMIRA KHANAHMEDOVA

POWER ELECTRONICS
& ELECTRICAL DRIVE

(textbook)

Textbook guide,

ASOIU decree
“____”_____2022 .

Baku - 2022
2
UDC 621.8
Authors: associate Professor, Ph. D. Zakir Hasanov and
associate Professor, Ph. D. Samira Khanahmedova. Textbook
"Power electronics and electrıcal drive”. Baku, ASOIU
Pub.house, 2022 , pages 147 .

Editor: Cavida Damirova - assistant of the department

“Electronics and automation”

The manual provides brief information about modern

electronic power devices and objects of their application. The
problems of studying various parameters of DC and AC drives
(asynchronous), building models and characteristics in the
Simulink and SimPowerSystems sections of the MATLAB are
considered.
The manual is intended for undergraduate students in the
specialties 060607 "Electrical and electronics engineer” and
050608 “Electrical power engineer”

Reviewers:

1. Elshan Sultanov - Chief of department, associate Professor

“Marine electroautomation”

2.Hüseynov Emin - associate Professor of the Department

“Electrical power”

3
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION……………………………….. 6
1 RECTIFIERS……………………………………. 7
1.1 Description of rectifiers......................................... 7
1.2 Single phase half wave rectifiers............................ 8
1.3 Single phase full wave rectifier.............................. 11
1.4 Single-phase bridge scheme................................... 31
1.5 Three phase bridge circuit...................................... 46
1.6 Connection rectifer to circuit with revers e.m.f..... 55
2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION......................... 58
3 INVERTERS AND FREQUENCY
CONVERTERS...................................................... 68
3.1 Description of inverters.......................................... 68
3.2 Frequency converter with directly connected in
the network (three-phase / single-phase) (FCCN).. 69
3.3 Frequency converter with directly connected in
the network (three-phase/ three-phase)………….. 74
3.4 Frequency inverters connected to the network
through a fixed current line.................................... 78
4 CONTROL DIRECT CURRENT
ELECTRICAL DRIVES………………………… 85
4.1 Electromechanical characteristics of
direct current electric drives................................... 85
4.2 Control schemes of direct current electric drives... 89
4.2.1 Direct voltage converters....................................... 92
5 ASYNCHRONOUS ELECTRIC DRIVES........... 107
5.1 Mechanical characteristics of asincrone motors..... 107
5.2 Frequency control asynchronous electric drives.... 118
5.2.1 Asynchronous electric drive control laws.............. 118
5.2.2 Control systems of AC motor……………………. 126
4
6 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF AC MOTOR............... 139
LITERATURE....................................................... 146

5
 INTRODUCTION

When performing various technological processes and in

connection with the need to control the currents and voltages of
power supplies, there was a need for power electronics. Power
electronics is the main part of electronics that is related to
power conversion and controlled. It is now known that
electronics deal with semiconductor devices. Semiconductor
elements that are part of power electronic devices are divided
into the following groups according to the control principle:
1. Semiconductor devices, for example, traditional SCR
(silicon controlled rectifiers) thyristors, triac.
2. Fully controlled (lockable) semiconductor devices such
as transistors, lockable thyristors.
Currently, more and more modern semiconductor devices
are used, the names of which are listed below:
1. MOSFET (Metal – Oxide – Semiconductor Field - Effect
Transistor) Field-effect transistor with a controlled electrode.
2. IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) bipolar
transistor with an insulating electrode.
3. Controlled TRP thyristor (gate-switch).
4. Integrated controlled thyristor IGCT (Integrated Gate-
Commutated Thyristor).
Using the above elements allows you to increase the power
and expand the functions of power electronic devices.

6
 1. RECTIFIERS

1.1. Description of rectifiers

The rectifiers as a static converter are used to convert the

alternating current to a direct current. The power part of this
converter device mainly consists of the following parts (Fig.
1.1):1-transformer; 2-rectifier elements; 3-output filter.

Fig. 1.1. Power part of the rectifier

Rectifiers are classified accurrenting to the following

features:
  power;
  voltage;
  number of phases of the first side of the transformer;
  rectification circuit;
  method of output voltage regulation.

Rectifiers with a power up to 1 kW considered as a

small, with a power up to 100 kW medium, and the
with a power of higer than 100 kW are called high
powered.
Rectifiers with a voltage up to 250V is called low
voltage, with a voltage of up to 1000V is medium

7
 voltage and the high voltage rectifiers are with a voltage of
more than 1000V.
The transformers could be 1-phase and 3-phase based
on number of primary side phases.
Rectifier circuits are classified as follows:
-          Single phase half-wave;
-          Single phase full-wave;
-          Single bridge circuit;
-          Multi phase rectifier circuit;

1.2. Single phase half wave rectifiers

The rectifier circuit (Fig. 1.2) consists of transformer (Tr),

rectifier diode (D) and active resistance (R). In the figure
below illustrates voltage and current diagrams. Since the R is
active resistance, it coincides with the voltage and current in
phase.
The instantaneous value of the voltage in the secondary side of
the transformer is expressed as follows:
V ab= √2 V 2 sin ωt ,
where V2 – the RMS (root mean square) value of transformers
secondary side voltage;  - angular fequency of the mains
voltage (=2f).
The constant component of rectified voltage can be determined
using the equation below:
π
1 2 √2
V r = ∫ √ 2 V 2 sin θdθ= V =0 , 45 V 2
2π 0 2π 2 ,
here t is rotation angle of AC vector. When V2=220 V the
Vr=0,45Urm=0,45220=99 V.

8
For an active inductive load of a single-phase half-wave
rectifier circuit (Fig. 1.3), let's look at modeling MATLAB/
Simulink, SimPowerSystems.

9
 input voltage

D1

a Tr
R
Uab
Vab
U2
V2
b
output volage

Fig. 1.2. Input and output voltages1of the single-phase half-wave rectifier
The model is created based on following parameters:

active resistance: R=1 Ohm; 

inductance: L=0,001Hn=1e-3 Hn; 
AC Voltage: U=100 V, f=50 Hz.

The figure below shows (Fig. 1.4) the graph of rectified

voltage and current on oscilloscope (Scope) for 1 seconds.
The reason for the negative voltage in the graph is the
existance of inductive resistance in the circuit.
In electrical circuit with incustive resistance, the current lags
behined the voltage in phase. A change in the direction of
voltage during the flow of current through the diode causes the
negative part of the voltage.

Fig. 1.3. Model of a single-phase half-wave rectifier

in MATLABSimulink SimPower system

210
 Vin

Vr

Ir

Fig. 1.4. Graph of single-phase half-wave

rectifier for 1 sec.
Vin – input voltage; Vr – rectifier voltage;
Id –rectifier current;

1.3. Single phase full wave rectifier

In the Fig.1.5 center-tapped single phase full-wave rectifier

circuit is shown. Thyristors adjust the rectified voltage using
the opening-delay angles ().This circuit is also called
double-phase circuit.
Let's look at the circuit in different modes (conditions):
1. The circuit works on the active load and =0.
The model of this circuit is shown in Fig. 1.5. In this case,
thyristors work as diodes. Graph of current and voltage for the
above operation mode is given in Fig. 1.6. As can be seen from
the figure, during the first half-period, the Thyristor is open

11
3
and current is1 flows through it, equal to current id. In the
second half-period, the is1 current is equal to 0, and the
Thyristor1 allows is2=id current to flow. The reverse voltages
applied to thyristors when there are closed are defined as
Vs1=Vs2=Vab.
* average value of rectified voltage:
π
1 2 √2
V r = ∫ √ 2V 2 sin θdθ= V =0,9 V 2
π 0 π 2 , (1.3)

where V2 – the RMS value of voltage. When V2=220 V, then

Vr=0,9220=198 V.

* Similarly, the average value of rectified current:

I a=
V ab
=
2 √ 2 V 2 0,9 V 2
=
R r
π Rr
;
Rr
(1.4)
* The maximum values of reverse voltages on thyristors (Fig.
1.6):
Vrev. max= 2 √2 V 2 =2 ,82V 2 ; (1.5)
If V2=220 V, then Urev max.=2,82220=620,4 V.

* The maximum value of current flowing through thyristor:

√2 V 2
I Vm =
Rr .
Considering expression:
2√2 V 2
I r=
π Rr ,
then

4
 π
I Vm = I r =1, 571⋅I r
2 . (1.6)
* The average value of current 12 flowing through thyristor is
equal to half value of load current:
IVS aver.=0,5 Ir. (1.7)

* The effeciency value of current flowing through thyristor:

√
π
1
I VSef = ∫ I 2 sin2 dθ= π4 Ir =0 ,785 I r
2 π 0 VM . (1.8)

The voltage and current coefficients are used to determine the

effective use of the thysistors in a circuit. These coefficients
are defined as the ratio of the maximum and real values of the
quantities to the RMS value:

}
V rev.max 2 √ 2V 2
kaver .= = =π ¿¿¿
V d 2 √ 2V 2 ¿
π (1.9)

* The effeciency values of current passing through transformer

primary and secondary windings:
I πI r I
I 1 = Vm = =1,1 r
√ 2k T 2 √ 2 k T kT
; (1.10)

5
 πI r
I 2 =I VSef = =0 ,785 I r
4 . (1.11)

here kT - transformation coefficient.

13

6
 a
Ua0 is1
~V1
Ub0 id Vd
b
14

is2

Fig. 1.5. SPS model of the single-phase full-wave

center-tapped rectifier circuit
7 (active load and =0)
 Vin

Vr

Vt, Vt1

Vt, Vt1

Fig. 1.6. Times characteristic of the single-

phase full-wave rectifier
Vin- input voltage; Vr – output (rectifier) voltage;
Vtr, Vtr1 – revers voltages applaied to thyristors

* The power of transformers first side:

1 Ir
S 1 =V 1 I 1 =k T V 2 I 1 =k T V r⋅1 , 11 =
0,9 kT
¿ 1 ,23 V dn I rn=1 , 23 P rn (1.12)
* The power of transformers secondary side:
V rn
S 2 =2V 2 I 2 =2 0 , 785 I r =1, 74 Prn
0,9 . (1.13)

15
8
16

Fig. 1.7. SPS model9of the single-phase full-wave

center-tapped rectifier circuit (active load and >0)
 Vin

Vr

Vt, Vt1

Vt, Vt1

Fig. 1.8. Diagrams of current and voltages of the single-phase

full-wave center-tapped rectifier circuit
Vin- input voltage; Vr – output (rectifier) voltage;
Vtr, Vtr1 – revers voltages applaied to thyristors

* The calcuation power of transformer:

S1 + S 2 1, 23+1 , 74
ST= = Prn =1 , 48 Prn
2 2 , (1.14)

here Prn – nominal output power of rectifier.

2. The circuit works with active load and 0.
10
17
Let's assume that at the passing the zero point of Va0 voltage to
the α angle (after t=(T/2) or t=/), the control signal is
given to Thyristor (Fig. 1.7) The graph of the current and
voltage for this case is ginven in the figure below. Its possible
to change the output voltage by changing the opening angle
(opening delay) α. Output voltage Vd will change as the angle
 changes in the 0 range. This change can be determined by
the following expression:
π
1 √2
V r = ∫ √ 2V 2 sin θdθ= V 2 (1+ cosα )
π α π , (1.15)
when =0 the value of rectified voltage can be expressed as
2√2
V r 0= V
π 2 ,then:
(1+cos α )
V r =V r 0
2 . (1.16)
The average value of rectified current:
V r √ 2V 2 (1+ cos α )
I r= =
Rr πR r ; (1.17)

The RMS value of the current passing through the thyristor is

depends on the angle α. As the angle increases, the current of
the thyristors decreases. However the ratio of RMS to average
value of the current is increase. This ratio is expresed by
coefficient (kf):
I ef
kf=
I aver . . (1.18)
The RMS values transformers first and secondary side currents
can be calsulated as:

11
 I1=(kf/kT)(Ir/2); I2=kf Ir/2.
The calculatin pwoer of transformer:
18
Prn
S T =1 , 89 k f
1+ cos α , (1.19)

Here Prn – nominal value of rectified power.

It appears from this expressiom that the angle  influences the
forces of the elements. Therefore, it is necessary to consider
the maximum value of the angle  when designing elements.

Fig. 1.9. Output voltages graphs for the

changing from =0 to 

3. The circuit works with active-inductive and =0

For this mode Ld inductance is added to the circuit. (Fig. 1.10)
This inductance acts as a filter in a current rectfier circuit. The
12

19
id current pulsation is small as the value of inductance is
higher. The current and voltage graph for this case is givern in
the Fig. 1.11.
* The maximum value of the current passing through the
thyristor:
IVsmax=Ir. (1.20)

* The RMS value of the current passing through the thyristor is

equal to the current at the seondary side half-winfing of the
transformer:
I VSef =I 2 ; (1.21)
π

I ∫ I r dα ;
2 2

VS ef⋅2 π=
0
Here
I
I
2

VS ef⋅2 π= I ⋅π
and
2

r √2 . I VS ef =
r

* The RMS value of current at the transformers first winding:

Ir
I1=
kT . (1.22)
* The calculation power of transformer:
ST=1,34Prn. (1.23)
4. 0 and the circuit operates on active-inductive load.
The existance of inductance in the DC circuit and the condition
0 (Fig. 1.12) results in flowing current through thyristor
even after voltage passes 0 point due to charge accomulated in
inductance. The current and voltage graph for this case is given
in the Fig. 1.13.
As can be seen from the figure, due to 0 the current will
slide to the angle  angle relative to the rectified voltage.
13
20
Consequently, negative Vr voltage occurs, which will reduce
the average value of the rectified voltage. The average value of
the voltage can be determined by the following expression:

α +π
1
V r=
π
∫ √2 V 2 sin θdθ=V r 0 cos α
α .(1.24)
This characteristic is shown in Fig.1.9 (curve 2). The
comparison of the curves 1 and 2 from this figure shows that
the value of the voltage at the same α angle is less than the
active load at the active-inductiev load.

14
21
22

Fig. 1.10. SPS model15of the single phase full-wave

center-tapped rectifier circuit (active-indactive load and =0)
 Vin

Vr

Vt, Vt1

Vt, Vt1

Fig. 1.11. Diagrams of current and voltages

Vin- input voltage; Vr – output (rectifier) voltage;
Vtr, Vtr1 – revers voltages applaied to thyristors

The value of the Ld inductance can be so small that the

accumulated charge does not suffice for an id current to flow
during the half period. In this case, the current passing through
the previous thyristor will be reduced to zero before the next

23
16
thyristor impulse. This mode is called a pause current mode
(Fig. 1.14).
Analysis of the diagram shows that in this mode, the average
value will increase as a result of the decrease of the negative
part of the rectified voltage. Therefore, in the pause current
mode, the regulation characteristic is shown in Fig. 1.9
between characteristics 1 and 2.
It should be noted that transformers and thyristors operate in a
more heavir mode being in the pause current mode. Because in
these devices at the same value of the rectified current, the
r.m.s values of the current increases. Therefore, in the
powerfull rectifier devices if the angle  changes in the wide
range, it is necessary to increase the value of Ld - inductance
for the continuous current.
The circuit for the active-inductive load of a single half-wave
control rectifier is given in the Fig. 1.15,a. Here, the thyristor
has been used as a rectifier. In the figure, shows a circuit in
"SimPowerSystems" (Fig. 1.15,b). The following parameters
for the elements are used here: AC Voltage sourse: U=100 V;
f=50 Hz; active resistance: R=1 Ohm; inductivity: 1e-3Hn;
Puls generator: Amplitude - 1; Period (secs) - 0.02; Pulse
width (%-of period) - 5; Phase delay (secs) - 0.003 s.

17
24
25

Fig. 1.12. SPS model 18 of the single-phase full-wave

center-tapped rectifier circuit (active-indactive load and >0)
 Vin

Vr

Vt, Vt1

Vt, Vt1

Fig. 1.13. Diagrams of current and voltages of the single-phase

full-wave center-tapped rectifier circuit

Vin- input voltage; Vr – output (rectifier) voltage;

Vtr, Vtr1 – revers voltages applaied to thyristors

26
19
 Vab

t
0  2

is1
t
0
is2
t
0

Vs1 t
0

Vs2 t
0
i1

t
0

Vd
t
0

Fig.1.14. Pause current mode graphs

27
20
 a)

Continuous

powergui

PG
g m
i Scope
a k +
-
Thyristor Iout
+

+
v
AC -
RL
V1

b)

Fig. 1.15. Circuit of rectifier half-wave single-phase active-

inductive load (a) and SPS model (b)

Fig. 1.16 shows voltage and current for 0,1 sec. obtained
through oscilloscope. These diagrams are calculated in
accurrentance with the 0.003 phase shift of the impulse
generator.
21
 28
Vr, Volt

t, s
I r, A

t, s

Fig. 1.16. Diagrams of the rectifier voltage Vr

and current for Id 0.1 sec.

Lets see voltage regulation (Fig. 1.17,a) of active-inductive

load through fully control thyristor (Gto). In the Fig. 1.17,b
shows the "SimPowerSystem" model of described system. The
Pulse Generator parameters were selected as follows:
Amplitude - 1; Period - 0.02 sec .; Pulse Width -50%; active
resistance: R =1 Ohm; inductance L = 1e-3Hn; Powergui
block window should be noted as follows:

22
29
 a)

Continuous
Ideal Switch
No Snubber, Ron,Vf=0

powergui
g m
PG i
a k +
-
Scope
Gto Iout
m
+

Diode +
v
-
DC RL
V1
a

b)

Fig. 1.17. Scheme (a) and model (b) of voltage control in

active-inductive load using full control thyristor Gto

30
23
 Ud, V

t, s

Id, V

t, s

Şək. 1.18. Voltage and current pulse generator values

graph for the Pulse Width 50%

1.4. Single-phase bridge scheme

Single-phase bridge rectifier circuit consist of four thyristors

VS1VS4, transformer Tr, Ld-inductance and Rd active
resistance (Fig. 1.19). In circuit diagram breaker k nature of
resistance between active and active-inductive changes.
Current and voltage fot the condition =0 is the same as in Fig.
1.20. But the difference is that the amplitude value of the
reverse voltage applied to the thyristor will be twice less than
single-phase full rectifier.
 The average value of the rectified voltage:
24
31
 2√2
V aver .= V
π 2 = 0,9V2; (1.25)
 The maximum value of the reverse voltage in thyristor:
Vrev.max= √ 2 U2=0,9 V2 ; (1.26)
 The maximum value of the current passing through thyristor:
I VSm =
V
√2 2

R r ; (1.27)
Under active load, the circuit is characterized by the following
parameters.
 Average value of current passing through thyristor:
Id Id
I aver . = ; (1.28)
2 2
 RMS value of current passing through thyristor:
❑
Ivsef = 4 Id;
(1.29)
 The RMS values of current passing throug primary and
secondary sides of transformer can be determined using
following expressions:

25
 Fig. 1.19. The circuit of single-phase bridge rectifier

32
π

i sin θdθ ; I ⋅π =∫ √ 2 I sin θdθ ;

π

I r⋅π =∫ 2 r 2ef
0 0

I ⋅π=∫ √ 2 I (−cos)| ;
π
π

r
0
2ef √2 I
0 I r⋅π =2 2 ef ;

I = 2 π√ 2 I =1 , 11⋅I .
2 ef r
(1.30)
r

In active-inductive load (Ld=) the current passing throught

thyristors and transformers will be in the rectangular form. The
average valur of the rectified voltage is same as in active load.
When  0, depending on the nature of the load (active or
active inductive) bridge circuit could be characterized by the
following parameters.

1) The average value of the output voltage:

 active load:

1+ cos
Vr = Vro = ; (1.31)
2

 active - inductive load (L =):

Vr = Vro cos; (1.32)

2) Thyristors maximum voltage:

 active load

26
 }
V rev . max= √2 V 2
V forw . max= √ V 2 sin .
2 (1.33)
2
 active – inductive load:
33
V rev .max =√ 2V 2
V forw . max= √2 V 2 sin. } (1.34)

3) The maximum current value of thyristors

 active load:
Ivsm = √ 2 V2 /Rr (1.35)

 active - inductive load:

IVSM= Ir. (1.36)

4) Average and RMS values of the current passing through

thyristor:
 active load:

}
V
I VSaver = r
2 Rr (1.37)
I VSef =K f I VSaver

 active - inductive load:

Vr Ir
Ivaverr = , Ivef = .
2 Rr √2
(1.38)

The single-phase bridge rectifier and its "SimPowerSystems"

model are shown in Fig.1.18. The Universal Bridge block
27
parameters window in Fig. 1.19, voltage and currents graphs
are shown in Fig. 1.19, b.

34

28
35

b)

Fig. 1.18. Single-phase bridge circuit29

(a) and "SimPowerSystems" model (b)
a)

Vr

b)

Fig. 1.19. Universal Bridge block parameters window

(a), current and voltage graphs of single-phase
bridge circuit for 0.1 sec.
Vd – rectifier volage; Vrevers –revers voltage;
Iu.b – bight circuit current
30
36
For a more detailed description of the connection of rectifiers
inside the Universal Bridge unit used in SPS model (Fig.1.18),
let's look at the SPS model in Fig 1.20. As can be seen from the
model, due to the fact that the single-phase circuit uses 4
diodes. With this scheme, we can only get a rectified output
signal. In diode circuits, the output signal is not controlled.
Therefore, this scheme is called uncontrolled single-phase
bridge scheme. In Fig.1.21 shows the input and output voltage
circuits of this circuit.
In Fig.1.22 SPS model of a controlled single-phase bridge
circuit is shown.
As can be seen from the model, thyristors were used here. With
the help of the gate of these rectifiers, it is possible to control
the signals in the output circuit.
The thyristors are controlled by changing the opening angle of
the thyristors through the Pulse Generator block. Since the
opening angle in this model is 0, thyristors work as diodes.
The time diagrams of the controlled single-phase bridge circuit
are shown in Fig. 1.23.
In the SPS model described in Fig.1.24, due to the fact that the
opening angle of the thyristors is greater than 0, the voltage
value in the output circuit will change. To delay the pulse
supply in Pulse Generator 1-3 blocks is set PW=0.005 s., in
Pulse Generator 2-4 blocks is set PW=0.0025 s. The time
diagrams of this model are shown in Fig. 1.25.
A in Fig.1.26 shows SPS model of a bridge circuit with an
active-inductive load using Universal bridge block consisting
of thyristors, Fig. 1.27 shows the time diagrams of this circuit.

37
31
38

Fig. 1.20. SPS model of the uncontrolled single-phase bridge scheme

32
 Vin

Vr

Ir

Fig. 1.21. Diagrams of the uncontrolled

single-phase bridge scheme
Vin – input voltage; Vr , Ir – times characteristiks of the
rectifier voltages and current

39
33
40

Fig. 1.22. SPS model of the controlled single-phase bridge scheme (when α=0)
34
 Vin

Vr

Ir

Fig. 1.23. Diagrams of the controlled single-phase bridge

scheme
Vin – input voltage; Vr , Ir – times characteristics of the
rectifier voltage and current

35
41
42

Fig. 1.24. SPS model of the avtive load controlled single-phase bridge scheme (when α>0)
36
 Vin

Vr

Ir

Fig. 1.25. Diagrams of the controlled

single-phase bridge scheme
Vin – input voltage; Vr , Ir – times characteristics of the
rectifier voltages and current
37
43
44

Fig. 1.26. SPS model of the avtive-inductive load controlled single-phase

bridge scheme
38 (when α>0)
 Vin

Vr

Ir

Fig. 1.27. Diagrams of the controlled

single-phase bridge scheme
Vin – input voltage; Vr , Ir – times characteristics of the
rectifier voltages and current
39
45
 1.5. Three phase bridge circuit

The circuit of the three-phase bridge rectifier consists of 6

thyristos (VS1-VS6), transformer (Tr), active (Rd) and
inductive (Ld) loads. Switch k is used to ensure the appropriate
operation of circuit with active-inductive and only active load
(Fig. 1.28). For the active load and =0 case (k switch is
turned off), current and voltage graphs is given in the figure
below. As can be seen from the figure, current passes through
VS1 and VS6 thyristiors starting from t1. In this case, the linear
voltage Uab is applied to Rd resistance. Rectified current Id
flows by the following loop: phase a - VS1 thyristor, Rd
resistance, VS6 thyristor, b phase. This process continues until
the moment t2. After the time t2, the potential of phase c is
becomes more is negative. VS2 thyristor opens and passes
currernt, as control signal reseived. VS6 thyristor is turned off,
and oppsite Uab voltage will be applied. Through VS1 and VS2
thyristors current will pass in Rd resistance. At t3 time the
control signal is applied to VS3, the thyristor is opened and
VS1 thyristor is closed.
Thus, over a period of /3 following thyristor couples a
switched:
VS6-VS1; VS1-VS2; VS2-VS3; VS3-VS4; VS4-VS5; VS5-VS6..
Rectified voltage:
2 /3

Vr =
3 ∫ √ 6V2 sin d =
❑ ❑
3

= 3 √ 6 V2 = 2,34V2=1,35 Vab, (1.39)

❑

40
Where V2 is RMS value of transformers secindary side phase
voltage. This statement is true for the both active and active-
inductive loads.

46

Fig. 1.28. The three-phase bridge circuit

In the case Ld= the circuit parameters characterasied by

following quantities:
 The maximum value of the reverse voltage applied to
thyristor:
VVSM = √ 2 V2x , (1.40)
here – V2x=Vab r.m.s. value of linear voltage.
 Maximum value of thyristor current:
Ivsmax=Ir, (1.41)
 Average value of thyristor current:
I
Ivsaver. = r . (1.42)
3
To regulate the output voltage of the rectifier, the thyristors
must be given control pulses starting at the intersection of the
phase voltages (0). Rectified current of the control pulses in
0/3 regardless of the nature of the load, it will be

41
uninterrupted. In this mode, the value of the rectified voltage Ir
is calculated as follows:
Vr =2,34 V2cos = Vr0cos, (1.43)
Here Vd0=2.34V2 value of the rectified voltage when =0.
=/3 us boundry condition for the continuous current.
47

42
Fig. 1.29. Three-phase bridge circuit graphs
43
48
At the angle value /3 of active load the interruptions occurs
in the value of the voltage and current. The average value of
the voltage for this situation is expressed as follows:
Vr=Vr0 [1+ cos(/3+)], (1.44)
Average value of rectified voltage at active-inductive load
control angle /3:
Vr=Vr0cos , (1.45)
In Fig.1.30 given the regulation characteristics of three-phase
bridge circuit fo the active (1st curve) and active-inductive
(2nd curve) load.

Fig. 1.30. Characteristics of the 3-phase bridge circuit for

active (1st curv) and active-inductive (2nd curve) loads

49
44
The characteristic of the control angle in the 0 /3 range is
expressed in the same expression for theboth active and active-
inductive loads:
Vd = Vro cos .

The regulation characteristics for the active load after the

>/3 value are determined by the following expression:

Vr = Vro [1+cos(/3+)]. (1.46)

Let's look at modeling of uncontrolled 3-phase bridge circuit in

"SimPowerSystems" (Fig. 1.31). In Fig. 1.32 times
characteristics of current and voltages are shown.
In Fig. 1.33 modeling of uncontrolled 3-phase bridge circuit in
"SimPowerSystems, Fig. 1.34 times characteristics of current
and voltages are shown.
In Fig. 1.35 parameters of the block Powergui used to
modelling controlabel three-phase bridge circuit is shown.

45
50
51

Fig. 1.31. SPS model of the uncontrol 3-phase bridge circuit

46
 Vin1, Vin2, Vin3

Ir

Vr

Fig. 1.32. Times characteristiccs of the uncontrol three-

phase bridge circuit
Vin1, Vin2, Vin3 – input voltages; Ir – rectifier current;
Vr – rectifier voltage

47
52
53

Fig. 1.33. SPS model of the control 3-phase bridge circuit

48
 Vin, Vin2 Vin3

Ir

Vr

Fig. 1.32. Times characteristiccs of the control

three-phase bridge circuit
Vin1, Vin2, Vin3 – input voltages; Ir – rectifier current;
Vr – rectifier voltage

54
49
 Fig. 1.35. Powergui block parameters

1.6. Connection rectifer to circuit with revers e.m.f.

Let's assume that the battery and the direct current engine feeds
from single-phase full wave rectifier (Fig. 1.36). Let's consider
the principle of the circuit for the case of e.m.f E0 and Rr
resistance. Diagrams of current and voltage for this situation
are shown in Fig.1.37. As can be seen from Fig. 1.38, the
current Ir created when the instantaneous value of the voltage
is greater than E0.
V r−E 0 √2 V cos t−E0
Ir = = . (1.47)
Rr Rr

50
55
 Pic. 1.38. Half-wave two single-phase rectifier

The thyristor current transmission interval is denoted as ,

=2,
√ 2V2cos=E0 , (1.48)
Here  - angle angle Vr at which emf is equal to E 0.
Considering expression (1.47)
√2 V 2
Ir = (cos-cos).
r
Average value of rectified voltage:

1 √ 2V 2√ 2 V 2
Ir=
❑
∫
−¿¿
❑
R
(cos-cos)dv=
Rr
(sin-cos).
r
(1.49)

Expression for the rectifier with m phases:

m V fm
Ir = ❑ (sin-cos); (1.50)
Rr

51
where Vfm – amplitude value of transformers secondary
winding voltage.

56

Fig.1.25. Graph of single-phase half wave rectifier

The average value of current passing through thyristir in

single- phase circuit:
I
Ivsaver. = r . (1.51)
2
Maximum value of reverse voltage applied to thyristor

Vrev.m = 2√ 2V2. (1.52)

Thus, as the reverse e.m.f increase, the duration of the passing

current through the thyristir will increase. Ultimately, use of
thyristor and transformer will deteriorate.

52
If the Ld inductivity is connected to the rectified current
circuit, the current pulsation will be reduced and calculation by
following equation:
V r−E 0
Ir = . (1.53)
Rr
2. PULSE WIDTH 57 MODULATION

By the principle of pulse width modulation (PWM), it is

possible to change the value of the rectified voltage, as well as
the AC frequency and voltage. The essence of this method is
that it can change the value of the output voltage by changing
the width of the impulses generated at a given frequency
(reference frequency-fa) at the Ta=1/fa period. By varying the
width of the impulses to a certain extent, it is also possible to
obtain a variable signal with a certain frequency and voltage.
This method is called the PWM – pulse width modulation. Fig.
2.1 illustrates the adjustment diagram of the direct voltage with
PWM. From this diagram, it is possible to change the output
voltage - Vr in a large range by changing the duration of the
impulse continuity by keeping the frequency constant.
The ratio of impulses period Ta to the duration of the impulse ti
is called deep of the pulsses S:
Ta
S= . (2.1)
ti
Often instead of this expression the term duty cycle is used:
1 ti
D= = (2.2)
S Ta
The value of the duty cycle varies in the range D=01.
Using PWM the both value and sign of the DC voldatege can
be changes as shown in Fig 2.2. Here, the Vm – sawtooth signal
and Vi is compared using komparator and the difeerence signal

53
is controls the circui. By control constanat value of the voltage
it is possibly change pulses with.
Fig. 2.3 describes the SPS model of the PWM. In this model
gate of the IGBT transistor controlled by Pulse Generator
block. To change output voltage it is neccesary change pulses
with. In this figure since PW=50%, when inpul voltage is 10V
output voltage will equals to 5V. In this model RL (active and
inductive resistances) as filtr, are used, R is active load. To
demonstration average value of the rectifier voltage Mean
block ( X ) is used. In the Fig.582.4 input and output diagrams
of the SPS model are shown.
When pulse with increases to PW=80%, output voltage vill
equals to 8V (Fig. 2.5). Input and output voltage of the SPS
model in the Fig. 2.6 are shown.
In Fig.2.7 various output signals with change pulses with, Fig.
2.8 diagrams of changing the frequency and voltage of the
sinusoidal signal by PWM are shown. Fig. 2.8, a and b shows
modulated of sinusoidal signals with different amplitude. Here
1
sawtooth signal Vm having reference frequency fa= and
Ta
sinusoidal signals Vs1 və Vs2 with different amplitudes are
compareted. In the Fig. 2.9,a Vs1 is output signal corresponding
to the Vout1 puls with modified output signal, Fig. 2.9,b Vs2 is
output signal corresponding to the Vout2 puls with modified
1
output signal. The frequency fS1= , of both sinusoidal signals
T s1
has different amplitudes.
Let's create a model of the non-reversivle transducer impulse
modulator (Fig. 2.10, a) in "SimPowerSystems" (Figure 2.10,
b).
Powergui block parameters should be selected as follows in
Fig. 2.11.
The parameters of the elements here are as follows:
54
Parameters of DC current circuits - DC Voltage Source-10 V.
V=100V; r =1 Ohm;
R=20 Om; L=0,001 Hn;
C=0,01 F. Period – 0,05 sec.;
Pulse width: 40%.
In Fig. 2.12. the voltage and current graphs for the parameters
below are given.

59

55
 V

Vm

Vr=0,2Vm
0 t1 t0
Ta
V

Vm
Vr=0,5Vm
0 t1 t0
Ta
V

Vr=0,9Vm

0 t1 t0
Ta
Fig. 2.1. Diagrams of voltage control by PWM
56
60
 Fig. 2.2. Changing the sign and value
of DC voltage by PWM

Fig. 2.3. SPS model of the PWM when PW=50%

61
57
 Fig. 2.4. Input and voltages diagrams
when PW=50%

Fig. 2.5. SPS model of the PWM when PW=80%

58
62
 Fig. 2.6. Input and voltages diagrams
when PW=80%

Fig. 2.7. Changeing pulse with by Pulse Generator block

63
59
 Vs, Vm
VS1 Vm

TS1/2
t
0
Ta
Vout1

t
0
a)

Vs, Vm
VS1 Vm

TS1/2
t
0
Ta
Vout1

t
0

b)

Fig.2.8. Diagrams of changing AC voltage by PWM

64
60
 Vs, Vm
VS1 Vm

TS1/2
t
0
Ta
Vout1

t
0

a)
Vs, Vm
VS1 Vm

TS1/2
t
0
Vout1 Ta

t
0

b)

Fig. 2.9. Changing of frequency of the

AC voltage by PWM

65
61
 a)
66

62
b)
Fig. 2.10. Circuit of non-revers PWM converter (a) and
“SimPowerSystems” model (b)

63
 Fig. 2.11. Powergui block parameters

Şək. 2.7. Voltage and current graphs of unrevers PWD

converter

67
64
 3. INVERTERS AND FREQUENCY CONVERTERS

The inverter is the device carrying out direct current

transformation on variable. And the frequency converter is the
device which carries out transformation of an alternating
current with certain frequency on an alternating current with
other frequency.

3.1. Description of inverters

More low the description of inverters is represented:

Fig. 3.1. Description of inverters

68
65
Network inverters transmit current from a constant current
source to an energy changing circuit (DC to AC). These
inverters are designed as single-phase and three phase versions,
as rectifier circuits. Unlike rectifiers, inverters powered by
network control signals are fed up to the angle β of the phase
voltage intersection. These inverters are used to transfer a DC
motor to a stationary current network produced by solar panels
in a recuperative mode.
Autonom inverters convert a DC source into AC source and
transmit it to the operator. The output voltage frequency value
of this inverter is dependent on the inverter circuit, control
system and operating mode. Depending on the nature of
electromagnetic processes in autonomous inverters, two types
of autonomous inverters are considered: current inverter and
voltage inverters.
In currents inverters, a constant current circuit is connected to
drossel with a high inductivity and the input current of the
inverter is considered uninterrupted. The inverter is
characterized as an equivalent current source and its charge is
active.
The voltage inverter is applaed to the load to supply a DC
voltage through thyristors. The load of the voltage inverter is
active-inductive.

3.2. Frequency converter with directly connected in the

network (three-phase / single-phase) (FCCN)

In these frequency converters, thyristors are connected through

a natural switching process. Therefore, the output frequency of
such speed transducers is less than the bandwidth. These
frequency converters are widely used to control the speed of
asynchronous electric drives in a low frequency range.

66
69
The number of input and output phases of the FCCN
determines its structure and scheme of the frequency converter
as its main classification indicator. It should be noted that
multi-phase frequency converters have higher technical and
economic indicators.
Let's look at the principle of the three-phase / single-phase
FCCN (Fig.3.2).
The impulses that open the thyristors are synchronized to the
cathode group thyristors (T1,T2,T3) synchronously with network
frequency. This group works in the tractor regulator mode and
creates a positive halfwave due to the Zy load zero point of the
transistor (Fig. 3.3). The control pulses control the value of the
output voltage by providing a sliding angle to the opening
angle for the line voltage. When the control pulses of the
Anode group thyristors (T4,T5,T6) are given, the Zy charge
generates negative zero points due to the zero point of the
transformer. Anode and cathodic group thyristor turns into a
variable voltage in the load f2f1. The frequency of f2 is
determined by the duration of the output of each group of
thyristors.
In the three-phase / single-phase scheme, the thyristors of each
group switch between /3 interval. It can be written for
frequency converter frequency without taking into account the
switching interval,
1 2
= n+
2f 2 3 ( )−2 ❑
3
= (2n+1);
3
here n - is the number of sine waveform;
−2
- the angle up to the zero fall of the half-back.
3
The thyristors are divided into two groups - anode group
(T4,T5,T6) and cathode groups (T1,T2,T3). Let's assume that Zy
load is an active character. Management impulse is given by
cathode (T1,T2,T3 ) and anode (T2,T4,T6) groups.
67
 70

Fig. 3.2. Scheme of the three-phase / single-phase FCCN

V2

VA VB VC

VC VA VB

Fig.3.3. Diagrams of the three-phase / single-phase FCCN

68
In general, the dependence of the frequency converter on the
input and output frequencies can be summarized as follows:

m1 f 1
f 2= , (3.1)
2n+
71 m1

here m1 - is the number of phases of the network; f1 and f2 are

input and output speeds of the frequency converter
accurrentingly.
From (3.1) shows that, as the values n change, the frequency f2
will change discrete (Table 3.1).
It is necessary to create a break (φ) between the tristor groups
and the tristor groups that work to speed the output speed. In
this case, the dependence between the input and output
frequencies of the frequency converter is expressed as follows:

m1 f 1
f2 = ; (3.2)
( 2 n+m1) + m1

for m1=3; f1=50 Hz; n=1 the dependence of f2 on φ is given in

table 3.2
150
f2 = , (3.3)
5+3
In fig. 3.4 shows is a smoothly change frequency f2 depending
on φ. When the voltage in the active-inductive load passes
through the zero, the load current does not go from zero
because the load in the load lags behind the voltage. In this
case, in the invertor mode, the appropriate tymitter group for
the flow of load to the network (induced energy return to the
network - for recuperation) is transmitted to the network.
Direct-to-turn frequency converter (FCCN) differs from the
frequency converter, which is the intermediate constant current
converter, with the small size and weight of the FCCN.
69
The FCCNs are used only at low frequencies (3050)Hz,
influencing them as a source of voltage. Therefore, the power
of the FCCN is smaller than the power of the electric motor it
operates.
72

70
 Discrete change of frequency f2 depending on the value of n
Table 3..

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 Note
m1=3;
f2 50 30 21,43 16,77 13,6 11,5
f1=50Hz
73

Table 3.2.
Discrete change of frequency f2 depending on the value of φ

 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 

f2 30 28,3 26,8 25,4 24,2 23,1 22,1 21,1 20,3 12,5 18,8

71
 Fig. 3.4. Smoothly change of the frequency f2
depends on φ

3.3. Frequency converter with directly connected in the

network (three-phase/ three-phase)

The FCCNs used for the management of triple asynchronous

engines are designed in two schemes:
1. FCCN, which is connected to zero transformer (Fig.3.5).
2. The FCCN, which has been incorporated by the bridge
scheme (Fig. 3.6).
An 18-bit thyristor is used in the FCCN, which is connected to
a zero-transformer transformer. This scheme has a more simple
management system. However, it is important to have a special
transformer for the zero current. This transformer also
performs the current limiting function in the emergency mode.
There is no need for a zero current in the FCCN assembled on
the bridge diagram. But here the management system is
complicated. Darts are used to limit current in accidents. It
72
74
should be noted that, apart from regulating the frequency of the
FCCN, the engine performs a current switching process in the
power circuit.
In the absence of a break between the FCCNs anode and
cathode groups, the frequency of output is defined as follows:
f 1m
f2 = ,
2 ( n−1 ) +m
(3.4)

where n - is the curve of the output voltage the number of

semidens; m - is the number of tensile alignments.

For n=3; m=3 zero-wire 3-phase FCCN.

mf1 3f 1
f2= = =¿ 0,429f1=
2 ( n−1 ) +m 2 ( 3−1 ) +3
0,42950=21,44Hz; (3.5)

for FCCN, which is on the bridge scheme n=3; m=6.

mf1 6f 1
f2= = =0,6f1=0.650 = 30Hz.
2 ( n−1 ) +m 2 ( 3−1 ) +6
(3.6)

73
 ~3,5 Hz

Tr

FCCN

AM

Fig. 3.5. The zero is connected to the transformer FCCN

76
74
 ~3,5 Hz

Dr

FCCN

AM

Fig. 3.6. FCCN scheme connected by the bridge

77
75
 3.4. Frequency inverters connected to the network
through a fixed current line

This type of speed converter is divided into 2 types:

- Voltage type converters.
- Frequency type converters.
The scheme of voltage-type transducers is described in fig.
3.7. Here, the UM is a uncontrol diode rectifier bridge. This
bridge transforms the three phase variable voltage into a
constant voltage that is not regulated.

UM
VS1 VS3 VS5
VD1 VD3 VD5

U
R
C0 V
S
W
T

VS2 VS4 VS6

VD2 VD4 VD6

Fig. 3.7. Voltage frequency converter scheme

76
78
VS1-VS6 elements are IGBT-type transistors and convert
constant voltage, frequency and amplitude to AC voltage
through transverse modulation. VD1-VD6 diodes are reflective
diodes, allowing the current to flow in the opposite direction
during switching time and recuperative braking mode. The C0
capacitor acts as a filter.
The current type converter (Fig. 3.8) consists of UM - three
phase control rectifier assembled from thyristors, smoothing
Lr-inductivity and invertor. The invertor consists of 6 thyristors
(VS1-VS6), 6 cutting diodes (VD1-VD6) and C1-C6 switching
capacitors. These capacitors are used for the closure of the
thyristors. Cutting diodes VD1-VD6 prevent the discharged
capacitors from discharging into the load circuit.
Compile the model of the invertor assembled on the IGBT
transistors (fig. 3.9, a), and "SimPowerSystems" (fig. 3.9, b).
The parameters of the elements here are as follows:
DC Voltage Source -100 V; Pulse generator: Amplitude –
A=1; Period – 0,005 s.; Pulse width - 50%; Phase delay – 0;
Pulse generator 1: Amplitude – A=1; Period – 0,005 s.; Pulse
width - 50%; Phase delay – 0,0025 s. Parameters of the active,
inductive and capacity resistance: R1=10 Ohm; R2=50 Ohm;
L0=1e-3 Hn; L1=1e-3 Hn.
Powegui block parameters are selected as follows:

Configure parametrsPerferensSimulation
typeDiscrete.

In the Fig. 3.10 shows the current and voltage graphs obtained
using the oscilloscope (Scope) corresponding to the above
values.

77
79
 id
UM
VS1 VS3 VS5
C1 C3

D1 C2 D3 D5

U
R
V
S
T W
D2 D4 D6

C4 C6

VS2 C5 VS4 VS6

Fig. 3.8. Scheme of current type frequency converter

78
80
79
 a)
81

b)
Fig. 3.9. Invertors scheme (a) and SPS-model (b)
79
 Ir

Vr

Fig. 3.10. Current (Ir) and voltage (Vr) graphs

of the single-phase invertor

In the Fig. 3.11 SPS model of the frequecy converter (FC), in

Fig. 3.12 output diagrams of the current and voltages are
shown. In the SPS model AC voltage with parameters 100 V
and 50 Hz rectified by the AC to DC block, after passes from
the C filr by the DC to AC block converted to AC voltge with
differens frequency.

82
80
81
83

81
Fig. 3.11. SPS model of the frequecy converter

82
Fig. 3.12. Diagrams of three phase voltages (VAB, VBC, VCA)
and currents (IAB, IBC, ICA) of the frequency for 0.1 sec.

83
83
84
 4. CONTROL DIRECT CURRENT
ELECTRICAL DRIVES

4.1. Electromechanical characteristics of

direct current electric drives

The schematic diagram of DC electric drive with independent

excitation is shown below in Fig. 4.1. Here, E – is e.m.f
emerged in armature circuit; rl - is active resistance of
armature; IEW – independent excitation winding; rE–active
resistance of excitation winding circuit.
Vl
+ _
E
Il
rl

rE

IEW
iE
_
+ VT

Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram of independently excited DC

electric drive

Let’s write the equation of equilibrium for the armature circuit:

Vl= E+Il rl, (4.1)
Let’s consider E=k, then
Vl= k+Il rl, (4.2)

84 85
84
 U e r1
¿ − I. (4.3)
kф kф l

This expression is an electromechanical characteristic of the

engine. In this expression, the  - engine angle rotation;  -
magnetic flux which cuts the armature; k - is the coefficient of
the engine construction. , Il in the coordinat system (Il)
dependency is depicted as straight line. Lets make expression
(4.1) for different V1 and  values (Fig. 4.2.).

Fig. 4.2. Electromechanical characteristics of DC motor

1- Vl1,1=n; 2- Vl2,2=n; 3-V13=Vn, 3=n;

4-Vl4=Vn,4<n; 5- Vl5=Vn,5<4<n

85
86
1, 2, and 3 characteristics are based on different values of
armature voltage and nominal value of magnetic flux (n). For
this characteristics:
Vl1<Vl2<Vl3=Vn;
1=2=3=n.
The 4th and 5th figures are based on the nominal value of the
armature voltage (Vn) and for different magnetic flux rates. For
these features:
Vl4=Vl5=Vn;
5<4<n.
As can be seen from Fig. 4.2, the speed of the engine can be
adjusted by obtaining various electromechanical characteristics
by changing the voltage (VA, VE) applied to the armature and
the excitation circuit.
Let's look at the electromechanical characteristics of the
parameters given below for a fixed current electric current:

P= 30 kVt; Vn=220V; In=170A;

kФ= 1,47; n=0,8; re= 0,18 Om.

In the expression of electromechanical characteristics (4.3):

V r e+ R е
= − I .
kф kф e
Let’s write the following parameters of the enigne:
V 220
V= n = =¿110V; kФ =1,2; Rе=2 Om.
2 2

110 0,18+ 2
= − I e.
1,2 1,2
Let's look at the model built for the electromechanical
characteristics by using the Fcn block in MATLAB / Simulink
86

87
(Fig. 4.3). Electromechanical characteristic, is depicted by the
model in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.3. A model for calculating electromechanical

characteristics

87
 Fig. 4.4. Electromechanical characteristic

4.2. Control schemes of direct

88 current electric drives
Let's look at a circuit that controls the speed of a DC motor
using thyristor rectifiers with a fixed current (Fig 4.5).
The armature circuit of a DC motor is fed from three phase
rectifier (UM1). The output voltage of this rectifier is adjusted
by changing the opening angles of the thyristors (1). The
speed of the engine can be adjusted from the nominal value
(Vn) to 0 by reducing the output voltage of rectifier from the
nominal value (nn) to zero.
Engine Excitation Winding (IEW) is fed from single-phase
rectifier (UM2). The voltage can be adjusted by changing the
opening angle (α2) of the thyristors that form the UM2
rectifier. When the (2) angle increases, the voltage applied to
the engine is reduced and the magnetic flux of the impulse is
reduced. As a result of the decrease in magnetic flux, the
stifness of the electromechanical characteristics of the engine is
reduced and the unloading speed increases (Fig. 4.2, 4 and 5
lines). As a result, the speed of the engine can be adjusted in
the second zone (above nominal speed).
In the scheme, the IB1 controller controls the thyristors of the
UM1 rectifier, which nurtures the engine's armature circuit.
The IB2 controller control the thyristors of UM2 bridge
circuits, which feeds excitation circuit. The L reactor protects
the thyristiors from the flow of the current by preventing the
sharp increase in the current. Tr transformer adapts voltage of
the excitation winding of the engine to the network voltage.
The Ld drosseller reduces the impact of the current passing
through the armature circuit of the engine.
Fig. 4.6 describes the scheme of direct current electric drive
driven by the principle of pulse-width modulation.
88
When using IGBT-type transistors in this scheme, the engine is
89
reversed and the speed is adjusted. The leading frequency of
transistors can be increased to fa=20 kHz. Relative connection
period of transistors is determined by expression:

ti
D= .
t i+ t0
A2

A1
Tr
L

UB2
UB1

Ld

IEW

Fig. 4.5. Direct current engine speed adjusting scheme

89
The voltage in the engine armature can be adjusted by
changing the transistor's relative90 connection time (D). The
value of this voltage is determined by:
ti
V r =V =VˑD , (4.6)
t i+ t0

Fig. 4.6. Reversive dirrect current electric circuits

scheme driven by PWM
90
The C capacitor in the circuit is used as filter and to reduce DC
pulses from the mains. D1-D491diodes are reverse diodes and
return the electromagnetic energy accumulated in the armature
circuit to the network or to the C capacitor during the transistor
cloused.

4.2.1. Direct voltage converters

These converters are used to convert a constant voltage to a

constant voltage with a different level. In other words, it
converts a constant voltage to a constant voltage. There are the
following types of DC-to-other DC converters:

1. DC to DC step up converter
In circuits of this type (Fig. 4.7), it is more convenient to use
field-effect transistors. This is due to the fact that the resistance
between the input and output circuits is low when the field-
effect transistors are in the open state, unlike bipolar
transistors. At the moment when the key is pressed, a voltage is
applied to the inductance, and it begins to fill up for a certain
period of time. The riser converter used a MOSFET
semiconductor. When the input pulse signal is applied to the
control electrode of the transistor, a current will begin to flow.
Since there is an inductance in the circuit, the current will
begin to increase. The transistor operates in the key mode, that
is, it opens and closes. When the MOSFET is in the open state,
energy is accumulated in the inductance, generated by e.m.f.
Since the polarity of the e.m.f. is opposite, as soon as the
transistor is connected, it becomes a source, and a peak voltage
is created in its windings, so the value of this voltage will be
greater than the source voltage.

91
92
As soon as the peak voltage is applied to the anode of the
diode, the diode opens At the moment when the polarity of the
ehg source changes, current will flow through the diode, the
inductance will weaken.
The MOSFET operating in the key mode is controlled by the
Pulse Generator block, which is the source of the pulse input.
As can be seen from the SPS model when input voltage is 6 V,
the output voltage will be 27,51 V, and the it is possibly control
the value of the output voltage using PWM.

2. DC to DC step down converter. In this converter, when the

transistor opens and closes, the current from the inductance
will not flow instantly. As soon as the transistor opens, the
inductance will be filled with energy, and the capacitor will
begin to fill. The direction of the current will be clockwise.
Fig. 4. 9 shows the SPS model of this type of converter.
Еhe capacitor does not have time to fully fill up, the MOSFET
will be turned off, for this it is necessary to take into account
the duration of the key's stay in the open state. Unlike the
scheme above, the current in the inductance will not reach a
peak and will begin to gradually increase. As can be seen from
the SPS model of this circuit, when input voltage is 12V the
output voltage will be 7242 V. We can control the value of the
output voltage using PWM. In Fig.4.10 the diagrams of the
input and output voltage of the humiliation converter are
shown.
To start the process of starting a dirrect current engine, write its
dynamical equations:
di d
V= e+Ri+L ; M-Ms= J ;
dt dt
M= kФi; e= kФ.

92
93

93
94

Fig. 4.7. SPS model of the DC to DC step up converter

94
 Vin

Vout

Fig. 4.8. Diagrams of the input (Vin) and output voltages

(Vout) of the DC to DC step up converter

This statement is written in an operator:

V= e+Ri+Lpi; M -Ms= Jp;

M= kФi; e= kФ.
Let's define the velocity and speed of these expressions:
1
(U −e)
U −e 1 U −e R 1
i= R + LP = R L
=
1+Tp
;  = Jp
(M-Mc).
(1+ p)
R

95

95
96

Fig. 4.9. SPS model of the DC to DC step down converter

96
 Vin

Vout

Fig.4.10. Diagrams of the input (Vin) and output voltages (Vout)

of the DC to DC step down converter

Let’s depict model from Fig. 4.11. on MATLAB/Simulink

based on recieved expressions. The parameters of the electric
drive in the model are as follows:
V =220 V; T= 0,02 sec; kФ = 1,5vs; J =1,4 kqm2 ,
where the static moment is given by the Ms Step block in
accurrentance with the following parameters:
Step time= 0,05s; In1, val.= 0. Final val = 50 Nm.

97
97
For the purpose of limiting the valve current value, the time
constant of the 220V voltage is T=0.05 s. which is provided by
the aperiodic plant. It should be noted that in the S-model, p=
d
is marked as "s".
dt
On Fig. 4.12. is depicted the torque and speed curves that have
been set up in accurrentance with the S-model of the DC
motor.
Let's look at the direct current electric drive's launch process in
SimPowerSystem (Fig. 4.13). Here are the parameters of the
elements as follows:
 DC voltage source: 100V
 parameters of consecutive connected resistance to
armature circuit (A +; A-) R=1Ohm; L=1e-2Hn;
 voltage applied to the exetation winding (F +; F-) - 300V
 Direct current motor type: 10HP 240V 1750 RPM 300V
 The static moment is taken into account by Step block:
 Step time =1s; Initial value =0; Final value =20Nm.

At Fig. 4.14 the (t) and M(t) curves are depicted using the
Scope block during startup based on the built-in SPS model.
At Fig. 4.15. Dynamic electromechanical characteristics of the
direct electric motor with the use of the X(2Y) Graph block
are set.
Models for regulating the speed of DC electric motor are
shown in Fig. in 4.16 ÷ 4.19.
Fig. 4. 16 shows a model of motor speed control by changing
the magnetic flux (Fild controller). As can be seen from this
model, the Ideal Switch is controlled by Pulse Generator, and
this Block is connected to the excitation winding of a DC
motor. By changing the width of the pulses, we can change the
speed of the motor.
98

98
99

Fig. 4.11. DC motor start-up model

99
 Motor torque

Motor speed

Fig. 4.12. Characteristics of the speed

and torque of the DC motor

For example, the motor speed is regulated by changing the

pulse width PW=50% (Fig. 4.12), PW=25% (Fig. 4.13). In
Fig.4.14 shows model of motor speed control by changing the
armature current (Armature controller). As can be seen from
this model, the block Ideal switch controlled by Pulse
Generator, and this block is connected to the armature
winding of a DC motor. By changing the width of the pulses,
we can change the speed of the motor.For example, the motor
speed is regulated by changing the pulse width PW=50% (Fig.
4.14), PW=25% (Fig. 4.15).

100
101

Fig. 4.13. The model of the start-up of the DC motor

101
 Fig. 4.14. (t) and M(t) curves of DC motor

X Y Plot
100

80

60
Y Axis

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
X Axis

Fig. 4.15. Dynamic-electromechanical characteristics

of DC motor: Y Axis -  (motor speed); X Axis - I (current)

102
102
103

Fig. 4.16. Model of the field control DC motor speed (PW=50%)

103
104

Fig. 4.17. Model of the field control DC motor speed (PW=25%)

104
105

Fig. 4.17. Model of the armature control DC motor speed (PW=50%)

105
106

Fig. 4.19. Model of the armature control DC motor speed (PW=25%)

106
 5. ASYNCHRONOUS ELECTRIC DRIVES

5.1. Mechanical characteristics of asincrone motors

The replacement scheme is used to describe the mechanical

characteristics of the asynchronous motor (AC motor) (Fig
5.1).

rl xl

V1 x x2

r r 2s

Fig 5.1. Replacement scheme of the AC motor

Here, r1 and x1 - active and inductive resistance; r2 and x2 -

active and inductive resistance of the rotor come to the stator;
❑0−❑r
S= ❑ - engine slip; 0 - angular speed of the rotating
0
magnetic flow at the stator; r - the angular speed of the rotor
2f
0= P , (5.1)

107
f - frequency of voltage applied to the stator; p - number of
even poles in the stator.
Accurrenting to Fig. 5.1 the rotor's current comes to the stator
can be defined as: 107
V1
Ir=
√( )
❑ 2
r2 ❑2 . (5.2)
r1 + + ( x 1+ x 2 )
S
Considering that part of the electromagnetic force (Ps) supplied
to the rotor is spent on the rotation:
Pr=Ps-3I22 r2 , (5.3)
here Pr= Mer is the power required to rotate the rotator. We
consider that in (5.3) Ps= Me0;

Mer= Me0-3I22 r2

❑ ❑ 2 ❑
3 I 2 r 1 3 I 2 r2
Me= = . (5.4)
❑0−❑2 ❑0 S
If take into account the expression of the current (5.2) in the
torque formula (5.4):
3 V 21 r ❑2
Me = ❑ 2 ,
[ 2
]
❑0 S ( r 1 +r 2 /S ) + ( x 1 + x 2 )
❑

(5.5)
❑0−❑2
S= ❑ from expression
0

r= 0(1-S). (5.6)

Using the expression (5.2), (5.5) and (5.6), let's look at the
mechanical (M) and electromechanical characteristics of the
asynchronous motor (I2). To do this, use the Fcn block in
MATLAB/Simulink. In Fig. 5.2, the M(s), I(s) and (M)

108
characteristics of the asynchronous motor are constructed using
the Fcn block (Fig. 5.3 and Fig 5.4).
In Fig.5.5, the installation of the electromechanical
characteristics of the asynchronous motor was performed using
the Fcn block (fig. 5.6).

108

109
109

Fig. 5.2. Designed for110

the construction of characteristics
M(s), I(s) and (M) of the AC motor
Fig. 5.3. Chacacteristics M(s) and I(s) of AC motor

Fig. 5.4. (M) chacacteristic of AC motor

111
110
111

Fig. 5.5. Designed for the construction of electromechanical

characteristics of the AC motor
112
 Fig. 5.6. The electromechanical characteristics
of the AC Motor

Let's look at models with a change in the AM load (Fig. 5.7).

In order to change the load, input signals are sent to the starting
torque using the Step block. Several of these blocks can be
used to change the values of these signals. Using the Sum
block, we can incrementally increase and decrease the values
of the input signals.
By changing the load through the blocks Step1, Step2, Step3,
Step4, we can investigate the change in the output signals,

113
112
such as the rotor speed and electromagnetic torque, according
to the following time diagrams.
Rotation speed of AC motor:
2∗pi∗1430 rad
¿ =149,67 .
60 sec

When Р=4000 W, load torque:

4000
T load = =26,72 N∗m;
149,67
Step 1: Step time=3 sec., Final value = 26,72;
T load
=13,36 N∗m ;
2
Step 2: Step time=5 sec., Final value = 13,36;
T load
=6,68 N∗m ;
4
Step 3: Step time=10 sec., Final value = 6,68;
Step 4: Step time=13 sec., Final value = 6,68.

114
113

115
114

Fig. 5.7. SPS model of the AC motor for difference loads

116
 Fig. 5.8. Times chaearcteristics AC motor when:
Step 1: Step time=3 sec., Final value = 26,72;
Step 2: Step time=5 sec., Final value = 13,36;
Step 3: Step time=10 sec., Final value = 6,68;
Step 4: Step time=13 sec.,Final value = 6,68

Let's look at another model. To control the AM, we can use a

rectifier bridge circuit consisting of IGBT transistors powered
by a DC voltage source.

117
115
To determine the AM speed according to the PWM principle,
in the PWM block settings window, use the Modulation index
command (Fig.5.9) it is necessary to change the depth (width)
of the pulses in the range 0÷1. The SPS model of the AС
motor, compiled using a rectifier bridge circuit consisting of
IGBT transistors, is shown in Fig.5.10, time diagrams of speed
and torque described in Fig. 5.11.

Fig. 5.9. Changing the depth (width) of the pulses in the range
0÷1 in the Modulation index command

118
116
117

Fig. 5.10. SPS model of the AC motor using bidge circuit

119
 Fig. 5.11. Diagrams of the AC motor controlled by PWM

5.2. Frequency control asynchronous electric drives

5.2.1. Asynchronous electric drive control laws

The syncrone speed of AC motor is determined by the

expression:
60 f
n 0= , (5.1)
p
Here p - the number of even poles, f - the frequency of voltage
to the stator winding. It is clear from this statement that the
speed of the asynchronous motor can be adjusted by adjusting
the frequency of voltage. It should be noted that during the
120
118
speed control it is necessary to keep the load capacity constant,
thats why its necessary to change the frequency of the engine
and to change the value of the stator voltage.
Therefore, the speed and frequency of the output voltage
converter used during the speed regulation of the asynchronous
electric drive must be changed. The law of voltage and
frequency change is determined by the Kostenko formula:

=
√
V 1 f 1 M S1
V 1 n f 1 n M Sn
. (5.2)

V1n, Msn, f1n - nominal voltage, nominal torque and nominal

frequency accurrenting to the motor; V1, Ms,f1 -are the voltage,
torque and frequency corresponding to the motor's regulation
process. It should be noted that the expression (5.2) made
without considering to the active resistance of the
asynchronous stator. (5.2) shows that the voltage change law in
speed control depends on the law of the frequency and the
static moment. See the following special cases:
1. Static torque Ms remains constant regardless of speed, ie
Ms1=Msn.. Accurrenting to the statement (5.2):

=
√
V 1 f 1 M s1 f 1
= .
V 2 n f 1 n M sn f 1 n
(5.3)

Thus, in the stability of the static torque, the voltage applied

to the stator during the speed regulation should change
proportionally to the frequency. See the mechanical features
of the asynchronous motor for this condition (Fig. 5.12).

2. During the speed regulation, the force in the motor valve

remains constant: Ps= Psn= const. Motor valve torque:

121
 Psn M sn ❑n f
M s= = =M sn 1 n . (5.4)
❑ ❑ f1
119

Fig. 5.12. Mechanical characteristics of AC motor in static

torque stability

Accurrenting to the statement (5.2)

=
√ =
√
V 1 f 1 M s f 1 M sn f 1 n
V 1 n f 1 n M sn f 1 n M sn f 1 √ f
= 1.
f 1n
(5.5)

Thus, in the stability of the force of the motor valve, the

voltage applied to the stator during the speed regulation must
change proportionally to the square root of the price.
122
For this case, the mechanical equipments of the asynchronous
motor are described in Fig 5.13.
3. The static torque changes proportionally to the frame rate
(ventilator load): 120

( )
2
2 f1
( )
M s=M sn ❑ =M sn
❑n f 1n
. (5.6)

Take it into account in the statement (5.2)

=
√ =
√
V 1 f 1 M s f 1 M sn f 1 2
( ) ( )
V 1 n f 1 n M sn f 1 n M sn f 1 n
=
f1 2
f 1n
. (5.7)

Thus, the voltage applied to the stator during the speed

adjustment for the ventilator-type load must be proportional
to the square of the price of the frequency.

For this condition see the mechanical features of the AC motor

in fig. 5.14.

123
 Fig. 5.13. Mechanical characteristics of AC motor in
constant power conditions

121

Fig. 5.14. Mechanical characteristics of AC motor for

ventilator type load

Consider the mechanical and electromechanical characteristics

of the static torque (Ms = const) in terms of the frequency of
the asynchronous motor and its relative change (V/f=const).
Mechanical characteristics of the motor are calculated using
the following expression:
2 −2 ❑
3 V 1 ❑ R 2 Sm
M= .
{ ❑
[ 2 ❑2 2
] 2 2 2
❑10 n 2 R 1 R2 f ❑ S m + R 1+ ( x1 + x 2 ) f ❑ Sm + R2 f ❑ }
(5.8)

124
The reduced value of the rotor:

V 1 Sm
I2= .
√2 R R
1
❑
2 ❑ [ 2

122
❑ 2 2
]
f S m+ R1 + ( x 1 + x2 ) f ❑ S m + R1 f ❑
2 2 2

(5.9)

Motor speed:

❑0−❑r
= 0(1-Sm); Sm= ❑n . (5.10)

These expressions include the absolute slip Sm of the AC

V1 t1
motor; = ∧f ❑ = - are the relative values of voltage and
V 1n f 1n
frequency.
Take the calculation for the following asynchronous motor
parameters:

Pn= 37 kVt; n0= 1500 rpm;

R1= 0,125 Ohm; x1= 0,275 Ohm;
R2 = 0,058 Ohm; x2 = 0,45 Ohm.

In Fig. 5.15 describes the S model designed for the values f*=1
and =1. Characteristics of M(Sm), I2(Sm) and (M) described
in Fig 5.16.

125
124

Fig. 5.15. S model designed for AC motor f* =1 and =1

126
 M(Sm)

I2(Sm)

(M)

Fig. 5.16. M(Sm), I2(Sm) and (M) caracteristics

127
125
The AC motor constructed using the S model described
fig.5.17 and it’s electromechanical characteristics described in
fig. 5.18.
AC motors S model is dercribed in Fig. 5.19 where =0,5 and
f=0,5. Characteristics of M(s), I(s) and (M) described Fig.
5.20. As seen from the characteristic (M), the speed of the
synchronous rotation has dropped by 2 times since f=0,5.
However, the critical torque has diminished slightly, though
not stable. This is due to the fact that the stator resistance is
active. The active resistance of the stator hinge is very small
and at the small speeds this effect is more apparent.
The S-model described for the asynchronous motor where
f=0,5; =0,5 illustrated in Fig. 5.21. This model is based on
the electromechanical characteristics of the asynchronous
motor (I2) (Fig. 5.22).

5.2.2. Control systems of AC motor

It should be noted that the expression (5.2) is true even if the

active resistance of the stator does not take into account.
Considering the active resistance of the stator winding, the
critical torque of the engine also decreases considerably while
the frequency decreases. This decrease shows itself as much as
the frequency value decreases. Considering the resistance of
the static torque during the stability of the static torque, the
reduction of the voltage to maintain the critical torque of the
engine while reducing the speed should be less than normal.
Fig. 5.23 describes the frequency control system scheme that
controls such correlation. Here, the voltage of the Vf rectifier
by the functional converter (FC) is changed.
The frequency of the inverter (I) is regulated by the signal Vf
directly from the intensity transmitter (IT). Since this control
system is an open system, the value of the rectifier voltage (V)
128
126
depending on the load. To keep the voltage of the rectifier R at
the set value, it is necessary to use reverse a voltage regulator
(VR) creating negative feedback by voltage transmitter (VT) in
accordance with its output voltage (Fig. 5.24). By selecting the
type of voltage regulator (proportional, integrator, etc.), the
static error of the stabilized contour can be determined.
At the ends of the engine stator winding, it is possible to keep
the voltage constant at a fixed value, using the speed regulation
system built into the function converter by applying the tabular
adjustment principle for voltage and current. Fig. 5.20. By
choosing the type and parameters of voltage (VR) and current
regulator (CR), the speed control system can be optimized.
Let us determine the magnetic flux of the engine E=kf:
E
¿ . (5.8)
kf
It turns out that if we change e.m.f of the engine
proportionately to frequency, magnetic flux remains constant.
For this purpose, the speed signal will be the same for the
stator's frequency and e.m.f. (Fig. 5.25). In the image ER -
e.m.f. regulator, ET - e.m.f. transmitter. To get more rigid
mechanical characteristics, you need to create a reverse
connection and select the speed regulator (Fig. 5.27). In this
figure BR-speed transmitter, SR-speed regulator.

129
127
128

Fig. 5.17. The model for electromechanical characteristics of AC motor

130
Fig. 5.18. Electromechanical characteristics of AC Motor

131
129
130

Fig 5.19. Model designed for M(s), I(s) and (M)

132
 M(Sm)

I2(Sm)

(M)

Fig. 5.20. M(s), I(s) and (M) characteristics

133
131
132

Fig. 5.21. AC motors S-model designed for values f=0,5; =0,5

134
Fig. 5.22. Electromechanical characteristic
(I2) of AC motor

135
 Vy

133
Vf Vy
FC
FC
FÇ R
FC

VI IT
C L

Vf
I

Fig. 5.23. Scheme of speed control system

by function converter

136

134
 Vy
FC VR R

Vf
IT L
VT VT

Vf
I

Fig. 5.24. Scheme of the frequency control system with the

application of the voltage regulator

135
137
 Vy
VC CT R
FC

Vf
IT C L
VC

Vf I

VT VT

Fig. 5.25. Scheme of frequency control system implemented

with functional converter

136
138
 Vy
ER R

Vf IT L
C

Vf
I

EC

Fig. 5.26. Frequancy control system scheme using

the ET and ER

139
137
 Vy R
ER

L
C

Vf Vf
IT SR II

ET

Fig. 5.27. The speed control system scheme using the speed
and voltage supply

140
 138
6. DYNAMIC MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF AC MOTOR

In Fig. 6.1 SimPowerSystems model has been described to

obtain dynamic characteristics of the asynchronous engine. The
parameters of the elements here are as follows: AC voltage
source: 311 V, 50 Hz; AC voltage source 1: 311 V, 50 Hz; -
1200; AC voltage source 2: 311 V, 50 Hz; +120 0;
Asinchronous Mashine SI Units:10HP460V 1760 RPM;
Powergui: Discrete Ts=0,0005 s.; X(2Y) Graph x= -70250;
y=0200.
Based on this model (t), M(t) və (M) characteristics are
built on Fig. 6.2; Fig. 6.3.
In Fig. 6.4, dynamic characteristics of asynchronus engine has
been desribed in another model at SimPowerSistems. The
parameters of the elements here are as follows:
- Sine wave: 380V; pi120 r/s;
- Sine wave 1: 380V; pi120 r/s; Ph=2pi/3;
- Sine wave 2: 380V; pi120 r/s; Ph=4pi/3;
- Controlled voltage sourse: 380V; 60Hs;
- Controlled voltage sourse 1-190V; 60Hs; Ph=2pi/3
- Controlled voltage sourse 2-190V; 60Hs; Ph=4pi/3
- Asynchronous Machine SI Units: 10 HP; 460V; 60 Hz;
1760 RPM
- Step: start time=0,1 s; Intial value=0; Final value=10.
- Powergui: Continuons
- X(2Y)Graph X=-100200; Y=0220.
Based on this model i2abc (t); isabs (t), (t) and M(t)
characteristics were formed (Fig. 6.5).
Mechanical-Dynamic characteristic (M) of AC motor is
formed with X(2Y) graph (Fig. 6.6).
141
139

142
140

Fig. 6.1. Dynamic characteristics of the AC motor

designed in "SimPowerSystems"

143
Fig. 6.2. (t) və M(t) characteristics

144
141
Fig. 6.3. Mechanical and dynamical characteristics of
asynchronous engine

145
142
143

Fig. 6.4. Designed model in "Sim Power Systems" to get the

dynamic characteristics of the AC motor

146
Fig. 6.5. i2abc (t); isabs (t), (t) and M(t) characteristics

144
147
Fig. 6.6. Mechanical-dynamic characteristics
(M) of AC motor

145
148
 LITERATURE

1. Z.Ə.Həsənov, S.Ə.Xanəhmədova «Güc elektronikası

və intiqalın idarə edilməsi», dərs vəsaiti, Bakı,
ADNSU-nun nəşri, 2018 ,120səh.
2. Power electronics. Handbook. Third Edition. Editior-in-
Chief Muhammad H.Rashid.2011.
3. Daniel W.Hart. Power Electronics, ,2011.
4. Fundamentals of Power Electronics. Edison R.C. da
Silva and Malik E.Elbuluk,2013.
5. https://unescochair.bntu.by/sites/unescochair.bntu.by/
files/energy/edu_docs/pe_edited.pdf (Power
Electronics)
6. https://www.bharathuniv.ac.in/colleges1/downloads/
courseware_eee/Notes/sem5/SEM%20V%20BEE
%20502POWER%20ELECTRONICS.pdf
7. https://jntukucen.ac.in/ebook_files/7.pdf (Power
Electronics and motor drives)
8. https://www.engbookspdf.net/power-electronics-and-
motor-drives-second-edition-by-bogdan-m-
wilamowski-and-j-david-irwin/(Power Electronics and
motor drives 2nd edition)
9. http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/malramlawi/files/
RASHID_Power_Electronics_Handbook.pdf
10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
221917892_MatLab_in_Model-
Based_Design_for_Power_Electronics_Systems
(MatLab in Model-Based Design for Power Electronics
Systems)
11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
315807964_Power_Electronics_Devices_Circuits_and_
MATLAB_Simulations
12. L. Ashok Kumar, A. Kalaiarasi, Y. Uma Maheswari
https://www.perlego.com/book/1693717/power-
149
146
 electronics-with-matlab-pdf (Power Electronicsusing
Matlab)
13. https://www.mathworks.com/help/slcontrol/ug/design-
controller-for-power-electronics-model-using-
frequency-response-data.html
14. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/
10453/65847/1/01Front.pdf (MATLAB/SIMULINK
MODULES FOR MODELING AND SIMULATION
OF POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS AND
ELECTRIC DRIVES)
15. https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39326/InTech-
Simulation_of_power_converters_using_matlab_simuli
nk.pdf (Simulation of Power Converters Using Matlab-
Simulink)
16. https://www.udemy.com/course/matlab-simulation-
power-electronics/

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