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1PHI 1101 L Reasoning and Critical Thinking (Winter 2022)

Structure: Jan. 19 and 21

0. Review

0.1 Three Acts of the Intellect

1. Term = Concept. For example, Table, Chair, Brown, etc.

2. Judgement = Proposition. For example, The Chair is Brown

3. Argument = Syllogism. For example,

i. All Humans are Mortal

ii. Socrates is a Human
iii. Therefore, Socrates is Mortal.

0.2 Premise and Conclusion Indicator words

0.2.1 Premise Indicators, examples: Since; For; Seeing As; The reason
is that; Because; For that reason; as is implied by; On account of the fact that.

1. You should bring your umbrella, since it will rain.

2. Because she studied hard, Joanne stands a good chance of passing the exam.

3. We may as well go skiing today, seeing as the snow will not let up.

4. Abortion is wrong, because life is present from the moment of conception.

5. Since life is present from the moment of conception, abortion is wrong.

6. Abortion is wrong, for life is present from the moment of conception.

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0.2.2 Conclusion Indicators, examples: Therefore; Consequently; It

follows that; Which shows that; Hence; We may conclude; This entails that; Here are
some reasons why

1. Therefore, we should avoid large crowds if we do not want to get lost.

2. Hence, the driveway must be cleaned at all times.

*3. Consequently, because it is going to rain today, we must cancel the baseball
game.

4. People who are red/green color blind cannot distinguish between green and
brown. Gerald cannot distinguish between green and brown. Therefore Gerald is
red/green color blind.

5. If Max were guilty, he would not ask the police to investigate. Therefore, his
asking the police to investigate shows that he is not guilty.

6. The store’s competitors claim that the store, in selling off the shirts at those
prices, neither made any profit nor broke even. Consequently, the store’s customers must
have been able to buy shirts there at less than the store’s cost.

0.5 Simple and Complex Arguments

EXAMPLES

Simple Argument: You should stop killing every spider you see. Spiders help keep down the
insect population, and most of them pose no threat to people.

Complex Argument: [No one living in Pompeii could have survived the eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius.]1 The reason is simple: [the lava was flowing too fast]2 and [there was
nowhere to go to escape it in time.]3. Therefore, [this account of the eruption, which
claims to have been written by an eyewitness living in Pompeii, was not actually written
by an eyewitness.]4

2+3

4 intermediary conclusion

1 Final conclusion
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OR:

2+3

1 intermediary conclusion

4 Final conclusion

Some arguments can have two or more diagrams.

EXERCISE: Underline the Premise and Conclusion Indicators. [These symbols will
eventually become familiar to you in the course. Symbols ↓, ⸧, v, •, ~]

1. The study by Wakefield et al. associating MMR vaccination with the onset of autism was
completely inadequate. Because the sample size of twelve subjects was far too small and
completely unrepresentative, and the data was heavily manipulated by the investigators.

2. [Herbert had the highest score on the qualifying exam,]1 so [he will get the first consideration
for the job.]2 [The person who gets first consideration almost always gets the job.]3 Thus, [it is
pretty certain that the job will go to Herbert.]4

1+3

Diagram:
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2+3

CHAPTER TWO: ANALYZING ARGUMENTS [Symbols ↓, ⸧, v, •, ~]

1. Simple arguments: standard form

2. Complex arguments: standard form

3. Diagrams

4. Conditionals (If…then), Disjunctives (Either… or), and Unless (A compound sentence that is
a conditional or a disjunction, or whose components are joined by “unless,” makes a single
claim. Thus, it is always a single unit (premise or conclusion) in an argument.)

EXAMPLES:

A. Simple Argument:

1. No matter what the fast drivers think, higher speed limits will result in more needless deaths
on the highway. So, the speed limits should not be raised.

No matter what the fast drivers think, [higher speed limits will result in more needless deaths on
the highway].1 So, [the speed limits should not be raised].2

Diagram:

↓
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Standard Form:

1. Higher speed limits will result in more needless death on the highway

2. The speed limits should not be raised. (1)

B. Complex Argument:

1. Without a tax increase there will soon be runaway inflation. But Congress refuses to raise
taxes. Thus, before long there will be runaway inflation. That means that you should borrow all
the money you can right now.

[Without a tax increase there will soon be runaway inflation.]1 But [Congress refuses to raise
taxes.]2 Thus, [before long there will be runaway inflation.]3 That means that [you should
borrow all the money you can right now.]4

Diagram

1+2

3 intermediary conclusion

4 final conclusion

Standard Form:

1. Without a tax increase there will soon be runaway inflation.

2. Congress refuses to raise taxes.

3. Before long there will be runaway inflation (1, 2)

4. You should borrow all the money you can right now. (3)
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Example:

The liquid is either acidic or base. If it’s acidic, then the paper will turn red, and if it’s base, then
the paper will turn blue. So, the paper will turn either red or blue. But since I’m colour-blind,
that means I won’t be able to tell whether the liquid is acidic or base.

Underline premise and conclusion indicators, and place square brackets around the statements.

[The liquid is either acidic or base.]1 [If it’s acidic, then the paper will turn red,]2 and [if it’s
base, then the paper will turn blue.]3 So, [the paper will turn either red or blue.]4 But since [I’m
colour-blind,]5 that means [I won’t be able to tell whether the liquid is acidic or base.]6

Diagram:

1+2+3

4+5

6
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Standard Form:

1. The liquid is either acidic or base.

2. If it’s acidic, the paper will turn red.

3. If it’s base, the paper will turn blue.

4. The paper will turn either red or blue (1, 2, 3)

5. I’m colour-blind.

6. I won’t be able to tell whether the liquid is acidic or base. (4, 5)

Exercises continued.

Instructions:
1. Underline the Premise and Conclusion indicators
2. Provide square brackets around each statement and number them
3. Provide the diagram related to the argument and justify your answer
4. Put the argument in Standard form

1. We must prohibit cloning, because this technology deprives us of our humanity. Our
humanity is linked to the fact that each person is unique. And, the principle of cloning
denies the unique character of each person.

[We must prohibit cloning],1 because [this technology deprives us of our humanity].2 [Our
humanity is linked to the fact that each person is unique].3 And, [the principle of cloning denies
the unique character of each person].4

2+3+4
↓
1 Justification: all premises are related to one another and no premise stands alone
to make up an independent premise. [If some make independent premises, use your discretion to
evaluate their answer according to their justification.]

STANDARD FORM:

1. This technology deprives us of our humanity

2. Our humanity is linked to the fact that each person is unique
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3. the principle of cloning denies the unique character of each person

4. THEREFORE, we must prohibit cloning. 1, 2, 3

2. Either the market has bottomed out or we’re in for several more months of rocky times
for investors. If this is the market’s lowest point, then the Fed will not be thinking of
lowering interest rates further. But, the latest report from the chairman of the Fed tells us
that interest rates will go down further. So, clearly this isn’t the bottom of the market,
and consequently it’s a bleak time ahead for investors.

[Either the market has bottomed out or we’re in for several more months of rocky times for
investors].1 [If this is the market’s lowest point, then the Feds will not be thinking of lowering
interest rates further].2 But, [the latest report from the chairman of the Fed tells us that interest
rates will go down further].3 So, [clearly this isn’t the bottom of the market], and consequently
5[it’s a bleak time ahead for investors].4

1+2+3
↓
4
↓
5

Standard Form:

1. Either this is the bottom of the market or it is a bad time for investors
2. If this is the bottom of the market, then the Fed will not lower rates.
3. The Fed will lower rates.
4. This is not the bottom of the market. 1, 2, 3
5. This is a bad time for investors. 4.
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3. Please provide an English argument according to the diagram:

1+2

i. Because it will rain today and because it will be warm; therefore, I will walk to work with my
umbrella.

Eg. Because [it will rain today]1, and because [it will be warm]2; therefore, [I will walk to work
with my umbrella.]3

Standard Form:

1. It will rain today

2. It will be warm

3. I will walk to work with my umbrella