Glossary
360-degree feedback A special case of the upward
feedback system. Here employees’ behaviors or skills are
evaluated not only by subordinates but also by peers, cus-
tomers, bosses, and employees themselves via a question-
naire rating them on a number of dimensions.
70-20-10 model A common learning model that
assumes that 70 percent of learning occurs on the job,
20 percent occurs socially through coaching and mentor-
ing, and 10 percent occurs through formal classroom
instruction.
ability The physical and mental capacity to perform a
task.
action learning A training method that involves giving
teams or work groups a problem, having them work on
solving it and committing to an action plan, and then
holding them accountable for carrying out the plan.
action plan A written document detailing steps that a
trainee and the manager will take to ensure that training
transfers to the job.
adaptive training Training that customizes or adapts
the content presented to trainees based on their learning
style, ability, personality, or performance.
advance organizers Outlines, texts, diagrams, and
graphs that help trainees organize information that will
be presented and practiced.
adventure learning A training method focusing on
developing teamwork and leadership skills using struc-
tured outdoor activities.
affective outcomes Outcomes including attitudes and
motivation.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) A fed-
eral law that prohibits discrimination against individuals
40 years of age or older.
agile design Emphasizes repeated small steps, rather
than moving through the linear step-by-step process
(analysis through evaluation) of developing learning tra-
ditionally emphasized in instructional design.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) A 1990 act
prohibiting workplace discrimination against people with
disabilities.
andragogy The theory of adult learning.
526
application assignments Assignments that require train-
ees to identify work problems or situations and to apply
training content to solve them.
application planning The preparing of trainees to use
key behaviors on the job.
apprenticeship A work-study training method with both
on-the-job and classroom training.
apps Applications designed specifically for smart-
phones and tablet computers that are being used to
supplement training, manage the path or sequence of
training, and help employees maintain training records.
artificial intelligence (AI) The development of a system
such as a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or soft-
ware that thinks intelligently like humans.
assessment The collecting of information and providing
of feedback to employees about their behavior, communi-
cation style, or skills.
assessment center A process in which multiple raters or
evaluators (also known as assessors) evaluate employees’
performances on a number of exercises.
asynchronous communication A non-real-time interac-
tion in which people cannot communicate with each
other without a time delay.
attitude Combination of beliefs and feelings that predis-
pose a person to behave in a certain way.
audiovisual instruction Media-based training that is both
seen and heard.
augmented reality A live direct or indirect view of a
physical, real-world environment whose elements are sup-
plemented by computer-generated sound, video, graphics,
or GPS data.
automatization Making performance of a task, recall of
knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that
it requires little thought or attention.
avatars Computer depictions of humans that are used
as imaginary coaches, co-workers, and customers in
simulations.
balanced scorecard A means of performance measure-
ment that allows managers to view the overall company
performance or the performance of departments or

functions (such as training) from the perspective of inter-
nal and external customers, employees, and shareholders.
bandwidth The number of bytes and bits (information)
that can travel between computers per second.
basic skills Skills necessary for employees to perform
their jobs and learn the content of training programs.
behavior modeling A training method in which trainees
are presented with a model who demonstrates key behav-
iors to replicate and provides them with the opportunity
to practice those key behaviors.
benchmarking The use of information about other com-
panies’ training practices to help determine the appropri-
ate type, level, and frequency of training.
bench strength A pool of talented employees who are
ready to move to new jobs or positions when they are
needed.
benefits The value a company gains from a training
program.
big data Complex data sets characterized by volume,
variety, and velocity that are developed by compiling data
across different organizational systems, including mar-
keting and sales, human resources, finance, accounting,
customer service, and operations.
blended learning Learning that involves a combination
of online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other
methods.
blog A webpage where an author posts entries and read-
ers can comment.
boosters Short multiple-choice, short-answer quizzes,
or other activities that can help learners consider training
information as important and help retain it.
brand The look and feeling of the training function that
is used to create expectations for its customers.
business-embedded (BE) training Training that aligns
closely with the company’s business strategy and that is
characterized by five competencies: strategic direction,
product design, structural versatility, product delivery,
and accountability for results.
business game A training method in which trainees
gather information, analyze it, and make decisions.
business process outsourcing The outsourcing of any
business process, such as human resource management,
production, or training.
business strategy A plan that integrates a company’s
goals, policies, and actions.
career management system A system to motivate and
retain employees by identifying and meeting their career
Glossary  527
and development needs. Also called development plan-
ning system.
career path A sequence of job positions involving simi-
lar types of work and skills that employees move through
in a company.
career recycling Changing one’s major work activity
after having been established in a particular field.
career support Coaching, protection, sponsorship, and
provision of challenging assignments, exposure, and vis-
ibility to an employee.
case study A description of how employees or an orga-
nization dealt with a situation.
centralized training Organizing the training department
so that training and development programs, resources,
and professionals are primarily housed in one location
and decisions about training investment, programs, and
delivery are made from that department.
change The adoption of a new idea or behavior by a
company.
chatbots Artificial intelligence systems which create an
automated personalized conversation with human users.
chief learning officer (CLO) A leader of a company’s
knowledge management efforts (also called knowledge
officer).
climate for transfer Trainees’ perceptions about a wide
variety of characteristics of the work environment; these
perceptions facilitate or inhibit use of trained skills or
behavior.
closed skills Training objectives that are linked to learn-
ing specific skills that are to be identically produced by
the trainee on the job.
cloud computing A computing system that provides
information technology infrastructure over a network in a
self-service, modifiable, and on-demand environment.
coach A peer or manager who works with employees
to motivate them, help them develop skills, and provide
reinforcement and feedback.
cognitive ability Verbal comprehension, quantitative
ability, and reasoning ability.
cognitive outcomes Outcomes that are used to measure
what knowledge trainees learned in a training program.
cognitive strategies Strategies that regulate the learning
processes; they relate to the learner’s decision regarding
what information to attend to, how to remember, and
how to solve problems.
cognitive theory of transfer Transfer of training is
enhanced through increasing trainees storage and
528  Glossary
retrieval of information through providing meaningful
material and cognitive strategies for coding learned capa-
bilities in memory.
community of practice (COP) A group of employ-
ees who work together, learn from each other, and
develop a common understanding of how to get work
accomplished.
comparison group A group of employees who partici-
pate in an evaluation study but do not attend a training
program.
competency model A model identifying the competen-
cies necessary for each job as well as the knowledge,
skills, behavior, and personal characteristics underlying
each competency.
competency An area of personal capability that enables
employees to perform their job.
competitive advantage An upper hand over other firms
in an industry.
competitiveness A company’s ability to maintain and
gain market share in an industry.
compressed workweek A work schedule that allows
employees to work fewer days but with longer hours, for
example, four days ten hours each day.
computer-based training (CBT) An interactive training
experience in which the computer provides the learning
stimulus, the trainee must respond, and the computer
analyzes the responses and provides feedback to the
trainee.
concentration strategy A business strategy that focuses
on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating a
market niche for products and services.
concept map A figure showing all of the concepts in a
course, the topics covered in each concept, and the rela-
tionship between concepts.
consequences Incentives that employees receive for
performing well.
content curation The process of identifying relevant
training content and organizing it in a way that makes it
easy for trainees to access it.
control A manager’s or employee’s ability to obtain and
distribute valuable resources.
coordination training Training a team in how to share
information and decision-making responsibilities to maxi-
mize team performance.
copyright Legal protection for the expression of an idea.
corporate university A centralized training organiza-
tion in which learning is provided to not only company
employees and managers but also stakeholders outside
the company.
cost-benefit analysis The process of determining
the economic advantages of a training program using
accounting methods.
course or program Includes units or lessons that are
smaller sections or modules covering different topics that
can involve several hours, half-days, full days, or even
weeks.
criteria Measures that a company and its trainer use to
evaluate training programs. Also called training outcomes.
criteria relevance The extent to which training out-
comes relate to the learned capabilities emphasized in
training.
criterion contamination When a training program’s out-
comes measure inappropriate capabilities or are affected
by extraneous conditions.
criterion deficiency The failure to measure training out-
comes that were emphasized in training objectives.
cross training A training method in which team mem-
bers understand and practice each other’s skills so that
members are prepared to step in and take another mem-
ber’s place should someone temporarily or permanently
leave the team; also, more simply, training employees to
learn the skills of one or several additional jobs.
cross-cultural preparation The education of employees
(expatriates) and their families who are to be sent to a
foreign country.
crowdsourcing Asking a large group of employees (the
crowd) using social media or the web to help provide
information for needs assessment.
curriculum An organized program of study designed to
meet a complex learning objective such as preparing a
learner to become a salesperson, certified computer net-
work technician, or licensed nurse.
customer capital The value of relationships with
persons or other organizations outside a company for
accomplishing the goals of the company (e.g., relation-
ships with suppliers, customers, vendors, and government
agencies).
dashboards A computer interface designed to receive
and analyze the data from departments within the com-
pany to provide information to managers and other deci-
sion makers.
detailed lesson plan The translation of the content and
sequence of training activities into a guide used by the
trainer to help deliver training.

development Formal education, job experiences, rela-
tionships, and assessments of personality and abilities
that help employees prepare for the future.
development planning system A system to motivate 
and retain employees by identifying and meeting their
career and development needs. Also called career man-
agement system.
digital collaboration An interaction between two or
more people mediated by a computer; the use of technol-
ogy to enhance and extend employees’ ability to work
together regardless of their geographic proximity.
direct costs Costs that are actually connected to train-
ing, including the salaries and benefits of all employees
involved, program supplies, equipment and classroom
rental or purchase, and travel costs.
discrimination The degree to which trainees’ perfor-
mances on an outcome actually reflect true differences in
performance.
disinvestment strategy A business strategy that empha-
size the liquidation and divestiture of businesses.
distance learning Training method in which geographi-
cally dispersed companies provide information about
new products, policies, or procedures as well as skills
training and expert lectures to field locations.
diversity training Training programs designed to change
employees’ attitudes about diversity and/or to develop
skills needed to work with a diverse workforce.
downward move The reduction of an employee’s respon-
sibility and authority.
dual-career-path system A career path system that
enables technical employees to either remain in a 
technical career path or move into a management
career path.
e-learning Instruction and delivery of training by com-
puter online through the Internet or web. Also called
online learning.
early retirement program A system of offering (usually
older) employees financial benefits to leave a company.
elaboration A learning strategy requiring the trainee to
relate the training material to other more familiar knowl-
edge, skills, or behavior.
electronic performance support system (EPSS) A com-
puter application that can provide, as requested, skills
training, information access, and expert advice.
employee engagement The extent to which employees
are fully involved in their work and the strength of their
commitment to their job and the company.
Glossary  529
error management training Training in which trainees
are given opportunities to make errors, which can aid in
learning and improve trainees’ performance on the job.
evaluation design Designation of what information is to
be collected, from whom, when, and how to determine
the effectiveness of training.
expatriate A person working in a country other than his
or her nation of origin.
expectancy The belief about the link between trying
to perform a behavior (or effort) and actually perform-
ing well; the mental state that the learner brings to the
instructional process.
Experience API A specification for learning technology
that makes it possible to collect data about an employee’s
or a team’s online and face-to-face learning experiences.
Also called Tin Can API.
experiential learning A training method in which 
participants (1) are presented with conceptual knowledge
and theory, (2) take part in a behavioral simulation, 
(3) analyze the activity, and (4) connect the theory and
activity with on-the-job or real-life situations.
expert systems Technology (usually software) that orga-
nizes and applies human experts’ knowledge to specific
problems.
explicit knowledge Knowledge that can be formalized,
codified, and communicated.
external analysis Examining the company’s operating
environment to identify opportunities and threats.
external conditions Processes in the learning environ-
ment that facilitate learning.
external growth strategy A business strategy emphasiz-
ing acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses
that will allow the company to expand into new markets.
external validity The generalizability of study results to
other groups and situations.
Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) A federal law
that provides for up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for
parents with new infants or newly adopted children; also
covers employees who must take a leave of absence from
work to care for a family member who is ill or to deal
with a personal illness.
far transfer Trainees’ ability to apply learned capabili-
ties to the work environment even though it is not identi-
cal to the training session environment.
feedback Information that employees receive while
they are performing about how well they are meeting
objectives.
530  Glossary
fidelity The extent to which a training environment is
similar to a work environment.
flextime Providing employees with the option of choos-
ing when to work during the workday, workweek, or
work year.
flipped classroom A type of blended learning in which
learners watch lectures online, complete simulations, read
books and articles, take quizzes to assess their knowledge
and skills, and then come to class to work on projects and
cases, hear speakers, and interact with instructors.
focus group A face-to-face meeting with subject-matter
experts (SMEs) in which specific training needs are
addressed.
formal education program An off-site or on-site program
designed for a company’s employees, a short course
offered by a consultant or school, an executive MBA pro-
gram, or a university program in which students live at
the university while taking classes.
formal training and development Training and develop-
ment programs, courses, and events that are developed
and organized by the company.
formative evaluation Evaluation conducted to improve
the training process; usually conducted during program
design and development.
gap analysis Determining the difference between
employees’ current and expected performance.
generalization A trainee’s ability to apply learned capa-
bilities to on-the-job work problems and situations that
are similar but not identical to problems and situations
encountered in the learning environment.
generalizing Adapting learning for use in similar but
not identical situations.
glass ceiling A barrier to advancement to an organiza-
tion’s higher levels.
goals What a company hopes to achieve in the medium-
to long-term future.
goal orientation A trainee’s goals in a learning situation.
goal setting An employee’s process of developing short-
and long-term career objectives.
goal setting theory A theory assuming that behavior
results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions.
gratifying The feedback that a learner receives from
using learning content.
group building methods Training methods designed to
improve team or group effectiveness.
group mentoring program A program in which a suc-
cessful senior employee is paired with a group of four to
six less experienced protégés to help them understand the
organization, guide them in analyzing their experiences,
and help them clarify career directions. Also called peer
mentoring program.
guided team self-correction Training that emphasizes
continuous learning and knowledge sharing in teams
through team members observing each other’s behavior
and giving and receiving performance feedback.
hands-on method A training method in which the
trainee is actively involved in learning.
Hawthorne effect A situation in which employees in an
evaluation study perform at a high level simply because
of the attention they are receiving.
high-potential employee An employee who the company
believes is capable of succeeding in a higher-level mana-
gerial position.
human capital The sum of the attributes, life experi-
ences, knowledge, inventiveness, energy, and enthusiasm
that a company’s employees invest in their work.
human capital management The integration of training
with other human resource functions so as to track how
training benefits the company.
human resource development The integrated use of
training and development, organizational development,
and career development to improve individual, group,
and organizational effectiveness.
human resource management The policies, practices,
and systems that influence employees’ behavior, atti-
tudes, and performance.
human resource management (HRM) practices Man-
agement activities relating to investments in staffing,
performance management, training, and compensation
and benefits.
human resource planning The identification, analysis,
forecasting, and planning of changes needed in a com-
pany’s human resources area.
hyperlinks Links that allow a user to easily move from
one web page to another.
in-basket A training exercise involving simulation of the
administrative tasks of the manager’s job.
inclusion Creating an environment in which employees
share a sense of belonging, mutual respect, and commit-
ment with others so they can perform their best work.
indirect costs Costs not related specifically to a training
program’s design, development, or delivery.
informal learning Learning that is learner initiated,
involves action and doing, is motivated by an intent to
develop, and does not occur in a formal learning setting.

informational interview An interview an employee con-
ducts with a manager or other employee to gather infor-
mation about the skills, job demands, and benefits of that
person’s job.
input Instructions that tell employees what, how, and
when to perform; also, the resources that employees are
given to help them perform their jobs.
instruction The characteristics of the environment in
which learning is to occur.
Instructional System Design (ISD) A process for design-
ing and developing training programs.
instrumentality In expectancy theory, a belief that per-
forming a given behavior is associated with a particular
outcome.
intellectual capital The codified knowledge that exists in
a company.
intellectual skills The mastery of concepts and rules.
interactive distance learning (IDL) The use of satellite
technology to broadcast programs to different locations,
allowing trainees to respond to questions posed during
the training program using a keypad.
internal analysis Identifying the company’s strengths
and weaknesses based on examining the available quan-
tity and quality of financial, physical, and human capital.
internal conditions Processes within the learner that
must be present for learning to occur.
internal growth strategy A business strategy focusing on
new market and product development, innovation, and
joint ventures.
internal validity Establishing that a treatment (training)
made a difference.
Internet of things (IoT) devices “Smart devices,” that
is, physical objects embedded with sensors and Internet
connections.
interview Employees answer questions about their work
and personal experiences, skill strengths and weaknesses,
and career plans.
ISO 10015 A quality management tool designed to
ensure that training is linked to a company’s needs and
performance.
ISO 9000:2000 A family of standards developed by
the International Organization for Standardization that
includes 20 requirements for dealing with such issues 
as how to establish quality standards and document 
work processes.
job A specific position requiring completion of 
certain tasks.
Glossary  531
job analysis The process of developing a description of
a job (duties, tasks, and responsibilities) and the specifi-
cations (knowledge, skills, and abilities) that an employee
must have to perform it.
job enlargement The adding of challenges or new
responsibilities to an employee’s current job.
job experience The relationships, problems, demands,
tasks, and other features that an employee faces on the job.
job hopping The practice of employees changing jobs,
usually between companies, every two to three years.
job incumbent An employee currently holding a particu-
lar job.
job rotation Assigning employees a series of jobs in vari-
ous functional areas of a company or movement among
jobs in a single functional area or department.
job sharing A work situation in which two employees
divide the hours, responsibilities, and benefits of a full-
time job.
joint union-management training program A program
created, funded, and supported by both union and man-
agement to provide a range of services to help employees
learn skills that are directly related to their jobs and that
are “portable” (valuable to employers in other companies
or industries).
Just-in-time learning Learning that occurs on the job as
needed. Also called embedded learning.
kaizen Strategy in which employees from all levels of
the company focus on continuous improvement of busi-
ness processes.
key behavior One of a set of behaviors that is necessary
to complete a task; an important part of behavior model-
ing training.
knowledge Facts or procedures that individuals or
teams of employees know or know how to do (human
and social knowledge); also a company’s rules, processes,
tools, and routines (structured knowledge).
knowledge management The process of enhancing com-
pany performance by designing and implementing tools,
processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve
the creating, sharing, and use of knowledge.
knowledge officer A leader of a company’s 
knowledge management efforts (also called a chief learn-
ing officer).
knowledge workers Employees who own the means 
of producing a product or service. These employees
have a specialized body of knowledge or expertise that
they use to perform their jobs and contribute to com-
pany effectiveness.
532  Glossary
lapse Situation in which a trainee uses previously
learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to
apply capabilities emphasized in a training program.
leaderless group discussion A training exercise in
which a team of five to seven employees must work
together to solve an assigned problem within a certain
time period.
lean thinking Doing more with less effort, equipment,
space, and time, but providing customers with what they
need and want. Part of lean thinking includes training
workers in new skills or how to apply old skills in new
ways so that they can quickly take over new responsibili-
ties or use new skills to help fill customer orders.
learner control A trainee’s ability to learn actively
through self-pacing exercises, selecting how content is
presented, exploring links to other material, and having
conversations with other trainees and experts.
learner-content interaction The learner interacts with
the training content such as reading text on the web or in
books, listening to multimedia modules, and engaging in
activities that require the manipulation of tools or objects
such as writing and completing case studies.
learner-instructor interaction Discussion between the
learner and the expert (trainer).
learner-learner interaction Discussion between learners
with or without an instructor.
learning The acquisition of knowledge by individual
employees or groups of employees who are willing to
apply that knowledge in their jobs in making decisions
and accomplishing tasks for the company; a relatively
permanent change in human capabilities that does not
result from growth processes.
learning management systems (LMS) A system for auto-
mating the administration of online training programs.
learning organization A company that has an enhanced
capacity to learn, adapt, and change; an organization
whose employees continuously attempt to learn new
things and then apply what they have learned to improve
product or service quality.
learning orientation Learners who focus on increasing
their ability or competence in a task.
learning portal An online access point for training
resources.
Learning Records Store (LRS) A technology that col-
lects and stores employees’ learning experiences in the
form of statements that can be organized and presented
in a meaningful way.
lecture A training method in which the trainer commu-
nicates through spoken words what trainees are supposed
to learn.
logic model The process used to identify the relation-
ship between training resources, training activities, and
program outcomes.
logical verification Perceiving a relationship between a
new task and a task that has already been mastered.
machine learning Artificial intelligence systems that
learn.
maintenance The process of continuing to use newly
acquired capabilities over time.
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award A national
award created in 1987 to recognize U.S. companies’ qual-
ity achievements and to publicize quality strategies.
manager support The degree to which trainees’ man-
agers emphasize the importance of attending training,
stress the application of training content to the job,
and provide opportunities for trainees to use what they
learned on the job.
managing diversity and inclusion The creation of an
environment that allows all employees (regardless of
their demographic group) to contribute to organizational
goals and experience personal growth.
massed practice A training approach in which trainees
practice a task continuously without resting.
massive open online courses (MOOCs) Learning that is
designed to enroll a large number of learners (massive);
is free and accessible to anyone with an Internet connec-
tion (open); takes place online using videos of lectures
and interactive coursework, including discussion groups
and wikis (online); and has specific start and completion
dates, quizzes and assessments, and exams (courses).
mental requirements The degree to which a person must
use or demonstrate mental skills or cognitive skills or
abilities to perform a task.
mentor An experienced, productive senior employee who
helps develop a less experienced employee (a protégé).
metacognition A learning strategy whereby trainees
direct their attention to their own learning process.
metrics Business-level outcomes chosen to measure the
overall value of training or learning initiatives.
microblog Software tools such as Twitter that enable
communications in short bursts of text, links, and multi-
media either through stand-alone applications or through
online communities or social networks. Also called
microsharing.

microlearning Training delivered in small pieces or
chunks designed to engage trainees, motivate them to
learn, and help facilitate retention.
microsharing Software tools such as Twitter that enable
communications in short bursts of text, links, and multi-
media either through stand-alone applications or through
online communities or social networks. Also called
microblogs.
mission A company’s long-term reason for existing.
mobile learning Refers to informal or formal learning
delivered using a mobile device such as a smartphone,
netbook, notebook computer, or i-Pad.
mobile learning Training that provides trainees with
anytime and anywhere access to instructional resources
such as videos, pdfs, games, or courses.
modeling display A training method in which trainees
are shown key behaviors, which they then practice; often
done by videotape or computer.
modeling Having employees who have mastered
the desired learning outcomes demonstrate them for
trainees.
motivation to learn A trainee’s desire to learn the con-
tent of a training program.
motor skills Coordination of physical movements.
Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) A psychological
test for employee development consisting of over 
100 questions about how the person feels or prefers to
behave in different situations.
near transfer A trainee’s ability to apply learned capa-
bilities exactly to the work situation.
need A deficiency that a person is experiencing at any
point in time.
needs assessment The process used to determine if
training is necessary; the first step in the Instructional
System Design (ISD) model.
Net Promoter Score (NPS) A score designed to mea-
sure satisfaction with a training course by asking trainees
to rate the likelihood of recommending it to a peer by
using a 0–10 point scale.
nine-box grid A three-by-three matrix used by groups
of managers and executives to compare employees
within one department, function, division, or the entire
company for analysis and discussion of talent, to help
formulate effective development plans and activi-
ties, and to identify talented employees who can be
groomed for top-level management positions in 
the company.
Glossary  533
nontraditional employment The use of independent con-
tractors, freelancers, on-call workers, temporary workers,
and contract company workers.
norms Accepted standards of behavior for work-group
members.
objective The purpose and expected outcome of train-
ing activities.
offshoring The process of moving jobs from the United
States to other locations in the world.
on-the-job training (OJT) Training in which new or
inexperienced employees learn through first observing
peers or managers performing a job and then trying to
imitate their behavior.
onboarding The orientation process for newly hired
managers.
online learning Instruction and delivery of training by
computer online through the Internet or web. Also called
e-learning.
open skills Training objectives linked to general learn-
ing principles.
opportunity to perform The chance to use learned
capabilities.
organizational analysis A training analysis that deter-
mines the appropriateness of training, considering the
context in which training will occur.
organizing A learning strategy that requires the learner
to find similarities and themes in training materials.
orientation An event in which employees receive infor-
mation about their job, the company, work rules, and
travel reimbursement, complete tax forms, and learn how
to complete time sheets.
other In task analysis, a term referring to the conditions
under which tasks are performed; for example, the physi-
cal condition of the work environment or psychological
conditions, such as pressure or stress.
output A job’s performance standards.
outsourcing The acquisition of training and develop-
ment activities from outside a company.
overall task complexity The degree to which a task
requires a number of distinct behaviors, the number of
choices involved in performing the task, and the degree
of uncertainty in performing the task.
overlearning Employees’ continuing to practice even if
they have been able to perform the objective several times.
part practice A training approach in which each objec-
tive or task is practiced individually as soon as it is intro-
duced in a training program.
534  Glossary
past accomplishments A system of allowing employees
to build a history of successful accomplishments.
peer mentoring program A program in which a success-
ful senior employee is paired with a group of four to six
less experienced protégés to help them understand the
organization, guide them in analyzing their experiences,
and help them clarify career directions. Also called group
mentoring program.
perception The ability to organize a message from the
environment so that it can be processed and acted upon.
performance appraisal The process of measuring an
employee’s performance.
performance orientation Learners who focus on task
performance and how they compare to others.
person analysis Training analysis that involves 
(1) determining whether performance deficiencies
result from lack of knowledge, skill, or ability or from
a motivational or work-design problem, (2) identifying
who needs training, and (3) determining employees’
readiness for training.
person characteristics An employee’s knowledge, skill,
ability, behavior, or attitudes.
phased retirement A phase during which older employ-
ees gradually reduce their hours, which helps them transi-
tion into retirement.
physical requirements The degree to which a person
must use or demonstrate physical skills and abilities to
perform and complete a task.
pilot testing The process of previewing a training program
with potential trainees and managers or other customers.
plug-in Extra software that needs to be loaded on a
computer, for example, to listen to sound or watch video.
podcasts Audio or video program content distributed in
episodes using software
post-test only An evaluation design in which only post-
training outcomes are collected.
post-training measure A measure of outcomes taken
after training.
power The ability to influence others.
practicality The ease with which outcome measures can
be collected.
practice An employee’s demonstration of a learned
capability; the physical or mental rehearsal of a task,
knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency in performing
the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge.
preretirement socialization The process of helping
employees prepare for exit from work.
presence In training, the perception of actually being in
a particular environment.
presentation methods Training methods in which train-
ees are passive recipients of information.
pretest/post-test An evaluation design in which both
­pretraining and post-training outcome measures are
collected.
pretest/post-test with comparison group An evaluation
design that includes trainees and a comparison group.
Both pretraining and post-training outcome measures are
collected.
pretraining measure A baseline measure of outcomes.
program design The organization and coordination of a
training program.
project management The skills needed to manage
a team of people and resources to create a learning
solution.
promotion An advancement into a position with greater
challenges, more responsibility, and more authority than
the previous job provided; usually includes a pay increase
as well.
protean career A career that is frequently changing
based on changes in the person’s interests, abilities, and
values as well as changes in the work environment.
psychological success A feeling of pride and accom-
plishment that comes from achieving life goals.
psychosocial support Serving as a friend and role model
to an employee; also includes providing positive regard,
acceptance, and an outlet for the protégé to talk about
anxieties and fears.
random assignment The assignment of employees
to training or a comparison group on the basis 
of chance.
rapid instructional design (RID) A group of techniques
that allow training to be built more quickly; the two prin-
ciples of RID are that instructional content and process
can be developed independently of each other and that
resources devoted to design and delivery of instruction
can be reallocated as appropriate.
rapid needs assessment A needs assessment that is done
quickly and accurately but without sacrificing the quality
of the process or the outcomes.
rapid prototyping An iterative process used in design-
ing e-learning in which initial design ideas are proposed
and provided in rough form in an online working
prototype that is reviewed and refined by design team
members.

reaction outcomes A trainee’s perceptions of a training
program, including perceptions of the facilities, trainers,
and content.
readability Written materials’ level of difficulty.
readiness for training The condition of (1) employees
having the personal characteristics necessary to learn
program content and apply it on the job, and (2) the
work environment facilitating learning and not interfer-
ing with performance.
reality check The information employees receive about
how the company evaluates their skills and knowledge
and where they fit into the company’s plans (potential
promotion opportunities, lateral moves).
reasonable accommodation In terms of the Americans 
with Disabilities Act (ADA) and training, making
training facilities readily accessible to and usable by
individuals with disabilities; may also include modifying
instructional media, adjusting training policies, and pro-
viding trainees with readers or interpreters.
reflection Trainees spend a short amount of time, such
as 15 minutes, reviewing and writing about what they
learned and how they performed.
rehearsal A learning strategy focusing on learning
through repetition (memorization).
reinforcement theory A theory emphasizing that people
are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors
because of past outcomes that have resulted from those
behaviors.
reliability The degree to which outcomes can be mea-
sured consistently over time.
repatriation Preparing expatriates for return to the par-
ent company and country from a foreign assignment.
repurposing Directly translating a training program that
uses a traditional training method onto the web.
request for proposal (RFP) A document that 
outlines for potential vendors and consultants the
requirements for winning and fulfilling a contract with 
a company.
resistance to change Managers’ and/or employees’
unwillingness to change.
results Outcomes used to determine a training pro-
gram’s payoff.
retirement The leaving of a job and work role to make
the transition into life without work.
retrieval The identification of learned material in 
long-term memory and use of it to influence
performance.
Glossary  535
return on expectations (ROE) The process through
which evaluation demonstrates to key business stakehold-
ers, such as top-level managers, that their expectations
about training have been satisfied.
return on investment (ROI) A comparison of a training
program’s monetary benefits and costs.
reversal A time period in which training participants no
longer receive training intervention.
reverse mentoring Mentoring relationship in which a
younger employee with less experience mentors a more
senior employee.
role play A training exercise in which the participant
takes the part or role of a manager or some other
employee; training method in which trainees are given
information about a situation and act out characters
assigned to them.
root cause analysis The process of determining whether
training is the best or most likely solution to a perfor-
mance problem or gap.
sabbatical A leave of absence from the company to
renew or develop skills.
scenario-based training Training that places team mem-
bers in a realistic context while learning.
School-to-Work Opportunities Act A federal law
designed to assist states in building school-to-work sys-
tems that prepare students for high-skill, high-wage jobs
or future education.
sector partnerships Government agencies and indus-
try trade groups that help identify the skills that local
employers require and work with community colleges,
universities, and other educational institutions to provide
qualified employees.
self-assessment An employee’s use of information to
determine career interests, values, aptitudes, and behav-
ioral tendencies.
self-directed learning Training in which employees take
responsibility for all aspects of their learning (e.g., when
it occurs, who is involved).
self-efficacy Employees’ belief that they can perform
their job or learn the content of a training program
successfully.
self-evaluation Learners’ estimates of how much they
know or have learned from training.
self-management A person’s attempt to control certain
aspects of his or her decision making and behavior.
self-regulation Learners’ involvement with the training
material and assessing their progress toward learning.
536  Glossary
semantic encoding The actual coding process of incom-
ing memory.
serious games Games in which the training content is
turned into a game but has business objectives.
shared media Audio or video such as YouTube that can
be accessed and shared with others.
simulation A training method that represents a real-life
situation, with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes
that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
situational constraints Work environment characteris-
tics that include lack of proper equipment, materials, sup-
plies, budgetary support, and time.
Six Sigma process A process of measuring, analyzing,
improving, and then controlling processes once they have
been brought within the Six Sigma quality tolerances or
standards.
skill Competency in performing a task.
skill-based outcomes Outcomes used to assess the
level of technical or motor skills or behavior; outcomes
include skill acquisition or learning and on-the-job use of
skills.
social capital The value of relationships among employ-
ees within a company.
social learning theory A theory emphasizing that people
learn by observing other persons (models) who they
believe are credible and knowledgeable.
social media Online and mobile technology used to cre-
ate interactive communications and allow the creation
and exchange of user-generated content.
Solomon four-group An evaluation design combining
the pretest/post-test comparison group and the post-test-
only control group designs.
spaced practice A training approach in which trainees
are given rest intervals within the practice session.
staffing strategy A company’s decisions regarding
where to find employees, how to select them, and the mix
of employee skills and statuses.
stakeholders Company leaders, top-level managers,
mid-level managers, trainers, and employees who are end
users of learning who have an interest in training and
development and whose support is important for deter-
mining its success (or failure).
STEM skills Science, technology, engineering, and
math skills that U.S. employers need and value, but
employees lack.
stimulus generalization approach Transfer of training
occurs when the training emphasizes the most important
features of a task or general principles that can be used to
solve a task or complete a problem.
storyboard A group of pictures created using pencil-and-
paper or markers on notebooks, erasable marker boards,
flip charts, or PowerPoint slides that tell a story.
strategic choice The strategy believed to be the best
alternative to achieve the company’s goals.
strategic training and development initiatives Learning-
related actions that a company takes to achieve its busi-
ness strategy.
strategic value Employees’ potential to improve com-
pany effectiveness and efficiency.
stretch assignments Job assignments that help employ-
ees develop because there is a mismatch between the
employee’s skills and past experiences and the skills
required for success on the job.
subject-matter expert (SME) A person who knows a
great deal about (1) training issues, (2) the knowledge,
skills, and abilities required for task performance, 
(3) necessary equipment, and (4) the conditions under
which tasks have to be performed.
success cases or stories Concrete examples of the
impact of training that show how learning leads to results
that the company finds worthwhile and the managers
find credible.
succession planning The process of identifying and
tracking high-potential employees for advancement in a
company.
summative evaluation Evaluation of the extent that
trainees have changed as a result of participating in a
training program.
support network A group of two or more trainees who
agree to meet and discuss their progress in using learned
capabilities on the job.
survivor An employee remaining with a company after
downsizing.
SWOT analysis An identification of a company’s
operating environment as well as an internal analysis of
its strengths and weaknesses. SWOT is an acronym for
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.
synchronous communication Communication in which
trainers, experts, and learners interact with each other
live and in real time in the same way that they would in
face-to-face classroom instruction.
tacit knowledge Personal knowledge that is based on
individual experience and that is difficult to explain to
others.

talent management The process of attracting, retaining,
developing, and motivating highly skilled employees and
managers.
task A statement of an employee’s work activity in a
specific job.
task analysis Training analysis that involves identifying
the tasks and knowledge, skills, and behaviors that need
to be emphasized in training for employees to complete
their tasks.
task redefinition Changes in managers’ and/or employ-
ees’ roles and methods.
team Two or more people with specific roles or func-
tions who work together with shared responsibility to
achieve a common goal, mission, or to complete tasks.
team leader training Training that a team manager or
facilitator receives.
team training A training method that involves coor-
dinating the performances of individuals who work
together to achieve a common goal.
telecommuting Working in a remote location (distant
from a central office), where the employee has limited
contact with peers but can communicate electronically
(also called teleworking).
teleconferencing The synchronous exchange of audio,
video, and/or text between two or more individuals or
groups at two or more locations.
temporary assignments Job tryouts including employee
exchanges and volunteer assignments in which employ-
ees take on a position to help them determine if they are
interested in working in a new role.
theory of identical elements Theory that proposes trans-
fer of training occurs when what is being learned in train-
ing is identical to the tasks the trainee has to perform on
the job.
threats to validity Factors that lead one to question
either (1) the believability of a study’s results or (2) the
extent to which evaluation results are generalizable to
other groups of trainees and situations.
time series An evaluation design in which training
outcomes are collected at periodic intervals pre- and
post-training.
Tin Can API A specification for learning technology
that makes it possible to collect data about an employee’s
or a team’s online and face-to-face learning experiences.
Also called Experience API.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Legislation that
makes it illegal to deny access to employment or deprive
Glossary  537
a person of employment because of the person’s race,
color, religion, gender, or national origin.
Total Quality Management (TQM) A style of doing
business that relies on the talents and capabilities of both
labor and management to build and provide high-quality
products and services and continuously improve them.
traditional training methods Training methods that
require an instructor or facilitator and involve face-to-face
interaction between trainees.
trainee prerequisites Preparation, basic skills, or knowl-
edge that the trainee needs prior to participating in the
program.
training A company’s planned effort to facilitate
employees’ learning of job-related competencies.
training administration Coordination of activities
before, during, and after a training program.
training context The physical, intellectual, and emo-
tional environment in which training occurs.
training design process A systematic approach to devel-
oping training programs. Its seven steps include conduct-
ing needs assessment, ensuring employees’ readiness for
training, creating a learning environment, ensuring trans-
fer of training, developing an evaluation plan, selecting
training methods, and evaluating training programs.
training effectiveness The benefits that a company and
its trainees receive from training.
training evaluation The process of collecting the out-
comes needed to determine whether training has been
effective.
training outcomes Measures that a company and its
trainer use to evaluate training programs. Also called
criteria.
training site The place where training is conducted.
transfer Giving an employee a different job assignment
in a different area of the company.
transfer of training Trainees’ applying to their jobs the
learned capabilities gained in training.
tuition reimbursement The practice of reimbursing
employees the costs for college and university courses
and degree programs.
unconscious bias A judgment outside of our conscious-
ness that affects decisions based on background, culture,
and personal experience.
Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment
Rights Act An act that covers deployed employees’
rights, such as guaranteeing jobs when they return, except
under special circumstances.
538  Glossary
uniqueness The extent to which employees are rare and
specialized and not highly available in the labor market.
upward feedback An appraisal process involving the
collection of subordinates’ evaluations of managers’
behaviors or skills.
utility analysis A cost-benefit analysis method that
involves assessing the dollar value of training based on
estimates of the difference in job performance between
trained and untrained employees, the number of indi-
viduals trained, the length of time a training program
is expected to influence performance, and the vari-
ability in job performance in the untrained group of
employees.
valence The value that a person places on an outcome.
values Principles and virtues that symbolize the com-
pany’s beliefs.
verbal information Names or labels, facts, and bodies of
knowledge.
verbal persuasion Offering words of encouragement to
convince others that they can learn.
vicarious reinforcement A situation in which a trainee
sees an example of someone being reinforced for using
certain behaviors.
virtual classroom Using a computer and the Internet
to distribute instructor-led training to geographically dis-
persed employees.
virtual reality (VR) A computer-based technology
often used in simulations that provides trainees with a
three-dimensional learning experience that approximates
reality.
virtual team A team that is separated by time, geo-
graphic distance, culture, and/or organizational boundar-
ies and that relies almost exclusively on technology to
interact and complete projects.
virtual worlds Computer-based, simulated online three-
dimensional representations of the real world where
learning programs can be hosted.
vision The picture of the future that a company wants
to achieve.
volunteer assignments Employees develop their skills
through serving the community by taking positions in
community organizations.
Web 2.0 User-created social networking features on
the Internet, including blogs, wikis, and microblogs, such
as Twitter.
web conferencing (or webcasting) Classroom instruc-
tions that are provided online through live broadcasts.
web-based training Training delivered on public or pri-
vate computer networks and displayed by a web browser
(also called Internet-based training).
whole practice A training approach in which all tasks or
objectives are practiced at the same time.
wiki A website that allows many users to create, edit,
and update content and share knowledge.
work team A group of employees with various skills
who interact to assemble a product or produce a service.
work-life balance Helping employees deal with the
stresses, strains, and conflicts related to trying to balance
work and nonwork demands.
workforce analytics The practice of using quantitative
methods and scientific methods to analyze data from
human resource databases, corporate financial state-
ments, employee surveys, and other data sources to make
evidence-based decisions and show that human resource
practices (including training, development, and learning)
influence important company metrics.
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act A 2014
federal law that created a new, comprehensive workforce
investment system that is customer focused, that provides
Americans with career management information and
high-quality services, and that helps match U.S. compa-
nies with skilled workers.
working storage The rehearsal and repetition of infor-
mation, allowing it to be coded for memory.