Ashok G. Ambekar - Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering-PHI Learning Private Limited (2013)

Mechanical
Vibrations
and Noise
Engineering
A.G. Ambekar
Mechanical Vibrations
and Noise Engineering
Ashok G. Ambekar
Technical Advisor and Former Director
Swami Vivekanand College of Engineering, Indore
and
Former Professor and Head
Mechanical Engineering Department
Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology and Science (SGSITS)
Indore
New Delhi-110001
2013
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS AND NOISE ENGINEERING
A.G. Ambekar
© 2006 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-2900-3
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Seventh Printing º º º January, 2013
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.
To
My grandson Chi. ISHAN
and
Granddaughters Chi. AYUSHI and Chi. ISHITA
through whose eyes I desire to peep into the future
Contents
Preface ix
1. FUNDAMENTALS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1–35
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Importance 2
1.3 Main Causes of Vibration 3
1.4 Vector Method of Representing Harmonic Motion 4
1.5 Characteristics of Vibration 6
1.6 Harmonic Analysis 8
1.6.1 Addition of Harmonic Motions 8
1.6.2 Lissajous Figures: A case of harmonic motions directed along
perpendicular lines 11
1.6.3 Beats Phenomenon 11
1.7 Work Done by a Harmonic Force on a Harmonic Motion 13
1.8 Periodic, Non-harmonic Excitation: Fourier Series Analysis 15
1.9 Evaluation of Coefficients of Fourier’s Series 17
1.10 Mathematical Models 25
1.11 Elements of a Vibratory System 26
1.12 Lumped/Discrete Parameter and Continuous Distributed Parameter Systems 27
1.13 Linear and Non-linear Vibrating Systems 28
1.14 Equivalent Springs and Dashpots 29
Review Questions 33
2. UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 36–78
2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 Derivation of Differential Equation of Motion 36
2.2.1 The Energy Method 36
2.2.2 Method Based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion 38
2.2.3 Rayleigh’s Method 39
2.3 Solution of Differential Equation of Motion 40
2.4 Systems Involving Angular Oscillations 42
2.5 The Compound Pendulum 45
Review Questions 73
v
vi Contents
3. DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 79–114

3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Viscous Damping 79
3.3 Free Vibrations with Viscous Damping 81
3.4 Logarithmic Decrement 93
3.5 Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping 102
3.5.1 Frequency of Damped Vibrations and Rate of Decay 103
3.5.2 Rate of Decay from Energy Considerations 106
3.6 Comparison between Viscous and Coulomb Damping 107
3.7 Solid or Structural Damping 109
3.8 Slip or Interfacial Damping 110
Review Questions 111
4. HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATION (SYSTEMS WITH SINGLE

DEGREE OF FREEDOM) 115–162
4.1 Introduction 115
4.2 Forced Harmonic Vibration 116
4.3 Vector Representation of Forces in Forced Vibration 126
4.4 Excitation Due to Unbalance 127
4.4.1 Rotating Unbalance 127
4.4.2 Reciprocating Unbalance 130
4.5 Vibration Isolation 135
4.6 Force Transmissibility 135
4.6.1 Isolation Using Springs Alone 135
4.6.2 Isolation Using Springs and Damper 138
4.7 Force Transmissibility Aspect of Variable Speed Machine 141
4.8 Motion Transmissibility (Systems Attached to Moving Supports) 147
4.8.1 Absolute Motion of Mass 147
4.8.2 Relative Motion of Mass (Seismic Instruments) 152
5. SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 163–213

5.2 Undamped Free Vibrations and the Principal Modes of Vibration 164
5.3 Torsional Vibrations 178
5.4 Forced Undamped Vibration with Harmonic Excitation (2 d.o.f.) 183
5.5 Coordinate Coupling 184
5.6 Dynamic Vibration Absorber 188
5.7 Torsional Vibration Absorber 196
5.8 Pendulum Type Dynamic Vibration Absorber 196
5.9 Generalized Coordinates and Lagrange’s Equation 205
Contents vii
6. MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS 214–259

6.2 Equation of Motion 215
6.3 The Matrix Method (Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors) 219
6.4 Method of Influence Coefficients and Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem 222
6.5 Orthogonality of the Principal Modes of Vibration 227
6.6 Approximate Methods of Determining Fundamental Frequencies 228
6.6.1 Dunkerley’s Lower Bound Approximation 229
6.6.2 Rayleigh’s Method 233
6.7 Stodola’s Method 237
6.8 The Holzer Method 243
6.9 Method of Matrix Iteration 251
7. WHIRLING MOTION AND CRITICAL SPEEDS 260–283

7.2 Critical Speed of a Light Vertical Shaft with Single Disc (Without
Damping) 261
7.3 Critical Speed of a Vertical, Light-Flexible Shaft Carrying Single Rotor
with Damping 267
7.4 Critical Speeds of a Shaft Carrying Multiple Discs (Without Damping) 276
7.5 Secondary Critical Speed 279
8. CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 284–309

8.2 Vibration of Strings (Transverse Wave Propagation on a String) 285
8.3 Longitudinal Vibrations of Bars 287
8.4 Torsional Vibrations of Circular Members 289
8.5 Transverse Vibration of Beams 290
9. SOUND LEVEL AND SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TO SOUND 310–342

9.2 Subjective Response to Sound 311
9.3 Frequency Dependent Human Response to Sound 312
9.4 Sound-Pressure Dependent Human Response 313
9.5 The Decibel Scale 314
9.6 Relationship among Sound Power, Sound Intensity and Sound
Pressure Level 316
9.6.1 Relation between Sound Power Level and Sound Intensity
Level 316
9.6.2 Relation between Sound Intensity Level and Sound Pressure
Level 317
viii Contents
9.7 Summation of Pure Tones 318

9.8 Decibel Addition, Subtraction and Averaging 320
9.9 Approximate Method for Decibel Addition 322
9.10 Sound Spectra 325
9.11 Types of Sound Fields 326
9.12 Octave Band Analysis 327
9.13 Anatomy of Human Ear 329
9.14 Mechanism of Hearing 331
9.15 Loudness 332
9.16 Loudness of Composite Sounds 334
9.17 Weighting Networks 335
9.18 Equivalent Sound Level 340
10. NOISE: EFFECTS, RATINGS AND REGULATIONS 343–363

10.2 Non-auditory Effects of Noise on People 344
10.3 Auditory Effects of Noise 348
10.4 Noise Standards and Limits 351
10.5 Ambient Emission Noise Standards in India 353
10.6 Hazardous Noise Exposure—Legal Aspect 354
10.7 Hearing Conservation and Damage Risk Criteria 355
10.8 Day-Night Sound Level, Ldn 361
10.9 Time Varying Community Noise 361
11. NOISE: SOURCES, ISOLATION AND CONTROL 364–384

11.1 Major Sources of Noise 364
11.2 Noise Survey Techniques 366
11.3 Measurement Technique for Vehicular Noise 367
11.4 Road Vehicles Noise Standard 369
11.5 Noise Due to Construction Equipments and Domestic Appliances 370
11.6 Industrial Noise Sources 372
11.7 Industrial Noise Control—Strategies 373
11.8 Noise Control at the Source 375
11.9 Noise Control along the Path 377
11.10 Acoustic Barriers 380
11.11 Noise Control at the Receiver 381
Bibliography 385–386
Answers to Selected Review Questions 387–396
Index 397–402
Preface
The subject of vibration deals with the oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated
with them. Vibratory motions in machines and structures frequently occur in engineering
applications. In fact, many significant failures of machines and structures in the past are
attributed to severe vibrations to which they were subjected. It is always possible to anticipate
vibration problem at the design stage itself. A design engineer, therefore, needs to be
thoroughly exposed to the basic principles of vibration. The subject is thus important not only
to mechanical and civil engineers but also to aeronautical engineers. With the introduction of
predictive and diagnostic type of maintenance strategies, especially useful in process industries,
periodic measurements of vibration and noise in machines have become all the more
important. In preparing the manuscript of this book, the author has relied heavily on his class
notes and classroom experience in this subject, spread over almost 30 years. The author also
had in his mind, needs of the B.E. and B.Tech. students of Indian universities and those
preparing for competitive examinations. Chapters 1–7 are devoted to cover various aspects of
engineering vibration.
Noise is an obvious outcome of vibrations in machines and structural components. Any
improvement in quality of city life calls for implementation of hearing conservation
programme in the community, by way of increasing public awareness and also through
enforcement of noise level regulations. In very near future, the engineers and executives
working on the shop floors of industries will be required to maintain noise-exposure levels for
industrial workers within permissible limits. An effective noise-control strategy to achieve this
requires one to take into account the noise-emission levels of machines at the time of their
purchase. The subject matter in this textbook is tailored to meet all such basic requirements of
the students and budding engineers in noise engineering and is covered in Chapters 8–11.
With increase of size and speed of modern machines, vibration problems in structures
and machines have assumed greater importance in all the three engineering disciplines. In view
of fast rate of industrialization and also keeping in mind the rate at which increase in
automotive vehicular population is taking place in this country, the author foresees an urgent
need of stricter noise regulations and their effective enforcement to protect environment. A
ix
vi Preface
good number of universities have already introduced a compulsory course in the subject of
vibration and noise engineering while, many more are on the way to follow the trend.
This book is primarily intended to serve the purpose of a textbook for undergraduate
students in the subject of Vibration and Noise Engineering. While laying special emphasis on
mechanical engineering applications, attempt has been made to keep the contents equally
relevant and useful to the graduate students in civil and aeronautical engineering. Efforts have
also been made to present the subject matter in simple language and to develop conceptual
understanding in the subject. A good number of solved problems in SI units have been added
at the end of each chapter to illustrate the application of the theory. Unsolved problems also
appear at the end of each chapter. The subject matter covers fundamental aspects of the subject
and the students desirous of having detailed information are advised to refer to the list of
reference books given at the end of this book.
The author acknowledges with thanks the members of managing committee for relieving
him from the heavy responsibilities of the post of Director of SGSITS in August 2005 for
preparing the manuscript of the remaining six chapters of this book. Without their kind gesture
and blessings, it was an extremely difficult task to translate the dream of 'book-writing
project' into reality. The author also desires to acknowledge with thanks his wife
Mrs. Sushama, who spared her valuable time to share many of my day-to-day responsibilities
with patience. The author desires to keep on record his heartfelt thanks to all his colleagues in
the department and also in the institute as a whole for encouragement received from time to
time and for appreciating keenness of the author for this academic pursuit.
Due care has been taken to avoid errors in the text. However, presence of errors can not
be overruled completely. The author will be grateful for any constructive criticism and
suggestion for further improvement in the book.
A.G. Ambekar
Fundamentals and Basic
Concepts
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The subject of vibration deals with oscillatory motion of dynamic systems and forces
associated with them. A system comprises several members with similar or dissimilar
properties. In a dynamic system, all such members possess mass and can have relative motion
giving rise to internal forces. Since ancient times, the relation between the motion of physical
systems and the forces causing such motion has attracted the attention of human mind.
However, it was not until Galileo and Newton that the laws of motion could be formulated
correctly. These laws do have their limitations and are of no concern until the velocities of the
bodies under consideration approach the speed of light. Noise, on the other hand, can be
defined as 'unwanted sound'. Indisputably, therefore, noise-nuisance is a subjective assessment
and not only depends on age group to which assessees belong but also on their community,
individual likings and state of mind. Noise engineering, therefore, needs separate treatment.
Vibratory motions in machines and structures are of frequent concern in engineering
practices. In fact, any body possessing mass and elasticity is capable of vibration. For an ideal
conservative system, e.g. a simple pendulum, continuous conversion from kinetic energy to
potential energy and vice-versa is responsible for a continuous oscillatory motion. Readers may
recall that mass is a necessary parameter for kinetic energy while elastic energy of deformation
(synonymous with potential energy) is necessary for restoring the mass to its mean equilibrium
position. Vibrations are, in general, undesirable in machines and structures. They are
responsible for producing excessive stresses, wear, unwanted noise and premature failure of
one or more components by way of looseness in connections or due to fatigue. When the first
airplane took off for its maiden test flight, the entire structure broke into pieces due to
excessive vibrations. In gears, where accuracy of tooth profiles is essential for correct
performance, presence of vibration increases rate of wear. Vibrations of cutting tools lead to
inaccuracies in respect of size, shape and surface finish too.
1
vi Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
1.2 IMPORTANCE
To most of us, the subject of vibration is important for one or the other reason. From the point
of view of a physicist, the subject is of interest as, after all, our hearts beat; our lungs oscillate;
we shiver under the effect of cold; we speak because our larynges can vibrate; we hear because
our ear drums can oscillate. To a common man also, vibration is equally interesting. When he
rides on a motor cycle, it shakes, partly because of rough road and partly because of vibrations
from the engine. Again, when the button of an electric call bell is pressed, the clapper makes
oscillatory motion. When an airplane lands, the moment wheels make contact with the runway,
the entire structure of the plane and the structures in the surrounding area of airstrip experience
vibration. Human discomfort and fatigue is yet another important consideration which requires
engineers to study human response to vibration and noise, particularly at certain frequencies
where permanent damage to certain parts of body is probable.
There are numerous applications where the presence of vibration is essential. These
applications are:
1. In washing machines, where agitation of clothes in soap-water mixture is essential.
2. In mechanical shakers used for mixing things up. For instance, special mechanical
shakers are used by dentist for mixing amalgam. Mechanical shakers find use in
foundries too.
3. In sieves and other sorting devices
4. In vibratory conveyors and compactors
5. In musical instruments
6. A stress relieving technique, of relatively recent origin, makes use of the principle of
vibration.
7. Machines used by medical practitioners for massaging unwanted bulges on patient's
body are designed to work on the principles of vibration. The machines help to
increase blood circulation in those parts of body.
The subject of vibration is important not only to mechanical engineers but also to civil
and aeronautical engineers. Bridges under heavy rolling loads, suspension bridges subjected to
strong crosswind and runway of airplanes and nearby buildings are all subjected to vibrations.
Similarly, the structure of airplane at the time of landing is subjected to vibrations. Moving
parts of all machines are inherently vibration producers. With the increase of size and speed of
modern machines, the vibration problem assumes greater importance to mechanical engineers.
Torsional vibrations of shafts and geared systems, whirling of shafts, vibrations of turbine
blades and turbine discs are just a few examples of this type. A designer can always anticipate
a vibration problem at the design stage and try to reduce undesirable effects as much as
possible. Experience shows that this is one of the most economical and convenient methods of
reducing/eliminating machine vibrations. Even after all such precautions at the design stage,
unexpected vibrations are often found in a machine. A mechanical engineer is expected to
solve all such problems using one of the several methods available for reducing vibrations.
Fundamentals and Basic Concepts vii
1.3 MAIN CAUSES OF VIBRATION

Occurrence of vibration in a machine is usually due to minor faults resulting from
manufacturing and material limitations. Some of the common causes of vibration are:
1. Unbalance: Unequal distribution of mass in a rotating member is the cause of unbalance,
which leads to centrifugal forces in radial direction.
2. Misalignment: In some of the industries, misalignment of rotating members is a common
cause of vibration. Misalignment exists in a shaft either in respect of its bearings or else, there
can be a misalignment between two connected shafts. In either case, misalignment of shaft
leads to unidirectional preload on the rotor.
3. Looseness: In rotating machinery, loose foundations, loose restraints from bearing and
excessive bearing clearance constitute some of the causes of severe vibration problem.
4. Dry friction between two rubbing surfaces: Dry friction between two rubbing surfaces
is responsible for self-excited type of vibration. Machine tool chatter is an example of this type
of vibration. Vibrations produced by a bow in moving over violin strings also belong to this
category.
5. Wind-induced vibration (self-induced vibration): A few interesting cases of failure of
structures due to wind-induced vibrations have been reported in literature. A large suspension
bridge across Tacoma Narrows in Washington was destroyed by a moderate wind in the year
1940 A.D., after remaining one year in operation. Reasons for the same were attributed to
Karman-vortices and flutter. In due course of time, experimental investigations were
conducted on an object with I-shaped solid section in wind tunnel [See Fig. 1.1(a)]. The object
represented a cross-section of deck with solid vertical side plates. When a steady wind blew for
more than one hour at 67.6 km/h, the eddy frequency coincided with the natural frequency (in
torsion) of the deck on its suspension cables. With the resonating conditions, the amplitude of
angular oscillations reached 45 degrees on either side of horizontal, the distribution along the
span being in two half-sine waves. It was concluded that the cause of failure was a Karman-
vortex trail.
Solid plates
39 ft
8 f20
(a) Deck of suspension bridge (b) Steel smoke stack
Fig. 1.1 Illustrations of Karman-induced resonant vibration.
In steel industries, smoke stacks made of steel plates are subjected to Karman-induced
resonant vibration at wind speeds of 48.0 km/h [See Fig. 1.1(b)]. The vortices, alternately
clockwise and counter-clockwise, are shed from the cylinder in a regular manner and are
Vi Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
associated with an alternating sidewise force. The relation between frequency 'f', cylinder
diameter `IY and velocity 'v' of stream is given by
/±) = 0.22
v
This phenomenon is absent in case of brick or concrete smoke stacks. It became worse
when riveted-joints were replaced with welded joints. The object for wind-tunnel study in this
case was cylindrical rather than an I-section, employed in the example of suspension bridge
cited across Tacoma Narrows.
Vibrations in a periscope of submarine represents a similar class of problem. The
periscope represents a cantilever of about 6.0 m length (when extended) and a diameter of the
order of 20 cm. Resonance due to Karman-vortices was observed at a speed of 7-8 km/h. This
results in blurring of the view seen through the periscope. Galloping of cables of high-tension
transmission lines in Canada and other northern countries, where temperature in winter reaches
32 degrees F on lower side, represents yet another example of this type. Due to the sleet (of
snow) formed on the cable, the cross-section is anything other than circular one. When a
strong transverse wind blows, a component of wind force acts in vertical direction producing
vibrations in vertical plane. A span of about 90 metres vibrates with one or two 'half-sine
waves' with amplitude as great as 3 metres and at a frequency of 1 cycle per second or slower.
6. Oil whirl: Hydrodynamic instability that occurs in bearing at some 'onset' speed and is
characterized by the generation of some tangential force, proportional to the radial deflection
of rotating shaft, is called oil whirl. The whirling motion becomes important because of ever-
increasing amplitude, which is limited only by the non-linear behaviour of the system.
7. External excitation: Vibration due to external excitation can be periodic, random, or in
the form of an impact load. Shaking of a motorcycle on a rough road and resulting vibrations
of rear view mirror, both belong to this category of problem.
1.4 VECTOR METHOD OF REPRESENTING HARMONIC MOTION

A body is said to execute simple harmonic motion (abbreviated as SHM) when it oscillates
about a mean equilibrium position (abbreviated as MEP) with its acceleration always directed
towards and proportional to the displacement from MEP. Let a point P be moving along a
circle with uniform angular velocity CO and M be the foot of perpendicular PM dropped from
P on a horizontal diameter. As shown in Fig. 1.2(a), when a point P moves along the arc of a
circle, the motion of the foot of the perpendicular on a diameter, coinciding with the x-axis, is
simple harmonic. Let us now represent the harmonic motion by means of a vector OP, having
uniform magnitude X and rotating at uniform angular velocity CO in clockwise sense. Using
positive y-axis as the reference axis, the angular location at time t of the rotating vector being
measured by 0(= on). The projection OM of the rotating vector on the positive x-axis is given
by
x = X sin on (1.1)
The quantity CO is called circular frequency and is expressed in radians per second.
Fundamentals and Basic Concepts vii
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 Harmonic motion as projection of a point moving along a circle.
Figure 1.2(b) shows a sine curve, which depicts variation of displacement x from mean
equilibrium position plotted against time t as abscissa. From the sinusoidal relation, it is clear
that the motion repeats itself after 27r radians. The time after which the motion repeats itself is
called time period and is designated as r. The circular frequency CO and the time period I- are
related through:
= (21r
(0 = 27rf (1.2)
r,
where f is the frequency of harmonic motion in cycles per second or hertz.
Velocity of the point M is obtained by differentiating Eq. (1.1) with respect to time t.
Thus, the velocity is given by
v = wX cos wt (1.3)
it
or x= COX sin (cot + — (1.4)
2j
The velocity vector, thus, has a magnitude which is CO times the displacement amplitude
and at a given time t, is located at an angle (cot + 7r/2) from the reference axis. Acceleration of
point M is similarly obtained by differentiating Eq. (1.3) with respect to time. Thus,
acceleration is given by
a = 1 = —w2X sin wt (1.5)
or 1 = o)2X sin( cot + 7r) (1.6)
This shows that the magnitude of acceleration vector is o)2 times the displacement
amplitude and the vector is located at an angle of (cot + 7r) from the reference axis. Thus,
displacement, velocity and acceleration of the point M can be represented by projection on the
x-axis of rotating vectors of magnitudes X, Xw and Xw2, respectively. Since all the vectors
rotate at the same angular speed CO, it may be concluded that the velocity vector leads the
displacement vector by 7c/2 and the acceleration vector leads the velocity vector by 7r/2. This is
demonstrated in Fig. 1.3. Clearly, when CO < 1, the acceleration amplitude is smaller than the
velocity amplitude and the velocity amplitude is smaller than the displacement amplitude.
Conversely, when CO > 1, the acceleration amplitude is larger than the velocity amplitude and
the velocity amplitude is larger than the displacement amplitude.
vi Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Fig. 1.3 Rotating vectors.
Another important aspect of expressions in Eqs. (1.1), (1.4) and (1.6) is that the
displacement, velocity and acceleration quantities do not reach their maximum/minimum
values simultaneously. Thus, the displacement reaches its maximum value of +X when the
angle wt becomes 90° while velocity and acceleration reach their maximum values of + coX
and + w2X, respectively when the angle wt reaches the values of 0 and —90° (i.e. 270 degrees).
The quantities ,r/2 and 7r in Eqs. (1.4) and (1.6) are called phase angles.
EXAMPLE 1.1 An instrument has a natural frequency of 10 Hz. It can stand a maximum
acceleration of 10 m/s2. Find the maximum displacement amplitude.
(SGSITS: Dec. 1995)
Solution
The circular frequency CO = 10(27r) = 207r rad/s
For simple harmonic motion, maximum acceleration = Xw2, where X is the amplitude of
displacement.
Hence Xw2 = 1000 cm/s2 and therefore
1000
X= , = 0.253 cm Ans.
(2010`
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

Vibration characteristics are used to explain machine conditions and mechanical problems. The
vibration characteristics are:
• Vibration displacement
• Vibration velocity
• Vibration acceleration
• Phase
Fundamentals and Basic Concepts 7
Vibration Displacement: The total distance travelled by the vibrating part from one
extreme limit of travel to the other extreme limit of travel is referred to as peak-to-peak
displacement. Peak-to-peak vibration displacement is normally expressed in mils in FPS units
and in microns in MKS units. One mil equals one-thousandth of an inch (i.e. 0.001 inch) while
one micron equals one millionth of a metre (i.e. 0.000001 metre or 0.001 mm).
Quite often, the amplitude of displacement in simple harmonic motion is expressed by its
average (mean) value Xav or the root mean square (r.m.s.) value Xrms. The average and r.m.s.
values of amplitudes are defined by
1 Tr 1 1
Xav = — j 1 X(01 dt (1.7)
T 0
}1/2
1 Tr i 2
and Xrms j v(t)) dt (1.8)
T 0
where T is the averaging time and should be sufficiently large. Substituting X sin wt for x(t) in
Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8), the average and r.m.s. values of the amplitude in SHM can be written as
2 v
Xav = (— l' (1.9)
it )
X
and Xrms = (1.10)
N/2
Similarly, the peak-to-peak value of amplitude is given by
;p = 2X (1.11)
EXAMPLE 1.2 In Example 1.1, find out average and r.m.s. values of amplitude of
displacement.
Solution
Since the maximum value of amplitude of displacement X = 0.253 cm,
2`
Xav = X = 0.161 cm
it j
Xrms = Ti = 0.179 cm Ans.
Simple Harmonic motion is of great concern to us because it is the simplest form of

periodic motion. To demonstrate this type of motion, consider a mass m suspended from a
light helical spring as shown in Fig. 1.4. If the mass is pulled down to produce spring
elongation and released, it executes to-and-fro motion in vertical direction. To record
oscillatory motion of the mass, a light source can be placed on the mass and a light-sensitive
film-strip is made to move fast it at a constant speed. This is depicted in Fig. 1.4.
8 Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Fig. 1.4 Experimental demonstration of simple harmonic motion.
Vibration velocity: The speed of the vibrating mass keeps on changing continuously. The
velocity is maximum at neutral position and minimum at the extreme position. The velocity of
the motion is certainly a characteristic of the vibration, but since it constantly changes, the
highest or 'peak' value of velocity is selected for its measurement.
Vibration acceleration: This is another important characteristic of vibration. The
acceleration of vibrating mass is maximum at the extreme positions and zero at the neutral
position where velocity is maximum. Vibration acceleration is normally expressed in g's peak,
where one g is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth. This may be taken as
980.665 cm/s2.
Phase: Yet another important vibration characteristic is phase. This is defined as 'the
position of a vibrating part with respect to a fixed point or another vibrating part at the given
instant'. Phase measurement, thus, offers a convenient way to compare one vibratory motion
with another or to determine how one part is vibrating relative to another.
Thus, each of the characteristics of the vibration tells some significant aspect of vibration.
Definitions
Following definitions follow from the above discussions:
1. Periodic motion: A motion that repeats itself after regular interval of time is called
periodic motion.
2. Time period: Time period is defined as the time taken to complete one cycle.
3. Frequency: The number of cycles completed per second is called frequency and is
expressed in Hertz.
4. Amplitude: The maximum possible displacement of a vibrating mass in a cycle
measured from mean equilibrium position is called the amplitude of vibration.
1.6 HARMONIC ANALYSIS
1.6.1 Addition of Harmonic Motions

An important property of linear systems is that they follow the principle of superposition. Now
let us consider a case wherein a particle is simultaneously subjected to two simple harmonic
motions. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that the two motions have the same
frequency, but different amplitudes and a phase difference of 0. Let the two motions be
x1 = X1 sin tot (1.12)
and x2 = X2 sin (wt + 0) (1.13)

Assume the system to be a linear one so that the resultant motion of the particle is given by
x = x1 +x2
Hence, from Eqs. (1.12) and (1.13), we have
x = X1 sin wt + X2 sin (tot + 0) (1.14)
The sum of two simple harmonic motions of same frequency, but with some phase difference,
is also a simple harmonic motion of the same frequency. Expanding the second term of
Eq. (1.14),
x = X1 sin wt + X2 (sin wt cos 0 + cos wt sin 0)
Therefore x = (X1 + X2 cos 0) sin wt + (X2 sin 0) cos wt (1.15)
Letting (X1 + X2 cos 0) = X cos a and X2 sin 0 = X sin a and substituting in Eq. (1.15),
we have
x = X sin (wt + a) (1.16)
where X = J(X1 + X2 cos 0)2 + (X2 sin 0)2
or X = VX? + ,q + 2Xi X2 COS 0 (1.17)
X2 sin 0
and tan a =
X1 + X2 cos 0
This is explained graphically in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5 Addition of vectors.

EXAMPLE 1.3 A body is subjected to two harmonic motions as given below:
x1 = 15 sin cot + —
6j
ir
.X2 = 8 cos (cot + —
3j
What extra harmonic motion should be given to the body to bring it to static equilibrium?
Solution
Let the extra motion be x3 = X sin (cot + 0) so that
it ,r
Xi + X2 + X3 =15 sin (cot + — + 8 cos cot + — + X sin (cot + 0)
6j 3j
Expanding each term on the right side of above equation, we have
it . it _ it it 1
X1 + x2 + x3 = 15 [sin cot cos— + cos cot sin — + 6 COS
cos wt cos —sin cot sin —
6 6 3 3
+ X [sin wt cos 0 + cos cot sin 0]
For body to remain in static equilibrium, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0. Hence
it
X [sin cot cos 0 + cos cot sin 0] = —15 sin cot cos + cos cot sin
6 6
[. it it 1
—8 cos cot cos — —sin cot sin —
3 3
Note that the coefficients of sin cot and cos cot are in mutually perpendicular directions.
Therefore, comparing the coefficients of sin cot and cos cot terms separately, on either sides of
equal to sign, we have
it it
X COS 0 = — [15 COS --8 sin —1
6 3
and X sin 0 = — [15 sin — + 8 cos —

7"
6 3
Simplifying further, we get
23
X cos 0 = — 7 2 and X sin 0 = — —
2
Squaring and adding, we obtain
X2 = (11.5)2 + (6.062)2 =168.99
23
Also by division, tan 0 = — 1.897
7-V3
Hence X = 13 and 0 = 62.2° or 242.2° Ans.
1.6.2 Lissajous Figures: A case of harmonic motions directed along

perpendicular lines
The locus of a point, performing two co-planar synchronous (i.e. of same frequency)
vibrations in perpendicular directions is called Lissajous figure. Consider two rotating vectors
(also called phasors) corresponding to the two simple harmonic motions x and y in mutually
perpendicular directions. The two simple harmonic motions may be written as
x = X sin cot (1.18)
and y = Y sin (on + 0) (1.19)
Rearranging the equation for x, we have
x
= sin on (1.20)
X
The two rotating vectors rotate with the same angular velocity CO rad/s. The resultant
motion of the point is neither along the x-axis nor along the y-axis. The resultant motion is
decided by displacements x and y which, in turn, are obtained by the projections of these
rotating vectors along the respective axes. The resultant of these projections in different
locations of the rotating vectors, is a locus called Lissajous figure. In general, it is an ellipse.
Rearranging and expanding the right hand side of Eq. (1.19), we have
Y = sin an cos 0 + cos on sin 0 (1.21)
Y
Hence, using Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21), it can be shown that
( )2 2 ( \
jklcos0= sin 2 0 (1.22)

.)i) -qf j —21 (
The right hand side being constant, Eq. (1.22) is equation of an ellipse. Readers are advised to
verify this result for themselves. When 0 equals 0 or 7r, Eq. (1.22) reduces to the equation of
a straight line.
1.6.3 Beats Phenomenon
The sum of two harmonic motions of different frequencies is non-harmonic. This case is of
interest to us because it helps us to understand the Beats phenomenon. To establish the concept,
let us assume that the particle is subjected to two different harmonic motions of slightly
different frequencies. Let the two harmonic motions be represented as
x1 = a sin wi t and x2 = b sin wet
where a and b are the amplitudes of the two harmonic motions.
The resultant motion is given by
X =x1 +x2
i.e. x = a sin wi t + b sin wet

I Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
The principle of superposition is still valid; yet the resultant motion will not be harmonic
due to different frequencies. An interesting case arises when the two amplitudes are equal, but
the frequencies are very slightly different by, say, E.
Let C°2 = C°1 + E
Then the resultant motion x is given by
x = a{sin mi t + sin (Col + e)t)
E Et
or x = 2a sin(a)i + — t cos —
2, 2
where E << COI
Et E
Hence x = ( 2a cos — sin a)i + — t (1.23)
2 j 2,
This shows that the resultant motion may be considered to be a sine wave with amplitude and
frequency given by
Et E
X = 2a cos— and a) = a)i + —
2 2
Note that the frequency co of the resultant motion is very slightly different from the
frequency ml . Remembering that the amplitude in a cycle denotes the maximum possible
displacement in that cycle, it follows from Eq. (1.23) that the amplitude of resultant motion
varies with time from cycle to cycle. It can be seen from Fig. 1.6 that the amplitude of the
envelop and hence that of the resultant motion, is maximum at the points C and D. Every time
the amplitude reaches its maximum value, there is said to be a beat. Such a phenomenon is
observed when two unbalanced rotors of two different machines, running with nearly equal
speeds, cause vibration in a structure. It can be verified from Fig. 1.6 that the period of beat is
half of the time period of the cosine wave that represents the envelop.
CO1
Fig. 1.6 Beats phenomenon.
Since the circular frequency of the envelop is e/2, the time period of the envelop is
4,r/e. Hence, the time period of beats is given by
1 ( 47z 211-
r = — - =- seconds
2 e, e
Substituting e = (col — co2), we get

21t
2= (1.24)
C°1 — C°2
EXAMPLE 1.4 A body is subjected to two simultaneous motions given by the equations
x1 = 2.5 sin 18t
and x2 = 2.5 sin 18.5t,
the units being centimetres, radians and second. Find the time period of the beats and the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the combined motion.
Solution
It follows from the discussions on 'beats' that the maximum amplitude of resultant motion is
X = 2.5 + 2.5 = 5.0 Ans.
while the minimum amplitude of resultant motion is
X' = 2.5 — 2.5 = 0 Ans.
The beat frequency is given by
w= (Di — cot= 18.5 — 18
Hence w = 0.5 rad/s
Thus, the time period of the beats is given by
2 rc
T = — = 4,r = 12.57 s Ans.
0.5
1.7 WORK DONE BY A HARMONIC FORCE ON A HARMONIC

MOTION
The concept of work done by a harmonic force on a harmonic motion is important to us
because it helps us to understand the phenomenon of resonance more clearly. Let us assume
that a harmonic force F acts on a mass of a spring-mass-dashpot system. It will be shown in
Chapter 4 that this sets the body in simple harmonic motion of the same frequency but with
some phase lag. Let the harmonic force and the motion caused thereby be expressed as
F = F0 sin wt (1.25)
and x = X0 sin (tot — 0) (1.26)
The elemental work done by the force in causing an elemental motion 'dx' is given by
dw = F dx
which may also be expressed as
dw = F dt
dt ,
r
$ Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
The work done over a period of time 0 to t seconds will be obtained by integrating the
above expression. Thus
w f F (dx
dt (1.27)
o dt j
But the velocity dx/dt = coXo cos (on — 0). Therefore, substituting for F and dx/dt in Eq. (1.27)
and remembering that CO and amplitudes of force/displacement are time invariant, we have
t
W = Fooao f sin on cos (on — 0) dt (1.28)
o
t
or W = Fooao f (sin on) (cos on cos 0 + sin on sin 0)dt
0
t t
1 1
Thus W = — (Fooao ) f (cos 0 sin 2c0t)dt + — (Fo oao ) f sin 0 (1— cos 2c0t)dt (1.29)
2 o 2 o
For computing work done over a cycle, as angle 'on' varies from 0 to 27r, time t will
vary from 0 to (27c/m). Hence, for work done per cycle, Eq. (1.29) modifies to
27r/w 27r/w
1 1
W=—
2 (Fooao ) cos 0 f sin 2cot dt + — (Fo oao ) sin 0 f (1— cos 2cot)dt
o 2 o
1 2g
or W= — Fooao (0 + — sin 0
2 CO I
or W = gFo X0 sin 0 (1.30)
Thus, when the phase angle 0 is zero or any integer multiple of 7r, the work done per
cycle is zero. It may be verified from the discussion on 'forced harmonic vibration' in
Section 4.2 that the phase angle 0 is either zero or Jr radians when damping is absent. Thus, for
undamped vibrations, except at resonance where 0 = ,r/2, the work done per cycle is always
zero. As against this, at resonance where 0 = ,r/2, work done is maximum and equals 7rFo Xo.
This is quite logical as energy must be supplied to support continuous build-up of amplitude of
vibration at resonance. Again, it follows from the discussions on forced damped vibration that
phase angle 0 has a finite non-zero value which is smaller than 7r when damping is present and
frequency ratio r has a value > 0. For forced damped vibration 0 = ,r/2, at resonating
frequency, irrespective of magnitude of damping. We may conclude, therefore, that the
external force does maximum work only at resonating frequency. Stated in other words,
whenever the phase angle 0 = 90° (i.e. when the force vector is ahead of displacement vector
by 90°), the force vector is in phase with velocity vector and therefore, the work done by the
force is maximum.
EXAMPLE 1.5 A harmonic force Fo sin on acts on a displacement xo sin (on — ,r/3). If
Fo = 100 N, xo = 0.02 m and w = 27r rad/s,
find the work done during (a) the first cycle (b) the first second and (c) the first quarter
second.
(SGSITS: June 2001, June 2005)
Solution
The work done is given by

dx
W = f F (- dt
o dt i
where x = x0 sin (on — 7r/3).
Further, as dxldt = xoto cos (on — 7r/3), we have
t
It
W = Fo xoco f (sin cot) cos cot --dt
o 3j
1 Tr Tr
or W = — Foxoco f [sin (2cot -- + sin —1 dt
3j 3
Case (i) As CO = 2Tr and time period = 27r/m sec, the work done/cycle W is given by
t
1 1 it
W = - 000 X 2n x 0.02) — — cos(2on — — + t sin
2 20) 3j 3o
As t= 27r/27r = 1,
li•
cos (411. — — — cos 1.1
[ 3i 3
W = 211. +1
411.
Therefore W = 27r [— 0 + j/2] = 7r.\/ = 5.44 Nm Ans.

Case (ii) After 1 second, the limits of integration remain same as that in Case (i). Hence
W = 5.44 Nm Ans.
Case (iii) For the first quarter second, limits of integration become t= 0 to 1/4 sec. Hence
the expression for work done becomes
1 It It
W = 27c [— —{cos (It -- — cos —
411. 3, 3
1 g IN5
= — (2 cos +
2 3, 4
= 1.86 Nm. Ans.
1.8 PERIODIC, NON-HARMONIC EXCITATION: FOURIER SERIES

ANALYSIS
Forces arising out of machinery are usually periodic but, more often, non-harmonic in nature.
a Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Readers may recall that while a harmonic motion is necessarily periodic in nature, a periodic
motion need not necessarily be harmonic. A periodic motion may be the sum of two or more
harmonic functions. For instance, consider the periodic motion represented by
(A
x(t) = A sin CDC + — sing On (1.31)
2j
The periodic motion x(t) is thus obtained by superimposition of two component harmonic
motions: the first one of frequency CO and amplitude A and the second one of frequency 2w
and amplitude A/2. Readers must note that superimposition of components of motion is
permissible only when the differential equation of motion is linear. This is represented in
Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7 A periodic but non-harmonic function.
It follows from mathematical theory that a periodic function f(t) of frequency CO can be
split into a series of sine functions of frequencies CO, 2w, 3w, 4w and so on. Thus,
f(t) = Ao + A l sin (wt + 01 ) + A2 sin (2mt + 02 ) + A3 sin (Rot + 03 ) + ••• (1.32)
The amplitudes of component functions A1 , A2, A3, ... and the phase angles th (1)29
T I 9 -7-
03, ... can be evaluated analytically only when the function f(t) is known. The series in
Eq. (1.32) is known as Fourier series. The second term with frequency CO is called the
fundamental or first harmonic and the third term with frequency 2w is called the second
harmonic. In general, (n + 1)th term with frequency nw is called nth harmonic. The constant
term Ao denotes average height of the graph of the function f(t) against time t. It follows that
for a function f(t), which is symmetric about the time axis, the term Ao will be zero.
The nth harmonic term can be further split up in component form as
An sin (nwt + On) = An sin (nwt) cos On + An cos (nwt) sin On
Since the terms sin On and cos On involve phase angles and do not depend on time, they
may be clubbed with the constant terms to give new constants. The above expression,
therefore, reduces to
An sin (nwt + On) = an sin flux + bn cosnon (1.33)
Thus, substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4,..., etc. in Eq. (1.33), each harmonic term can be
obtained in component form and the function f(t) can then be expressed by a series of sine and
cosine terms. Thus
f(t) = a l sin an + a2sin 2an + a3sin Rot + • • • + bp + bi cos wt

+ b2COS 2 Olt + b3COS 3 Olt + • • • (1.34)
The constant 1)0 in Eq. (1.34) represents 'average height' of the curve representing the function
f(t). The Eq. (1.34) may be expressed in a compact form as
CXD
f(t)=b0 + 1,(an sin not + bn cos not)

n=1
In determining the coefficients, the following formulae are quite useful for non-zero
integer values of m and n.
271-10)
f
cos mot cos not dt = 0 for m # n and
o
Jr
= for m = n (1.35)
a)
27tko
f
sin mot sin not dt = 0 for m # n and
o
Jr
= for m = n (1.36)
a)
27tko
f
sin mot cos not dt = 0 for m # n and also for m = n (1.37)
o
1.9 EVALUATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF FOURIER'S SERIES
Consider the function f(t) to be a periodic, non-harmonic force and let it act on a point having
a harmonic motion with velocity v given by
dx
— = sin nag
dt
Let the function f(t) consists of all the harmonic terms appearing in Eq. (1.34). Consider
contribution to work done from each of the component terms in the function f(t). The work
done is given by
(
dt
W = f f(t)Wit,
Assuming f(t) to be given by Eq. (1.34) and substituting for velocity dx/dt and f(t), the
work done over a cycle is given by
27tko
W = f (a1 sin an + a2 sin 2ot + • • • + bo + b1 cos of + b2 cos2cot + • • .) sin not dt
o
In the above equation for work done per cycle, integration of all the product terms
vanish except for the product term an sin ncot sin ncot.
Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Thus, the work done per cycle is given by

27tko
W = f an sin nag sin nag dt
o
Jr
or W = an —
a)
Clearly, the only force component that does work in one cycle is
an sin nog
For any periodic function f(t), therefore
271-ko
It
an ( — = f f (t) sin nest dt
ca J o
2g/co
ca
Thus an = — f f (t) sin nest dt (1.38)
It o
By putting different values of n as 1, 2, 3,..., etc., the coefficients a l , a2, a3 , ...

respectively may be evaluated from Eq. (1.38). To evaluate the coefficients bn(n = 1, 2,
3, ...), let the force fit) acts on a particle subjected to a velocity of cos nOlt. Then, the work
done per cycle is given by
2g/co
W= f f (t) cos nest dt
o
27tko
or W = f (a1 sin cat + a2 sin 2cat + • • • + bo + b1 cos cat + b2 cos2cat + • • .) cos nag dt
o
It follows from Eq. (1.37) that integration of all the product terms of the form (sin man
cos nalt) vanishes for all values of m and n. But integration of all the product terms of the
form (cos man cos nwt) vanishes for values of m # n and equals is/to for values of m = n.
Hence, the work done over a cycle is
Tr
W = bn(—
0) j
271.10)
Tr
Therefore bn (— = f f(t) cos (nest) dt
ca J o
2g/co
ca
or bn = — f f (t) cos (nest) dt (1.39)
Tr 0
To evaluate the coefficient b0, assume the forcing function f(t) to act on a unit velocity.
Then, the work done per cycle by f(t) is
2g/co
W= f f (t) dt
0
27rko
or W= f (a1 sin cat + a2 sin 2cat + • • • + 1)0 + b1 cos cat + b2 cos 2cat + • • .) dt
o
Taken over a cycle, integration of any sine or cosine term is always zero. Therefore
, 2r
W = 0 + no (—
0) j
( 2,11. 271-/w
Therefore bo ca = f f (t) dt
j
o
271-10.)
ca
or b0 = — j f (t) dt (1.40)
211. 0
Thus, the coefficients b0, an and bn are given by
27rko
)
b0 = c f f (t) dt
211. 0
271-ko
co
an =— f f (t) sin ncat dt
It o
271-10)
ca r
bn = — j f (t) cos nwt dt
Tr o
Thus, the work done by a periodic but non-harmonic force of frequency CO, acting upon
a harmonic velocity of frequency nw, is merely the work contribution of the component of
nth harmonic of that force, which is in phase with the velocity. The coefficients an, bn and b0
can be established for any periodic but non-harmonic function f(t) when the function is known
analytically. If the function f(t) is known graphically, but no analytical expression is available,
some approximate numerical method for calculating the above integrals should be used.
EXAMPLE 1.6 Consider a periodic 'square top' wave of Fig. 1.8 having the values
f(t) = F0 = constant, for period 0 < an < 7r,
= — F0 = constant, for period 7r < an < 27r
Represent this as a superposition of component harmonic motions.
(SGSITS: Aug. 1998, Feb. 2002)
Solution
Since the function f(t) has different values in the two halves of the cycle, the integrals
appearing in the expressions for coefficients b0, bn and an should also be split in two parts with
appropriate limits of integration. Thus
[7r/ 2g/co
co rw
1)0 = — j F0 dt + f (—F0 ) dt
211. 0 raw
F.
F0
x 2,7r
. tot
-F0
Fig. 1.8 Periodic square top wave.
L OW0 [(00 lc° _ (0 2,7r1 col

or b0 = gm)
211-
coF0 V —( 11' j =u
,
Therefore bo = —1
211. —co j co
(0F0 xlw ow \27r/(0

an = f sin ncot dt I f sin ncot dt
It o It i 71-10)
coF0 [
or an = — (cos ncot)0vw 271-(0 1
— (cos ncot),",
nom
Thus an = — t [(cos nor— cos 0)— (cos 2n.ir — cos n.lr)]

ng
For even values of n,
cos 2n7c = cos nir = cos 0 = 1
and hence an = 0. Also, for odd values of n,
cos rig = —1 and cos 2n7c = cos 0 = 1
4F0
and therefore, an =
n2r
co glw ,,271-10)
b„ =Fo f cos 'mt dt + f (—F0 ) cos 'mot dt
It o It rivw
coF
Thus [(sin noH)ork° — (sin ncot),r2L/rD 1
b„= gno0)
or bn = —
F° { (sin nit — sin 0) - (sin 2ng - sin nit))
itn
Therefore, b„ = 0 for all even and odd values of n.
Hence, the Fourier series is
1 1
4F° sin of + - sin mat + - sin 507t + • • •
f (t) = — Ans.
nit 3 5
EXAMPLE 1.7 Find the Fourier series expansion for a forcing function, expressed by a
half-sine wave
(.0t
P = Po sin —
2,
during the time interval 0 < wt < 27r and is repetitive from thereon.
(SGSITS: Feb. 1999, Aug. 2000)
Solution
co271-10)
f . cot .
an =— Po sin — sin not dt
g o 2
Making use of the relation sin A sin B = (1/2) [cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)], we have
,,D 27C/CO \
of ,
an = '10 f
cos not — — — cos not + — l dt
2r 2, 2,
12ir/w 27r/co
amp { 2 [ (2n -1)0H 2 ( 2n +1)0H
or an = sin [sin
- 2r (2n -1)(0 2 0 (2n +1)0) 2 10
Thus, an = 0 for all even and odd values of n.

271-/w 0)t
Also bn = — f Po sin (— cos not dt
0
2
From trigonometry, sin A cos B = (1/2) [sin (A - B) + sin (A + B)]
1
A
un =(1)13
— 0 211 ; 1
n cot+ sin- + n of dt
21t 0
2 2
Integrating, we have
127r/w 27r/m'
27r
P { 2 (1 [ 2 [ 1
bn = "n cos n of COS(— +n of
211' 1- 2n 2 0 1+ 2n 2
Remembering that (2n + 1) and (2n — 1) are always odd for integer values of n,
bn=[ —11 (1 +[ -11 ( 1 1)

- 2n)n. (1+2n)n-
2P0 2P0 ]_ 4P0

Thus
bn — [(1 — 2n)n-+ (1+2n)n- (1-4n2 )n-
2g/co
o) r cot
Also bo = — i Po sin — dt
27t- o 2
:127r I co
(0
Thus bo = P0°) — j[—cos(-
27t 2t
Pn 2P0
or b0 =—= (-1-1)=
71- 71-
Hence, the Fourier series expansion is
f(t)= 21313 413° icos ncot Ans.

71- L - 4n2 )7t-
EXAMPLE 1.8 Saw-tooth periodic motion of a follower, operated by a cam, is given in

Fig. 1.9. Represent the motion by a harmonic series, if the cam rotates uniformly at 60 rpm
and the total lift of follower is 25 mm.
(SGSITS: Nov. 2001, Nov. 2003)
2
Fig. 1.9 Saw-tooth periodic function.
Solution
The equation of motion is
25
x= — t for 0 < t <
(r
Excitation frequency = (60/60) = 1 cps
Hence I- = 1 s.
( r 2 1
, 25 (t 25 t
00 =—1— c/t = ,
,
1" 0 1" J
'1" i '-' JO
Therefore b0 = 25/2
25 T
an = 2 (— f t sin tic& dt
1" i 0
1
sin no)t t cos no)t = —25
or an = 50
(no)) 2 no) o
nn-
2
bn = 2,( 25 t cos no)t dt
lr )o
f
1
cos tic& t sin no)t
or bn= 50 =0
(no))2 no)
o
25
Therefore x = 12.5 — I sin 2nirt Ans.
n =1 ng
EXAMPLE 1.9 Consider the harmonic motions x1 = cos (,r/2)t and x2 = (1/2) sin irt. Is the
sum (x1 + x2) in this case a periodic motion? If yes, what is the time period?
Solution
The time period of the first motion = (27r)/(7r/2) = 4 s and
the time period of the second motion = (27r)/(g) = 2 s.
Thus, the time period of the first motion is twice the time period of the second motion.
This shows that in 4 seconds, one cycle of the first motion is completed while during the same
time interval, two cycles of the second motion are completed. Since in the next time interval
of 4 seconds, the same thing is going to repeat, the combined motion is periodic. The smallest
time period of 4 seconds, during which the integer number of cycles of both the motions are
completed, gives the time period of combined motion.
It is concluded that the smallest common multiple of the two individual time periods,
4 seconds, gives the time period r. Ans.
EXAMPLE 1.10 A periodic motion observed on oscilloscope is as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Represent this motion by a harmonic series.
(SGSITS: Jan. 1997)
Solution
The Fourier coefficients will be established by considering the function f(t) in two separate
ranges. Thus, the slope of the line OA is 20 (=1/0.05), and the slope of the line BA is —20
(= —1/0.05). Hence, the equation of the line segments OA and AB are:
x = 20 t for 0 t 0.05
and x = —20 t+ 2 for 0.05 <_ t<_ 0.1
sec.
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.2
Fig. 1.10 Triangular periodic function.
Also,
2g 2g
(.0 = — = — = zu 7r rad/s
r 0.1
Hence (o)/27r) = 10
The Fourier's constants are evaluated as follows:
1/20 1/10
bo =10 f 20 tdt+10 f (-20 t+ 2)dt
0 1/20
Therefore b0 = 100(0.052 — 0) + 10 [-10(0.12 — 0.052 ) + 2(0.1 — 0.05)]

or 1)0 = 0.25 — 0.75 + 1 = 0.5
1/20 1/10
an = 20 f 20 t sin /mot dt + 20 f (-20t + 2) sin nwt dt
0 1/20
0.05 i0.05
, sin tic& t cos tic&
Now f t sin ricot at =
(n(0)2 no)
o o
0.1 i0.1 i0.1

sin nCOt t cos nCOt cos nCOt
Also f (-20t + z) sin ncot dt = — 20 +2
0.05 (nC0)2 nC0 [ no) -0.05
0.05
Simplifying an = 0
0.05 0.1
bn = 20 f 20 t cos ncot dt + 20 f (-20 t + 2) cos nwt dt
0 0.05
i
0.05 i
0.1
cos 20 ngt t sin 20 ngt cos 20 ngt t sin 20 ngt
or bn = 400 , + 400 , +
(20 ngY 20 ng (20 ngY 20 n g
0 0.05
III
sin 20 flirt
+ 40
20 nit 0.05
Hence bn = 0 when n is even. Also, when n is odd, we have
4
bn = 400 [ —2 , 400 2 , =
(20 n7tr (207170` 1 (n702
Hence, the Fourier series is
4 (cos 607rt ( cos 100771

x(t) = 5 — —2 cos 20gt + 2 52 + Ans.
g 3 /
EXAMPLE 1.11 In a rectilinear motion of a point, the acceleration amplitude is given by

a = —9X, where X is the displacement of S.H.M. If the amplitude of displacement is 2 cm, find
(a) the time period and frequency and (b) displacement, velocity and acceleration after
21 seconds.
Solution
The acceleration amplitude in S.H.M. is given by —co2X.
But —w2X = —9 X
Hence, w2 = 9 and therefore w = 3 rad/s.
Therefore, time period I- = 27c/3 = 2.09 s Ans.
and frequency f = ltr = 0.478 cps Ans.
With displacement amplitude of X = 2 cm, the expressions for displacement, velocity and
acceleration become:
x = 2 sin 3 t, velocity = 2 • 3 cos 3t and
acceleration = —2 • 32 sin 3 t
Substituting t = 21 s
x = 0.334 cm, velocity = 5.915 cm/s and acceleration = —3.012 cm/s2 Ans.
1.10 MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Physical systems are, in general, very complex and difficult to analyse. Quite often, they
consist of a large number of components that act as a single entity. An analysis of such a
system requires that the various components be identified first and then, physical properties be
ascribed to them. These properties, which govern their dynamic response (i.e. behaviour), are
generally established experimentally. Once the characteristics of every individual component
are known, a mathematical model can be constructed which represents an idealization of the
given physical system. A number of mathematical models are possible for a given physical
system. A model that is simplest and still retains the essential features of the given system
becomes an easy choice in all such cases.
1.11 ELEMENTS OF A VIBRATORY SYSTEM

The idealized elements of a vibratory system are:
1. The mass m
2. The spring having stiffness k
3. The damper or dashpot having coefficient c and
4. The excitation element F(t), which is a function of time
The first three elements are called inactive or passive elements. This is because these
elements participate in vibratory motion, but can't have a positive control on vibrations. The
fourth element, namely the excitation element, is an active element through which energy is
supplied to the vibratory system. The mathematics involved in the treatment of the subject
becomes simplified if the passive elements are assumed to be invariant with time. Unless
otherwise mentioned specifically, this assumption will be followed all throughout the text.
Excitation element represents the source through which the energy flows into the physical
system. The role of the passive elements, the spring and the mass, is to store energy while that
of damper is to dissipate out the same in the form of heat. The first three elements describe the
physical system and therefore, they are called parameters descriptive of the system. The fourth
element, namely the excitation element, is applied externally to the system. Figure 1.11 shows
a typical one degree of freedom mathematical model of some physical system. The mass is
assumed to be a rigid element which executes vibration. The mass gains or loss kinetic energy
Fig. 1.11 Elements of a vibratory system.
depending on changes in velocity. The spring element is assumed to be elastic but of negligible
mass. A force in spring exists only when there is a relative displacement between the two ends
of the spring. The work done in deforming the spring is stored in spring in the form of elastic
strain energy. The roles of elastic strain energy and potential energy are similar. In fact, it is
the continuous conversion from kinetic energy to potential/elastic strain energy and vice-versa,
which enables the body to execute vibrations. Unless otherwise stated, a spring is taken to
mean a linear spring. A linear spring is one in which the force is linearly proportional to the
elastic deformations in it. The constant of proportionality k is called spring stiffness/constant
and is expressed as force per unit deformation (N/m). The damping element is assumed to have
neither the mass nor the elasticity. For damping force to exist, there must be relative motion
between the two ends of the dashpot. Unless otherwise mentioned, the damping element is
assumed to be of viscous type. In viscous type of damping, the damping force is assumed to be
proportional to the relative velocity between the two ends of a damper. The constant of
proportionality is called the damping coefficient c, which is expressed as force per unit
velocity (N-sec/m). This is the most preferred type of damping as it provides linear damping.
A damper of this type consists of a piston that fits loosely in a cylinder filled with oil or water.
The viscous fluid is, thus, free to flow around the piston inside the cylinder.
In engineering practice, we come across many other types of damping and most of them
are non-linear. Examples of this type are:
1. The frictional drag force of a body, moving in fluid, which is approximately
proportional to the velocity squared.
2. Coulomb or dry friction damping in which the force of friction depends not only on
the normal force but also on the materials in contact.
3. Solid or structural damping is due to the internal friction of the molecules and the
mechanical hysteresis loop formed by loading and unloading curves of stress v/s
strain diagram of vibrating body. The area of the loop represents energy dissipated
per cycle per unit volume and the size of the loop depends on material of body,
frequency and the value of the dynamic stress.
4. Slip/interfacial damping occurs due to microscopic slip at the interfaces of machine
components having common contact surfaces, when subjected to fluctuating loads.
The most common example is that of interfacial slip between the leaves of a leaf
spring. The amount of energy dissipated in damping depends on the roughness of
mating surfaces, contact pressure and amplitude of vibration.
1.12 LUMPED/DISCRETE PARAMETER AND CONTINUOUS/

DISTRIBUTED PARAMETER SYSTEMS
Parameters of a physical system refer to properties or characteristics of the system. When the
characteristics of every individual component of a physical system are known, the next step in
analysis is to construct a mathematical model. It is essential that the constructed mathematical
model truly represents an idealization of the actual physical system. For a given physical
system, a number of mathematical models can be constructed. Our obvious choice is for that
model which is simplest and still retains the essential features of the actual physical system. In
general, most of the real systems are continuous and have distributed parameters. However, in
many cases, it is possible to replace such a system by a discrete (lumped) parameter system
without causing appreciable error. This simplifies the analysis part of the vibration problem to
a great extent. In the lumped parameter system approach, the parameters, namely the mass,
spring and damper, are assumed to be lumped together at certain discrete points. To be more
specific, the entire mass is assumed to be distributed at a finite number of discrete points which
are connected together through finite number of springs and dampers. Applied forces will act
as discrete point forces at the masses. In continuous system, on the other hand, the parameters
are assumed to be distributed continuously along the member.
The type of mathematical model assumed is of fundamental importance in the analysis as
it dictates the mathematical formulation. For instance, the behaviour of lumped parameter
system is described by ordinary differential equations while in the case of continuous system
assumption, the behaviour is described by partial differential equations. Readers may recall
that solution of partial differential equation is much more involved than the solution of
ordinary differential equation and at times, may require numerical methods to solve the
problems. Though the two mathematical models require appreciably different treatment, an
intimate relation exists between them so long as the models represent the same physical system.
The difference is, therefore, more apparent than real. Lumped parameter models have a finite
number of degrees of freedom, while the distributed parameter models possess an infinite
number of degrees of freedom. The degree of freedom, it may be recalled, is defined as the
minimum number of independent parameters essential to describe the motion of the system
completely.
In quite a few cases, the mass and stiffness distributions are highly non-uniform. In all
such cases, it may be desirable to construct lumped parameter models consisting of finite
number of mass and spring elements. For instance, consider the shaft with non-uniform section
shown in Fig. 1.12(a). Let the shaft have a torsional stiffness of GJ(x) and mass moment of
inertia of 1(x) at any arbitrary section distant x from the left hand support. In Fig. 1.12 (b), the
equivalent discrete model is obtained by dividing actual shaft in eight segments. The mass
associated with each segment is next lumped into each of the eight rigid discs of mass moment
of inertia /1 through h. These discs are connected together and also to the support by nine
massless shafts of torsional rigidity GJi (i = 1, 2, 3,..., 9). The values of individual mass
moments of inertia /1 through /8 and torsional rigidity GJi through GJ9 must be so chosen as
to simulate the continuous model as closely as possible. The original problem is thus converted
into an equivalent problem of eight degrees of freedom.
1- X X GJ(x); 1(x)
14 15
11 .12 16 17 18
a 1I _G.12 GJ 3 GJ8 _GJ9
(a) A shaft with non-uniform section (a) The equivalent discrete model
Fig. 1.12
Thus, for a given vibration problem of continuous type, it is always possible to construct
an equivalent lumped parameter model of n degrees of freedom. The larger the n, the better is
the approximation to real problem and at the same time, larger is the computational time.
1.13 LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR VIBRATING SYSTEMS

Yet another way of classifying vibrating systems is based on their behaviour. Accordingly, the
vibrating system may be classified as a linear or non-linear system. For a given system, this
may be done by mere inspection of the differential equation of motion. If the dependent
variables and their derivatives appear to the first power only and when there are no cross
products thereof, the system can be considered to be a linear. As against this, when the
dependent variables and their derivatives appear to the power other than one (this includes a
fraction or even zero), the system is considered to be a non-linear. An example of a non-linear
system can be seen in the case of vibration with dry friction damping. The equation of motion
in the above case involves a constant term F (as force of damping) in place of a term involving
first time derivative of displacement x. Mathematically, this can be expressed as F times
(dx/dt)°. The system may, therefore, be called as non-linear. The same thing will happen if in
place of a linear spring, a non-linearly elastic [e.g. Fs = k(xn), where n # 1] spring is assumed
in the mathematical model.
Many times, the decision of classifying a given system into linear or non-linear class
depends on the range of operation, rather than on the inherent property of the system. For
instance, in the case of a simple pendulum of length L, the restoring couple is given by
mgL sin 0. Since the expansion of sin 0 involves 0 and its higher powers, the term sin 0 can be
approximated by 0 (and the resulting equation of motion will become linear) only when 0 is
small. Hence, a simple pendulum constitutes a linear vibratory system only when 0, the angle
of oscillation, is small (of the order of 5-6 degrees or so).
For linear vibratory system, the principle of superposition holds and simultaneously, the
mathematical techniques available for their treatment are well developed. The concept is useful
as it helps us to extend our discussion on harmonic excitation to that on a general periodic
excitation. Consider, for instance, the periodic excitation force of the type:
1
F(t) = F0 sin wt + —
2 Fo sin 2mt (1.41)
The resulting motion of a spring mass-dashpot system, subjected to the above excitation
force can be thought of as a linear combination of individual motions obtained separately due
to each of the two components of force F(t).
1.14 EQUIVALENT SPRINGS AND DASHPOTS

Spring mass models contain springs and dashpots in various combinations. They may be placed
in series or parallel with respect to one another. Quite often, it becomes necessary to determine
equivalent spring stiffness for the combination under consideration. The equivalent stiffness
depends on arrangement of springs, namely in series or parallel.
Springs in series: Two or more springs are said to be in series if they share a common load
and when the total deflection of the spring combination is the sum total of individual
deflections. Consider two linear springs of stiffnesses k1 and k2 arranged in series as shown in
Fig. 1.13. With load W supported at the lower end of spring 2 and the combination of the
springs supported from ceiling as shown, spring 2 must transfer common load W to the spring
1, so that the load W is finally transmitted to the support.
Let the individual static deflections in springs of stiffnesses k1 and k2, under the same
axial load W be Axi and 0x2, respectively. Then, the total static deflection Ax is given by
Ox = Ox1 + 0x2 (1.42)
Fig. 1.13 Springs in series.
Dividing each term of Eq. (1.42) by common load W, we get
,6..r = Axi 0x22

(1.43)
WW+W
Since stiffness is defined as the load per unit deflection, the above expression may be
rewritten as
1 1 1
' — k1 ± k2
— (1.44)
keg
Springs in parallel: Springs are said to be in parallel when all the springs in a given
combination suffer common deflection Ax and total load supported is the sum total of the
individual loads shared by each spring (Fig. 1.14).
Fig. 1.14 Springs in parallel.
Let W1 and W2 be the loads shared by springs of respective stiffnesses k1, k2. Then
W = Wi + W2 (1.45)
Dividing each term of the above expression by common deflection Ax, we have
W = W1 ± W2 (1.46)
Ox Ox Ox
From the definition of the term stiffness, therefore

keg = k1 + k2 (1.47)
Dampers in series: Just as springs are used in series, dampers can also be used in series.
Figure 1.15 shows two dampers arranged in series. Since the mass is connected to the support
through the two dampers, the same force must be transmitted through each. Thus, the damping
force in each of the dampers is same as the total force transmitted through the dampers. Hence
F=F1 = F2
Fig. 1.15 Dampers in series.
Again, if x1 and x2 are the relative displacements between the two ends of dampers 1 and
2, respectively, the total displacement between the mass and the support will be x1 + x2.
Further, as the velocity is the first time derivative of displacement, the total relative
velocity between the mass and the support is
=
Dividing each term of the above expression by respective damping force, we get
=
F F1 F2
1 1 1
or = (1.48)
Ceq C1 C2
Dampers in parallel: Figure 1.16 shows two dampers and a spring in parallel. When the
mass is constrained to have only the rectilinear motion up and down, the displacements in the
two dampers as also in the spring is same. Hence, the relative velocity between the two ends of
each of the two dampers is same. Thus
i = ii = .i2
Fig. 1.16 Dampers in parallel.
Further, the total damping force will be the sum total of the individual damping forces
F1 and F2 in dampers 1 and 2. Thus
F = F1 + F2
Dividing the terms in the above expression by respective velocities, we have
F=
— F1+
— F2
—
.k •kl x2
Hence, from the definition of damping coefficient,

Ceq = Cl + C2 (1.49)
EXAMPLE 1.12 A mass m is suspended from a spring system as shown in Fig. 1.17. Obtain
an equivalent spring-mass system with single spring and mass. Given that k2 = k3 = 250 N/m
and k1 = 500 N/m. Comment on the physical significance of series and parallel arrangements
of springs.
Fig. 1.17 Combined series and parallel springs.

Solution
Springs k2 and k3 are in parallel and their equivalent spring stiffness is

k = k2 + k3 = 250 + 250
= 500 N/m
Again the spring k is in series with the spring of stiffness k1 . Hence, their equivalent stiffness
k' is given by
1 1 1
—=——
k' k k1
1 1 1 1
or = =
k' 500 500 250
or k' = 250 N/m Ans.

It is seen that arrangement of springs in parallel helps to increase the stiffness. Stated in
other words, arrangement of springs in parallel tends to increase the load required to produce
unit deflection or spring is rendered harder. As against this, when the springs are arranged in
series, it helps to reduce the stiffness to a value lower than the lowest stiffness of the
component springs. In other words, the resulting equivalent spring requires lower load to
produce unit deflection, i.e. the spring becomes softer.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.1 The motion of a particle is represented by the equation x = 8 sin an. Find the relative
positions and magnitudes of the displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors at
time t = 0, for a case in which (a) CO = 2.5 rad/s and (b) w = 0.5 rad/s.
1.2 A harmonic motion is expressed as x = 12 sin (15 irt — 7r/3), where x is measured in
mm, t in seconds and the phase angle in radians. Determine:
(a) the frequency and the period of motion
(b) the maximum displacement, velocity and acceleration
(c) the displacement, velocity and acceleration at t = 0 and at t = 0.2 s.
1.3 A harmonic motion has an amplitude of 6 cm and a frequency of 20 Hz. Find the
time period, maximum velocity and maximum acceleration.
1.4 Add the vectors: x1 = 4 cos (on + 10°) and x2 = 6 sin (on + 60°) analytically. Check
your result graphically.
1.5 Find the resultant amplitude of the sum of the two harmonic motions:
x1 = 3 cos (2t +1) and x2 = 6 cos (2t + 1.5).
1.6 Show that the resultant motion of the three harmonic motions x1 = a sin an,
x2 = a sin (on + 2,r/3) and x3 = a sin (on + 47r/3) is zero.
1.7 The frequency of vibration of a machine is 150 Hz. If the amplitude of vibration is
0.8 mm, determine the acceleration in (a) m/s2 and (b) in terms of g. (Hint: For
determining acceleration in terms of g, divide the acceleration in m/s2 by 9.81.)
1.8 Measurements of vibration made on a machine with displacement pick-up indicate
displacement amplitude of 0.1 mm at 400 Hz frequency. Determine the average, rms
and peak-to-peak values of velocity and acceleration amplitudes.
1.9 Vibrations of a compressor mounted on isolators were measured with accelerometer.
The record shows an rms value of acceleration of 4 g. The frequency of vibration of
compressor was found to be 1.5 kHz. Determine amplitudes of displacement and
velocity. Also determine their average and peak-to-peak values.
1.10 Let x1 and x2 be two harmonic motions of periods T1 and T2, respectively. Show that
the resultant motion x1 + x2 will be periodic only if two integers m and n could be
found such that:
mT1 = nT2 = T(say).
1.11 Consider two motions in perpendicular directions given by x = 2 cos cot and
y = 3 cos 2cot. Determine the resultant motion. Check that the Lissajous figure so
obtained is not symmetric.
1.12 A force F0 sin cot acts on a displacement x0 sin (wt — ,r/6), where F0 = 25 N,
x0 = 0.05 m and w = 20 7r rad/s.
What is the work done during (a) the first second and (b) the first 1/40 second?
(SGSITS: June 1994)
1.13 Represent the periodic motion given in Fig. 1.18 by a harmonic series and show that
it is given by
4 ;-,
** 1 .
x =- L - sin 10 n7rt
g n=1 n
2.0 cm
—2.0 cm
Fig. 1.18
(SGSITS: Oct. 2004)

1.14 Show that the Fourier series for the triangular waveform, shown in Fig. 1.19 is
given by
1 4 1 1
x(t) = — + — cos col t + — 2 cos 30)it 2 cos 50)it + • • •
+ —
2 7/-2 3 5
1.0 cm
cot
0 Jr 2n 3n 47c
Fig. 1.19
(SGSITS: Aug. 1994)

1.15 Represent the periodic motion given in Fig. 1.20 by a harmonic series and show that
it is given by
82 1 1
f (t) = — sin cot — T
2 sin 3cot + — 2 sin 5cot + • • •
71- 5
cot
Fig. 1.20 Periodic motion for harmonic analysis.
1.16 A forcing function f(t) is described as:

r
f(t) = sin wt for 0 < t < —
2
r
and f(t) = 0 for — < t < I"
2
Determine the Fourier series expansion.
Undamped Free Vibrations
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 1, it was shown that any physical system can be approximated by discrete
mathematical model of finite degrees of freedom. Single degree of freedom linear system,
described by a second-order ordinary differential equation of motion, is the simplest one of all.
This represents a very crude approximation for a generally more complex dynamic system. This
model is, however, of great importance in developing concept of natural frequency of vibration.
Primarily, we intend to study the behaviour of systems subjected to a given excitation.
`Behaviour' of the system is represented by the characteristics of motion and is referred to as the
system response. By motion characteristics, we generally mean displacements. In relatively few
cases, however, velocity and acceleration do constitute important motion characteristics.
External excitations can be either in the form of initial displacements and velocities or in
the form of some external force. The term free vibration refers to the response of a system
subjected to initial disturbance, the excitation being withdrawn once the vibrations are
initiated. Under free vibrations, the system oscillates at one or more of its natural frequencies
under the action of forces inherent in the system itself. As against this, the response of the
system, subjected to externally applied excitation force, is referred to as forced vibration. If
the excitation force is oscillatory in nature, the system is forced to vibrate at the excitation
frequency. Resonating conditions are said to prevail when the excitation frequency coincides
with one of the natural frequencies of the system. Under resonating conditions, dangerously
large amplitudes of vibration are encountered. Resonance is one of the main causes of failures
of major structures, wings of aircraft, etc. Thus, the concept of natural frequency and its
calculation constitutes an important part of the subject.
2.2 DERIVATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF MOTION
2.2.1 The Energy Method
A vibrating system is said to be conservative if damper and external excitations are absent
36
Undamped Free Vibrations 37
from the system. For such a system, the total energy level remains constant at each and every
time interval. When a conservative system is set into oscillatory motion, the mechanical energy
is partly kinetic and partly potential. The kinetic energy T is stored in mass due to its velocity,
whereas the potential energy U is stored in the form of strain energy of spring by virtue of its
elastic deformation. In few cases, potential energy is in the form of work done in a force field
such as gravity. The total mechanical energy being constant, the rate of change of total energy
is zero. Thus
T + U = constant (2.1)
d
— (T +U)=0 (2.2)
dt
This is the underlying principle of energy method, for obtaining natural frequency of a
conservative system. To derive the differential equation of motion for the spring-mass system
of Fig. 2.1(a), assume that the displacement x(t) of the mass m is measured from the static
equilibrium position 0-0, obtained by the mass m consequent upon the elastic deformation in
the spring due to weight mg. Let us adopt the convention that the displacement x(t) of the mass
is positive when measured downwards from the static equilibrium position 0-0, which is the
reference line. By definition, the spring element is supposed to have negligible mass and as
such, does not contribute to the kinetic energy of the system. Thus, at a given instant, when the
mass has moved down through x from 0-0 line, kinetic energy in Newtonian notations is
1 2
T = — m(X) (2.3)
where X = velocity of the mass at the given time t.

Contribution to the energy term U is partly from loss of potential energy mgx by
lowering of mass m through x and partly from the elastic strain energy due to elongation of the
spring. Figure 2.1(b) shows spring force versus deflection diagram where Ast is the deflection
in the unstrained spring due to gravitational pull mg on the mass. Consider s to be the
instantaneous displacement of mass with respect to the static equilibrium position 0-0 and at
this position, let dw be the elemental work done required to cause a small elongation ds in the
Free length
ds
k (s + Ast) 141— Fs = ks
Asti— s 5 m
x
x
(a) Spring-mass system (b) Spring force versus deflection (c) Free body diagram of
diagram the mass
Fig. 2.1 Potential energy in the spring.

spring. As is clear from the figure, the total deflection produced in the unstrained spring is
(s + Ast) and the corresponding force in the spring is k (s + Ast). Hence, the elemental work
done is
dw = k (s + Ast)ds
Assuming the area under the force versus deflection diagram to consist of a large number
of such small strips of elemental widths ds, the total work done in deforming the spring from
s = 0 to x is given by
x
w = f{k(s + Ast)}ds
o
This is a work which is stored in the spring in the form of elastic strain energy.
However, as the mass moves down by x, it loses potential energy by an amount mgx. Hence,
the potential energy of the system is
U = f (ks + kAst) ds — mgx (2.4)

o
Further, as kAst = mg, Eq. (2.4) reduces to
1 2
U= kx (2.5)
2
Hence, the total energy in the conservative system is given by
.2 1 2
T+U=—mx +-kx (2.6)
2 2
Differentiating with respect to time and equating to zero for a conservative system, we have
1 .. 1
—m(2x)x +— k(2x).i= 0
2 2
or (m.'i + kx).i =0
For oscillating motion to exist, the velocity cannot be zero at all the time. Thus, as .i # 0
mi + kx= 0 (2.7)
Equation (2.7) is called differential equation of motion. It is a homogeneous, second-order,
ordinary differential equation of motion.
2.2.2 Method Based on Newton's Second Law of Motion
This method is quite important as it is equally effective for conservative as well as non-
conservative systems. Newton's second law of motion may be stated as follows:
"The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes place
in the direction in which the force acts'."
Mathematically, the law may be stated as
Rate of change of momentum = I(Forces in x-direction)
d I Fx
or dt (mi) _
Stated in other words (assuming mass to be invariant with time),
ml = I Fx (2.8)
The statement of Newton's second law implies that direction of the quantity 'rate of
change of momentum' will be obtained by the algebraic summation of all the forces in the
x-direction. It is more appropriate, therefore, to assume a positive direction for the quantity
`mass times acceleration' to begin with and let the solution to dictate the actual direction.
For the spring-mass system of Fig. 2.1(a), the free body diagram of the mass m is shown
in Fig. 2.1(c). To derive the differential equation of motion, let us choose the x-axis positive
downwards and adopt the convention that all the quantities like the force, velocity and
acceleration to be positive when acting downwards. Since the displacement x in Fig. 2.1(c) is
downwards, and the spring must oppose relative motion between the two ends, the spring force
is negative. There being no excitation or damping force, the only force on the right hand side
of Eq. (2.8) is the spring force. Therefore, Eq. (2.8) may be rewritten as
n'a = — kx
Hence, the differential equation of motion becomes
n'a + kx = 0 (2.9)
2.2.3 Rayleigh's Method

Since the sum of kinetic and potential energies is always constant, it follows from the energy
method that the potential energy is maximum when the kinetic energy is zero and conversely,
when the kinetic energy is maximum, the potential energy must be zero. As x = X sin cont, it
follows that
X= XCO, COS CO, t
Therefore
.i ma, = X 0J, and X max = X
Hence, from Umax = Tmax, we have
—
1 kX 2 = II (X0) )2
2 2
Thus 2 k
(on =
Ill
2.3 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF MOTION
The solution of differential equation of motion as in Eq. (2.9) is of concern to us since it leads
to the important concept of natural frequency. Dividing throughout by m, Eq. (2.9) becomes
k
x+ x= 0 (2.10)
m
This is a homogeneous second-order equation with constant coefficient and therefore, we may
assume a solution of the form
x = Cest
Substituting for x and its second derivative from above expression in Eq. (2.10),
( 2 k
s + Ce" =0
For vibrations to exist at all times, Ce' # 0 and therefore,
s2 + k = 0
k
or s=±j — , where j = Nig
Substituting the two values of s, the assumed solution for x becomes
x = Cl ei('`I klm)t ±C2e-i(m)t (2.11)
Using Euler's formula, Eq. (2.11) may be rewritten as
k k k (1c
x = C1 [
cos \I— t + j sin — t + C2 cos — t — j sin \I— t
\i \i
m I M I M I M I
/
k k
or x = (C1 + C2 ) cos — t + j(Ci — C2 ) sin —t
\'1m I \'1111 I
Since the displacement is a real quantity, the right hand side of the last equation must be
real. This is possible only when the arbitrary constants C1 and C2 are complex conjugate (i.e.
if C1 = a + jb and C2 = a — jb). For real x, therefore, the above expression may be written in
terms of new arbitrary constants A and B as
r
II( , k
x = A cos — t + D sin — t (2.12)
\m I .\jin I
Finally, letting A = X sin 0 and B = X cos 0, we have
x = X sin —t +0 (2.13)
[
where X = \I A2 + B2 is called the amplitude of vibration and 0 = tan-I (A/B) is termed as the
phase angle.
In Eq. (2.13), since the product of the term NIcn
I and time t has to be an angle in
radians, the units of the term NIcn
I must be in radians per second. It follows that the term
NIcn
I represents some frequency in radians per second. Since this corresponds to free
undamped vibrations, it is popularly known as natural frequency of vibration and designated
as con.
The solution in Eq. (2.12) is obtainable even by simple inspection. By rearranging the
differential equation of motion as
k
= — x
-,\Im
it follows that x must be a function whose second derivative is its own negative. It may be
noted that both the sine and cosine functions satisfy this condition. Hence, Eq. (2.13) could be
written straightaway by inspection.
The value of the amplitude X and phase angle 0 depend upon the initial conditions, but
the natural frequency con is independent of time. The mass may be set into vibration by pulling
it by a distance xo, by stretching the spring and then releasing it. Thus, at t = 0 and x = xo, the
Eq. (2.13) becomes
xo = X sin 0 (2.14)
Also, at t = 0, the velocity X at the time of releasing the mass is zero. Hence,
X = 0 = Xcon cos 0
and as con # 0,
X cos 0 = 0 (2.15)
Hence, squaring and adding on respective sides of Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15), we get
)C = xo
The velocity is given by
X = xolan cos (COat + 0)
At t = 0, when X = 0, the above equation yields

xo mn cos 0 = 0
Also, as mn # 0 and xo # 0, we have
n
COS 0 = 0 or 0= —
2
One might initiate the motion by releasing the mass with some initial velocity vo. Thus, at
t = 0, x = xo and velocity X = vo, the displacement and velocity equations give
xo = X sin (mnt + 0)
3$ Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
and vo = Xo7,, cos (cont + 0)

Hence, at t = 0, the above equations lead to
xo = X sin 0
vo
and = X cos 0
an
Squaring on either side and adding the above equations, we have
2 vo
X= Xo
n
xocon
and tan 0 =
vo
Hence, the equation of motion is
r 2
2 vo
X Xo sin (ant + 0)
n
For most of the systems, the natural frequency con is a constant as the spring stiffness k
and the mass m of the system do not change. In other words, natural frequency is inherent in
a system and a function of system parameters. Since one cycle of motion is completed in 27r
radians, the time period is given by
211.
= - = zit \l—
a&
As the stiffness of spring is defined as load per unit deflection (i.e. k = mg/8), the other way
of writing expression for natural frequency is
mg 17,
(2.16)
c°n= =\ —
(5
Thus, for a single degree of freedom system, the natural frequency is uniquely
determined by the static deflection. It may also be noted that the natural frequency is
independent of amplitude of oscillation and also independent of the initial conditions.
2.4 SYSTEMS INVOLVING ANGULAR OSCILLATIONS

Some of the vibratory systems may involve angular oscillations and may appear to be
different. Simple pendulum and torsional pendulum are some of the examples of this type. In
all such cases, the statement of Newton's law modifies to
Rate of change of angular momentum = I

Couples
The couples on the right hand side of the above statement consist of restoring couple due
to spring and is given by 09. By assuming mass moment of inertia I to be invariant with time,
the rate of change of angular momentum is given by I(d20/dt2). The differential equation of
motion then becomes
le = — kt O
or le + kt O =0 (2.17)
kt
Therefore (on = — rad/s
/
The case of a simple pendulum is elementary and yet quite interesting as it enables us to
understand many elementary aspects of vibratory motion. A simple pendulum consists of a
point mass m, concentrated in bob, that is carried at the end of a light inextensible string/ wire/
rod which is suspended from a pivot at the other end. Consider the position of the pendulum
when the rod/string is displaced through a small angle 0 from the vertical mean equilibrium
position. Let I be the length of the rod/string. Let us derive the differential equation of motion
for the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 2.2, using both Newton's law and the energy method.
Fig. 2.2 Simple pendulum.
Using energy method: In the given position, the bob is lifted through a distance of
/(1 — cos 0) with respect to its mean equilibrium position. Hence, the potential energy is
mgl(1 — cos 0). For an assumed angular velocity of 0, the kinetic energy is given by (1/2)102,
where I is the mass moment of inertia of the bob at the pivot point. Thus, if 4 be the moment
of inertia of the bob about its own centre of gravity, then by parallel axis theorem, the moment
of inertia about the pivot point will be given by (/G + m12). The bob being very small in size,
its own moment of inertia about centre of gravity is small in comparison to the quantity
m12 and neglected. Hence, the K.E. is given by
T = m/2 0 2
—
2
3C Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
The total energy equation is, therefore, given by
m/2 .2
0 + mg1(1— cos0)= C
Differentiating with respect to time, we get

(m120 + mgl sin 0)O = 0
Since O # 0 at all the time and sin 0 0 for small values of 0, the equation becomes
+ 0=0
1
which gives con =
Using Newton's law: The only external couple on the bob is the restoring couple (mg12) sin 0
and this becomes the right hand side of Newton's statement. Hence, the differential equation of
motion is
m129 = —mg10,
which on dividing by m/2 becomes
+ =0
This is the same as the equation obtained using the energy method.
TABLE 2.1 Analogy between rectilinear and rotational systems
Item Rectilinear system Rotational system

Symbol Unit Symbol Unit
Displacement x m 0 radians
Velocity 5c m/s B rad/s
Acceleration i m/s2 tj rad/s2
Inertia m kg I kg-m2
Effort (force/torque) Force = mi N Couple = M mN
Kinetic energy 1
T =— mx- 2 mkg 1 2
Tt = -10 mkg
2 2
Potential energy U =—1 kx 2 mkg Ut =—1 ktO 2 mkg
2
Spring constant k N/m 4 mNs/rad
Damping coefficient c N s/m cf mNrad
c= c c= c,
Damping factor
2,17n
1 2VU
rc kr
Natural frequency 0)n = — rad/s wn = rad/s
m /
Equation of motion mi + ci + la = F sin cot Ie + ctd + kt0 = T sin on
2.5 THE COMPOUND PENDULUM

A rigid body having angular oscillations about a point of suspension is called a compound
pendulum. A compound pendulum differs from a simple pendulum in that the mass is no
longer concentrated at a point in the bob but is distributed all along the wire/rod. Consider a
rigid body of Fig. 2.3, to be suspended from P and let G be its centre of gravity. Let the
distance PG = h.
Fig. 2.3 Compound pendulum.
Let the pendulum be displaced through a small angle 0 from the vertical mean
equilibrium position. Since the weight W of the pendulum can be assumed to act through G,
the restoring couple due to weight W at the point of suspension P is Wh sin 0. The moment of
inertia of the body /g and I about points G and I, respectively are related through parallel axis
theorem, given by
W 2
= + -h
g
Hence, using Newton's law,
I0 =—Wh sin0
For small angles sin 0 0 and the equation becomes
/a + WhO = 0
The natural frequency is, therefore, given by
Wh Wh
(Dn= = I + mh2
where m = W/g.
EXAMPLE 2.1 A spring-mass system has spring stiffness of k N/m and a mass of M kg. It
has natural frequency of vibration as 12 Hz. An extra 2 kg mass is coupled to M and the
natural frequency reduces by 2 Hz. Find k and m.
(SGSITS: Dec. 1998, Aug. 2003)
Solution
The natural frequency in cps is given by
1 Ik
fn —
2fr,\ m
When the mass m is increased to (m + 2), the new natural frequency (fn — 2) is given by
1 1 k
fn — 2 =
2g ,\ m + 2
Dividing on the corresponding sides of the above two equations, we get
fn —2 = I m
fn \ m +2
Substituting L = 12 and squaring on either sides and taking reciprocal, we obtain
144 m+2
=
100 m
or m = 4.545 kg
Therefore k = (24,r)2 (4.545) = 25 837.83 N/m Ans.
EXAMPLE 2.2 A spring-mass system with mass m and stiffness k has a natural frequency of
f. Determine the value of the stiffness Ic' of another spring which when arranged in conjunction
with spring k in series, will lower the natural frequency by 20 % and in parallel, will raise the
natural frequency by 20%.
Solution
The natural frequency of the original system is given by
1 k
f= 27
Ir m (i)
Case (i) Let keg be the equivalent stiffnesses of springs obtained by arranging springs k and Ic'
in series. The resulting natural frequency is also given by
1 l ke y
0.8f = — —
211- \m
Dividing on corresponding sides by (i), we get
0.8 =
or keg = 0.64 k
Substituting for keq, thus

1 1 1
+ =
k k' 0.64k
0.64
or k' = k = 1.778 k Ans.
0.36
Case (ii) Let keq be the equivalent stiffness of the springs obtained by arranging the springs
in parallel.
The resulting natural frequency is given by
1 k
1.2f =— —
27r m
Dividing above equation on either sides by (i), we get
ke
1.2 =
or keq = 1.44 k
Again, for springs in parallel:
keg = k + k'
Substituting for keq, we get
k' = 0.44 k Ans.
EXAMPLE 2.3 In a spring-mass system, the mass of the spring is significant and cannot be
neglected. How will you account for the mass of the spring while computing natural frequency
of the spring-mass system? Take M to be the vibrating mass.
Solution
With reference to Fig. 2.4, consider a spring of length 1 and of mass m,. With this, the mass
per unit length of the spring in equilibrium condition is p = (m,//).
Fig. 2.4 Effect of spring-mass on natural frequency.

At a distance s from the support, let us consider a small element of spring of elemental
length ds. Mass of the elements is, therefore, pds. Let the mass be displaced through x from the
mean equilibrium position. Then, the elastic strain energy of deformation, which is stored in
the spring as potential energy is given by
2
P.E. = 1kx
2
In the normal course, the kinetic energy is solely due to the main mass. In this case, due to its
distributed mass, the spring also contributes to the kinetic energy.
Let V (a .i) be the instantaneous velocity of the mass. Further, let us assume that the
velocity varies linearly from zero at the support of the spring to V at the mass.
The velocity at the element is, therefore, given by
s.
s =— x
1
The kinetic energy contribution from the element is, therefore, (pds/2)(s2//2) X2
The entire spring can be assumed to consist of a large number of such small elements and
therefore, the total contribution to kinetic energy from the entire spring is given by
1
•2 r 2 ,i
P x pl 2
T=— i s us= x
212 0 6
1m 2
Therefore T= s. .i
2 3
1 2
Kinetic energy contribution from the mass M alone = 2
—Mx
1( 1
Hence, the total kinetic energy = —2 M + — m, x.2
3 j
Hence, substituting in Eq. (2.1), we get
1 2 1( m,
E =- kx +- M + X2
2 2 3 j
Differentiating and eliminating common factor x, we have
1
( M + —m, 1+ kx =0
3 j
k
Hence, the natural frequency is given by con = Ans.
M + (1/3)m5
EXAMPLE 2.4 A machine member is in the form of a cantilever beam of length L, moment
of inertia I, modulus of elasticity E and carries a mass m at its free end. Find the natural
frequency of lateral vibrations in the plane of paper when the beam has negligible mass. If the
cantilever has a rectangular section 5 cm deep and 2.5 cm wide, find the ratio of the frequency
of free lateral vibrations in vertical plane to that of in horizontal plane.
[SGSITS: June 1998 (PTDC), April 2003]
Solution
For a cantilever beam of Fig. 2.5, with a point load mg at its free end , the deflection at the
free end is given by
_ mgL3
ust —
3E1
where I is the area moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis.
Fig. 2.5 Vibrations of a cantilever.
By definition, the stiffness is load per unit deflection. Hence, from the above expression,
mg 3E1
k = —=
gst P
k 3E1
Therefore (On= \I— Ans.
m = mL3
For vibrations in vertical plane, the area moment of inertia is
1
/,=- x2.5 x53
12
For a mass m at the free end, deflection under the mass is
mgL3 4mgL3
SI = =
3E1, E(2.5 x 53)
Ex 2.5 x53
Therefore
4mL3
Similarly, for vibrations in horizontal plane, let a force mg be applied horizontally at the free
end. Then, the area moment of inertia is
ih = x5 x2.53
12
Deflection in horizontal lateral direction at the free end is
mgL3 = 4mgL3
g2 =
3E1h Ex 5 x2.53
g _ 5xEx2.53
Hence 6-)nh =
82 4mL3
6-)nv 5
= A (— = 2 Ans.
(1)nh \ 2.5
Note: Since M.I. for rectangular section is given by bd3/12, the depth d becomes a dominating
factor in increasing or decreasing con. For instance, by doubling the depth, con becomes almost
three times.
EXAMPLE 2.5 A homogeneous solid cylinder of mass m and radius r is linked by a spring
of stiffness k N/cm and is resting on an inclined plane as shown in Fig. 2.6. If the cylinder
rolls without slipping, show that the frequency of oscillation is Ni2k/3m .
Fig. 2.6 Vibrations of rolling cylinder on inclined plane.
Solution
Taking x-axis along the inclined plane, the kinetic energy of the cylinder is partly due to
rectilinear translation and partly due to rotational motion. This is given by
1 2 2
K.E.=— (mx +10 )
2
where I is the mass moment of inertia of cylinder about its own axis.
Thus, the total energy is given by
1 .2 2 1 2
—(MX + 10 )+ —kx =C (i)
2 2
For motion without slipping, x = re
1 2
and also, I = — mr .
2
Substituting in (i), we get
1
1 2 2 1 2 2
— mr 0 + — mr 0
12 2
+ — kr 0 =C
2 2 I 2
Differentiating with respect to time and simplifying, we get
(3mr2o+ kr 20)e= 0
or as 0 # 0 at all the times,

3 mr20- +kr2 0 = 0
2
2k
or °-)n = \1 Ans.
3ni
EXAMPLE 2.6 Find out the natural frequency of oscillations of the homogeneous disc (see
Fig. 2.7) which can roll without slipping, on a horizontal surface, against two horizontal
springs each of stiffness k. The springs are connected to the vertical diameter from either side
at a distance of a above the axis. Take m to be the mass and r the radius of the disc.
(SGSITS: Dec. 2000 PTDC, Nov. 2003, Oct 2004)
Fig. 2.7 Vibrations of rolling disc on a horizontal plane.
Solution
The mass moment of inertia I of the disc about the axis = mr2/2. Let us attempt the problem
using the energy method as well as the method based on Newton's law.
By energy method: Let 0 be the angle of oscillation of the disc and x be the corresponding
linear displacement of the centre of the disc so that x = re.
The total kinetic energy of the system is
1 .2 2
T=- (mx +10 )
2
or 1 2 2 1 (1 2 2
T=— mr 0 +— —mr a-
2 2 2
1
and elastic strain energy = —
2 (2k)(r + a)2 02
The two springs are so arranged that an extension of x in one spring due to angular oscillation
0 of the disc about the instantaneous centre P, implies a compression of x in the other. Thus,
both the springs tend to oppose the oscillation by providing identical restoring forces.
Therefore, the total energy of the system
3 22
E =— mr 0 + k(r + a)2 02
4
Differentiating with respect to time, we have
idE = [2 (3 2 a`
+ k(r + a)2 20]O =0
dt 4 mr j
3 2 **
— mr 0 +2k(r + a)2 0 = 0
2
4k(r + a)2 r + a I4k

Therefore (On = , = rad/s Ans.
3mr` r \ 3m
By Newton's law: For small angle of oscillations, the point P, the point of contact with the
ground, becomes the instantaneous centre of rotation of the disc. By parallel axis theorem, the
moment of inertia Ip of the disc about P is given by
1 2 2 3
/p =- mr + mr = — mr2
2 2
The restoring couple obtained by taking moment of spring forces about P is 2k (r + a)20.
Hence, from Newton's law,
2 .•
mr 0 = — 2k(r + a)2 0
r + a I4k
and hence (Dn= rad/s Ans.
\
r 3m
EXAMPLE 2.7 A stepped shaft has three segments of diameters and lengths as follows:
d1 = 50 mm, L1 = 0.4 m, d2 = 60 mm, L2 = 0.5 m, d3 = 90 mm and L3 = 0.6 m. Find the
equivalent length of the shaft of uniform diameter of 60 mm. Hence, find the natural
frequency of torsional vibrations if G = 0.83 x 1011 N/m2 and the mass moment of inertia of
the rotor is 15 kgm2.
Solution
Referring to Fig. 2.8, neglecting mass moment of inertia of the shaft, the torsional stiffness of
the segments 1, 2 and 3 are expressed as:
T Glpi GA" 4
ktl = - di
01 Li 32L1 '
T Glp2 _ GA" 4
kt2 = = - d2
02 L2 32L2
T Glp3 GA"
kt3 = = — d34
03 L3 32L3
Since all the three segments are subjected to the same torque, their equivalent stiffness is given
Fig. 2.8 Stepped shaft.
by
1=_
_ 1 +_1 +_1
k, k,1 k,2 k,3
If d and L be the diameter and the length of equivalent shaft, then substituting for kt, k,1 , k,2
and Ict3, we get
32 L = 32 r L1 L
GA" d 4 GT( d4il d 2 L3
d 34 j
Since d = d2 = 0.06 m, multiplying each term of the above expression by d4 and cancelling out
common terms, we get
0.06 VI (0.06 VI
L = 0.4 (— + 0.5 + 0.6
0.05 j 0.09 j
= 1.448 m Ans.
The problem, thus, reduces to finding the natural frequency of a torsional pendulum of
diameter 0.06 m and length 1.448 m and carrying a rotor of M.I. 15 kg/m2.
r 1
0.83x101 X ir
Thus k, = 0.064 = 72931.38
l 32 x 1.448
I
31.38
Therefore (1)n — 69.73 rad/s Ans.
72915
EXAMPLE 2.8 Determine the natural frequency of torsional vibrations of the system shown
in Fig. 2.9. Segment 1 of the shaft, to the left of the rotor, is 6 mm in diameter and 20 cm
long. Segment 2 of the shaft, immediately to the right of the rotor, is 8 mm in diameter and
20 cm long. The third and last segment to the right of rotor is 4 mm in diameter and 20 cm
Fig. 2.9 Stepped shaft with rotor.
long. Take G = 0.83 x 1011 N/m2 and the mass moment of inertia of the rotor J = 0.0098 kg/m2.
(SGSITS: June 1996)
Solution
If 0 be the angle of twist at the rotor, then as both the ends of the shaft are fixed, the portions
of the shaft to the right and the left of the rotor are subjected to the same angular deflection
(= 0). Further, let T1 be the fixing torque at the left support and T2 that at the right support
such that T = T1 + T2. This is equivalent to the case of the same shaft fixed at the rotor and
loaded with torques T1 and T2 at the two ends.
Hence, the springs corresponding to segments 2 and 3 of the shaft are in series, and the
equivalent spring of the two is in parallel to the spring corresponding to the segment 1 of the
shaft. Mathematically, this is expressed as
1
_= 1_ _1
kt2 kt3
and _=
1 1 1
kt kt1 kt,
where k, represents torsional stiffness of ith segment.
Therefore
1 32 x 20 1 + 1
kt, Gar Il 0.84 0.4 4
16 Gg x 0.44
or kf, =
17 x 32 x 20
Thus, the equivalent stiffness of all the three segments of shaft
0.8332x 10 7 x 4 16 4
+ = 0.6 + — x 0.4 = 6262.13
x 20 17
6262.13
Therefore (On — 7.994 rad/s Ans.
0.0098 x 1002
EXAMPLE 2.9 Establish the differential equation of motion and hence, find out the natural
frequency of vibration of the system shown in Fig. 2.10. The bell-crank lever OAB is pivoted
at one end and is supported by a vertical spring attached to the lever at a distance of a from the
pivot. The bell-crank lever carries a mass M at the free end of vertical arm. The horizontal and
vertical arms of the bell-crank lever have lengths of L and b respectively.
(SGSITS: Sept. 1990, June 2005)
Fig. 2.10 Spring supported bell-crank lever.
Solution
Since the bell-crank lever has a right angle at A, the least distance of mass at B from pivot
0 = \I L2 + b 2 . Neglecting the moment of inertia of the mass about its own centre of gravity
(note that the radius of gyration of the mass M about its own centre of gravity is much smaller
compared to the distance BO), the moment of inertia of the mass M about 0 is given by
/0 = M(L2 + b2)
The restoring couple is provided by the spring. Let the bell-crank lever be displaced through 0
from the mean equilibrium position. Then the disturbing couple due to the gravitational pull
on mass M is Mg(L cos 0 + b sin 0).
For small 0, sin 0 0 and cos 0 1. Hence, the above disturbing couple reduces to
Mg(L + be).
The restoring couple is due to spring force arising from the static deflection, together
with the deflection a0 on account of angular displacement of the lever. Thus,
the restoring couple = k(Ast + a0)a
From Newton's law, therefore,
loo =—k(Ast + a9)a + Mg(L + b9)
For equilibrium at the time when the end of lever suffers deflection Ast under gravitational
pull Mg.
MgL = (k Ast)a
The above equation, therefore, reduces to
/oe + (ka2 — Mgb) 9 =0

Hence, the natural frequency
ka2 — Mgb
(1)n =
10
The time period of oscillations in the vertical plane is, therefore,
211' n 10
I" = - = LA. Ans.
(On ka2 — Mgb
A condition of interest occurs when
ka2 Mgb
At this condition, con is either zero or imaginary. In either case, vibrations cannot occur. This
indicates unstable equilibrium.
EXAMPLE 2.10 A uniform stiff rod is restrained to move vertically by both linear and
torsional springs as shown in Fig. 2.11. Calculate the frequency of the vertical oscillations of
the rod.
(SGSITS: Feb. 2002)
Fig. 2.11
Solution
Let p = m/L be the mass per unit length of the rod, m being the total mass and L the total
length. Consider an element of length dx at a distance of x from 0. Then, neglecting the mass
moment of inertia of the element about its own axis (being small in comparison to other
quantities), the mass moment of inertia of the element about 0 = (pdx)x2.
Considering the rod to consist of a large number of such small elements, the mass
moment of inertia of the rod about 0 is
L
2 PL
Io = f (pdx)x =
0 3
mL2
Therefore, as m = pL, I0 =
3
The restoring torques are due to the two linear springs (which are in parallel) and also
due to the torsional spring. Let 0 be the angular displacement of the rod, so that the restoring
torque due to torsional spring is 09, while that due to linear springs is given by 2kL2 0. Hence,
from Newton's law
mL2
a =— kt O —2kL20
3
B+ [3(k, + 2kL2 )1a =0

or
mL2
3(k, +2kL2 )
Hence, the natural frequency con = Ans.
mL2
EXAMPLE 2.11 A vertical helical spring of length L and stiffness k has both ends securely
fixed. A mass m is attached to the spring at a distance s from one end. Determine the natural
frequency of small longitudinal vibrations. Show that this frequency is minimum when
s = 0.5L and hence, find this frequency.
Solution
The spring proportions for a general position of mass are shown in Fig. 2.12. Due to the
placement of mass m, the spring is split into two. Let k1 be the stiffness of the spring of length
s and k2 the stiffness of the other spring of length L — s. The two springs are in parallel, and
the restoring force = —(k1 + k2)x
Fig. 2.12 Spring proportions for the minimum frequency.
Hence, using Newton's law,

m.: + (k, + k2 )x = 0
ik1 +k2
and therefore, (1)n =
\ m
Since spring stiffness is inversely proportional to the length, taking p as the constant of
proportionality, we have
k1 = /1 and k2 —
s L—s
As the two springs are in parallel, the combined stiffness k is given by
k = ki + k2 — p + p (i)
s L—s
For frequency to be minimum, k must be minimum. A necessary condition for this is
dklds = 0. Therefore, differentiating (i) w.r.t. s, we have
dk [ 1 1
=p 2 + =o
ds s (L — S)2
1 1
or
s2 (L — S)2
or L2 — 2Ls = 0
which gives the condition s = L/2 Ans.
Since the above condition requires the two springs to have equal lengths, k1 = k2, as the
stiffness is inversely proportional to the length.
The corresponding natural frequency is, therefore,
12k + 2k k
=\ =2 — =2C)„ Ans.
EXAMPLE 2.12 Find natural frequency of vibration of the system shown in Fig. 2.13. The
rod AC may be assumed to be weightless and of length L. The rod is supported by a spring of
stiffness k1 at C and supports a spring-mass system (k2, m) at an intermediate point B distant b
from A.
/////////
Fig. 2.13
Solution
The first step in the solution of the problem lies in determining the spring at C which is
equivalent to spring k2 at B. The spring k1 and equivalent spring at C can be taken to be in
series. To find equivalent spring k' at C, we proceed as follows:
A force Fc at C, which will produce moment about A same as that due to weight mg at
B, is given by
FcL = mgb
b
or Fc = mg —
Again, if oB be the deflection at B due to weight mg there and if 3c, be the deflection at C due
to the equivalent force Fc at C, then for the same work done,
mg& = Fc3c
Substituting for Fc, the above equation becomes
b
mg& = mggc —
L
Hence 5c = 88
b
Thus, for the equivalent force mg (bIL) at C, the corresponding deflection at C is oB (Lib).
F mgb 2
Hence k'= c _
8C 8B L2
mg
But =k
8,9 2
b)2
Therefore k'=k2(
As both the springs are supposed to support the load mg the springs are in series.
Let keg be the combined stiffness of springs k1 and k'. Then, we have
1=1 L2
key k1 k2b 2
k1 k2b2
or
key k1 L2 k2b2
k l k2 b2
Hence (on = Ans.
M(ki 2 + k2 b2 )
EXAMPLE 2.13 Figures at 2.14(a), 2.14(b) and 2.14(c) show the same vibratory system in
three different orientations. Establish differential equations of motion and hence, find the
expressions for natural frequency in each cas.
(SGSITS: Dec. 2004)
0
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.14 Effect of orientation on natural frequency.
Solution
It is important to note that whereas the spring force in each case tends to bring the pendulum
back to its mean equilibrium position, the role of the gravitational pull in Fig. 2.14(a) is
different from that in Figs. 2.14(b) and (c). In later case, the couple due to gravitational pull
is a disturbing couple. As before, assume angle of oscillations 0 to be small.
(a) With reference to Fig. 214(a), taking moments of all forces about pendulum pivot 0
and applying Newton's law, the equations of motion are
ioo = I Couples about 0
or mL29 = — mgL sin 0 — (ka sin 0) a cos 0
For small 0, the above equation reduces to
mL29 + (mgL + ka2 ) 0 = 0
Hence, the differential equation of motion is

( 2
mgL + ka
a+ 0=0
Me /
2
g ka
Therefore (On
= —+ Ans.
L me
(b) Referring to Fig. 2.14(b), the gravitational pull acts in a direction parallel to that of
the spring force. Hence, when the mass is put up at the end of the lever, the spring
undergoes elastic deformation Ast such that mg = Oat. Taking this as the static
equilibrium position, the effect of the weight of mass is not required to be

considered. Applying Newton's law to the system, for small angular displacement 0,
mL29 = — k(a sin 0)(a cos 0)
For small angle 0, this equation of motion reduces to
;,. ka 2
0+ 0=0
mL2
Therefore Ans.
(c) The system shown in Fig. 2.14(c) is known as inverted pendulum and was used as a
seismograph. If such a seismograph is to be used for measuring earthquakes, it must
have a very small natural frequency, usually below 1 rad/s. Readers may verify that
by adjusting the stiffness of the spring, a very small value of natural frequency can
be obtained.
For system shown in Fig. 2.14(c), having small angular displacement 0, applying
Newton's law
mL29 = — k(a sin 0)(a cos 0) + mgL sin 0
For small angle 0, this equation reduces to

2
• ka — m gL
d+ 0=0
me
ka2 — mgL
Therefore (On Ans.
mL2
It follows from the above expression that for ka2 mgL, the value of con turns out to be zero
or imaginary, implying no vibrations.
The system is in unstable equilibrium when the quantity under the radical sign assumes
negative value. Physically, this means that the pendulum will slowly start swinging downwards
without returning to mean equilibrium position.
EXAMPLE 2.14 As shown in Fig. 2.15(a), a mass m is supported by a light inextensible

string at one of its ends. The string passes around a pulley of mass M and is connected at the
other end to a spring of stiffness k. Determine the natural frequency of the spring-mass system.
(SGSITS: Aug. 2000, Nov. 2003)
Solution
For solving the problem using Newton's law, consider the free body diagrams of the mass and
pulley separately. Figure 2.15(b) shows free body diagram of the pulley while Figure 2.15(c)
shows the free body diagram of the mass.
TT
kr(9 + 190) 1. mg
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.15
Applying Newton's law to the free body diagram of the mass, it follows that
m1= mg —T (i)
As the mass m is attached to the string, the pulley rotates through an angle of 00 and the
spring is stretched by a small amount Ast such that r00 = Ast. From this mean equilibrium
position, let the mass m be given a displacement x, causing the pulley to rotate through an
angle of 0 further.
Using Newton's law, the differential equation of motion becomes
/09= Tr — kr(0 + 00 )r
Substituting for T from (i) in the above equation, we have
/00 = (mg — ml)r — kr 2 (0 + 00 )
Since x = re and 1= re, we have
/00 = (mg — mra)r — kr 2 (0 + 00 )

Note that for static equilibrium condition, we have
mgr = kr2 00
For cylindrical disc, /0 = (1/2)Mr2 and the equation reduces to
—
1 (Mr2 + mr 2 )9 + kr 20 = 0
2k
Hence, the natural frequency con rad/s Ans.
M + 2m
EXAMPLE 2.15 Using any of the methods, find natural frequency of the system shown in
Fig. 2.16. The cord may be assumed inextensible in the spring-mass-pulley system; there being
no slip between the cord and the pulley.
Fig. 2.16
(SGSITS: Dec. 2000 (PTDC), Dec. 1999, Dec. 2002)

Solution
A downward displacement y of the centre of the pulley amounts to rendering a length y of the
extra cord on either side of the pulley. One end of the cord being fixed, this amounts to
lowering the mass M by a distance of x = 2y. Half of this length, i.e. y = x/z, is purely due to
additional length of the cord made available from the fixed end side. Hence, a displacement y
of the centre of the pulley will cause the pulley to rotate through an angle of 0 which is related
to x through
x
u=—
2r
Let /0 be the mass moment of inertia of the pulley about its axis. Let F be the force in the cord
producing the couple C = /0 0.
Then F= I
2r
Then, applying Newton's law,
Io
114. + mji +-19 =—ky
2r
Substituting for y, ji and a , the equation becomes
m kx
)14. + + =0
2 2r2 2
Substituting Io = (1/2) mr2, the equation reduces to
3 1
M+3m + — kx = 0
4 j 2
2k
Thus Ans.
4M + 3m
EXAMPLE 2.16 The moment of inertia of a turbine rotor of weight W, whose centre of
gravity lies on the shaft axis C, is to be determined by using a set up shown in Fig. 2.17. A
known weight w is attached at a distance of R from the axis and the time of oscillation T is
found by rolling the journal of radius r on the hardened horizontal surfaces through small
distances on either side of the equilibrium position. Derive an expression for the moment of
inertia of the rotor about the axis C in terms of the quantities given and show that small
variations of r will have the least effect when R = [(W/w) + 1] r.
Fig. 2.17 Moment of inertia of rotor.

(SGSITS: Feb. 2002)
Solution
Let I be the instantaneous centre of rotation, coincident with the point of contact of the shaft
with the flat surface. Let B be the centre of the mass m = wig and let D be the foot of the
perpendicular from B on the vertical through I. Assume an angle of oscillation of 0. Join B to
I. Then
BI = JBC2 + IC 2 — 2BCIC cosO
For small angle 0, cos 0 = 1 and hence BI = BC — IC = (R — r)

Let /c be the mass moment of inertia of the rotor about C. Then, by parallel axis
theorem, the moment of inertia of the rotor about I = lc + (Wig)r2; while neglecting the
moment of inertia of the mass m about its own axis, the moment of inertia of the pendulum
mass wig about the point I is
w 2
— (R— r)
g
Thus, the total moment of inertia of the system about I is given by
W w
/p = /c + — r- + —(R — r)2
If k be the radius of gyration of the rotor about the centre C, then
/p = — w (R — r)2
W (1c2 + r2) + —
g g
The restoring couple is due to the gravitational pull exerted on the pendulum of mass m. This
is given by wR sin 0.
Thus, from Newton's law, for small angle of oscillation 0,
I p o +wRO =0
Therefore,
wR wRg
(Dn =
\lW(k 2 + r2) + w(R — r)2
The time period is given by
211' W(k2 1.2 ) w(R _ r)2

= =
(On wRg
Therefore, solving for k, we have
Wk 2 = wRg1- 2 w(R — r)2 —Wr 2

411.2
Hence,
Wk2 wRT2 Wr2 + w(R — r)2
lc
g 471- 2
For small variation in /c with respect to r, we have
clic =0
dr
Hence,
—2Wr + 2w(R — r)
=0
g
or Wr = w(R — r)
or R=(-
1V +1 r Ans.
w
EXAMPLE 2.17 The Fig. 2.18 shows a float control valve of a tank. The cylinder is 8 cm
in diameter and 6 cm high. Relative density is 0.25 and the cylinder floats in water with its
axis vertical. The horizontal uniform lever of mass 0.33 kg is attached to the top end of the
cylinder. The elasticity of the system is represented by a spring of stiffness 500 N/m, attached
to the lever 10 cm from the fulcrum. If the cylinder is given a small vertical displacement
//// ////
500 N/m
/////////
20 cm 10 cm
4-
- '6 cm
.:. ...
Fig. 2.18
from its rest position, show that the resulting vibration is simple harmonic and hence, find its
frequency. Density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
(SGSITS: Aug. 1991, Nov. 2001)
Solution
Volume of cylinder = Iv (0.08)2 (0.06)/4 = 0.000302
Density of cylinder = 0.25 (1000) = 250 kg/m3
Hence, mass of cylinder = (250)(0.000302) = 0.0755 kg
Upthrust of water on cylinder (equal to weight of water displaced) is given by
W = pwg x volume
Let x be the small displacement given to cylinder and 0 be the corresponding angular
displacement of the lever. The weight of displaced water is
W= [1000 x 9.81 x x (0.08)2 ] x
or W = (49.31 x 0.3) 0
or W = 14.7930 N
The restoring couple due to upthrust of water = —(14.793 x 0.3) 0 = —4.438 0
Restoring couple due to spring force = —k(0.1)2 0 = —5 0
Hence, the total restoring couple = —9.438 0
Moment of inertia of the cylinder mass about the lever fulcrum, neglecting moment of inertia
about its own centre of gravity = (0.0755) (0.3)2 = 0.006795 kg-m2.
Also, moment of inertia of the lever mass about fulcrum = (0.33) (0.3)2/3
Hence, combined mass moment of inertia about fulcrum
= (0.0755 + 0.11) (0.3)2 = 0.0167 kg-m2
Using Newton's second law, the differential equation of motion is
(0.0167)9 + (9.438)0 = 0
Hence, the natural frequency of vibration is
9.438
co„ = — 23.77 rad/s Ans.
- \10.0167
EXAMPLE 2.18 A uniform shaft of radius r and length L is fixed at one end and carries a
disc of mass moment of inertia I at the free end. If the mass of the shaft is considered
significant, derive an expression to indicate the effect of mass of the shaft on the natural
frequency of torsional vibrations of the shaft.
(SGSITS: June 1996)
Solution
Let p be the mass per unit length of the shaft shown in Fig. 2.19. Consider an elemental length
ds of the shaft at a distance of s from the fixed end. The mass of this elemental length of the
shaft = pds. Therefore, elemental moment of inertia = (p ds) r2/2.
ds y 2r I
-I I- L
Fig. 2.19
For a shaft under torsion, the shear strain remains constant all along the length of the
shaft. If 0 be the angle of twist at the free end, the angle of twist at the element = (sIL)0. In
other words, the angle of twist, and hence the angular velocity, of an element varies linearly
with the distance of the element from the fixed end. Thus, the kinetic energy of the element
1 pds 6)2
dT = — r2
2 2 L
Considering the shaft to consist of large number of such small elements, the kinetic energy of
the entire shaft
L
puS 2 S
T= f — r —
4 L
o
or T =11(L e2 f s2 ds
4 L o
1 pL 2 e2 is •2
Therefore T= r0
r = 0
322 32
1 2
Again, the kinetic energy of the disc T = -10
2
1 O2
Hence, the combined kinetic energy of the disc and shaft = —
2
1 2
The elastic strain energy of the shaft = — 10
Hence, using energy equation, we have
d [1 ( 1 _ I, 6)2 + 1
F k, 0 2 =0
dt 2 3 j 2"
or [(I + L' 0 + kid 0 = 0

3,
k
Therefore NI =
1+ (4/3)
Thus, the effect of the mass of the shaft can be taken care of by transferring one-third of its
mass moment of inertia to the mass moment of inertia of the disc. Ans.
EXAMPLE 2.19 A uniform circular disc of radius R oscillates as a compound pendulum

about an axis perpendicular to its plane through a point on its circumference. Find the time
period of oscillation.
If the mass of the disc is M, show that the effect of removing a mass m by drilling a
circular hole through the centre of the disc is to increase time period in the ratio V1 + (m/3M)
(Fig. 2.20).
..".....___.i___...iv
Fig. 2.20
Undamped Free Vibrations Q7
Solution
Assuming a uniform thickness of the disc, the mass of the hole varies as square of the radius.
Thus, if R be the radius of the uniform disc and r the radius of the hole, then their mass ratio
M/m = (R/r)2 and hence r2 = mR2/M.
When suspended from a point on the periphery of disc, the disc represents a compound
pendulum. The moment of inertia about the point of suspension of the solid disc is
1 2 2 3 2
— Mr + Mr = — Mr
2 2
Therefore, the differential equation of motion for solid disc, using Newton's law, is
3MR 2
0 + MgRO = 0
2
which gives
2g
—
(Dn 3R
the time period being t = 271- V3R/2g
When the hole is drilled at the centre of the disc, the moment of inertia of the remaining
disc is given by
Aj 2 2
R2= m R2
=—
1 [M — —
g 2 M 2M
The mass moment of inertia about the point of suspension is, therefore, given by
/0 = (M — m)R2 ( m + 3M
2M
Hence, the differential equation of motion is
r(M — m)(m +3M)1R2a (m _ ni)gRO = 0

2M
2Mg
Therefore co =
n \I(711+ 3M)R
(m + 3M) R
Hence, Time period, 1"' =
2Mg
1" ' + 3M
Therefore —= Ans.
1" 3M
EXAMPLE 2.20 Find the natural frequency for the system of Fig. 2.21. The combined mass
moment of inertia of the disc about the axis through 0 is I.
6t Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Fig. 2.21
(SGSITS: May 1999)
Solution
For an assumed angle of rotation 0 of the disc, the mass M moves through x = re and the
spring is subjected to a deflection of Re.
The total kinetic energy = Kinetic energy of mass M + Kinetic energy of the disc
1 .2 1 2
= MX -F — ie
2 2
The potential energy contribution, due to elastic strain energy of spring = k(R0)2/2
From energy method, therefore,
[ .2 2 k 22
)+-2R 0 =0
dt
— (11/1X +161
or Mki + the + kR2t9e = 0 (i)
As x = re; .i=re and 1 = re. Substituting in (i), we get
or (Mr 2e+ le +kR20)e = 0
or (Mr 2 +1)e + kR20 =0
kR2
Therefore °in = \ Ans.
Mr2 + I
EXAMPLE 2.21 A steel shaft of length L and diameter d is used as a torsion spring for the
wheel of a light automobile as shown in Fig. 2.22. The mass of the wheel and tyre assembly is
m and its radius of gyration about its axle is r. Determine the natural frequency of the system
with wheel locked to the arm. How will the natural frequency change, if the wheel is not
locked to the arm and is free to rotate about its axle?
Undamped Free Vibrations G7
Fig. 2.22
Solution
Let the centre of gravity of the wheel and tyre assembly be at a perpendicular distance of b
from the axle. For the two cases, the moment of inertia of the wheel and tyre assembly about
the shaft axis is
I = m(r2 + b2), when the wheel is not locked and
I = mb2, when the wheel is locked to the arm.
The torsional stiffness of the shaft is given by
T GJ Gird 4
k, = — = =
0 L 32L
Substituting for k, the differential equation of motion becomes
G7rd4
/a + e=0
32L
Therefore con =
Thus, substituting for I = mb2 for the case of wheel locked to the arm, we get
Gird 4
(1)n —
32Lmb2
Also, when the wheel is not locked to the arm, substituting I = m(r2 + b2), we get
Gird 4
aln = Ans.
1 32Lm(r2 + b2 )
EXAMPLE 2.22 Pipe cutting mechanism in a continuous production process consists of a

large disc of radius R and mass M which can oscillate around its centre 0. At the end of a light
rod of length L, a motor of mass m is attached with a cutting wheel (Fig. 2.23). The system
can oscillate on the plane of the disc about the point 0. Determine the time period of natural
oscillations of the system for small angles.
Determine the maximum linear velocity of the motor if the arm is displaced by an
angle 0 and is released.
Fig. 2.23
Solution
Considering equilibrium at the point 0 and applying Newton's law, we get
/0 0 = -mg(L + R) sin 0
For small angles, this equation becomes
/oo + mg(L + R) 0 = 0
The mass moment of inertia at 0 consists of mass moment of inertia of the disc of mass M
together with the contribution from the moment of inertia of motor. Neglecting mass moment
of inertia of the motor about its own axis, being small in comparison to other terms, thus
Io =7m + IM
or lo = m(L + R)2 + 1MR2

2
Hence [m(L+ R)2 + —

1 MR2 1a + mg(L + R)0= 0
2
2mg(L+ R)
Therefore co„
- \i2m(L+ R)2 + MR2
2m (L + R)2 + MR2
and time period 1" = 27r Ans.
2mg(L + R)
Assuming the motion to be simple harmonic with displacement equation 0 = 00 sin cont, the
angular velocity is given by O = 00 m,, cos cont.
Therefore, the maximum angular velocity is given by
2mg(L + R)
°max = 0061-)n =°0 Ans.
2m (L + R)2 + MR2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
2.1 For the system shown in Fig. 2.24, find the mass m such that the system has a natural
frequency of 10 Hz. Given that
k1 = 2000 N/m, k2 = 1500 N/m, k3 = 3000 N/m, k4 = k5 = 500 N/m.
Fig. 2.24
(SGSITS: April 2005)
2.2 A torsional pendulum consists of a rotor of mass 2 kg and diameter 0.2 m, at its
lower end, supported by a rod of diameter 5 mm and length 1 m. The modulus of
rigidity of the rod material may be assumed to be 0.83 X 1011 N/m2. Calculate the
natural frequency of torsional vibration.
2.3 A steel wire is of 2 mm diameter and 30 metres long. It is fixed at the upper end and
carries a mass M kg at its lower end. If E = 1.96 x 1011, find M so that the frequency
of longitudinal vibrations is 4 cycles per second.
[Hint: 3 = MgL/(AE) and (.0, = g/8]
2.4 Find the natural frequency of torsional oscillations for the system shown in
Fig. 2.25. Take G = 0.83 x 1011 N/m2. Neglect the inertia effect of the shaft.
- 14.7 kg-m2
Fig. 2.25
(SGSITS: June 2001)
2.5 A mass is suspended from a spring system as shown in Fig. 2.26. Determine the natural
frequency of the system. Take k1 = 5000 N/m, k2 = k3 = 8000 N/m and m = 25 kg.
Fig. 2.26
(SGSITS: June 1996)
2.6 An electric motor is supported by six springs of stiffness k each (See Fig. 2.27). The
moment of inertia of the motor is I. Determine the natural frequency of the system.
Fig. 2.27
2.7 Calculate the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 2.28, if the mass of the
rod is negligible in comparison to the mass M.
P
Fig. 2.28
2.8 Find the natural frequency of vibration of the system for small amplitudes. If k1 , k2 ,
a and b are fixed, determine the value of b for which the system will not vibrate.
Find the maximum acceleration of the mass. The system is shown in Fig. 2.29.
Fig. 2.29
(SGSITS: June 1998, Aug. 2000)
2.9 A cylinder of mass m and radius r rolls without slipping on a circular surface of
radius R as shown in Fig. 2.30. Determine the natural frequency of oscillation when
the cylinder is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position. Use energy method.
Fig. 230
(SGSITS: Dec. 1995, Dec. 1999)
2.10 Find the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 2.31, if k = 2 x 105 N/m and
m = 20 kg.
Fig. 2.31
2.11 In Fig. 2.32, find the natural frequency of the system, if m = 10 kg is attached at one
end of weightless rod and k = 1000 N/m.
0.2 L 0.8 L
F.
0
7a,
Fig. 2.32
(SGSITS: Feb. 1999, Nov. 2001, Dec. 2002)

2.12 A homogeneous solid cylinder of length L, cross-sectional area A and specific gravity
s(s < 1.0) is floating in water with its axis vertical. Neglecting any accompanying
motion of water, determine differential equation of motion and the period of
oscillation of the cylinder if it is depressed slightly and then released.
2.13 A round rod of diameter 10 mm is bent into a right angle and used to support a
weight W = 98 N as shown in Fig. 2.33. Calculate the natural frequency of
the system; neglect the weight of the rod. Given E = 2.11 x 107 N/cm2 and
G = 8.43 N/cm2.
10 cm
Fig. 2.33
2.14 A load W is vertically suspended on two springs of constants k1 and k2 as shown in

Fig. 2.34. Determine the resultant spring constant and the frequency of the load.
Fig. 2.34
2.15 Find the natural frequency of oscillation for the system shown in Fig. 2.35 assuming
the bell crank lever to be light and stiff and the mass m to be concentrated.
m
Fig. 2.35
2.16 The moment of inertia of 'G of complicated bodies about their centres of gravity may
be found by suspending a light disc by three strings of length L each, attached at
points distant a from the centre of gravity as shown in Fig. 2.36. Any body, whose
M.I. is required, is placed in this suspension such that its C.G. is vertically above the
C.G. of the suspension. Show that for small angle of oscillation 0, the mass moment
of inertia is given by
Mga 2 22
1G =
47r 2L
where M is the mass of the body and T the time period of oscillations.
Fig. 2.36
Damped Free Vibrations
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a common experience that oscillatory motion, that has been started by an initial
disturbance, does not continue indefinitely. The energy given to the system at the initial stage
is dissipated during the motion. Many factors contribute to the slowdown in motion. The
resistance encountered by a body to the vibratory motion is called damping. Since damping
involves dissipation of energy, mere presence of a damper in a vibratory system makes it non-
conservative. Damping resistance may be due to resistance to sliding of one layer of fluid over
the other (called viscous damping, or due to frictional force of one surface over another dry
surface, called Coulomb or dry friction damping. The damping can also be due to dissipation
of energy per cycle, of loading and unloading, represented by mechanical hysteresis loop
(called structural damping) or due to interfacial slip between metallic plates, e.g. between
leaves of leaf spring (called slip or interfacial damping).
In a real-life problem, actual description of the damping force is difficult. In most cases,
ideal damping model is assumed which predicts response with sufficient accuracy. Of all these
models, viscous damping provides the simplest possible approach. In this type of damping, the
damping force is proportional to the velocity and leads to linear differential equation of
motion, which is easy to solve. Most of the mechanical systems involve damping that is quite
complex. It is, however, possible to represent actual damping by an equivalent viscous
damping.
3.2 VISCOUS DAMPING

Viscous damping occurs when the system vibrates in a viscous fluid. It may be recalled that
viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the motion of sliding
of one layer over the adjacent one. A simple viscous damper may be represented by two
parallel plates separated by a fluid of film-thickness t. For low rates of shear, Newton's law
79
can be assumed to apply which implies that the shear stress ( r) is proportional to the velocity-
gradient across the film-thickness. Mathematically,
dv
la—
dy
dv
or 2 = 11
where µ = coefficient of absolute viscosity.

Assuming a linear velocity-gradient, if v is the velocity of one plate with respect to the
other, the force required to move one plate of area A with respect to the other is given by
v
F = uA(—
t
It follows from above equation that the shear force per unit velocity, called the coefficient of
viscous damping, is given by
F dttA
c=—=
v t
Figure 3.1 shows a piston-cylinder type of a viscous damper. The motion of piston in a
cylinder, filled with some viscous fluid, ensures necessary shearing action. The figure shows a
piston of diameter d moving in a cylinder with small clearance e between the piston and the
cylinder. The resistance to the motion of piston may be due to the following factors:
(a) The drag force exerted by the fluid
(b) The damping force caused by the pressure flow of the fluid through the clearance
space, owing to piston displacement
(c) The damping force arising out of difference of pressures on the two sides of piston
(The pressure difference is due to small clearance space causing obstruction to the
free flow of fluid from one side to the other.)
d
A e
Fluid
Fig. 3.1 Piston cylinder type.

Damped Free Vibrations 67
The first two components of damping become negligible when the clearance space
between the piston and the cylinder is small. The damping force due to factor (c) above is
proportional to and acts in a direction opposite to that of relative velocity. Then, the damping
coefficient c is approximately given by
c =12flA 2 L
Jr dme3
where
= coefficient of viscosity of the fluid
A = area of the piston on the flat side
L = length of the piston
= mean diameter of the piston and cylinder and
e = clearance between the piston and cylinder
Eddy current damping: Eddy current damping is one of the most effective and convenient
way of ensuring viscous damping in equipments. If a non-ferrous conducting plate or rod is
moved in a direction perpendicular to the lines of magnetic flux produced by a permanent
magnet, current is induced in the plate. Magnitude of the current is proportional to the velocity
with which the plate is moved. This being an induced eddy current, it sets up a magnetic field
in a direction opposite to that of original magnetic field. Thus, there is a resistance to the
motion of the plate and the resisting force so produced is proportional to the velocity. Hence,
a mechanical damping of viscous type is obtained. Eddy current damping is used quite
frequently in vibrometers and, to some extent, in vibration control systems too. See Fig. 3.2.
N S
Plate
Fig. 3.2 Eddy current damping.
3.3 FREE VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

Separate treatment to the problem of damped-free vibrations is required to develop the
concepts of 'frequency of damped free vibration' and 'rate of decay'. Figure 3.3 shows a
mathematical model consisting of a spring-mass-dashpot system. Let the mass be displaced by
a small amount x downwards. Considering free body diagram of the mass and applying
Newton's second law, we have
Rate of change of momentum = IFx
or mji = — — kx
Fig. 3.3 Damped-free vibration model.
Rewriting this equation, we have

+ + kx= 0 (3.1)
Equation (3.1) is a homogeneous differential equation of motion of second order. The second
term in this equation represents damping force Fd. A traditional approach consists of assuming
a solution of the form
x = Aest (3.2)
where s is an undetermined constant. An assumed solution of this type ensures the most general
type of solution. The first and second derivatives of x as obtained from Eq. (3.2) are
= Asest and 1= As2est
Substituting for x, z and 1 in Eq. (3.1), we get

(ms2 + cs + k)Aest = 0 (3.3)
For vibrations to occur, the quantity Aest outside the parentheses cannot be equal to zero.
Hence, from Eq. (3.3), we get
ms2 + cs + k = 0 (3.4)
This is called auxiliary or characteristic equation of the system.
Dividing out Eq. (3.4) by m, the characteristic equation reduces to
2 (C. k
s + — s+—=0
m m
This equation is quadratic in s and its two roots are given by

2
C C ) k
si ,s2 =— ( ± -- (3.5)
2m \(2m m
Since s1 and s2 are the two roots of the characteristic equation, the complementary function is
given by
x = Ciesi t + C2es21.
where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants whose values are to be determined from the initial
conditions. The roots s1 and s2 are called characteristic values or eigen values of Eq. (3.4).
Substituting values of s1 and s2, the general solution becomes
c
x = CI exp [ --+ t + C2 c
exp --
2m 1 2m1 m 2m 1 2m1 m
or x = e —(c12m)t I C exp + exp — (3.6)

1 t + C2
1 2m1 m 1 2m1 m
{
It follows from examination of Eq. (3.6) that the nature of solution depends very much on the
quantity under the radical sign.
In an attempt to convert the equation into a non-dimensional form, let us introduce a new
term called critical damping coefficient cc. Let us define critical damping coefficient cc to be
that particular value of c for which the quantity under the radical sign in Eq. (3.6) vanishes.
Thus, by definition,
2
(;,. ) k
m m
or cc = \i4m2 (—
/c 21
,17n (3.7)
Also, since klm = con, it follows that
cc = V4m2 can2 = 2mcan (3.8)
Let us define at this stage a new dimensionless factor ; called damping factor (ratio), as
the ratio of actual damping coefficient c of the system to the critical damping coefficient cc.
Thus
= _
cc 2m can
or c = 2; won (3.9)
It follows from Eq. (3.7) that cc depends on elements of the system and therefore, like
natural frequency, critical damping coefficient is also an inherent property of the physical
system. Futher, it follows from the Eq. (3.9) that
= `4 con
2m
Remembering that (klm) = con and substituting for cl2m, the roots of the equation become
sl , s2 = ± V4-2 — 1] COn
and substituting in Eq. (3.6) as above, the general solution reduces to
x = e-Cwn t [Cl exp (t1(Co)„)2 - 0)„2 )+ C2 exp (-4;0)02 - )]
or x = e-Cwn t [C1 exp (tCOn Vc2 -1) ± C2 exp (-to)nNIC2 -1)1 (3.10)
It follows from Eq. (3.10) that actual solution depends on the value of damping factor C.
The first term, namely e-C"1`, represents an exponentially decaying function of time. The
significance of the terms within the parenthesis, however, depends on whether the quantity
inside the radical sign is positive, negative or zero. Thus, there are three possible cases:
(a) Overdamped system, when C > 1
(b) Critically damped system, when C = 1 and
(c) Underdamped system, when C < 1
As will be shown in subsequent discussions, overdamped and critically damped systems are not
conducive to vibratory motion.
Case 1 Overdamped system (C > 1)
When C > 1, the expression under the radical sign is positive and hence, the expression
(-C ± VC2 - 1) cont represents a real quantity. Also since C > VC2 - 1 , the sign of the above
expression represents a real but negative quantity. It follows, therefore, that the motion x is an
exponentially decaying function of time. Also, for real powers of e, the terms on the right
hand side of Eq. (3.10) cannot be expressed as a combination of sine or cosine terms. In other
words, the mass remains always on one side of mean equilibrium position and the motion is
aperiodic (i.e. non-periodic). The resultant motion is given by
x = A exp {(-C + Vc2 - 1 ) COnt} B exp {(-C - Vc2 - 1 ) COnt} (3.11)
Case 2 Critically damped system (C = 1)

When C = 1, the quantity under the radical sign in the expression for the two roots s1 and s2
vanishes, giving equal roots. Thus
S1 = s2 = -o)n, as C = 1
As the two roots are equal, the constants in Eq. (3.10) may be combined to give a new
arbitrary constant. Thus
x = Ae-wa
This solution is considered unsatisfactory as it lacks sufficient number of arbitrary constants
necessary to satisfy two initial conditions for a second-order differential equation of motion. A
more general form of solution requiring two arbitrary constants A and B, and which does not
change the nature of resulting motion, is
x = (A + Bt) e-wa (3.12)
Readers may verify that as time t 00, each component of Eq. (3.12) vanishes. This is
again an aperiodic motion. In Fig. 3.4, a comparison is drawn between overdamped, critically
damped and underdamped cases. It is important to note that critically damped system requires
minimum time to come to the mean equilibrium position from the disturbed position. In
general, the larger the damping the more sluggish is the response and body takes more time to
reach the mean equilibrium position.
Fig. 3.4 Free damped vibration systems with initial displacements.
Case 3 Underdamped system (c < 1)

Since C < 1, let us take out -1 common out of the radical sign and write down the two roots
as
s2 = ± — 4-2 )(On ,
where j =
Hence, the general solution may be written as
x= e-Cwn t [AeiwntV i- C2 + Be-1wntV 1- C2 (3.13)
Defining the damped frequency of free vibration as cod = con \11- C2 and applying
Euler's formula, namely e±i° = cos 0 ± j sin 0, the solution becomes
x = e-Cwnt (Aeiwd` + Be-i'dt)

or x = e-Cwnt [A(cos o)dt + j sin o)dt) + B(cos o)dt - j sin mdt)]
or x = eCwnt [(A + B) cos o)dt + j(A - B) sin mdt]

For the displacement x to be a real physical quantity, the arbitrary constants A and B
must be complex conjugate. Stated in simple words, if A = (a + jb), then necessarily
B = (a — jb). Readers may verify that only under this condition, (A + B) and j(A — B) will be
both real. Hence, letting (A + B) = C and j(A — B) = D, the above equation of motion
simplifies to
x = e-Cwnt [C cos o)dt + D sin mdt] (3.14)
Letting C = X sin 0 and D = X cos 0 and substituting for C and D in Eq. (3.14), we have
x = Xe-00 nt sin (mdt + 0) (3.15)
where X = jC2 + D2 and tan 0 = CID

The parameter 0 is the phase angle. The frequency of damped vibration is denoted by cod,
which, by definition, is smaller than con.
The component Xe-Cwnt in Eq. (3.15) denotes amplitude of vibration which diminishes
continuously with time. As the amplitude of vibration involves a parameter which decreases
exponentially with time in underdamped case, vibrations die out sooner or later. In view of
this feature, decay rate of vibrations must be established for comparing damping capacities of
different systems. There are many engineering systems that are not deliberately damped and
the damping ratio C << 1. For most of these systems, frequency of damped vibrations does not
differ much from the natural frequency.
As against this, when C = 1, the frequency of damped vibrations approaches zero
implying infinite time period. Physically, this means that the amplitude will never cross time-
axis but will approach it asymptotically. For higher values of damping ratio, the amplitude
approaches time-axis more slowly. This can be confirmed through Fig. 3.4. Concept of critical
damping is important in the study of instruments, servo-mechanisms, artillery recoil-less guns,
automobile suspension, automatically closing office doors and many similar applications. In all
such applications, it is desired to position the body to the rest position in the smallest possible
time interval. Design considerations, however, do not call for critical damping always. This is
because, higher the damping the more is the time required by the system to return to
equilibrium position. The system is designed with damping less than the critical one. Concept
of overshoot is often used to define such problems. By definition:
X1/2
Overshoot =
Xo
where X0 is the initial disturbance and X112 is the amplitude in the first half of the next cycle,
immediately on crossing the time-axis. In design, overshoot is usually kept between 5 and
10%.
EXAMPLE 3.1 The mass of a spring-mass-dashpot is given an initial velocity (from the
equilibrium position) of Awn where con is the underdamped natural frequency of the system.
Find the equation of motion for the system for the cases when: (i) = 1.5, (ii) = 1.0,
(iii) = 0.3.
Solution
Case (i) For C = 1.5, the system is overdamped and the roots are
sl , s2 = -1.5 ± V1.52 - 1
Therefore s1 = -0.38 and s2 = -2.62
Substituting in Eq. (3.11), therefore,
x = Ae-o.38cont Be-2.62cont
(i)
Differentiating with respect to t, we get
= (-0.384) AC°384` + (-2.624) Be-2.62'nt
Applying the initial condition, namely at t = 0, z = Ccon (assumed value), we have
Ccon = (-0.384)A + (-2.624)B
or -2.63C = A + 6.89B
Also from the initial condition x = 0 at t = 0, Eq. (i) gives
A+ B= 0
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii) simultaneously, we get
2.63
B = - — C = - 0.446 C
5.89
and, therefore, A = 0.446 C

Hence, the solution becomes:
x = 0.446 C (C°384` - e-2.62cont) Ans.
Case (ii) For critically damped system, as C = 1.0, the solution is
x = (A + Bt) e-wnt (iv)
Applying the condition that at t = 0, x = 0, we have A = 0.
Also, differentiating on both the sides of the Eq. (iv), we get
= B(1 - cont)e-wnt
Applying the initial condition, namely at t = 0, z = C4, we have B = Ccon
Hence, the solution is
x = Cconte-wnt Ans.
Case (iii) cod = con - 0.32 = 0.954 con

Thus, the solution for the underdamped vibration is
x = Xe-"wnt sin (0.954 (Da + 0)
3") Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Applying the condition that at t = 0, x = 0, we get X sin 0 = 0

Differentiating the general equation of motion, we get
= Xe4).36)nt [-0.3m„ sin (0.954 um + 0) + 0.954m„ cos (0.954 um + 0)]

Applying the condition that at t = 0, z = Cm„, we have
Cwn = 0 + 0.954 co„X cos 0
or X cos 0 = 1.048 C
Squaring and adding, therefore, we get
X2 (cos20 + sin20) = (1.048C)2
Therefore X = 1.048C
As X sin 0 = 0, it follows that sin 0 = 0. In turn, this implies 0 = 0. Therefore, the general
solution becomes
x = 1.048CC0 3wnt sin (0.954mnt) Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.2 A simple pendulum is pivoted at point 0 as shown in Fig. 3.5. Assuming
small oscillations and neglecting the mass of the rod, find the damped natural frequency of the
pendulum.
k
L
•
, 0 C
I
Fig. 3.5
Solution
For a small angle of oscillation 0,
the displacement in the spring = L1 0
and the relative velocity in the damper = L2(de/dt).
Therefore, restoring couple on the pendulum due to pull of gravity = mgL sin 0.
Again, the mass moment of inertia of the pendulum mass about 0 = mL2.
Damped Free Vibrations E3
Taking moments of all the forces about 0 and applying Newton's law,
la =1 mo
or mL2 9 = -kL21 0 - cLi O - mgLO
Rearranging, the differential equation of motion becomes
mL29 cL22 a + (mgL + kLb 0 = 0

Dividing out by mL2, the differential equation reduces to
r cL22 (
mgL + k • Li2
e+ + 0 =0 (i)
rnz,2 , mL2
For an equation of the form
+ aO + b0 = 0 (ii)
the roots obtained, as in Section 3.3, are
a
si ,s2 = - -
2
and the solution of Eq. (ii) is given by
0 = e—(a/2)t (Aeiwdt + Be- iwdt )
where cod =
Hence, the damped natural frequency in the given problem is given by
mgL + kL cL22
= Ans.
mL2 2mL2
EXAMPLE 3.3 Between a solid mass of 12 kg and the floor, two slabs of isolators, natural
rubber and felt are kept in series, as shown in Fig. 3.6. The natural rubber slab has a stiffness
of 3200 N/m and an equivalent viscous damping coefficient of 110 N-sec/m. The felt slab has
a stiffness of 12 800 N/m and an equivalent viscous damping coefficient of 330 N-sec/m.
Fig. 3.6
al Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Determine the undamped and the damped natural frequencies of the system in vertical
direction. Neglect the mass of the isolators.
Solution
As shown in Fig. 3.6, since each of the isolator is subjected to the same load, they are in series.
The two isolators can be replaced by an equivalent spring of stiffness k and an equivalent
damper of damping coefficient c. The equivalent stiffness is given by
1 1 1 5
. + =
k 3200 12,800 12,800
Therefore, the equivalent stiffness of springs k = 2560 N/s
1 1 1 4
Also —= + =
c 110 330 330
Therefore, the equivalent coefficient of damping c = 82.5 N-s/m
The natural frequency con = V2560/12 = 14.6 rad/s Ans.
Also, the damping factor C = 82.5/(2V2560 x 12) = 0.235
Therefore, the damped natural frequency cod = 14.6 V1 — 0.2352 = 14.19 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.4 A gun barrel weighing 5340 N has a recoil spring of stiffness 292 kN/m. If
the barrel recoils 1.22 m on firing, determine:
(a) the initial recoil velocity of the barrel,
(b) the critical damping coefficient of a dashpot which is engaged at the end of the recoil
stroke and
(c) the time required for the barrel to return to a position 5 cm from its initial position.
(SGSITS: Oct. 2004)
Solution
Let v0 be the initial recoil velocity of the barrel in m/sec.
The kinetic energy of the barrel = (1/2)(5340/9.81) v20
The elastic strain energy of the spring = (1/2)(2,92,000)1.222
(a) During the recoil motion of barrel damper is not engaged and therefore, the entire
kinetic energy must be absorbed by the spring in elastic deformation. Hence,
(5340 1
Vo2 = — (2, 92, 000)(1.22)2
2 9.81 j 2
2,92,000 x 9.81
Therefore v0 = 1.22 — 28.26 m/s Ans.
5340
(b) At the end of the recoil stroke, when the return motion commences, the dashpot is
engaged and due to critical damping, the barrel is brought back to firing position
without further oscillations. The critical damping coefficient is given by
2 92 000 x 5340
= 2 N/7n
1 = 2,\I ' ' - 25,214.92 N-s/m Ans.
9.81
(c) The natural frequency is given by con = V(2,92,000 x 9.81)/5340 = 23.61 rad/s
During the return motion, due to critical damping, the equation of motion is
x = (A + Bt) e-w (i)
Differentiating with respect to t, the velocity is given by
= [B + (A + Bt)(-4)] e-wnt (ii)

Taking the displacement positive from the firing position and counting time from the
beginning of the return stroke,
At t = 0, x = 122 cm and X = 0
Substituting in Eqs. (i) and (ii),
122 = A and (B - Awn ) = 0
Therefore, B = Awn = 122 x 23.61 = 2880.42
Hence, the equation of motion is
x = (122 + 2880.42 t) e-21611. (iii)
The solution is possible only by trial and error approach. Beginning with t = 0.1 second,
let us compute the distance at which the barrel is located at 5 cm from the initial position.
t sec (122 + 2880.42 t) e 23.6It X cm
0.10 410.042 0.0943 38.877

0.20 698.084 0.00889 6.21
0.21 726.888 0.007026 5.107
0.22 755.692 0.005548 4.572
0.211 732.649 0.00688 5.02*
Thus, with t = 0.211 second, the value of distance x is quite close to the required distance of
5.0 cm. Since this time is required to be counted from the time of firing, the time required for
recoil-motion must be added to it. The time period of motion is
27t- 27t
= = - 0.272 second
(on 23.14
Hence, the total time required is
T = —+ 0.211 = 0.279 second Ans.

4
EXAMPLE 3.5 A rigid uniform bar of mass m and length L is pinned at 0 and supported by
a spring and a viscous damper as shown in Fig. 3.7. Measuring 0 from the static equilibrium
position, determine (a) the equation of motion for small 0, (b) the equation for undamped
natural frequency and (c) the expression for critical damping.
Fig. 3.7
Solution
For bar of mass m, uniformly distributed over its length L, the mass moment of inertia about
0 = mL2/3. Considering angular oscillations of the bar and measuring 0 from the mean
equilibrium position, the equation of motion may be written as
2
mL
b' + (cL2 )O + (ka2)0 = 0
3
Dividing out by mL2/3, the equation becomes
( 3c
r 3ka 2
0 — =0 (i)
M j
Assuming a solution of the form 0 = Pe' and substituting for 0 and its derivatives in Eq. (i),
we have
r 3ka 2
s2 ± S
li st _0
m rnL2 )1 e
Since Pe' # 0 at all time, the above equation simplifies to

r 2
3c 3ka
S ±— _0
j
The roots of this equation are
3c r 3c )2 3ka2
S1 , S2 = — ()
2m \ 2m) mL2
The undamped natural frequency is given by
3ka2 a I3k
°-)n = Ans.
mL2 L\1 m
For critical damping the value of c is given by
2 2
r 3cc) 3ka
2m ) mL2
2m 3ka2 a
or cc = 3 Ans.
mL2 L
3.4 LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT

In quite a few cases, amount of damping present in a given system is not known and is
required to be established experimentally. In an underdamped system, this is conveniently done
by measuring rate of decay. In systems involving viscous damping, concept of logarithmic
decrement provides a quantitative measure of rate of decay of free oscillations. Logarithmic
decrement is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes.
Thus, if x1 and x2 be the amplitudes of vibration respectively in the first and the second cycles,
then
Xi
Logarithmic decrement 3 = loge (3.16)
X2
Consider the equation of motion of an underdamped system involving viscous damping

x= sin (o)dt + 0)
This is depicted graphically in Fig. 3.8. At time t = t1 , the amplitude of vibration in
corresponding cycle is obtained by letting sin (o)dt + 0) = 1 in the above expression. Similarly,
as the motion is periodic with time period Td = (27t/cod), the amplitude of vibration in the next
Fig. 3.8 Logarithmic decrement as a function of damping ratio.

4;12 Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
cycle can be obtained by following the same rule. Thus, the logarithmic decrement 3 is
expressed as
Xe-Crpntl
S =loge [ pa, t +2.
Xe_ ' n k 1 d )
or 8 = loge (e Calnrd ) = 4?Dnrd (3.17)
But the time period of damped vibration Td = 27T/(l)n \l1— 2)

Substituting for the time period Td in Eq. (3.17),
271-4"
g= (3.18)
Nil _;2
Again, as C is small, V1— 4-2 a 1, from Eq. (3.18), we have
3 '-. 27r; (3.19)

Figure 3.9 shows a graph of the exact and approximate values of logarithmic decrement 3
against damping ratio C. Readers may verify from the graph that for values of C < 0.3
(roughly), exact and approximate expressions for 3 lead to almost same value of logarithmic
decrement. This is an important feature because, in large number of problems, the damping
ratio C usually has a value less than 0.3.
/
/
Fig. 3.9 Logarithmic decrement: Comparison between exact and approximate relation.
Logarithmic decrement in terms of amplitude before and after n cycles: Experimental

determination of logarithmic decrement and hence the damping ratio, usually involves greater
personal error if successive amplitudes are to be measured. Amplitudes of vibration, if
measured before and after n cycles, can help to distribute the error over n cycles. To derive
expression suitable for the above purpose, let the mass be released after giving initial
displacement xo and let the amplitude of vibration after n cycles be xn. Further, let xi , x2,
X3, ..., Xn_2, Xn_i be the amplitudes, respectively, after the 1st, 2nd, 3rd,..., (n — 2)th and
(n — 1)th cycles.
Then, by definition, the logarithmic definition is given by
( \ ( \
xo X2
= loge = log e = log e = • • • = log, x n-2 = loge xn—I
Xi I x3 j \Xn-1 j xn j
Since each term equals 8 in the above expression, adding all the n terms, we have
\ / \
o xi x2 x n-2 xn—I\
no = loge [ x
X1 \., X2 \., X3 \ Xn-1 )\ xn
\., 1
xo
or = loge
\ Xn j
r
1 xo
or = — log, — (3.20)
n \, X n
EXAMPLE 3.6 The amplitude of vibration of the system, shown in Fig. 3.10 is observed to
decrease to 25% of the initial value after 5 consecutive cycles of motion. Determine the
damping coefficient c of the system if k = 35 N/cm and the mass weighs 45 N.
Fig. 3.10
Solution
For n = 5, the expression for logarithmic decrement is given by
1 x xo
= — log, o = 1 loge
5 xn j 5 0.25x0
1
Therefore 3 = 5 log e 4.0 = 0.277
Using approximate relation 3 a 2gC, we have

0.277
= — 0.044
2g
135 x 44
c = 2=2(0.044)
981
Therefore c = 0.11 N-s/cm Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.7 A shock absorber is to be designed so that its overshoot is 10% of the initial
displacement when released. Determine the damping ratio CI . If C be made equal to (1/2)Ci ,
what will be the overshoot?
(SGSITS: Nov. 2003)
Solution
Critical damping is not always desired in automobile suspension as the higher the damping, the
more the time needed by the system to return to its equilibrium position. In such case, the
system is designed with damping less than the critical one. Overshoot in this case is
XI/2 =10%
Xo
X0 = X0 = X I/2
For logarithmic decrement, we have
X1 X112 X1
Xn
Also, ' = Xi i2 =10
XI /2 XI
( \( \
Xo = Xo Xi /2
Therefore = 100
Xi \ Xu2 j \., Xi j
and 3 = loge 100 = 4.605

Thus 2g; a 4.605
, 4.605
and therefore S= = 0.7329
2g
The value of C, thus, turns out to be greater than 0.25 and, therefore, using exact expression,
we have
2gC
8=
V1 - 4 2
Squaring on both the sides and simplifying, we have

52 (1 _ 4-2 ) _ 471.24-2
45
or C= 471.2 + 82
V
4.605
Therefore = 0.591 Ans.
\Mg' + 4.6052
When Cl = C/2, the new value of damping ratio = 0.295

2,r(0.295)
= =1.94
J1— 0.2952
0
Therefore loge =1.94
j
Simplifying further
Xn
= e1.94 = 6.959
Xn
Hence = = j6.959 = 2.638
XI/2 XI
Therefore XI/2 = 1 = 0.379

X0 2.638
Hence, the amount of the overshoot now is 37.9%. Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.8 A body of mass 5 kg is supported on a spring of stiffness 1960 N/m and has
a dashpot connected to it which produces a resistance of 1.96 N at a velocity of 1 m/sec. In
what ratio will the amplitude of vibration be reduced after 5 cycles?
Solution
The coefficient of damping, by definition = (1.96)/1
= 1.96 N-s/m
The critical coefficient of damping cc = 2 V Icm = 2V(1960)(5) = 197.99 N-s/m
1.96
= = 0.0099
197.99
2740.0099)
Therefore g= = 0.0622
N/1— (0.0099)2
1 r
Hence — loge — = 0.0622
5 X5 /
or XO = e5(0.0622) =1.365 Ans.

X5
EXAMPLE 3.9 A mass weighing 100 Newton is supported on springs which deflects 1.8 cm
under the weight of the mass. The vibrations of the mass are constrained to be linear and
vertical and are damped by a dashpot which reduces the amplitude to one-quarter of its initial
value in two complete oscillations. Find:
(i) the magnitude of the damping force at unit speed and
(ii) the periodic time of damped vibration.
Solution
The natural frequency is given by
81
0)„ = = 23.35 rad/s
1.8
In two cycles, amplitude reduces to one-quarter of its initial value. Thus, for n = 2, we have
4
X°
x2
Therefore 8=1
— log 4.0 = 0.693
2 e
Again, 3 2,r and, therefore, we have
0.693
= = 0.11
2g
The critical coefficient of damping c, is given by
cc = 2nuon = 85 23.35 = 404.64 N-s/m

2 9.81 j
Therefore c = cc, = 0.11 x 404.64 = 44.51 N-s/m Ans.

The frequency of damped vibration
a)d = 23.351— 0.112 = 23.21 rad/s
The time period of damped vibration is given by
2g
td — 0.27 s Ans.
= 23.21
EXAMPLE 3.10 The disc of a torsional pendulum has a moment of inertia of 680 kg-cm2
and is immersed in a viscous fluid. The brass shaft, which carries the disc, has a modulus of
rigidity of 40 GN/m2. The shaft has a diameter of 10 mm and is 380 mm long. When the
pendulum is vibrating, the amplitudes on the same side of the rest position for successive
cycles are 50, 30 and 1.8°.
Damped Free Vibrations Si
Determine
(i) the logarithmic decrement,
(ii) the damping torque at unit velocity and
(iii) the periodic time of the vibration.
What would be the frequency of the vibrations if the disc is removed from the viscous fluid?
(SGSITS: June 1996, University of London)
Solution
The logarithmic decrement 3 = loge (3/1.8) = 0.511 Ans.
0.511
= = = 0.0813
2g 2g
Since C is quite small, we are justified in using the approximate expression for 3. Torsional
stiffness of the shaft is given by
T GJ
0=
(40 x 109 )(g x 0.014 )
Therefore, 103.34 N-m/rad
32 x 0.38
I103.34
Thus 38.98 rad/s
(Dn—V jt— \0 .068
Also, aid = 38.98 V1— 0.08132 = 38.85 rad/s
27r 27r
Hence, the time period Td = = = 0.162 s Ans.
cod 38.85
The damping torque at unit velocity,
c, = = 0.0813 x 2 x 0.068 x 38.98
= 0.431 N-m-sec/rad Ans.
When the disc is removed from the viscous fluid, the disc will execute free undamped
vibration with frequency con = 38.98 rad/sec; the frequency in hertz being given by
co 38.98
fn= n = — 6.2 Hz Ans.
2g 2g
EXAMPLE 3.11 For the system shown in Fig. 3.11, the characteristic of the dashpot is such
that when a constant force of 49 N is applied to the piston, its velocity is found to be constant
at 0.15 m/sec. Determine the damping coefficient. Would you expect the motion to be periodic
or aperiodic?
Solution
The viscous damping force is given by Fd =
Fig. 3.11
49
Therefore c= = 326.67 N-s/m
0.15
The critical damping coefficient can be obtained as under:
cc = 20/7n = 2V(245)(15) = 121.24 N-s/m

Therefore, the damping ratio C = 326.67/121.24 = 2.694
The value of damping ratio being larger than 1, the system is overdamped and the resulting
motion is aperiodic. Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.12 A body of mass 5 kg is supported on a spring of stiffness 200 N/m and has
a dashpot connected to it which produces a resistance of 0.002 N at a velocity of 1 cm/s. In
Solution
The damping coefficient c is given by
Fd 0.002
c= = - 0.2 N-s/m
X 0.01
The critical damping coefficient for the system is obtained as under:
cc = 20/7n = 2\/(200)(5) = 63.25 N-s/m

Therefore, the damping ratio C = (0.2/63.25) = 3.162 x 10-3
The logarithmic decrement for small C,
g 27/-; = 2g (3.162 x 10-3) = 0.0199
xo
Also, = 1loge
5 x5 j
Therefore, XO = e 55 = e 5 x 0.0199 = 1.1046 Ans.

x5
EXAMPLE 3.13 A mass of 4.5 kg hangs from a spring and makes damped vibrations. The
time of 50 complete oscillations is found to be 20 s and the ratio of first downward
displacement to the sixth is found to be 2.25. Find the stiffness of the spring in k-N/m and
damping force in N-s/m.
Solution
Given x1 /x6 = 2.25 and Td = 20/50 = 0.4 s.
Therefore 3 = (1/5) loge (2.25) = 0.162
Also, as 3 a 27rc,
0.162
= = 0.0258
2g
2g
Again cod = — = 15.71 rad/s
0.4
Therefore, from COd = (On Nil — 2 , we have
15.71
(Dn = \11 15.715 rad/s
— 0.02582
Therefore k = mco2n = 1111.33 N/m Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.14 The disc of a torsional pendulum has a moment of inertia of 600 kg-cm2
and is immersed in a viscous fluid. The brass shaft attached to it is of 10 cm diameter and
40 cm long. When the pendulum is vibrating, the observed amplitudes on the same side of the
rest position for successive cycles are 9°, 6° and 4°. Determine:
(i) logarithmic decrement,
(ii) damping torque at unit velocity and
(iii) periodic time of vibration.
Assume that for the brass shaft G = 4.4 x 1010 N/m2
(SGSITS: Nov. 1997, April 2003; M.D.U. 1993)
Solution
By definition, the logarithmic decrement is given by
3 = log, = 0.405 Ans.

6j
271-4-
Again 3 ,
11 — ; 2
Squaring on both the sides and rearranging, we have

32(1 — c2) = 47c2c2
S. Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
or (476 2 + 3 2)c 2 = 3 2
0.405
Thus 0 064
V4R-2 + 52 V39.64
Again, the critical damping coefficient c, = 2.X

where I = 600 kg-cm2 = 0.06 kg-m2
GJ (4.4 x 101° )77- (0.1)4 _

and kt = = 1.0799 x 106 N-m/rad.
32(0.4)
Therefore cc = 4(1.0799 x 106 ) 0.06 = 509.09
and, therefore,
actual damping coefficient c = cc, = 0.064 x 509.09 = 32.58 N-s/rad.
Therefore damping torque at unit velocity = 32.58 N-s/rad. Ans.
The natural frequency = = V1.0799 x 106 /0.06 = 4242.4 rad/s
Therefore, the damped natural frequency cod = con . j(1—
aid = 4242.4 j1— 0.0642 = 4233.7
The periodic time of damped vibration = 27r/cod = 27r/4242.4 = 1.481 x 10-3 s Ans.
3.5 COULOMB OR DRY FRICTION DAMPING

Coulomb damping occurs when bodies have relative motion of sliding on dry surfaces. The
motion cannot begin unless a driving force overcomes resistance to motion due to friction. The
force of friction is parallel to the interface and its magnitude is proportional to the force
normal to it. The constant of proportionality is the coefficient of static friction 0.4 This is
also called limiting coefficient of friction. Once the motion is initiated, the force of friction
drops down to the value pkIV, where pk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is generally
smaller than µ„ N being the normal force on the interface. The force of friction is opposite to
the direction of velocity. Motion continues so long as the forces acting on the mass, namely the
inertia force and the spring force, are sufficient to overcome the dry friction. Figure 3.12
shows effect of relative velocity on p.
The coefficient of dry friction, is independent of velocity for ideally smooth surfaces.
However, with rough surfaces, the coefficient of dry friction first decreases to some extent
with velocity and then remains practically constant. In reality, the coefficient of dry friction
decreases slightly with further increase in velocity. This slight decrease in coefficient of
friction, associated with increase in velocity, may give rise to a phenomenon called
self-excited vibrations. In studying Coulomb damping, our objective is to establish the
frequency of damped vibrations as also the rate of decay.
Dry friction (smooth

surfaces)
Dry friction (rough

surfaces)
Lubricated surfaces
Fig. 3.12 Variation of µ with relative velocity.
3.5.1 Frequency of Damped Vibrations and Rate of Decay

Consider the spring-mass system as shown in Fig. 3.13 with the mass capable of sliding on a
dry surface. Let Fo (= µN) be the constant magnitude of friction force, where µ is the
coefficient of friction and N is the normal reaction. The direction of the friction force is such
as to oppose the velocity. Let us adopt the convention that displacement, velocity and
acceleration are positive when acting in the direction towards the right. It is convenient to
express constant force of friction in terms of an equivalent spring force causing a constant
.ii +ye
x +ye
m V
Fo
-11- V
k
m
Fo
Fig. 3.13 Free vibrations with Coulomb damping.
deformation xo in the spring. To simplify the analysis, let Fo = kxo, where xo is the extension
of the spring of stiffness k due to a force Fo. Depending on the direction of motion of mass m,
differential equations of motion, using Newton's law, are:
mz + kx = kxo (for the motion from right to left) (3.20)
and m z + kx = —kxo (for the motion from left to right) (3.21)
Both the differential equations represent harmonic oscillation superposed on the average
response ±Fo. Combining the two equations and remembering that kxo = Fo, the resulting
equation becomes
mz + kx ± Fo = 0 (3.22)
f.t Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
The above equation may be rewritten as

F
ml + k(x + ° =0 (3.23)
k/
Letting (x — F° /k) = y, a new variable for motion right to left and
(x + F°/k) = y, for the motion left to right,
so that 1 =3; , the differential equation of motion becomes
my + ky = 0 (3.24)
Readers must remember that parameter y has different definitions in the two half-cycles.
Equation (3.24) is a homogeneous differential equation of motion and represents S.H.M. about
an axis y = 0 and having frequency of vibration as CO =-\I.I 71, which is same as the natural
frequency of vibration. It follows that the mass executes simple harmonic motion in two
half-cycles, with same frequency about two different mean positions. The two mean
equilibrium positions for the first and the second half-cycles, are respectively given by
x — x0 = 0 and x + xo = 0
The solution of differential equation of motion given by Eq. (3.24) is
y = A cos wt + B sin wt
Substituting y = x ± (F0/k) in above differential equation of motion, we get
Fn
x += = A cos wt + B sin wt
k
Rearranging the terms, the solution becomes
Fn
x = A cos wt + B sin wt + =
k
This represents two solutions depending on the direction of motion. The two solutions are:
(a) x = A cos wt + B sin wt + X0 (3.25)
for motion of the mass from right to left and
(b) x = A l cos wt + B1 sin wt — xo (3.26)
for motion of the mass from left to right
The constants A1 , B1 and A, B must be evaluated separately for each half-cycle. The frequency
of damped vibration for each half-cycle is, however, same and equals the natural frequency.
Figure 3.14 depicts the two motions for the starting conditions, namely at t = 0, x = X0 and
X = 0.
The motion in case (a), represented by the portion A01 /3 of the displacement curve in the
Fig. 3.14, is simple harmonic about the line x = x0. Similarly, in case (b), the motion
represented by portion BO2C is again simple harmonic about the line x = —x0.
Substituting for the initial conditions namely, x = X0 and x = 0 at t = 0, the Eq. (3.25),
for motion right to left, becomes
X = (X 0 — x 0) cos wt + x 0 (3.27)
X0
4Fo
I k
71" X — Xo =0
-
2co
0 P'
X0 ror
X0
02 Q
2co X ± Xo =0
Fig. 3.14 Displacement-time plot for Coulomb damping.
Equation (3.27) represents the cosine curve A01 /3 in Fig. 3.14 which is displaced by an
amount x0 in the positive x-direction. This cosine curve is valid only for the first half of the
cycle (i.e. between t = 0 to 7r/m) and is symmetrical about the line
Fo
x — — =0
k
It follows from the symmetrical nature of the cosine curve that
AP = BP' = X0 — xo
The motion from left to right is represented by Eq. (3.26). In Fig. (3.14), this motion is
represented by the portion BO2C, which is symmetrical about the line
Fn
x+ =0
k
Being on the negative side of the t-axis, the amplitude of motion of the curve BO2C, as
measured with respect to this line of symmetry, is
BP"(= CQ)= (BP' — P'P") —[(X0 — x0 )-2x0 ]
or BP" = — (X0 —3x0 )

Thus, starting with an initial amplitude of X0, measured with respect to the t-axis, the
mass has an amplitude of BM = —(X0 — 2x0) at the extreme left position indicated by the
point B in Fig. 3.14.
Thus BM = 2x0 — X0
In other words, amplitude of vibration at position B, XB = —(X0 — 2F0/k).
C, Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Again, at B, the initial conditions for the second half of the cycle are:
71"
at t = — , x = 2x0 — X0 and X = 0
CO
Substituting these conditions in Eq. (3.26), we get

2x0 — X0 = A i cos 7r + B1 sin k — xo
On simplification, this leads to
A l = X0 — 3x0
Also, differentiating Eq. (3.26), we get
z= 0 = A i m sin mt + Bo) cos wt— 0
which, on simplification, leads to
B1 = 0
Hence, the equation of motion from left to right is
x = (X0 — 3x0) cos wt — x0
At point C, therefore, the amplitude is given by substituting t = 27r/m in above equation.
Thus Xc = (X0 — 3x0) cos 27c — x0
4F0
or Xc = X0 — 4x0 Xo —
k j
Thus, loss of amplitude in moving from position A to B and B to C (measured with
respect to time axis) is 2F0/k over every half-cycle and is constant.
3.5.2 Rate of Decay from Energy Considerations

Above conclusion can also be established from energy considerations. Let XA, XB and Xc be
the amplitudes of motion at the positions A, B and C respectively; XA being the amplitude of
motion of the body from the mean position at the beginning. Further, let XB and Xc are the
amplitudes of motion of the body after completing half and one cycle respectively. In moving
from position A to B, the work done against the constant friction force F0 is given by
F0 (XA + XB). This work must equal the loss of elastic strain energy in the spring, as A and B
are the positions of zero velocity (and hence, of zero kinetic energy). Thus, we have
Fo(XA + XB) = —
1 k(X3, — 4)
2
1 ,„
or Fo(XA + XB) — '<AAA + XB)(XA — XB)
=2
Cancelling out the common term (XA + XB) and rearranging the terms, we have
2F0
X4 - XB =
k
Proceeding in similar way, it can be shown that

2F0
Xi3 — Xc =
k
Adding the last two equations on corresponding sides, we have
4F0
XA — Xc =
k
3.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN VISCOUS AND COULOMB DAMPING

1. Strictly speaking many physical systems do not incorporate viscous damping.
However, an assumption of viscous damping simplifies mathematical analysis to a
great extent. Viscous damping introduces a damping force which varies linearly with
the relative velocity and the differential equation of motion becomes linear. As
against this, the damping force in Coulomb damping is assumed to be constant and
independent of relative velocity. Due to this, the resulting differential equation of
motion becomes non-linear. However, the differential equations (3.20) and (3.21)
represent harmonic motions superposed on the average response ±F0, and it is still
possible to consider the differential equations to be simple harmonic about two
different means in the two half-cycles.
2. The damped natural frequency of vibration in viscous damping is always smaller
than the undamped natural frequency and depends on amount of damping present in
the system. Larger the damping ratio, smaller is the damped frequency of vibration.
As against this, the damped natural frequency of vibration is same as the undamped
natural frequency in Coulomb damping.
3. Amplitude of vibration reduces exponentially with time in viscous damping. This
implies that the ratio of amplitudes of two successive cycles is constant and the
envelop of the damped curve is an exponential curve. This also means that the
amplitudes in successive cycles are in Geometric Progression. As against this, in
Coulomb damping, the amplitude goes on decreasing linearly with time and the
envelop of the damped curve is a straight line. The loss of amplitude per cycle is
4 Fe/k.
4. In viscous damping, the mass invariably returns to the mean equilibrium position
when the motion stops. In Coulomb damping, the mass may or may not return to the
mean equilibrium position when the motion stops. In fact, the motion stops abruptly
when the displacement, and hence the restoring force due to spring, is not
sufficiently large at the end of a given half-cycle to overcome the force of friction.
EXAMPLE 3.15 A body of mass 1500 kg is suspended on a leaf spring. The system was set
into vibration and the frequency of vibration was measured as 0.982 Hz. The successive
amplitudes were measured to be 4.8 cm, 4.1 cm, 3.4 cm and 2.7 cm. Determine the spring
stiffness and the amount of damping.
(SGSITS: Aug. 2000, May 2002)
Solution
The amplitude of vibration decreases by constant amount of 0.7 cm after every cycle. This is
obviously a case of Coulomb damping for which the damped natural frequency and the free
natural frequency are same. Let k be the stiffness of the spring.
k
Thus — 27r x 0.982
1500
Therefore k = 1500 (2,r x 0.982)2 = 57,105 N/m Ans.
Again, from the rate of decay per cycle we have
4F 4.8 — 4.1
k 100
0.7
Therefore F = 57,105 x 400 = 99.93 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.16 A horizontal spring-mass system with Coulomb damping has a mass of
6 kg attached to a spring of stiffness 960 N/m. If the coefficient of friction is 0.025, calculate
(a) the frequency of free oscillations,
(b) the number of cycles corresponding to 50% reduction in amplitude if the initial
amplitude is 5.0 cm and
(c) the time taken to achieve this 50% reduction.
Solution
The plane being horizontal, the normal reaction equals weight itself and the friction force is,
therefore, given by F = µ mg = 0.025 x 6 x 9.8 = 1.47 N
Frequency of damped-free vibrations is given by = V960/6 = 12.65 rad/s Ans.
Final amplitude after 50% reduction = 0.05/2 = 0.025 m
Total reduction in amplitude = 0.025 m
The reduction in amplitude per cycle = 4F/k = (4) (1.47)/960 = 0.0061 m
Therefore, number of cycles for 50% reduction in amplitude = 0.025/0.0061 = 4.1 Ans.
Time taken to achieve 50% reduction = (4.1) (27r/12.65) = 2.03 s Ans.
EXAMPLE 3.17 A body of mass M = 1 kg, lies on a dry horizontal plane and is connected
by spring to a rigid support. The body is displaced from the unstressed position by an amount
equal to 0.255 m with the tension in the spring at this displacement equal to 49 N and then
released with zero velocity. How long will the body vibrate and at what distance from the
unstressed position will it stop if the coefficient of friction is 0.25?
(Punjab University, 1991)
Solution
When the body is displaced from unstressed position by 0.255 m, the spring force kx = 49 N.
Hence (0.255) k = 49, which yields
49
k= — 192.16 N/m
0.255
On a horizontal plane, the force of friction F = µMg = 0.25 x 1 x 9.81 = 2.45 N
The natural frequency co, = = ,192.16/1 = 13.86 rad/s
Reduction in amplitude per cycle = 4F/k = 4(2.45/192.16) = 0.050999 m

Since, the initial displacement from the unstressed position was 0.255 m, the number of cycles
that can be completed = 0.255/0.050999 = 5.000098
2g
Time period t = = 0.453 s
13.86
Therefore, time taken to complete 5.000098 cycles = (0.453)(5.000098) = 2.267 s Ans.
Starting from the position of maximum displacement when the mass completes 5th cycle, the
total loss of amplitude = 5 (0.050999) = 0.254995 m.
Stated in other words, on completing 5th cycle, the mass will have a displacement from the
unstressed position equal to (0.255 — 0.254995) = 0.000005 m.
The spring force at this position = 0.000005 x 192.16 = 9.608 x 10-4 N
This force being smaller than the constant force of friction, the body will not return to the
unstressed position. Thus, the mass will stop at 0.0005 cm finally from unstressed position.
Ans.
3.7 SOLID OR STRUCTURAL DAMPING

The area enclosed in the loop, formed by loading and unloading curve, is called hysteresis
loop. The hysteresis damping depends on material and is approximately proportional to the
square of the stress amplitude and, therefore, to the square of the amplitude of vibration. Cast
iron has much more hysteresis damping than mild steel. This loop-area is proportional to the
energy dissipated per cycle. Magnitude of this type of damping is usually quite small. If two
systems with different natural frequencies are set into vibratory motions with equal initial
amplitudes, the energy dissipated per cycle will be same for each one. However, the one with
higher natural frequency will execute more number of cycles per second, will incur more loss
of energy on per second basis and, therefore, will be damped out earlier.
Not all materials have a finite straight-line portion at the outset of the stress v/s strain
diagram. Materials which have a proportional limit far below the elastic limit and for which
loading and unloading curves coincide are called non-linear elastic materials. As against this,
if a stressed material returns to the original geometry along an unloading curve different
from the loading curve, the material is called an elastic materials. Rubber materials, having
such stress v/s strain diagram, are very useful for damping vibrations and are used to support
motors, etc. Solid damping also exists if the elastic material is imperfect. Thus, when a spring
is subjected to cyclic load-reversals, the stress during loading has a higher value than that
during unloading for the same strain.
3.8 SLIP OR INTERFACIAL DAMPING
Machine assemblies usually involve connections like bolted or riveted joints. Damping is
introduced in number of cases due to microscopic slip occurring between connected members
at their interface. Amount of energy dissipated at the interface due to damping depends on
combination of materials, surface roughness at the interface, contact pressure and the
amplitude of relative displacement.
Consider a cantilever beam B on which another bar A is clamped with a number of
C-clamps. Let p be the contact pressure induced at the interface. If the system is now subjected
to transverse vibration in the vertical plane, continuous slip will take between the two surfaces.
This is shown in Fig. 3.15(a), in which system is shown in the initial position in solid lines.
The effect of contact pressure and that of amplitude on the amount damping is shown in
Fig. 3.15(b). In the absence of any contact pressure, there being no force of friction, the
amount of slip damping is also zero. Also, when the contact pressure is excessive, there is
hardly any slip and hence no loss of energy takes place. As is obvious from the figure, there is
an optimum value pressure at which maximum dissipation of energy takes place.
/
/ 'Y i i V'i '; i i 't A
/
/ 1 B n. Large amplitude
Large
ct
Al
l
amplitude
t
Pressure
(a) Mechanism of interfacial/slip damping. (b) Effect of pressure and amplitude.
Fig. 3.15 Mechanism of slip damping and effect of pressure and amplitude.
In general, introduction of a riveted joint increases amount of damping over and above
that due to structural damping alone. In bolted joints, the damping is essentially due to
microscopic slip between the bolt head and nut surfaces in contact with the members being
connected. Experience shows that a nut and bolt joint provides more of slip damping than the
riveted joint.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
3.1 A damper offers resistance 0.05 N at constant velocity of 0.04 m/s. The damper is
used with k = 9 N/m. Determine the damping and frequency of the system when the
mass of the system is 0.1 kg.
3.2 A thin plate of area A and weight W is attached to the end of a spring and allowed to
oscillate in a viscous fluid as shown in Fig. 3.16. If fi is the frequency of oscillation
of the system in air and f2 in the liquid, show that
HT \
VY I 2 2
1= fi f2
gA
where the damping force on the plate is Fd = µ(2Av), 2A being the total surface area
of the plate and v its velocity.
Fig. 3.16
3.3 Write the differential equation of motion for the system shown in Fig. 3.17, and
determine the natural frequency of damped oscillation and the critical damping
coefficient.
/////////
Fig. 3.17
3.4 Determine the differential equation of motion for the system shown in Fig. 3.18.
Determine the expression for (a) the critical coefficient of damping and (b) the
natural frequency of damped vibration.
(SGSITS: Dec. 2002)
\\\\\\\\\
N
N
N
N.
N
N
N C
3.5 Determine suitable expression for equation of motion of the damped vibratory
system shown in Fig. 3.19. Find the critical coefficient of damping when a = 0.10 m,
b = 0.13 m, k = 4900 N/m and m = 1.5 kg.
(Punjab University, 1978)
\\\\\\\\\
/
/
/
m
/.4
b
Fig. 3.19
3.6 Write the differential equation of motion for the system shown in Fig. 3.20 and find
the natural frequency of damped vibrations and the damping ratio for the system.
\\\\\\\\\
/////////
Fig. 3.20
3.7 A loaded platform of total mass 500 kg is supported by a dashpot and a set of
springs of effective stiffness 72 kN/m. It is observed that when the platform is
depressed by a distance x = 12.5 cm below its equilibrium position and then released
without any initial velocity, it only just reaches its equilibrium position.
(a) Find the position and the velocity of the loaded platform 0.10 seconds after its
release.
(b) If the load of 400 kg is removed from this platform, find for the empty platform
system:
(i) the frequency of damped vibrations and
(ii) the amplitude of vibrations after two complete vibrations, given that the initial
amplitude is 15 cm.
3.8 A vertical spring of stiffness 9800 N/m supports a mass of 40 kg. There is a friction
force of 49 N which always resists the vertical displacement whether upwards or
downwards. The mass is released from a position in which the total extension of the
spring is 12.6 cm. Determine the final extension of the spring in the position in
which the system comes to rest.
3.9 A mass of 2 kg is supported on an isolator having a spring scale of 2940 N/m and
viscous damping. If the amplitude of free vibration of the mass falls to one-half its
original value in 1.5 seconds, determine the damping coefficient of the isolator.
(SGSITS: Jan. 1997, Dec. 1998)
3.10 A body of 5 kg is supported on a spring of stiffness 200 N/m and has a dashpot
connected to it which produces a resistance of 0.002 N at a velocity of 1 cm/s. In
3.11 A vertical spring of stiffness 100 N/cm supports a mass of 35 kg. There is a constant
friction force of 50 N which always resists the vertical motion whether upwards or
downwards. The mass is released from a position in which the total extension of the
spring is 12 cm. Determine (a) the time which elapses before the mass comes finally
to rest and (b) the final extension of the spring.
(U.L.)
3.12 A body of mass 1500 kg is suspended on a leaf spring. The system was set into
vibration and the frequency of vibration was measured as 0.982 Hz. The successive
amplitudes were measured to be 4.8 cm, 4.1 cm, 3.4 cm and 2.7 cm. Determine the
spring stiffness and the amount of damping.
3.13 A vertical spring-mass system has a mass of 0.5 kg and an initial deflection of
0.2 cm. Find the spring stiffness and the natural frequency of the system. The system
is subjected to Coulomb damping. When displaced by 2 cm from the equilibrium
position and released, it undergoes 10 complete cycles and comes to rest in the
extreme position on the side on which it was displaced. Calculate the Coulomb
damping and the final rest position.
3.14 The mass of a machine is 100 kg. Its vibrations are damped by a viscous dashpot
which diminishes amplitude of vibrations from 4 cm to 1 cm in three complete
oscillations. If the machine is mounted on four springs each of stiffness of
250 N/cm, find (a) resistance of the dashpot at unit velocity and (b) the periodic time
of the damped vibrations.
(I.A.S. 1992)
3.15 A lab door, 2 m high, 0.75 m wide, 40 mm thick and with a mass of 36 kg, is fitted
with an automatic door closer. The door opens against a torsion spring with a
modulus of 10 N-m /rad. Determine the necessary damping to critically dampen the
return swing of the door. If the door is opened 90° and released, how long will it
take until the door is within 1° of closing?
3.16 The damped vibration record of a spring- mass-dashpot system shows the following
data:
Amplitude in second cycle = 1.20 cm
Amplitude in third cycle = 1.05 cm
Spring constant, k = 7840 N/m
Mass carried by the spring, M = 2 kg
Determine the damping constant, assuming it to be viscous.
Harmonically Excited
Vibration (Systems with
Single Degree of Freedom)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A common feature associated with vibrating systems considered so far is that once disturbed
from mean equilibrium position, they continue to vibrate due to elastic properties and come to
rest sooner or later depending on amount of damping present in the system. As against this, a
machine or a structure is said to undergo forced vibration whenever external energy is supplied
to the system during vibration. External energy can be supplied to the system either through
forces or imposed displacements that change with time in magnitude and/or direction. The
applied force/displacement can be harmonic, non-harmonic but periodic, non-periodic or
random in nature. The non-periodic excitation may have long or short duration. The response
of a dynamic system to suddenly applied (impulsive) non-periodic excitation is called transient
response. Earthquake and acoustic excitation are some of the typical examples of random
excitation. Vibrations arising out of non-periodic and random excitation are beyond the scope
of this book.
Many systems, such as internal combustion engines, operate at constant angular speeds.
These systems are acted upon by forces that are periodic but non-harmonic in nature. As
explained in Section 1.7, a non-harmonic but periodic force/displacement function can always
be split into a series of sine and cosine terms. The response due to a periodic excitation can,
therefore, be considered equivalent to superposition of individual responses due to each of the
component sine and cosine terms. It may be recalled that the principle of superposition is valid
only for linear vibratory systems. Thus, the case of periodic excitation can be reduced to that
of harmonic excitation.
115
Response of a system to external excitation constitutes a very important subject matter in

vibrations. When used in conjunction with vibration analysis, the word response has roughly
the same meaning as the words behaviour and performance. Thus, in practice, we may apply
a harmonic force to a vibrating system in order to find out how the resulting displacement,
velocity, acceleration or any other quantity varies as the excitation frequency is varied.
Because of its fundamental nature and numerous applications, problems involving harmonic
excitation to single degree of freedom systems are discussed at length in this chapter.
4.2 FORCED HARMONIC VIBRATION

The number of degrees of freedom of a physical system is defined as the number of
independent coordinates/parameters or motions necessary to define the configuration of the
system in motion. A rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom; three on account of
motions of translation parallel to the three reference axes and three of rotation about them.
In general, the masses in a dynamic system are constrained to move in some specific way. In
Fig. 4.1, the provision of rollers ensures the motion of the mass only in x-direction.
kx eX
F0 sin on
Fig. 4.1 Forced vibrations with harmonic excitation.
Since machines are made up of metallic parts, they have mass and elasticity both. Again
as a machine element is connected to or is a part of any rotating or moving machinery, it is
subjected to forces which vary periodically with time. Although many machines operate at
constant speed, knowledge of response of such systems, subject to variations in their
frequency, leads to a better understanding of the overall vibration problem.
Consider a spring-mass system incorporating a viscous damper, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Let
the system be subjected to external excitation by a harmonic force F0 sin on acting on the mass
m. Let us adopt the convention that all the forces, displacement, velocity and acceleration are
considered positive, when acting downwards. At the given instant of time t, assume that the
mass is displaced downwards through a distance x as measured from the mean equilibrium
position. The spring force due to static deflection 8,,, namely k8,,, is equal and opposite to the
gravitational pull (mg) and therefore, when displacements are measured from mean
equilibrium position, effect of gravitational pull (mg) need not be taken into consideration in
the free body diagram of the mass. The free body diagram of the mass is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Harmonically Excited Vibration (Systems with Single Degree of Freedom) 113
Various forces acting on the mass m are:

(i) the restoring force kx due to spring, acting upwards opposite to x
(ii) the damping force c.i acting upwards, in a direction opposite to relative velocity
(iii) the excitation force F0 sin wt acting downwards
Applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram, we have
Rate of change of momentum in x-direction = —kx — c.i + Fo sin wt (4.1)
where w is the frequency of harmonic excitation force.
On rewriting Eq. (4.1), we have the differential equation of motion as
mi + c.i + kx = F0 sin on (4.2)
This is a second order, linear non-homogeneous differential equation of motion with constant
coefficient. The complete solution of this differential equation of motion consists of two parts.
Thus x = xc + Xp
The complementary function xc is the solution of corresponding homogeneous equation

mi + c.i + kx = 0
Readers may recall that this homogeneous equation is representative of damped free vibrations
and for underdamped case, has a solution
xc = Xe-Cwnt sin (wdt + 0) (4.3)
The solution shows that the vibration dies out with time. This solution, therefore, represents
transient response. Readers may also note that for overdamped or critically damped case, the
decay rate will be even faster.
As will be shown later, the particular integral/solution x1,, to Eq. (4.2) does not vanish
with time and, therefore, represents steady-state response. A method of great importance in
solving non-homogeneous, second-order differential equation of motion, with constant
coefficient, is the method of undetermined coefficients. The method has the advantage in
that it is quite simple and time saving. The method is particularly suitable for differential
equations with constant coefficient in which a particular solution can be guessed. This is
possible when the excitation function f(t) is a single power of t, a polynomial, an exponential
function, a sine or cosine function, or a sum of such functions. The trial solution for the
evaluation of x1,, of Eq. (4.2) is a linear combination, with constant undetermined coefficients
of f(t) and all its independent derivatives. For the excitation function (F0 sin wt) we may,
therefore, assume a trial solution as
x1,, x = A sin wt + B cos wt (4.4)
It may be noted that all successive derivatives of f(t) consist of sin on and cos on terms
which are included in the trial solution along with constant undetermined coefficients A and
B. In order to determine undetermined constant coefficients A and B, let us substitute for x
and its derivatives from trial solution in Eq. (4.2). Collecting terms with coefficients sine and
cosine, we have
(—Amc02 — clko + kA) sin on + (—Bmc02 + cAco + kB) coson = Fo sin on (4.5)
Comparing coefficients of sine and cosine terms on the two sides of the equal to sign, we have
(k — mo)2 )A — (cm)B = Fo
and (cm)A + (k — mco2 )B = 0 (4.6)
These are homogeneous linear algebraic equations in A and B and can be solved using
Cramer's rule or by any of the usual methods. Using Cramer's rule, we have
Fo —cco (k — mco2 ) Fo
0 (k — mco2 ) cco 0
A= and B=
AG)
(k — mco2) —cco
where (4.7)
cco (k — mco2)
Simplifying the determinants and substituting for determinant Am, we have
Fo (k — mco2)
A = (k — m(02)2 + (c0))2
—Fo (co))
and B= (4.8)
(k — mco2)2 + (co))2
Substituting for A and B in the trial solution of Eq. (4.2), we have
F0
X = XP = , f (k — mo)2 ) sin on — cco cos on) (4.9)
(k —m0)2 )2 +(ccor
(k —m(02 )
Defining / — cosy./
\J(k — m0)2 )2 + (co))2
cco
and = sin yi (4.10)
V (k —m0)2 )2 + (co))2
ao
so that tan v = (4.11)
(k—mo)2 )
We have from Eq. (4.9)
F0 (k —mo)2 ) sin on (ao)coscot

xp = (4.12)
V(k _ m(02 )2 + (c0))2 I(k _ m(02 )2 +(c0))2 I(k _ m(0 2 )2 +(c0))2
{N N
F0
or x xv = fsin on cosy/ - COS COt sin yi)
' V(k—m0)2 )2 +(co))2
which simplifies to
0
x xv = F sin (cot — yi) (4.13)
V(k — mo)2 )2 +(cto)2
or x = X sin (wt — ty) (4.14)

Fo
where X= (4.15)
\J(k —m0)2 )2 +(cto)2
is the amplitude of steady state response and 1/1 is the phase lag of x1,, with respect to excitation
force F0 sin wt.
The particular solution given by Eq. (4.14) has the amplitude X, which depends on the
system parameters (e.g. c, k and m), the constant amplitude F0 of excitation force and its
frequency w. Thus, unless the amplitude F0 and frequency w change with time, the amplitude
X remains constant and the Eq. (4.14), therefore, represents steady state response of the
system. It follows that, once the vibrations are initiated through the application of external
excitation force, a part of the vibrations called transient vibration (represented by x,)
disappears as the time passes and the system will have only the steady state response thereafter.
Therefore, in all the discussions to follow, unless mentioned specifically, only steady state
response shall be considered.
Important observations
1. For a harmonic excitation force, the steady state solution is also harmonic in nature.
The frequency of steady state response is same as that of external excitation force. In
other words, the vibrating system partakes frequency of the excitation force.
2. The amplitude of steady state solution does not involve any arbitrary constant. This
means that the amplitude of steady state response does not depend on initial
conditions imposed on the system.
3. Amplitude of steady state response depends not only on the amplitude of excitation
force but also on its frequency, besides the system parameters.
4. The excitation force F0 sin wt and the steady state response x1,, do not attain their
maximum values simultaneously. The response lags behind the excitation force by a
phase angle 1/1 whose magnitude depends on the damping coefficient c and the
excitation frequency w.
Dividing the numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (4.15) by k, we have
F0 /k X0
X= = (4.16)
V(1 — mc02/k)2 + (cco/k)2 NI(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
where X0 Fak, is the deflection under the static load F0 and is, therefore, called static
deflection. Similarly m/m„, the ratio of frequency of excitation to the natural frequency is
called frequency ratio.
Dividing out on both the sides of Eq. (4.16) by X0, we have
X 1
= (4.17)
Xo _ r2 )2 + (24-02
The non-dimensional ratio X/X0 is called the magnification factor or amplification factor or
amplitude ratio and will be designated as K. Substituting for amplitude X from Eq. (4.17) in
Eq. (4.14) in terms of magnification factor K, we have
x = KX0 sin (cot — ty) (4.18)
or x = K sin (cot — ty) (4.19)

k
The magnification factor is, thus, a dimensionless parameter which depends on the
frequency ratio r and the damping ratio C Variation in the magnification factor with the
frequency ratio is plotted in Fig. 4.2. This is also called the frequency response curve.
Similarly, variation in phase lag angle lif with the frequency ratio r is plotted in Fig. 4.3. The
curves show that the damping ratio has a large influence on the magnification factor as well
as on the phase angle near the frequency ratio of 1.
K
4.0
o
iI
kn
3.0
2.0
,,)
i .
C -= 0.5
1.0
,0,
,0
,..„„„„..,..._ r
0
10 20 30
Fig. 4.2 Magnification factor versus frequency ratio for different ;.
It follows from the Eq. (4.17) for magnification factor that at r = 0, irrespective of the
amount of damping present in the system, the magnification factor K is always 1. Stated in
simple words, when con >> w (ensuring r = 0) the amplitude of steady state response is of the
order of static deflection X0. Further at r = 1 (i.e. when the excitation frequency w equals the
natural frequency con) the magnification factor K is controlled only by the damping ratio and is
given by 1/2C. The larger the damping, the smaller is the magnification. The value of
amplitude factor at resonance is called Q-factor or quality factor of the system. Thus, for
values of C = 0.5 and 0.707 respectively, the magnification factor has the values of 1 and 0.7.
0
180°
r , ov?-5
5--
150°
c
O191-
I
•C - _ 0) C .....
/
120°
// y , 2.0
,
/ ‘1 ...
,1/
90°
,,,./
,
60° ,
30° r
f il
/
ri
,,::,.,e,
'km 41
ti
//c3 ....,"
'•-• 0'
I/
/
=0 1.0 20 30
Fig. 4.3 Phase angle versus frequency ratio for different ;.
Theoretically, when the damping ratio has a zero value, the magnification factor shoots up to
infinity. Practically, before the amplitude reaches infinite value, either the system will give in
due to excessive stresses or the body may hit adjoining parts. Therefore, it is sufficient to say
that at r = 1, for a finite value of static deflection, the amplitude of steady state response is
quite large. This phenomenon is popularly known as resonance and the condition w con is
called resonating condition. In actual practice, however, due to the presence of damping,
steady state amplitude is not maximum exactly at r = 1.
Maximum value of magnification factor K occurs when
dK
{(1 — r2 )2 Q4-02 )-312 {2(1 — r2 )(— 2r) + 8C2 r) = 0
dr 2
or —4r(1 — r2) + 8412r = 0
or 1 — r2 = 2C2
or r= V1-24-2 (4.20)
This is true, of course, for the values of damping ratios [0 < < (1/J2)]. For most of the
machines and structures, C < 0.1 and resonance occurs in the range of frequency ratios
0.98 < r < 1.0. However, in even highly damped system, the steady state response curve is fairly
flat near resonance and the error in computing maximum amplitude at r = 1 is negligible.
Steady state amplitude at resonance is, however, a time dependent phenomenon. This can
be proved as under:
From Eq. (4.2) letting c = 0, we may write down the differential equation of motion for
forced undamped vibration as
m + kx = Fo sin mt
Dividing out by m, the above equation reduces to
cox = F0
sin on (4.21)
The complementary function becomes

x, = C sin cont + D cos cont
The usual trial solution for x1,, will fail in this case as f(t) and one of its independent derivative
for w = con is proportional to one of the terms of xc. We, therefore, form a new trial solution as
xn = At sin cont + Bt COS COnt
At resonance as w = con, the differential equation of motion becomes
1 + con2x = sin cont (4.22)

m
Substituting for x and its higher derivatives from the trial solution in Eq. (4.22), we have
(A cos cont — B sin cont)con + (A cos cont — B sin cont)con + (—A sin cont — Bcos cont)con2t
F
+ (A sin cont + Bcos cont)con2t = sin cont
Collecting coefficients of sin mnt and cos mnt, we have

(F,-,
(-2Bcon ) sin cont + (+ 2Acont) cos cont = = sin cont
111
Comparing coefficients of sin mnt and cos mnt, we have

F0
B= and A = 0
2mcon
Hence, the correct solution is
Fo t
xp = cos cont (4.23)
2711(0n
Equation (4.23) shows that at resonance, the amplitude goes on building up with time. To
avoid any damage, a good practice is to crossover the resonating frequency as soon as possible,
without losing much time.
Also at r = the magnification factor K = 1/V1+ 2.
Therefore, at r = j, the magnification factor K is less than 1 for any value of C > 0. Finally,
dividing numerator and denominator on right hand side of Eq. (4.17) by r2, we have
1/r2
K— (4.24)
V[(1102 —1]2 + (24702
It follows from Eq. (4.24) that as r 00, K 0. Thus, to ensure a very small value of
steady state amplitude for a finite value of static deflection, w >> mn. This is one of the
reasons as to why modern machines are designed to run at high speeds. The phase angle lif, by
which the steady state response x lags behind the excitation force F0 sin wt, is given by
Eq. (4.11). Dividing the numerator and the denominator on the right hand side by k and
remembering that clk = 2C/m, and mlk = (1/4)2, we have
2Cr
tamp = (4.25)
2
1 —r
At r = 0, tan lif = 0 and, therefore, phase angle lif = 0 for all values of C. Also, at r = 1,
tan 1// = 00 which means that lif = 7C/2 for all values of C.
Dividing out the numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (4.25) by r2,
we have
2C/r
tamp = 2 (4.26)
(1/r) —1
It follows from the Eq. (4.26) that as r 00, tan lif —0. This, in other words, means that
lif 7r radians for all values of C. This is depicted in Fig. (4.3).
Important observations (phase angles)
1. It follows from the Eq. (4.26) that for C = 0, lif = 0 for r < 1 and lif = 7r radians for
r > 1. Also, for this value of C, lif = 7C/2 radians at r = 1(that is at the resonating
condition). This may also be verified from Fig. (4.3).
2. All the curves for different values of C giving variation of phase angle in radians
with the frequency ratio pass through the origin of axes of reference and the point
(r = 1, lif = ,v/2). It may be further verified that the curve corresponding to C = 0.75
passes through the point (r = 0.5, lif = 7r/4). This shows that the characteristic curve
corresponding to C = 0.75 is very nearly a straight line in the frequency range r = 0
to 1.
3. At resonating frequency, for C = 0 (i.e. undamped vibrations), phase angle is 7r/2 and
as such, a positive work is done. This may be verified by a reference to Section 1.6
where work done expression is shown to be W = ,vP0 X0 sin 0. For C = 0, at any other
value of frequency ratio, the work done is zero as 0 is either zero or 7r radians. This
work done at r = 1 and C = 0, enters the system in every cycle and manifests itself by
way of increasing amplitude of vibration on per cycle basis. This is confirmed by
Eq. (4.23).
EXAMPLE 4.1 A damped torsional pendulum with a mass moment of inertia I = 2.35 kg-
m2 and torsional stiffness k, = 103 kN-m/rad is subjected to forced vibration. The resonance
amplitude 0r was measured to be 1.07° and for a frequency f = 50 cps, the amplitude 0 was
found to be 0.3°. Find
(a) the coefficient of viscous damping in N-cm-s/rad
(b) the amplitude of the harmonic torque in N-m
Solution
= ik, = I103000
con — 209.36 rads
\ I2.35
\
At resonance, when r = 1, amplitude of vibration I3max = J (1.07/180) radians. If To be the
amplitude of harmonic torque, the static angular deflection 13o = To/ks. Amplitude of steady
state response:
o /lc,
7r = T
180 j
(1.07 V(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
1.07 _ To
As r = 1, the above expression reduces to
1.07
( 180, E2;x lc,
Therefore To 103000 = 3847.05 N-m (i)

= (180
180 \j
For a frequency of 50 cps, w = 27r x 50 = 314 rad/s, the frequency ratio
314
r= =1.5
209.36
The amplitude of steady state response at this frequency is given by
0.3 x 7r T0 /103000
180 V(1 _ 1.D,2 ).2+ (2 x 1.502
103000 x 0.3 x 7rV1.56 + 94'2

or To = = 539.3 V1.56 + 94-2
180
Comparing right hand side of Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
3847.05 = 539.31.56 + 9 -2
or 7.1333 = V1.56 + 94-2

Squaring on either side of above equation, we have
50.885;2 = 1.56 + 9;2
Therefore ; = 0.193 Ans.
Substituting in Eq. (i), To = 3847.05 x 0.193 = 742.48 N-m Ans.
c, = 2 x 0.193 x 2.35 x 209.36 = 189.9 N-s/m Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.2 A 54 N weight is suspended by a spring with a stiffness of 1100 N/m. It is

forced to vibrate by a harmonic force of 5 N. Assuming a viscous damping of c = 77 N-s/m,
find (a) the resonant frequency, (b) the amplitude at resonance, (c) the phase angle at
resonance, (d) the damped natural frequency and (e) the frequency at which maximum
amplitude of vibration occurs.
Solution
(a) The natural frequency is given by con = j(1100)(9.81)/54 = 14.14 rad/s Ans.
The critical damping coefficient cc = 2V(1100)(54)/9.81 = 155.63 N-s/m

Therefore, the damping ratio C = 77/155.63 = 0.495
(b) At resonance, r = 1 and the expression for magnification factor reduces to
1 1
K= = - 1.02
2; 2 x 0.49
X = K r :I I =1.02 x 1100
5 - 4.636 x 10-3m = 0.464 cm
k
(c) The phase angle at resonance:

tan lif = 2 Cr/(1 - r2) .
At resonance r = 1 and therefore, lif = 7r/2. Ans.
(d) The damped natural frequency cod = 14.14[1 - (0.495)2 ] = 12.286 rad/s Ans.
(e) The frequency at which maximum amplitude occurs co' = 14.14[1- 2(0.495)2 ]
Therefore, w' = 10.1 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.3 The damped natural frequency of a system as obtained from a free vibration
test, is 10.5 Hz. During the forced vibration test, with constant excitation force, on the same
system, the maximum amplitude of vibration is found to be at 9.5 Hz. Find the damping factor
for the system and its natural frequency.
Solution
The damped natural frequency of vibration = 10.5 x 27c rad/s
The frequency corresponding to peak amplitude = 9.5 x 27c rad/s
Hence 10.5 x 2,r = (On Vi - 4-2
and 9.5 x 2,r = con Nil - 2 -2
10.5 V1 - 4-2
Therefore, by division
9.5 N/1 - 2;2
Squaring and simplifying, therefore, 1.22 (1 - 2C2) = 1 - c2
or 1.44;2 = 0.22
Therefore C = 0.391 Ans.
10.5 x 27/-
(1)n = i 71.8 rad/s
V1 - 0.3952
71.8
Therefore fn = = 11.43 Hz Ans.
2g
4.3 VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF FORCES IN FORCED VIBRATION

As seen in the free body diagram of the mass in the system subjected to forced damped
vibration (Section 4.2), the four forces acting on the mass are:
1. The excitation force Fo sin wt
2. The spring force kx
3. The damping force ci
4. The inertia force m which must be introduced to convert the problem in dynamics
to an equivalent problem in static equilibrium using D' Alembert's principle.
Figure 4.4 shows various forces acting on the mass. With respect to the reference axis,
the vector OA represents the excitation force vector Fo located at an angle of wt while the
displacement vector X is located at an angle of (wt — ty). The spring force always opposes the
Fig. 4.4 Vector representation of forces acting on mass in forced damped vibration system.
deflection and, therefore, the spring force kX is located parallel to the displacement vector X
but in a direction opposite to it. This is represented by the vector AP. Finally, as the velocity
vector is always 90 degrees ahead of the displacement vector and the damping force opposes
the relative velocity, the damping force cXw is represented by the vector PQ. The closing line
of the polygon QO then represents the inertia force.
1. The diagram shows clearly that if damping force cXw is zero, the phase angle 1/1 is
reduced to zero. The spring force, the excitation force and the inertia force then will
lie along the same straight line with their vector sum equal to zero.
2. Also, when the excitation frequency w is quite small, the damping force and, more
significantly, the inertia force will be quite small. In a situation like this, the spring
force entirely balances the excitation force.
3. At r = 1 (i.e. at resonance) the phase angle ty becomes 90°, the excitation force is
required to be entirely balanced by the damping force. This is because the
displacement vector, and hence the spring force and the inertia force are at right
angles to the excitation force. Also, the inertia force and the spring force will be
equal and opposite (i.e. kX = mw 2X).
4. At very high frequencies (i.e. as r approaches to infinity), the phase angle 1/1 is 180°
and, therefore, the excitation force coincides with and adds to the spring force. The
two forces together balance the inertia force, which becomes very large at large
values of CO (The inertia force = mw 2X). Note that the contribution from the spring
force is not significant under this condition as X itself is quite small.
4.4 EXCITATION DUE TO UNBALANCE

Excitation due to unbalance is so common in machines that it deserves our special attention.
An interesting feature of this kind of excitation force is that the magnitude of the excitation
force depends on the rotational speed of the machine. Such an excitation force may exist either
because of the presence of the reciprocating parts or rotating members like gears, rotors, etc.
4.4.1 Rotating Unbalance

A turbine, an electric motor, a compressor or any other device with a rotor as its working
component is called a rotating machine. The machine is said to have unbalance when the
centre of gravity of the rotor does not coincide with the axis of rotation. The unbalance is
represented by an equivalent eccentric mass m located at an eccentricity of e.
With reference to Fig. 4.5, let M be the total mass of the machine, inclusive of rotor and
let me represents the amount of unbalance. Let us assume that the machine is constrained to
move in the vertical direction so that the system has one degree of freedom. Further, let us
assume that the mass m is revolving with an angular velocity CO in counterclockwise direction
and let the radius OA be located at an angle of wt measured with respect to the horizontal
Fig. 4.5 Rotating unbalance.
diameter as shown in the figure. Then (M — m) is the non-rotating mass of the machine. Let x
be the displacement of the non-rotating mass from the static equilibrium position. Then, x
being the displacement of 0 in the vertical direction, the displacement of the mass m in
vertical direction is x + e sin on.
For motion in the direction of x, the rate of change of momentum for the non-rotating
mass (M — m) and that of rotating mass m is, therefore, respectively given by
d d2
— {(M — m)X } and {m(x + e sin on)}
dt d t2
If z be the velocity of mass (M — m), for the summation of forces in vertical direction, we
have
(M — m).+ m(1 — e0)2 sin on) = —kx—ek (4.27)
Cancelling the common term mi from the first and second parentheses on the left hand side,
on rearranging, we have
M.+e.k+ kx=me0)2 sin on (4.28)
Readers may recall that e being the radius of rotation of mass m, the term mew 2 in
Eq. (4.28) represents the centrifugal force due to the rotation of unbalanced mass m.
A comparison of the Eqs. (4.2) and (4.28) shows that they are identical. For a given speed of
rotation CO, the force mew 2 is constant and, therefore, can be replaced by the term Few the
equivalent force. The term on the right hand side of Eq. (4.28) then represents the component
of the centrifugal force in the direction of the motion x(t). Equation (4.28), therefore,
represents a differential equation motion of a system subjected to harmonic excitation.
Replacing F0 by Fey in Eq. (4.19), therefore, we may write down the steady state response of
the system as
2
mea)
x= K sin (on — yi) (4.29)
1
where tan v — and K=
2 )2 + (24-02
1— r
Taken as a whole, the natural frequency of the machine is expressed as con = -\/V/.
1
Thus, multiplying and dividing the right hand side by M, Eq. (4.29) may be rewritten as
m
X = (— — ea) 2 K sin (on — v)
MJ k
r
m (02
or x= e
2 K sin (wt — yi)
M
or x= — er 2 K sin (on — v) (4.30)

M
M
Therefore, the amplitude of steady state response X = (m/M)er 2K

Rearranging the terms, we have
MX 2 „.
=r A (4.31)
me
which is a dimensionless ratio

MX r2
or — (4.32)
me NI(1— r2 )2 (2;02
Figure 4.6 shows variation of the non-dimensional ratio (MX/me) versus the frequency ratio.
It follows from Eq. (4.32) that as r 0, MX/me 0 for all values of c.
A
=0
4.0
= 0.12 5
3.0
2.0
1.0
r
2 3
Fig. 4.6 Plot of non-dimensional ratio (MX/me) versus frequency ratio.
Also, at r = 1, MX/me = 1/2c Thus, at resonance, the non-dimensional ratio is controlled

wholly by the damping ratio c.
Rewriting Eq. (4.32) as
MX 1
= (4.33)
me v[(1/1.2 ) _ 112 + (24702
It follows tat as r 00, MX/me 1 for all values of c.

As m << M, this implies that the amplitude of steady state response X << e, e being the
eccentricity.
Also, from the phase angle relationship, it follows that
tan v = =
1— r2 (Ur) — r
It follows that at r = 0, tan i and therefore, i = 0. In other words, when CO << con, the rotating
mass m and the remaining machine mass (M — m) both reach top and bottom positions
simultaneously.
Again, at r = 1, tan ty approaches infinity and therefore, ty approaches ,r/2. It follows
that at resonating frequency, when the mass (M — m) is at the mean equilibrium position and is
moving upwards, the out-of-balance mass m is directly above the centre of rotation. Finally,
when r approaches infinity, tan ty = —0 and therefore, ty = 7r radians. It follows that when
w >> COn, the out-of-balance mass m is directly below the centre of rotation and the mass
(M — m) is at the topmost position.
4.4.2 Reciprocating Unbalance

Unbalance due to reciprocating parts is of frequent occurrence in practice. With reference to
Fig. 4.7, let m be the mass of the reciprocating parts which is inclusive of the mass of the
piston pin, piston and a component of connecting rod mass. Let r be the radius of the crank
Fig. 4.7 Reciprocating unbalance.
and L the length of the connecting rod. Further, let M be the total mass of the reciprocating
machine mounted on the springs of stiffness k and a dashpot of coefficient of damping c. The
inertia force due to the mass of the reciprocating parts is approximately given by
F = mr(02 (sin an + —
r sin 20)t (4.34)
L I
When the ratio r/L is small, the second harmonic term r/L sin 2wt is small and, therefore, may
be neglected. This leaves equivalent excitation force on the machine as mrco2 sin wt. This is
identical to the excitation force Feq sin wt due to the rotating unbalance. Hence, neglecting the
second harmonic term, the discussions carried out under rotating unbalance, apply to this case
also.
EXAMPLE 4.4 A machine part weighing 39 N vibrates in a viscous medium. Determine the
damping coefficient when a harmonic exciting force of amplitude 49 N results in a resonant
amplitude of 1.25 cm with a period of 0.2 second. If the system is excited by a harmonic force
of frequency of 4 cycles/s, what will be the percentage increase in the amplitude of forced
vibration when damper is removed?
Solution
At resonance, the excitation frequency CO = (On = 27C/0.2 = 10 7r rad/s
The spring stiffness k = won = ( 39 (10702 = 3923.7 N/m

9.81 j
Fo lk
The steady state amplitude = X —
V(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
which at resonance (i.e. at r = 1) becomes
— 49/39.237
X
2;
and, as X = 1.25 cm, therefore
49
= = 0.5
(39.237)(1.25) 2
The coefficient of damping c = c(2m(on )
39
Therefore c = 0.5 x 2 x — x 107z = 124.9 N-s/m Ans.
9.81
For an excitation frequency of 4 cps, CO = 4 x 2,r = 87r rad/s
871-
The frequency ratio r = — = 0.8
107z
and therefore
49/39.237
X= 1.424 cm
V(1 — 0.82 )2 + (2 x 0.5 x 0.8)2
The amplitude when the damper is removed:
X = 49/39.237 — 3.469 cm
1— 0.82
(3.469 — 1.424) x 100
The percentage increase in amplitude = = 143.6% Ans.
1.424
EXAMPLE 4.5 A single cylinder vertical petrol engine of total mass 320 kg is mounted
upon a steel chassis and causes a vertical static deflection of 2 mm. The reciprocating parts of
the engine have a mass of 24 kg and move through a vertical stroke of 150 mm with simple
harmonic motion. A dashpot attached to the system offers a resistance of 490 N at a velocity of
0.3 m/s. Determine
(a) The speed of the driving shaft at resonance and
(b) The amplitude of steady state vibration when the driving shaft of the engine rotates
at 480 rpm.
Solution
I 9.81
For mass m = 320 kg, Ast = 0.002m, = — 70 rad/s
\ 0.002
The speed of the driving shaft at resonance: N = (60)(70)/2g = 668.45 rpm Ans.
The excitation frequency at 480 rpm, CO = (270(480)/60 = 50.26 rad/s
50.26
The frequency ratio r = = 0.718
70
The damping ratio C = c =490/0.3— 0.0365

2mcon 2 x 320 x 70
MX 320X
Also, the ratio = =177.78 X
me 24(0.15/2)
0.7182
Therefore 177.78X — V(1— 0.718
2 )2 + (2 x 0.0365 x 0.718)2
Hence X = 0.00595 metres = 5.95 mm Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.6 A motor is mounted on a rigid rectangular plate of mass 10 kg, which is
hinged along one side A and supported on the opposite side B by two helical springs placed
one at each corner as shown in Fig. 4.8. The motor, of total mass 25 kg, is fitted with a crank
of 5 cm radius which rotates at 300 rev/min. The weight of the mass acting at the crank pin is
39 N, and the stiffness of each spring is 150 N/cm of compression. Assuming that the applied
vertical forces act at a point C, 35 cm from the hinge and the forces on the springs are equal,
calculate (a) the natural frequency of vibration of the system and (b) the maximum amplitude
at C due to the varying load. Neglect horizontal forces.
54 cm
Fc
35 cm Y. 1* 15 cm
/////////
Fig. 4.8 Motor mounted on rigid rectangular plate.

Solution
With reference to Fig. 4.8,

The mass of the plate Mr = 10 kg
The total mass of the motor M = 25 kg
The mass at the crank pin m = (35/9.81) kg
The excitation frequency CO = (270(300)/60 = 10,r rad/s
Let k be the stiffness of each spring. The springs being in parallel, their effective stiffness
= 2 k. Further, let 0 be the angular displacement of plate AB from its mean equilibrium
position.
Neglecting the mass moment of inertia of the motor about its own c.g., let its moment of
inertia about the hinge pin A (using parallel axis theorem) be I. Again, the mass of the plate is
uniformly distributed all along its length and, therefore, its moment of inertia /p about A will
be IP = ( MP /3)502. Also I = M(35)2.
Differential equation of motion, using Newton's law, is
(I + IP )o = — 2k(0.5)2 0
Substituting for I and /p, we have
[25(0.35)2 + 1(10)(0.54)2 1a + 0.50 = 0

3
or (4.0345)9 + (0.5)(15000)0 = 0
I 0.5 x 15000
Therefore (1)n — — 43.1 rad/s
,\ 4.0345
43.1
and fn = — = 6.86 Hz Ans.
2.ir
(Note: It is advisable to convert all dimensions in metres. Readers may verify that if distances
are used in centimetres in this problem, con will work out to be 4.31 rad/s.)
The periodic torque about A due to centrifugal force at the crank pin mass is
T = mrw 2 cos wt x 0.35
39 x (10702 x 0.05 x 0.35

or T= sin 107rt = 68.66 sin 107r t
9.81
Hence, the equation of motion is now
(4.0345)a + 75000 = 68.66 sin 107rt
a + 18590 = 17.02 sin 107rt

The particular integral is
(D2 + 1859)0 = 17.02 sin 107rt
— 17.02 sin lOrct

Therefore 0
1859 — (10702
17.02
Therefore, peak amplitude at C is = 35 X 873 = 0.682 cm Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.7 A single cylinder vertical petrol engine of total mass 400 kg is mounted
upon a steel chassis frame and causes a vertical static deflection of 0.25 cm. The reciprocating
parts of the engine have a mass of 5 kg and move through a vertical stroke of 12 cm with
simple harmonic motion. A dashpot is provided, the damping resistance of which is directly
proportional to the velocity and amounts to 20 kN at 1 m/s. If a steady state vibrations has
been reached, determine from first principles (a) the amplitude of forced vibrations when the
driving shaft of the engine rotates at 540 rpm, (b) the maximum dynamic force transmitted to
the ground (i) through the chassis frame (which behaves as a spring), (ii) through the dashpot
and (iii) through the chassis frame and dashpot together and (c) the driving shaft speed at
which resonance will occur.
Solution
(a)
Combined stiffness of the springs = (400 x 9.81) x 100/0.25 = 1569.6 kN/m
100
The natural frequency con = /9.81 x — — 62.64 rad/s
V 0.25
The excitation frequency = 2,r x 540/60 = 18,r rad/s
18n-
The frequency ratio = = 0.902
62.64
Mass of the reciprocating parts m = 5 kg and radius of the crank = 12/2 = 6 cm
Therefore me = 5 x 6 = 30 kg-cm and C = 20000/(2 x 400 x 62.64) = 0.399
It follows from Eq. (4.31) that
400X 1
= 0.9022 x i
30 J(1 — 0.9022 )2 + (2 x 0.399 x 0.902)2
or X = 0.082 cm Ans.
(b)
(i) The maximum dynamic force transmitted to the ground is given by
.082
Ft = Amax = 1569.6 x 1000 x 0100 = 1287 N Ans.
(ii) The dynamic force transmitted to the foundation through dashpot is given by
.082
Fd = C.i = CX(0. And therefore Fd = 20000 x 18,r x 0100 = 938.7 N Ans.
(iii) The spring force F, and the force in dashpot Fd are out of phase by 90 degrees and,
therefore, the maximum force transmitted to the ground through chassis and dashpot
both is
F = V1287 2 + 938.72 = 1593 N
(c) The driving shaft speed at which resonance occurs is same as the speed corresponding to
the natural frequency and is given by N = (60 x 62.64)/2g = 598.2 rpm. Ans.
4.5 VIBRATION ISOLATION
Machines which transmit substantial static or dynamic forces through their pedestal are
required to be installed on foundation. Attempts are made to reduce out-of-balance forces in a
machine before marketing. However, very often in practice, an unbalanced machine has to be
installed in a structure where vibration is undesirable. For instance, an A.C. motor may be
installed in a hospital or a hotel in connection with elevators. Similarly, an I.C. engine, which
is inherently a source of vibration, is required to be installed in an automobile. In all such
cases an engineer is required to mount the machine in such a manner that no vibrations appear
in the structure to which it is attached. An objectionable feature of such vibration is that they
are transmitted to other locations through the structure and can cause other machines to
vibrate. There is yet another category of problem requiring vibration isolation. In some of the
machines (e.g. aircraft, rocket, etc.) vibration of structure must not be transmitted to the radio
receiver and instruments on the control panels. In all such cases, vibrating objects are required
to be isolated from the rest of the parts of the machine or structure. Problems of both the types
can be solved by isolating the equipment from the support.
4.6 FORCE TRANSMISSIBILITY
Universal solution to isolation problem consists in mounting the machines on properly

designed springs and effectiveness of vibration isolation is measured in terms of ratio of
amplitude of force/motion transmitted through isolator to the amplitude of excitation force/
motion. This is called transmissibility. Lesser the amplitude of force being transmitted through
the isolator, for a given excitation force, greater is the isolation. To develop a clear
understanding about the problem of vibration isolation, one must know the different roles
played by each of the two components, namely the spring and the viscous damper.
4.6.1 Isolation Using Springs Alone
Consider the machine to be represented by a mass m and let the external excitation be
represented by an excitation force F0 sin wt. In Fig. 4.9(a), the machine is shown to be
mounted directly on a rigid foundation. By definition, a rigid foundation is the one which
produces zero deflection for a finite force (i.e. the spring stiffness k is infinite). As against
this, in Fig. 4.9(b), the same machine is shown on springs of combined stiffness k of finite
value in vertical direction. The damper is assumed to be absent in this case. Further, let us
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.9 Machine mounted on springs alone.
assume that the amplitude of excitation force F0 is kept constant while the frequency CO
changes with time. Differential equation of motion for this case is
mi + kx = Fo sin on
The steady state response of a forced damped system may be expressed as
Folk
x= sin (cot — yi)
V(1 — r 2 ) 2 + (2;02
As, C = 0 and Folk = X0, the static deflection, the amplitude of steady state response reduces to
x
X— ° (4.35)
1 — r2
X 1
or K= =
X0 1— r 2
Further, as the static deflection X0 = F0/k, a substitution for X0 in the above equation shows
that
X = kX
(4.36)
X0 F0
The only connection between the mass and foundation is through the spring and,
therefore the force transmitted to the foundation equals the force in the spring. Thus, the
numerator kX in Eq. (4.36) represents the amplitude of the force transmitted to the foundation.
We conclude, therefore, that the expression for magnification factor in undamped vibrations
also represents the transmissibility ratio (T.R.). Thus, for undamped forced vibration,
T.R. Magnification factor K = (4.37)

1 —1 r2
Figure 4.10 shows the effect in variation of frequency ratio on the transmissibility ratio.
It can be verified from the Eq. (4.37) that at r = 0, the transmissibility ratio is 1. In other
words, at r = 0, the spring does not modify the force being transmitted to the foundation and
the entire amplitude of excitation force is transmitted to the foundation as it is. This condition
4—
T.R. K
3—
2—
VT 2 3 4 5
A I I _ ______ I.
--
Fig. 4.10 Transmissibility as a function of frequency ratio for undamped forced vibration.
occurs when con >> CO and is achieved in practice when the machine is mounted directly on a
rigid foundation which implies that the spring constant k (and, therefore, the natural frequency
con) approaches infinity. This condition is indicated by point A in Fig. 4.10. Again at
resonance where r = 1, the Eq. (4.37 ) shows that T.R. approaches infinity. Stated in simple
words, at resonance, a very large force is transmitted to the foundation. At r = , the
Eq. (4.37) shows that T.R. = —1. Readers may verify that for 0 < r < , T.R. > 1 always.
The underlying meaning of this statement is of great concern to us. Since the condition
T.R. = 1 at r = 0 arises when the machine is directly mounted on rigid foundation, it follows
that mounting the machine on springs actually makes the matter worse in the range 0 < r <
, where T.R. is always greater than 1 and amplitude of force transmitted to the foundation
is always greater than the amplitude of excitation force. This is obvious because by mounting
the machine directly on foundation, in the frequency range 0 < r < , the maximum T.R.
value is restricted to 1.
A significant change occurs in the graph for the values of r > . It follows from
Eq. (4.37) that at moderate values of r = 3 and 5, the corresponding values of T.R. are
respectively —0.125 and —0.0417. At r 00, the T.R. value approaches zero.
To achieve a very large value of r for a finite value of operating frequency CO, the natural
frequency con must be quite small. For the given mass m of the machine, this can be achieved
by mounting the machine on soft springs (i.e. on springs having small k).
It is concluded, therefore, that spring mountings play a positive role in vibration isolation
only at frequency ratios greater than 1.414. In raising the machine speed CO beyond a frequency
ratio of 1.414, however, the machine has to crossover the range of frequency ratio from
0 to 1.414. It will be shown in the next section that the dampers are primarily useful to control
T.R. values in this range only.
4.6.2 Isolation Using Springs and Damper

When machines are mounted on helical metallic springs, damping is negligibly small and the
case of vibration isolation approaches the one discussed in Section 4.6.1. However, when
rubber, cork or even the leaf spring is used for machine mounts, the damping does not remain
negligible. In all such cases, the system is represented by mathematical model as shown in
Fig. 4.1. The mathematical model is same as that used for establishing the steady state response
for forced harmonic vibration in Section 4.2. Therefore, the steady state response in the
present case is
Fo lk
x= sin (cot — yi)
V(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
with symbols having their usual meaning. This expression may be stated briefly as
x = X sin(wt — tv)
The only connection between the vibrating mass and the foundation is through the spring and
the damper. Therefore, the force transmitted to the foundation will be the vector sum of the
spring force and the damping force. These two forces are:
The spring force = kx = kX sin (wt — ty)
The damping force = cz = cXw cos (wt — ty)
Therefore, the force transmitted to the foundation = kX sin (wt — ty) + cwX cos (wt — ty)
As kX and cXw represent magnitude of forces, let
kX = F, cos y and cmX = F, sin y (4.38)
Thus, substituting for kX and cXw,
the force transmitted to the ground = F, sin (wt — + y),
where Ft = V(kX)2 + (cXw)2
Taking kX common out of the radical sign, and simplifying, we have

2
CCO
Ft = kX \1_+ (—
k 1
Substituting for c/k = 2c/con, we have
Ft = kX V1+ (gr)2
Substituting for the steady state amplitude X, we have
F° K + (2;02
Ft = k(—
ic
or Ft = Fo K + (gr)2 (4.39)
Also from Eq. (4.38),
co)
tan y = —= 2‘ r (4.40)
F 11+ (2;02
kX\
The transmissibility ratio is then given by T.R. — t=
F0 kX0
or T.R. = V1+ (2;02 = KV1+ (2;02 (4.41)
Figure 4.11 depicts graphically variation in transmissibility ratio (T.R.) against

frequency ratio r, for different values of damping ratios C For the sake of convenience in
understanding all the segments of curves for different values of C have been shown on the
positive side of the axis of frequency ratio.
Transmissibility ratio (T.R.)
.5 3
Fig. 4.11 Transmissibility versus frequency ratio for different values of ;.
Important conclusions from transmissibility curves

1. All the curves for different values of C intersect T.R. = 1 line at frequency ratios of r = 0
and j. For frequency ratios in the range (0 < r < j), the transmissibility ratio is greater
than 1 for all values of C. Larger the damping ratio, smaller is the T.R. value. Thus, whereas
springs make the matter worse in this range, damper helps to reduce the T.R. value. But even
after this, the amplitude of force transmitted to foundation in this range is greater than the
amplitude of excitation force. Metallic springs are, therefore, not considered suitable for
marine applications where frequency ratios less than 1.414 are more frequently encountered.
At r = 1, the T.R. value is controlled by damping ratio C. For undamped case, when
C = 0, the T.R. is indeed very large. Readers should note that in the range of frequency ratio
0 < r < j, for non-zero values of C maximum values of T.R. do not occur at r = 1.
Frequency ratio r0 at which maximum value of T.R. is obtained is given by Eq. 4.20. Thus,
larger the values of C larger is the deviation of r0 from resonating condition. In the range of
frequency ratios r > j, transmissibility ratio goes on decreasing as the frequency ratio
increases for all values of C. A careful look at the expression for T.R., namely,
J1 + (2;02
T.R. — (4.42)
V(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
shows that because for r > j the factor (1 — r2 ) is greater than 1, the impact of factor (2Cr)2
is more significant in numerator rather than in denominator. For this reason, as C increases, the
numerator increases faster than the denominator and tends to increase T.R. This can be
confirmed by comparing the T.R. values at r = 3 and C = 0, 0.2 and 0.4. This is shown in
tabular form below for better understanding.
Frequency ratio r damping ratio C Transmissibility ratio (T.R.)

3 0 0.125
3 0.2 0.193
3 0.4 0.311
2. For higher values of r, the expression on the right hand side in Eq. (4.42) can be divided in
the numerator and denominator by r. The expression for T.R. then becomes
V(1/r2 ) + (2;)2
T.R. — (4.43)
V[(1/r — r)2 + (2c)2
It follows from the above expression that as r 00, T.R. 0 for all C.
Equation (4.39) can also be established from the vector polygon of forces acting on the
mass. In Fig. 4.12, the excitation force vector Fo is located at an angle of wt in counter
clockwise direction from the real axis. The displacement vector X lags behind the vector Fo by
an angle 1/1. The spring force vector kX is placed parallel to but in a direction opposite to X.
The velocity vector is 7c/2 radians ahead of the displacement vector and, therefore, the
damping force vector cv is shown in a direction parallel to but in a direction opposite to the
velocity vector. Finally, the inertia force vector m 072X completes the polygon. The diagonal
Fig. 4.12 Vector diagram for forces.

AC represents the resultant of the vectors AB and BC, which represents the spring force and
the damping force. This vector AC is inclined at y to the displacement vector and represents
the force transmitted to the foundation.
Thus, using Pythagoras theorem for the vector triangle, we have
F, = j(kX)2 +(caa)2
Taking out the term kX common out of the radical sign on the right hand side and simplifying,
we can derive the equation as Eq. (4.39).
4.7 FORCE TRANSMISSIBILITY ASPECT OF VARIABLE SPEED MACHINE

For constant speed machines, the amplitude of excitation force Few given by meco2, remains
constant and, therefore, the amplitude of force transmitted to the foundation is proportional to
the transmissibility ratio. Thus
P-',=me(1)2 K-\11+ (gr)2 (4.44)

When the excitation frequency CO is variable, the amplitude of the transmitted force does not
remain proportional to the transmissibility ratio. Multiplying and dividing on right hand side
of above equation by m 2„ and defining Fn = mew 2n , we have
f; 2 I
— = r K\11+ (2;02 = r2 x T.R. (4.45)
F
Figure 4.13 shows variation of r2 x T.R. versus the frequency ratio r. It can be verified from
Fig. 4.13 that the ratio Ft /Fr, equals zero at r = 0. This implies that when mn >> CO, the force
transmitted to the foundation is zero. Also at CO = (On, the amplitude of transmitted force is
equal to twice the amplitude of inertia force at natural frequency.
4
1.0
2.0 0.7
0.1 0.5
3
0.2
._,„
0.3
2 -----------
y ____ 0.2
0.1
2.0
r
0 2 3
Fig. 4.13 Variation of ratio F fIF with frequency ratio for various ;-inertial excitation.
In order to determine the force transmitted to the foundation by the system at very large
frequency ratio, we rewrite the Eq. 4.45 as under:
P-', — r2 V1 + (2;02
Fn V(1— r 2)2 + (2;02
Dividing the numerator and denominator on R.H.S. by r2, we have
f'd — V1+ (2;02

(4.46)
Fn Vol r 2 _ 1)2 + (247 02
Equation 4.46 shows that as r 00, the ratio Ft /Fn 00. Hence, in applications where
frequency keeps on changing, a very large force is transmitted to the foundation when
co >> con.
EXAMPLE 4.8 An air compressor weighs 4450 N and is operated at a constant speed of
1750 rpm. The unbalanced reciprocating parts weigh 110 N and the rotating parts are well
balanced. The crank radius is 10 cm. If the dampers used for the mounting introduce a
damping factor C = 0.15, (a) specify the springs for the mounting such that only 20% of the
unbalanced force is transmitted to the foundation and (b) determine the amplitude of the
transmitted force.
Solution
(a) co = (2,r) 1750/60 = 183.26 rad/s
It follows from Eq. (4.41) for T.R. that
Nil + (2;02
T.R. —
V(1 — r2 )2 + (2;02
Substituting T.R. = 0.2; C = 0.15 and squaring on either sides, we get
1 + 0.09r2 = 0.04{(1 — r2)2 + 0.09r2 )
or r4 — 4.16 r2 — 24 = 0
Simplifying, we get r = 2.72
and therefore con = 183.26/2.72 = 67.38 rad/s
Thus, the spring stiffness k = nico 2n = (4450/9.81)(67.38)2
Therefore k = 20594.58 N/m. Ans.
(b) Amplitude of force transmitted = 0.2meco2 = (0.2)(110/9.81)(0.1)(183.26)2
Thus F, = 7531.6 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.9 A centrifugal fan weighs 450 N and has a rotating unbalance of 225 N-cm.
When dampers having damping factor C = 0.2 are used, specify the springs for mounting such
that only 10% of the unbalance force is transmitted to the floor. Also determine the
magnitude of transmitted force. The fan is running at a constant speed of 1000 rpm.
(SGSITS: Dec. 2002 PTDC)
Solution
The excitation frequency w = (2,r) (1000)/60 = 104.72 rad/s
Transmissibility ratio T.R. = 0.1. From the expression for transmissibility ratio,
1 + (2 x 0.2r)2
0.12 =
(1- r2 )2 + (2 x 0.2r)2
or (1 — 2r2 + r4) + 0.16r2 = 100 + 16r2

Simplifying further,
r4 — 17.84r2 — 99 = 0
or r = 4.72
104.72
Therefore con = = 22.19 rad/s
4.72
( 445
Again, the spring stiffness k = mco2n = (22.28)2
9.81 j
Therefore k = 22517.56 N/m = 225.1756 N/cm Ans.
225
Again, the amplitude of excitation force (= — (104.72)2 = 2515.2 N
981 j
Therefore, the magnitude of force transmitted F, = 0.1 x 2515.2 = 251.52 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.10 A 1200 kg machine is mounted on four identical springs of total spring
constant k and having negligible damping. The machine is subjected to a harmonic external
force of amplitude F0 = 490 N and frequency 180 rpm. Determine the amplitude of motion of
the machine and the maximum force transmitted to the foundation because of the unbalanced
force (a) when k = 1.96 x 106 N/m and (b) when k = 9.8 x 104 N/m.
Solution
The frequency of excitation w = (2,r)(180/60) = 6,r rad/s
106
The natural frequency con = 1.96 x = 40.4 rad/s
1200
67z
Therefore, the frequency ratio r = — — 0.466
40.4
1
As damping is negligible, the magnification factor K =
1—r 2
1
or K= = 1.277
1— 0.4662
1.277 x 490
The amplitude of the motion of the machine X = KX0 —
1.96 x 106
or X = 0.000319 m = 0.319 mm Ans.

490
Amplitude of the force transmitted F, = F0 x T.R. =
1— 0.4662
or Ft = 625.9 N Ans.
When k = 9.8 x 104 N/m,
9.8 x 104
(On = 9.037 rad/s
1200
67r
Therefore, the frequency ratio r = — 2.086
9.037
Since the frequency ratio r > 1 for which transmissibility curve lies on the negative side of the
T.R. axis, the expression for T.R. modifies to
X 1
T.R. = =
X0 r 2 -1
X = 1
Hence
0.005 2.0862 —1
or X = 0.001492 m = 1.49 mm Ans.

The force transmitted to the ground is given by
490
= = 146.2 N Ans.
2.0862 —1
EXAMPLE 4.11 A machine weighing 1670 N is mounted on spring having stiffness

k = 10790 N/cm. A piston within the machine weighing 20 N has a reciprocating motion with
a stroke of 7.5 cm and a speed of 6000 rpm. Assuming the motion to be simple harmonic,
determine (a) the amplitude of vibration of the machine and (b) the transmissibility and the
force transmitted to the ground. Take C = 0.2.
Solution
The unbalance of the rotor = me = (20 x 7.5)/2 = 75 cm-N
The excitation frequency = w = (2,r x 6000)/60 = 628 rad/s
110790 x 100 x 9.81

Now con = — 79.6 rad/s
1670
628
Therefore, the frequency ratio r = — 7.89
79.6
The radius of the crank = stroke length/2 = 7.5/2 = 3.75 cm
MX 1670X
For a reciprocating engine mechanism, the ratio — 22.27 X
me 20 x 3.75
1
Magnification factor K —
V(1-7.892 )2 + (2 x 0.2 x 7.89)2
1
Therefore K= = 0.0163
61.33
Thus 22.27X = 7.892 x 0.0163
, 0.0163
Hence X = 7.89- x 0.0456 cm Ans.
22.27
The transmissibility ratio T.R. = Kj1 + (2 x 0.2 x 7.89)2 = 0.054 cm

Therefore, the force transmitted to the ground
Ft = T.R. x Fo
20
or Ft = 0.054 x — x 335 X 6282 = 1628.2 N Ans.
9.81 100
EXAMPLE 4.12 A refrigerator unit weighing 295 N is to be supported by three springs of
stiffness k N/cm each. If the unit operates at 580 rpm, what should be the value of the spring
constant k if only 10% of the shaking force of the unit is to be transmitted to the supporting
structure?
Solution
This being a case of undamped vibration, the same expression represents transmissibility ratio
and the magnification factor. Given, T.R. = 10/100 = 0.1.
Again, for better isolation, as machines are designed to operate at values of frequency
ratios r > 1 and also because for this condition, the graph of T.R. versus frequency ratio r lies
on the negative side of the T.R. axis, the expression for transmissibility ratio modifies to
1
T.R 0.1 —
2
r -1
This leads to the equation r2 — 1 = 10
which has the solution r = 11 = 3.317
The excitation frequency is given as
2xgx580
= = 60.74 rad/s
60
Hence, the natural frequency con = co/r = 60.74/3.317 = 18.31 rad/s
Therefore, the combined spring stiffness keg = (295/9.81)(18.31)2 = 10081.6 N/m
Therefore, the stiffness of each spring k = 100.816/3 = 33.6 N/cm Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.13 An aircraft radio weighing 118 N is to be isolated from engine vibrations
ranging in frequencies from 1600 to 2200 cpm. What static deflection must the isolator have
for 85% isolation?
Solution
The two extreme frequencies of the frequency range are
2rc x 1600 2rc x 2200
= = 167.55 rad/s; w2 = = 230.38 rad/s
60 60
Isolation of 85 per cent implies transmissibility ratio of 1 — 0.85 = 0.15
For an isolation involving T.R. values less than 1, the frequency ratio must be greater
than j and for this range of frequency ratio, the T.R. values are negative. Since damping is
absent, the T.R. is
1
— 0.15 =
1— r2
or 1 — r2 = —6.67 or r = 2.769
For frequency ratios greater than j, larger the frequency ratio, larger is the isolation. This
implies that for above value of r, if con is established based on co = o)1 , the system will still
have higher isolation at co = o)2.
To have an isolation of at least 85%, therefore,
(1) = 167.55
(1)n
167.55
or con = = 60.51 rad/s
2.769
9.81
Also as the natural frequency is given by con =
8st
9.81
Hence (5, = - 0.00268 m = 2.68 mm Ans.
60.512
EXAMPLE 4.14 The weight of an electric motor is 1226 N and it runs at 1500 rpm. The
armature weighs 344 N and its centre of gravity lies 0.05 cm from the axis of rotation. The
motor is mounted on five springs of negligible damping so that the force transmitted is
one-eleventh of the impressed force. Assume that the weight of the motor is equally distributed
among the five springs. Determine (a) stiffness of each spring, (b) dynamic force transmitted
to the base at operating speed and (c) natural frequency of the system.
Solution
For undamped vibrations, the transmissibility is given by
1 1
11 r2 — 1
Therefore r2 = 12
or r = 3.464
2.ir x 1500
The excitation frequency co = — 157.08 rad/s
60
Hence, the natural frequency con = 157.08= 45.35 rad/s Ans.

3.464
2
Effective stiffness of the springs k = mo = 1570x 45.352 = 329143.46 N/m
9.81
329143.46
Therefore, the stiffness of each spring k' = = 65828.7 N/m Ans.
5
2 44 0.05
The amplitude of excitation force F = m'ea) = x x 157.082 = 432.6 N
9.81 100
432.6
The amplitude of the force transmitted to the base F, = = 39.33 N Ans.
11
4.8 MOTION TRANSMISSIBILITY (SYSTEMS ATTACHED TO MOVING

SUPPORTS)
There are a number of practical situations in which the dynamical system is excited due to the
motion of the support. A vehicle moving on road, a locomotive running on a rail track with
gaps between the adjacent rails, a panel of measuring instruments subjected to excitation from
the vibrating structure. Analysis involving vibrations of a dynamic system, due to base
excitation is useful as it helps to understand the principle of vibration measuring instruments.
There are two aspects of studies involving base excitation:
(a) The absolute motion of the mass
(b) The relative motion between the mass and the support
Both these aspects are important in view of their applications. Let us consider each case
seperately. Let x1 (t) be the displacement given to the support and the resulting absolute motion
of mass m be x2(t). There being relative motion between the mass and the support, the resulting
displacement and relative velocity between the two ends of the spring and the dashpot are
respectively given by
X = X2 - X1 and •i = •i2 - z1
4.8.1 Absolute Motion of Mass
Assume x2 > x1 . Applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram of the mass m (see
Fig. 4.14), we have
m.:2 = — c(x2 — .i1) — k(x2 —x1 )
or m12 + c(z2 — .ii) + k(x2 — x1)=0

Rearranging the equation, we have
ini2 + CX2 + kx2 = CX1 + kx1 (4.47)
Fig. 4.14 System subjected to support motion.
Assuming the base excitation to be harmonic, of the form: x1 = X1 sin wt, we have
Xi = Xi o) cos on
Substituting these values, Eq. (4.47) becomes
mi2 + cX2 + kx2 = X1 (cm cos an + k sin on) (4.48)

Letting cw = A sin y and k= A cos y and substituting in Eq. (4.48), we have
mi2 + C.i2 + kx2 = X1 A sin (on + y) (4.49)
where cw/k = tan y and Ike + (c0))2 = A
which simplifies to tan y= 2Cr and A = 41+ (2Cr)2 (4.50)

Substituting for A in Eq. (4.49), we have
m12 + c.i2 + kx2 = Xi kV1+ (2Cr)2 sin (wt + y) (4.51)
A close look on the right hand side of Eq.(4.51) shows that the amplitude represents a
force, say Feq. The Eq. (4.51), therefore, reduces to
mi2 + c.i2 + kx2 = Feq sin (mt + y) (4.52)
where Feq = XI kV1 + (2;02 (4.53)
Equation (4.52) is of the same form as the standard Eq. (4.2) and therefore, the steady
state response may be expressed as
(Feq \
x2 = K sin (cot + y— tv)
\k J
which on simplification becomes
x2 = KX1 V1 + (24-02 sin (on — v + y) (4.54)

Thus, the steady state amplitude is

X1 V1 + (2;02
x2 (4.55)
V(1 — r 2 )2 + (2;02
Hence, the motion transmissibility ratio
X2 _ Nil + (24-02
(4.56)
X1 V(1 — r 2 )2 + (2;02
The right hand side of this equation is exactly the same as that in Eq. (4.41). Hence, all the
conclusions of force transmissibility ratio aptly apply in case of motion transmissibility also.
EXAMPLE 4.15 The springs of an automobile trailer are compressed 0.1 m under its own
weight. Find the critical speed when the trailer is passing over a road with a profile of sine
wave whose amplitude is 80 mm and the wavelength is 14 m. Find the amplitude of vibration
at a speed of 60 km/hr.
(SGSITS: Feb. 1992, June 2000, June 2001,
M.D.U. 1994, P.U. 1991)
Solution
1 g = 19.81
The natural frequency con = 9.9 rad/s
,\ 8st \ 0.1 =
Therefore fn = 61) ' = 9.9 = 1.576 cpm

2/z 27r
If v m/s be the critical speed of the automobile trailer, corresponding circular frequency of
road profile = speed/wavelength = v/14
For maximum disturbance, the two natural frequencies should match while driving.
Therefore v = 1.576
14
or v = 14 x 1.576 = 22.06 m/s
Therefore, the critical speed v = 22.06 x 3600/1000 = 79.2 km/hr Ans.
When the speed of the trailer is 60 km/hr, the forcing frequency f = [(60 x 1000/3600)
(1/14)] cps.
Therefore, the forcing frequency w = (60 x 1000/3600)(27a14) = 7.48 rad/s
The frequency ratio at this forcing frequency r = 7.48/9.9 = 0.756
From the Eq. (4.56) for motion transmissibility ratio, as C is zero, we have
X2 = X2 = 1
X1 0.08 1— r2
0.08
Therefore X2 = = 0.186 m Ans.
1— 0.7562
EXAMPLE 4.16 The static deflection of an automobile on its springs is 10 cm. Find the
critical speed when the automobile is travelling on a road, which can be approximated by a
sine wave of amplitude 8 cm and a wavelength of 16 m. Assume the damping to be given by
= 0.05. Also determine the amplitude of vibration at 75 km/hr. (Fig. 4.15)
(SGSITS: May 1999, Nov. 2003)
Fig. 4.15 Schematic sketch of an automobile moving on a rough road.
Solution
The natural frequency of the suspension system
9.81
= — 9.9 rad/s
V 0.1
Therefore, the natural frequency L =9.9- = 1.576 cps
2.ir
Let v be the critical speed in m/s.
v
Then — = 1.576
16
Therefore v = 16 x 1.576 = 25.22 m/s
Hence, the critical speed v = 25.22 x 3600/1000 = 90.79 km/hr Ans.
At the speed of 75 km/hr, the excitation frequency = (75 x 1000)/(3600 x 16) = 1.302 cps
Hence, the frequency ratio r = 1.302/1.576 = 0.826
From the Eq. (4.56), the motion transmissibility ratio is
X2 j1 + (2 x 0.05 x 0.826)2
X1 V(1 — 0.8262 )2 + (2 x 0.05 x 0.826)2
X2 = 1.0034
or 3.056
0.08 0.3283
Hence X2 = 0.245 m = 24.5 cm Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.17 A four-wheeler vehicle is a complex system with many degrees of

freedom. As a first approximation let it be assumed that the vehicle is constrained to move
only in vertical direction and that the tires do not provide any spring effect. It is further
assumed that the tires do not leave the road surface. Figure 4.15 then represents a simplified
mathematical model of the vehicle. A vehicle of this type weighs 9.8 kN when fully loaded
and 2.45 kN when empty. The effective spring constant is 3.5 kN /cm and the damping factor
C is 0.5 when the vehicle is fully loaded. The speed of the vehicle is 96 km/hr and the road
surface may be assumed sinusoidal with a period of 4.88 m and an amplitude X1 cm, determine
the amplitude ratio of the vehicle when fully loaded and empty.
Solution
3500 x 100 x 9.81
The natural frequency when fully loaded con = - 18.72 rad/s
9800
3500 x 100 x 9.81 x 4
The natural frequency when empty con= - 37.44 rad/s
11 9800
96 x 1000 1
The excitation frequency f = x = 5.46 cpm
3600 4.88
The excitation frequency w = 5.46 x 27r = 34.306 rad/s
The motion transmissibility ratio:
(a) When the vehicle is fully loaded and r = (34.306/18.72) = 1.833
X2 _ Nil + (2 x 0.5 x 1.833)2

X1 V(1 - 1.8332 )2 + (2 x 0.5 x 1.833)2
X2 2.088
or = 0.6988
X1 2.988
(b) When the vehicle is empty and r = 34.306/37.44 = 0.9165
)C, _ Nil + (2 x 0.5 x 0.9165)2

X1 j(1- 0.91652 )2 + (2 x 0.5 x 0.9165)2
)C = 1.356 =
or 1.4585
X1 0.93
The amplitude ratio when fully loaded and empty is given by
X2 0.6988
= = 0.479 Ans.
XZ 1.4585
EXAMPLE 4.18 A vibratory body of mass 150 kg, supported on springs of total stiffness
1050 kN/m has a rotating unbalance force of 525 N at a speed of 6000 rpm. If the damping
factor is 0.3, determine (a) the amplitude caused by the unbalance and its phase angle, (b) the
transmissibility and (c) the actual force transmitted and its phase angle.
Solution
The excitation frequency w = 2,r x 6000/60 = 200,r rad/s
The natural frequency con = V1050 x 1000/150 = 83.67 rad/s
Therefore, the frequency ratio r = 200g/83.67 = 7.51
The amplitude of steady state response X = (Fo /k) K
525 x 55.58 x 1
or X=
1050 x 1000 V[1 - (7.51)212 + (2 x 0.3 x 7.51)2
5 x 10-4
Therefore X = - 9 x 10-6 m Ans.
55.58
The phase angle is given by
2 x 0.3 x 7.51
tan III = = -0.0813
1 - 7.512
Therefore 1/1 = -4.648 = 175.352° Ans.
The transmissibility ratio is given by
V1 + (2 x 0.3 x 7.51)2
T.R. = 1 0.083 Ans.
NI(1 - 7.512 )2 + (2 x 0.3 x 7.51)2
Force transmitted to the foundation F, = 525 x 0.083 = 43.575 N Ans.
4.8.2 Relative Motion of Mass (Seismic Instruments)

Consider a seismic mass m mounted on spring and dashpot as shown in Fig. 4.16. Let x2(t) be
the periodic motion of mass m as a result of base excitation x1 (t). Let the relative motion x
between the mass and the base be given by
X = X2 - X1 (4.57)
Applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram of the mass, as in Section (4.8.1), we
have
m.:2 ± c(X2 - Xi) ± k(x2 - xi) = 0 (4.58)
Substituting x for (x2 - x1 ), X for (z2 - i 1 ) and (z + / 1 ) for i2, we have
m/ + ci + kx = - m. 1 (4.59)
Assume the base excitation to be harmonic, given by x1 = X1 sin wt.
Substituting for / 1 in Eq. (4.59), we have
In/ + ci + kx =mX1 c02 sin cot
Letting mXi cot = Few this equation becomes
+ + kx = Feci sin cot (4.60)

where Feq = mXi cot
This equation is similar to the differential equation of motion given by Eq. (4.2) and,
therefore, the steady state solution is
1 0)2
X = MX K sin (an — yi) (4.61)
Therefore, as mlk = 1/con2, the amplitude of steady state response is
0)2
X = K
(1)n
X 2 „.
or —= (4.62)
X r2
or (4.63)
2 )2
X1 V(1— r + (2;02
Dividing numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (4.63), we have
X 1
= (4.64)
J{(1/r2 ) —112 + (2c/r)2
It is important to observe a few interesting features of the above expressions. These

observations are as under.
1. It follows from Eq. (4.63) that at r = 0, the amplitude ratio X/X1 = 0. Thus, when
con >> w, the mass m appears to be stationary.
2. At r = 1, it follows from Eq. (4.63) that the amplitude ratio X/X1 = 1/2; and is
controlled only by the damping ratio c. Thus, at ; = 0, the amplitude ratio is very
large.
3. Again, it follows from the Eq. (4.64) that as r approaches infinity, the amplitude
ratio X/X1 approaches a value of unity. This observation is of great importance to us
as it lays down the principle of operation of a vibrometer. Stated in simple words,
this observation implies that when w >> con, the amplitude of vibration of mass m
equals the amplitude of the base excitation.
Seismic instruments
Vibration pickups and accelerometers are usually of the form of seismic mass. Figure 4.16(a)
shows a mechanical arrangement for a seismic instrument. It consists of a seismic mass m,
supported by means of a spring k and dashpot c and mounted on a platform. The platform also
supports a rotating cylindrical drum which is wrapped around by a graph paper. The drum
rotates at a slow rpm and a recording pen, attached to the vibrating mass, then records the
Rotating drum
Output
Base Pickup with strain sensitive element

(a) Mechanical arrangement (b) Electrical arrangement
Fig. 4.16 Seismic type of motion measuring instruments.
relative motion between the mass and the platform. Thus, if the vibration of the platform be
given by xi (t) and that of the mass be given by x2(t), then the pen records the relative motion
x2(t) — xi (t) on the graph paper.
Such an arrangement is useful for measuring vibration when amplitudes are sufficiently
large. However, when the amplitudes are not sufficiently large, one must use electro-dynamic
principles to amplify the signals and measure the displacements. This necessarily requires an
intermediate step to amplify the electrical voltage obtained as output from a secondary
transducer, which can be measured accurately. Amplification of voltage at the intermediate
stage is done using amplifiers. Variable reluctance type transducers are more commonly used
in vibration pickups. In Fig. 4.16(b), a spring supported mass, mounted in a housing with a
sensing element, is provided to detect the relative motion between the mass and the housing.
The action of the seismic instrument is basically a function of acceleration through the inertia
of the mass. The output is proportional to the relative motion between the mass and the
housing. This results in two categories of seismic mass instruments—the vibrometer and the
accelerometer. In case of variable reluctance transducer, the relative motion between a coil and
the flux-field from a permanent magnet is used to provide the voltage for measurement. In this
case, the instrument is velocity-sensitive (velometer) as the output is proportional to the rate at
which the lines of flux are cut. The fundamental requirements of the two instruments, namely
the vibrometer and the accelerometer, will be developed now.
Vibrometer: It follows from the Eq. (4.64) that as frequency ratio r approaches infinity, the
amplitude ratio X/Xi approaches unity irrespective of the value of damping ratio c. Since the
excitation frequency is decided by the type of an application, the natural frequency con must be
quite small to ensure a large value for r. Vibrometers are, therefore, known as instruments with
low natural frequency. Under this condition, the amplitude of relative motion X is almost the
same as the amplitude of displacement X1 of the base. An average value of natural frequency
con used for vibrometers is 4 cps. Theoretically, no damping is required. However, to minimise
transient vibrations a small amount of damping is provided.
A look at the Eq. (4.63) shows that even at modest value of r = 4 and C = 0.707, the
amplitude ratio X/X1 is given by 0.998 which is quite close to unity. However, in most of the
vibrometers, the damping is kept as low as possible so as to reduce phase distortion which will
be discussed later.
Accelerometer: From Eq. (4.62), we have
X=(r2K)X1
which may be written as
X=
2
X 10)2 (4.65)
Again it follows from the equation of base excitation x1 = X1 sin wt that the acceleration is
given by
11 = w2 sin wt
Thus, the amplitude of acceleration of base excitation = —X1 w2
It follows from Eq. (4.65) that for constant con, if the magnification factor K becomes
unity, the factor K/co2„ will be constant and, therefore, can serve the purpose of a scaling
factor. In that event, X in Eq. (4.65) will give a measure of the amplitude of acceleration
w2. It is easy to see from Eq. (4.17) that as the frequency ratio r approaches 0, the
magnification factor K approaches unity. This requires that even for large values of excitation
frequency w, the natural frequency must be very large to ensure that the frequency ratio r still
approaches zero. This is indeed difficult because K drops off rapidly from unity as r
approaches 1. For a solution to this problem, readers may refer to Fig. 4.2. The figure depicts
graphs of magnification factor K versus the frequency ratio r for various values of damping
ratio. The graphs reveal that for values of damping ratio in the range of C = 0.60 to 0.70, the
deviation in the term (1 — r2) from 1 is compensated by the additional term 2Cr with the result
that the value of magnification factor is almost unity in the useful frequency range. In fact, in
the useful range r = 0.55 to 0.85, deviation in the value of K from 1 can be limited to ±5 per
cent. This goes to suggest that by incorporating suitable damping, useful frequency range can
be greatly increased for accelerometers. Readers may verify that for different values of C,
useful ranges of frequency ratio for limiting deviation in the values of K from 1 to ±5 per cent
are as given in Table 4.1.
TABLE 4.1
Values of ;, the damping ratio Useful ranges of frequency ratio

0.0 r 0.2
0.6 r<_ 0.85
0.65 r<_ 0.7
0.7 r<_ 0.55
0.75 r<_ 0.45
Thus, in accelerometer, damping helps to increase the useful range of frequency ratio. The
percentage amplitude distortion is given by
100 {(K/wn2 ) — (1/wn2 ))
= 100(K — 1) (4.66)
lkon2
The accelerometers are, therefore, built with damping ratio C lying between 0.6 and 0.7,
which provides a useful range of frequency ratios from 0.55 to 0.85. The accelerometers used
extensively for the measurements of earthquakes have a natural frequency of 20 cps, which
permits faithful reproduction of ground motions of frequencies less than 8 cps at r= 0.4. With
a damping ratio C = 0.6, the same accelerometer can be used to measure frequencies up to
16 cps (at r= 0.8) at K = 1.03. Piezo-electric crystal accelerometers are extensively used for
extending range of frequency ratio further. Natural frequency of these accelerometers is quite
high and they can be used to measure frequencies of 1000 cps or more. As a general rule, the
natural frequency of an accelerometer should be at least twice as high as the highest frequency
of the acceleration under measurement. With a value of frequency ratio r up to 0.5 and C
between 0.6 and 0.7, the percentage distortion is of the order of 3 per cent.
Phase distortion
Measurement of simple harmonic motion with pure tone seldom poses any problem even when
damping is present. This is simply because only one frequency is involved in vibration
measurement. In case of measurement of periodic, non-harmonic vibration, however, the
problem does not remain simple owing to presence of different harmonic components. For a
given natural frequency of the accelerometer, each harmonic has a different frequency ratio
and as such, harmonics of higher frequency may not be recorded accurately unless con is much
higher than the highest frequency of the harmonics. Further, each harmonic has different
frequency ratio, and the phase angle measured between any two harmonic is not the same as
the actual phase angle between them. Clearly, the resultant motion as obtained by
measurement, using principle of superposition, will be different from the actual motion. This
deviation of measured vibration from actual one is called phase distortion. For instance,
consider a non-harmonic periodic motion as given below:
x(t) = Ao + A l sin(wt + 01 ) + A2 sin(2wt + 02) + A3 sin(Rot + 03) + •• • + An sin(ncot + On)
If the phase angle between the first and the second harmonics during measurement does not
remain (02 — 01 ) the phase distortion is said to have occured. Since a small nominal value of
damping is provided in vibrometers, the relative phase shift between different harmonics is not
significant.
Consider a non-harmonic periodic motion, expressed as
x(t) = Ao + A1 sin col t + A2 sin colt + A3 sin coat + •• • (4.67)
As can be seen in Fig. 4.3 that at C = 0.707, the phase angle 0 varies linearly with
frequency ratio r. Thus, for the first three harmonics with frequency ratios r, 2r and 3r, the
respective phase angles will be 0, 20 and 30. The phase angle at r = 1 is ,r/2 in Fig. 4.7.
Therefore, the phase angles for the first, second and third harmonics will be (7cm/2W,
(7r(o2/2ton) and (7co73/2con) respectively.
Therefore, the recorded motion will be as under:
r r r
It It It
x(t)= Ao + Al sin t— col + A2 sin t— (02 + A3 sin t- (03 + • • • (4.68)
2c0„ j 2con j 2con
Thus, no phase distortion takes place.
Since the accelerometer is an instrument of high natural frequency, it needs a smaller
mass and a spring of higher stiffness. An accelerometer can, therefore, be made quite small in
size compared to a vibrometer. Accelerometers are provided with integrating circuits, and as
such, electrical output of an accelerometer can be integrated to obtain the corresponding
velocity or displacement. Finally, due to their small size and high sensitivity, accelerometers
are preferred in vibration measurement.
EXAMPLE 4.19 A vibrometer has a period of free vibration of 2 seconds. It is attached to

a machine with a vertical harmonic frequency of 1.5 Hz. If the vibrometer mass has an
amplitude of 2.5 mm relative to the vibrometer frame, what is the amplitude of vibration of
the machine?
Solution
Natural frequency of vibrometer con = 27r/2 = 7r rad/s
The frequency of vibration of machine w = 1.5 x 27r = 3 7r rad/s
The frequency ratio is, therefore, r = 37d7r = 3
This being much smaller frequency ratio, the vibrometer is not expected to record the
vibration correctly. For vibrometer, C = 0 and, therefore, the Eq. (4.63) reduces to
X r2 32
= =
X1 1— r2 1— 32
2.5 9
Thus —=
X1 8
20
Hence X1 = — = 2.22 mm Ans.
9
EXAMPLE 4.20 A commercial type vibration pickup has a natural frequency of 6 Hz and a
damping factor of 0.65. What is the lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be
measured within (a) one per cent error and (b) two per cent error?
Solution
(a) For one per cent error, the amplitude ratio X/X1 = 1.01
Thus, from Eq. (4.63),
r2
1.01 —
V(1 - r2 )2 + (2 x 0.65 x r)2
Squaring on either side and simplifying, we have
0.02/1 — 0.316r2 + 1.02 = 0
The quadratic equation gives the roots as
r = 3.33 and 2.09
These are the two values of frequency ratios at which X/X1 = 1.01. In between these
two values of r, the ratio of the amplitudes will be greater than 1.01. Hence, the
lowest frequency beyond which the amplitude can be measured within 1 per cent
error is given by
f
— = r = 3.33
fn
which gives f = 3.33 x 6 = 19.98 Hz Ans.
(b) For 2 per cent error, X/X1 = 1.02
On solving the Eq. (4.63) for above value of X/X1 , the roots turn out to be
imaginary for r2. Hence, we shall solve the problem using value of the ratio
X/X1 = 0.98.
2
r
0.98 —
V(1 — r2 )2 + (2 x 0.65 x r)2
Squaring on either sides and simplifying, we have the quadratic equation as
r4 + 7.45r2 — 24 = 0
The only positive root of this quadratic equation is
r = 1.56
Hence, from flf, = r = 1.56, we have
f = 1.56 x 6 = 9.36 Hz Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.21 A device used to measure torsional acceleration consists of a ring having a
moment of inertia of 0.045 kg-m2 connected to a shaft by a spiral spring having a scale of
0.90 N-m/rad, and a viscous damper having a constant of 0.11 N-m-s/rad. When the shaft
vibrates with a frequency of 15 cpm, the relative amplitude between the ring and the shaft is
found to be 2°. What is the maximum acceleration of the shaft?
Solution
15
w = 27r x — = 0.57r rad/s
60
0.90
The natural frequency con = \I — 4.47 rad/s
I \I 0.045
The critical damping coefficient = 2X = 2V0.90 x 0.045 = 0.402 N-m-s/rad
Therefore, the damping ratio C = 0.11= 0.274

0.402
0.5g
Also the frequency ratio r = = 0.352
4.47
Using Eq. (4.63) for torsional vibration, we have

0 r2 0.3522
— 0.1381
01 '(1 r 2 )2 r.2
+ (24) \ill — (0.352)2 )2 + (2 x 0.247 x 0.352)2
As 0 = 2° = 2(7r/180) = 0.0349 radian
Therefore 01 = 0.0349= 0.2527 radian

0.1381
and, therefore, the maximum value of the acceleration of the shaft is
= w2 0 = (0.5702 x 0.2527 = 0.624 rad/s2 Ans.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
4.1 A periodic torque having a maximum value of 0.588 N-m at a frequency

corresponding to 4 radians per second is impressed upon a flywheel suspended from
a wire. The wheel has a moment of inertia of 0.12 kg-m2 and the wire has a stiffness
of 1.176 N-m/rad. A viscous dashpot applies damping couple of 0.392 N-m at an
angular velocity of 1 rad/s. Calculate
(a) the maximum angular displacement from rest position,
(b) the maximum couple applied to dashpot and
(c) the angle by which the angular displacement lags the torque.
4.2 The damped natural frequency of a system as obtained from a free vibration test is
9.8 Hz. During the forced vibration test, with constant exciting force on the same
system, the maximum amplitude of vibration is found to be at 9.6 Hz. Find the
damping factor for the system and its natural frequency.
4.3 A vibrating system having mass 1 kg is suspended by a spring of stiffness 1000 N/m
and is put to harmonic excitation of 10 N. Assuming viscous damping, determine
(a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the phase angle,
(c) the amplitude at resonance,
(d) the frequency corresponding to the peak amplitude and
(e) damped frequency.
Take c = 40 N-s/m.
4.4 Find the total response of a single degree of freedom system with m = 10 kg,
c = 20 N-s/m, k = 4000 N/m, x0 = 0.01 m and velocity v0 = 0 under the following
conditions:
(a) An external force F(t) = Fo cos wt acts on the system with F0 = 100 N and
w = 10 rad/s
(b) Free vibration with F(t) = 0
4.5 An electrical motor is supported on a spring and a dashpot. The spring has the
stiffness 6400 N/m and the dashpot offers resistance of 500 N at 4.0 m/s. The
unbalanced mass of 0.5 kg rotates at 5 cm radius and the total mass of the vibratory
system is 20 kg. The motor runs at 400 rpm.
Determine
(a) damping factor
(b) amplitude of vibration and phase angle
(c) the resonant speed and resonant amplitude and
(d) forces exerted by the spring and dashpot on the motor.
4.6 A single cylinder vertical petrol engine of total mass 320 kg is mounted upon a steel
chassis frame and causes a vertical static deflection of 0.2 cm. The reciprocating
parts of the engine have a mass of 24 kg and move through a vertical stroke of
15 cm with S.H.M. A dashpot is provided, the damping resistance of which is
directly proportional to the velocity and amounts to 490 N at 0.3 m/s. Determine
(a) the speed of the driving shaft at which resonance will occur, and
(b) the amplitude of steady state forced vibrations when the driving shaft of the
engine rotates at 480 rpm.
4.7 A body of mass 70 kg is suspended from a spring which deflects 2.0 cm under the
load. It is subjected to a damping effect adjusted to a value 0.23 times that required
for critical damping. Find the natural frequency of undamped and damped vibrations
and ratio of successive amplitudes for damped vibrations.
If the body is subjected to a periodic disturbing force of 700 N and of frequency
equal to 0.78 times the natural undamped frequency, find the amplitude of forced
vibrations and the phase difference with respect to the disturbing force.
4.8 A machine weighing 167 N is mounted on spring having stiffness of k = 10790 N/cm.
A piston within the machine weighs 20 N and has a reciprocating motion with a
stroke of 7.5 cm and a speed of 6000 rpm. Assuming the motion to be simple
harmonic, determine
(a) amplitude of the machine-vibration and
(b) the transmissibility and the force transmitted to the ground. Given C = 0.2.
4.9 A machine weighing 9800 N is mounted on four identical springs of total spring
constant k and having negligible damping. The machine is subjected to a harmonic
external force of amplitude F0 = 490 N and frequency 180 rpm. Find the amplitude
of motion of the machine and the maximum force transmitted on the foundation
because of unbalanced force when k = 19,600 N/cm.
4.10 A system of beams supports a motor of mass 1200 kg. The motor has an unbalanced
mass of 1 kg located at 6.0 cm radius. It is known that the resonance occurs at
2210 rpm. What amplitude of vibration can be expected at the motor's operating
speed of 1440 rpm, if the damping factor is assumed to be less than 0.1?
4.11 A radio set of 20 kg mass must be isolated from a machine vibrating with an
amplitude of 0.05 mm at 500 cpm. The set is mounted on four isolators, each having
a spring scale of 31,400 N/m and damping factor of 392 N-s/m. Find
(a) the amplitude of vibration of the radio and
(b) the dynamic load on each isolator due to vibration.
(SGSITS: Feb. 2002, Oct. 2004)
4.12 A vibrating body is supported by six isolators each having stiffness 32,000 N/m and
6 dashpots each having damping factor as 400 N-s/m. The vibrating body is to be
isolated by a rotating device having an amplitude of 0.06 mm at 600 rpm. Take mass
m = 30 kg. Determine
(a) amplitude of vibration of the body and
(b) dynamic load on each isolator due to vibration.
4.13 An industrial machine weighing 4365 N is supported on a spring with a statical
deflection of 0.5 cm. If the machine has a rotating imbalance of 245 N-cm,
determine the force transmitted at 1200 rpm and the dynamic amplitude at that
speed.
(Punjab University: 1993)
4.14 A machine of mass one tonne is acted upon by an external force of 2450 N at a
frequency of 1500 rpm. To reduce the effects of vibration, isolator of rubber having
a static deflection of 2 mm under the machine load and an estimated damping of
C = 0.2 is used. Determine
(a) the force transmitted to the foundation
(b) the amplitude of vibration of machine and
(c) the phase lag.
(Punjab University: 1989, 1991; SGSITS: Aug. 2002, Aug. 2004)
4.15 An automobile trailer moves over the road surface which has approximately
sinusoidal profile with a wavelength of 8 metres and amplitude of 6 cm. The trailer
is pulled on the road surface with a velocity of 60 km/hr. Calculate the critical speed
of trailer if the vibration amplitude is 1.5 cm for the trailer mass of 50 kg.
4.16 An automobile whose weight is 150 N is mounted on four identical isolators (springs
and shock absorbers). Due to its weight, it sags 0.23 m. Each isolator has a damping
force of 0.4 N for a velocity of 3 cm/s. The car is placed on a platform which moves
vertically at resonant speed, having an amplitude of 1 cm. Find the amplitude of the
car. Assume centre of gravity of the car at the centre of the wheel base. What is the
dynamic load on each isolator due to vibration?
(Roorkee University: 1994-95)
4.17 In a simple mathematical model, a motor vehicle is assumed to vibrate in the vertical
direction while travelling over a rough road. The vehicle has a mass of 1200 kg. The
suspension system has a spring constant of 400 kN/m and a damping ratio of C = 0.5.
If the vehicle speed is 20 km/hr, determine the displacement amplitude of the
vehicle. The road surface varies sinusoidally with an amplitude of 0.05 m and a
wavelength of 6 m.
4.18 A heavy machine, weighing 3000 N, is supported on a resilient foundation. The

static deflection of the foundation due to weight of the machine is found to be
7.5 cm. It is observed that the machine vibrates with an amplitude of 1 cm when the
base of the foundation is subjected to harmonic oscillation at the undamped natural
frequency of the system with an amplitude of 0.25 cm. Find
(a) the damping constant of the foundation,
(b) the dynamic force amplitude on the base and
(c) the amplitude of the displacement of the machine relative to the base.
4.19 A vibrometer indicates 2 per cent error in measurement and its natural frequency is
5 Hz. If the lowest frequency that can be measured is 40 Hz, find the value of
damping factor C.
4.20 A vibrometer having the amplitude of vibration of the machine part as 4 mm and
C = 0.2, performs harmonic motion. If the difference between the maximum and
minimum recorded value is 1.0 mm, determine the natural frequency of vibrometer
if the frequency of the vibrating part is 12 rad/s.
4.21 The motion of a vibratory system is to be recorded by a seismic instrument having
natural frequency of 3 rad/s. What is the reading of the instrument if the motion is
given by the equation
x = 2 sin 2f + 3 sin 3f?
Take C = 0.5.
4.22 A simplified spring-mass vibration pickup is used to measure the vertical
acceleration of a train which has vertical frequency of 10 rad/s. The mass weighs
17.2 N and the modulus of the spring is 175 N/cm. The amplitude of the relative
motion of the mass is 1.27 mm as recorded by the instrument. Find the maximum
vertical acceleration of the train. What is the amplitude of vibration of the train?
Systems with Two Degrees
of Freedom
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The discussions so far were confined to the study of systems with one degree of freedom
having one natural frequency. Though not many examples belong to this category, the
discussions helped us not only to understand the concept of natural frequency and the
phenomenon of resonance, but also to understand role of damping in controlling vibrations.
The concept also helped us to understand the problem of vibration isolation and the principles
of action of most of the vibration measuring instruments. Readers may recall from
Section 1.11 that any problem belonging to distributed parameter system can be converted into
an equivalent multi-degrees of freedom problem of lumped parameter type. As the number of
degrees of freedom are increased, the solution to the simplified model becomes closer and
closer to that of the real life problem, of course, at the cost of increased complexities. Since
there is no basic difference in concept between systems with two or more degrees of freedom,
the contents of this chapter will provide the introduction to multi-degree of freedom systems.
The discussions will also help to develop the concept of modes of vibration and the coordinate
coupling and the principle of operation of tuned undamped dynamic vibration absorber.
Systems that require two independent coordinates/parameters to specify their position
during motion are called two degrees of freedom systems. In general, a system requiring n
number of independent coordinates/parameters to specify its position is called a system with n
degrees of freedom. A two degrees of freedom system is, therefore, a special case of a
multi-degree of freedom system. Number of degrees of freedom generally equals the number
of discrete masses of the system. But, this is not always true. Consider, for instance, the two
degree of freedom systems shown in Fig. 5.1. Figure 5.1(b) shows a coupled system, while
Fig. 5.1(c) shows a conical pendulum with two degrees of freedom. Readers should note that
in the coupled system and conical pendulum of Fig. 5.1, the system requires coordinates 0 and
0 to describe the position of the system. Also in Fig. 5.1(a), there is an elastic connection
163
--------
B
(a) A two mass system (b) A coupled system (c) A conical pendulum
Fig. 5.1 Examples of two degrees of freedom systems.
between the two masses m1 and m2 and, therefore, relative motion is always possible between
them. Assuming that the two masses are constrained to move only in the vertical direction, two
parameters x1 and x2 must be defined to specify the position of the two masses.
5.2 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS AND THE PRINCIPAL MODES OF

VIBRATION
As a general rule, a two degrees of freedom system will have two natural frequencies. Under
certain situation, it is possible for both the masses to vibrate at any of the natural frequencies.
When this happens, a definite relationship exists between the amplitudes of the two
coordinates, and the configuration is referred to as principal mode. Thus, a two degrees of
freedom system will have two principal modes of vibrations. When the masses execute normal
mode of vibration, both the masses pass through their respective mean equilibrium position
simultaneously and also reach their extreme position simultaneously. As against this, in forced
harmonic vibrations, the resultant oscillations take place at the frequency of excitation.
Figure 5.2 shows a two degrees of freedom system consisting of two masses m1 and m2
which are connected to one another through a spring of stiffness k. These masses are also
connected to the foundation through springs k1 and k2, respectively. Let us assume that the two
k1x1
k(x — x2)t
k(x — x2)
m2
k2X2 t
Fig. 5.2 A two degrees of freedom system with free body diagrams of masses.
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom 1E7
masses are constrained to move only in the vertical direction and the masses m1 and m2 have
displacements x1 and x2 respectively as measured from their respective static equilibrium
position. It will be shown that the system has two natural frequencies. The Fig. 5.2 also depicts
free body diagrams of the two masses.
The equations of motion can be obtained by applying Newton's second law of motion to
the free body diagram of the two masses. For this purpose, let us assume that x1 > x2. Readers
may verify that the resulting equations of motion do not change even if this assumption is
reversed (i.e. if we assume x2 > x1 ). Let the displacements and forces be measured positive
downwards as in the previous chapter. For the assumed condition, the spring k1 is in tension
and in order to assume unstretched condition, will exert a force k1 x1 on mass m1 in the upward
direction. The spring k2 is in compression and in order to gain unstretched state, will exert a
force k2 x2 in the upward direction on mass m2. Since x1 > x2, the coupling spring k is in
compression and in order to assume original undeformed condition, will exert a force
k(x 1 — x2) upwards on the mass m1 and downwards on the mass m2. Thus, the free body
diagrams of the two masses are shown in Fig. 5.2.
Applying Newton's law to the free diagrams of the two masses m1 and m2, therefore, we
have
M1 11 = -k1x1 - k(x1 - x2) (5.1)
and m212 = +4X1 - x2) - k2x2 (5.2)

Rearranging and rewriting Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2), the differential equations are:
m i ..i i + (k + ki )xi — kx2 = 0 (5.3)
and m212 + (k + k2)x2 — kxi = 0 (5.4)

Since our intention is to establish principal modes of vibration, let us assume that both
the masses are vibrating at the same natural frequency w but with different amplitudes.
Therefore, let us assume the solution as
x1 = X1 sin wt and x2 = X2 sin wt
Substituting for x1 , x2 and their second derivatives in Eqs. (5.3) and (5.4), we get
—m1X1 w2 sin wt + (k + k1 )X1 sin wt — kX2 sin wt = 0
and —m2X2w2 sin wt + (k + k2)X2 sin wt — kX1 sin wt = 0
Rearranging the terms in above equations, we have
{(k + k1 — m i co2)X1 — kX2 ) sin wt = 0 (5.5)
{—kX1 + (k + k2 — m2 w2)X2 ) sin an = 0 (5.6)
As assumed solutions involve sin an, the term sin wt cannot be equal to zero all the times.
Thus, Eqs. (5.5) and (5.6) simplify to
(k + k1 — m1 co2)X1 — kX2 = 0 (5.7)
—kX1 + (k + k2 — m2 w2)X2 = 0 (5.8)
Equations (5.7) and (5.8) are homogeneous linear algebraic equations in X1 and X2. The
two equations are connected through k and in the absence of this term, these equations will
become independent. The spring k is, therefore, called a coupling spring. These equations can
be solved using Cramer's rule for X1 and X2. Using Cramer's rule, we have
0 —k (k+k1 —m1 0)2 ) 0

0 (k + k2 — m20)2 ) —k 0
X1 = and X2 =
Act) Aco
Thus, for having a solution other than the trivial solution X1 = X2 = 0, a necessary condition is
that
(k+k1 —m1 c02 ) —k
=0 (5.9)
—k (k + k2 — m20)2 )
Equation (5.9) is called the frequency or the characteristic equation of the system from which
the values of w are established. Simplifying Eq. (5.9) and rearranging, we get
m1 m2 m4 — {(k + k1 )m2 + (k + k2 )m1 )co2 + (k + k1 )(k + k2 ) — k2 = 0 (5.10)
Dividing out by m1 m2, Eq. (5.10) reduces to
r
4 k+ki k+k 2 2 kki + kk2 + ki k2
0) + 0) + =0 (5.11)
m1 m2 j m1 m2
which is a quadratic equation in w2 and can be solved for w.

The same problem can be approached in a yet another way. This approach is important
because it leads to the concept of mode shapes. Equations (5.7) and (5.8) can be rewritten as
X1 = k
(5.12)
X2 k + kl — m1 0)2
X1 k + k2 — m20)2
and = (5.13)
X2 k
Equating the right hand sides of Eqs. (5.12) and (5.13), we have
2
k k + k2 — m2(0
2 =
(5.14)
k +ki —m10) k
Readers may verify that simplification of Eq. (5.14) leads to the same quadratic equation in
m2 as in Eq. (5.11). Using the common algebraic procedure, the roots of the quadratic
equation may be written as
( 2
(02 1 k+ki k+k 2 k+ki k+k 2 4 kki + kk2 + ki k2
= ++ ( + (5.15)
2 m1 m2 ) \ m1 m2 ) m1m2
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom 157
which simplifies to
( \2
2 k+ k + k2 k+ k + k2 k2 1
= ± +4 (5.16)
2 m1 m2 / m1 m2 / M1M2
It is easy for the readers to verify that the quantity under the radical sign in Eq. (5.16) is
positive and, therefore, it can be concluded that the two values of cot are real. Further,
Eq. (5.15) may be written in a condensed form as
w2= —
21 (A ± VA2 —4B)
Since, for finite positive values of B the quantity under the radical sign is always less
than A, it follows that the sign of the expression on the right hand side of Eq. (5.15) is always
positive. Thus, Eq. (5.15) assures two real positive values of w2. Let these values be denoted
as w? and col. Hence, the four values of w are ±w1 and ±w2. As the assumed solution
involves sine or cosine functions, the use of negative sign for w merely changes the signs of
the arbitrary constants X1 and X2 but does not cause any change in the solution. Hence, we
shall consider the frequencies with positive sign only.
It may be concluded, therefore, that a system with two degrees of freedom has two natural
frequencies. If the two natural frequencies of the system are col and w2, then the general
solution of the vibratory system is not harmonic but will consist of harmonic components equal
in number to the natural frequencies. In the present case, the general motion will be periodic
but non-harmonic consisting of harmonic components of frequencies col and (02. The harmonic
component with smaller frequency is called fundamental/first harmonic and the one with
higher frequency is called second harmonic. The general solution consisting of both the
harmonics may be expressed as
x1 = X11 sin (01 t X12 sin wet
x2 = X21 sin (01 t + X22 sin mg (5.17)
where
X11, X12, X21 and X22 are the arbitrary constants.
The amplitudes X11, X12, X21 and X22 and the phase angles, if any, are determined by the
initial conditions. By setting appropriate initial conditions, the entire system (consisting of two
masses in the present case) can be made to oscillate at one of the natural frequencies. Under
these conditions, all the masses will pass their mean equilibrium positions simultaneously and
will also reach their maximum displacements simultaneously. A pattern of motion of this type is
called principal mode of vibration. The oscillation with the lower frequency is called the first
mode and the one with higher frequency is called the second mode.
When the system vibrates in the first mode of vibration (i.e. when w = mi ), the
amplitude ratio in Eq. (5.14) becomes
Xii k k + k2 — m2co? 1
say
X21 k+—
1 mi col2 = 111 '
(5.18)
,,2
X12 k + k2 — m2w2 1
and say
X22 k + k1 — m1 w2 k 112
The constants pi and p2 represent the amplitude ratios corresponding to frequencies oh and cot
respectively. Combining the two expressions to Eq. (5.18), we have
kfl12 = k + k1 — m1 0)12 (5.19)
Substituting for co?,2 from Eq. (5.16) and simplifying, we have

- _
( (
= mi k+ki k+k2 k+ki k+k2 4k 2
+ + (5.20)
2 • mi m2 i \ nil m2 ) M1M2
Since the quantity under the radical sign is greater than the quantity outside it, the sign of
the expression on the right hand side is decided by the sign of the quantity under the radical
sign. Hence, µi and p2 are of opposite signs.
When any of the amplitudes X1 or X2 in the amplitude ratio X1 /X2 is assumed to be unity,
the principal mode of vibration is called normal mode of vibration.
Mode shapes: It is, thus, clear that by setting appropriate initial conditions, one may ensure
that the complete system vibrates at one of the natural frequencies. In such oscillatory
condition, there exists a definite relationship between the amplitudes of the coordinates
(masses). Mode shape is a graphical display of the relative amplitudes of the two coordinates
and their phase angle relationship. It is seen in Fig. 5.2 that there are only two points (where
springs are connected to the support) in the system where no motion occurs. These are called
node points. Minimum possible nodes are obtained in vibrations at fundamental frequency.
Each subsequent vibration at higher natural frequency will have an additional node. Mode
shape diagrams, thus, help in identifying node points in the system.
When amplitude ratios are +1 and —1 in the two principal modes of vibration, a practical
way of setting the vibratory system in first principal mode of vibration is to give equal initial
displacements to the two coordinates (masses) in the same direction and start the motion. The
frequency of vibration in this case will be the same as corresponding natural frequency of the
first principal mode. Similarly, by giving equal initial amplitudes in opposite directions to the
two masses, one can set the system to vibrate in second principal mode. This feature of
principal mode of vibration is useful in laboratory experiments.
EXAMPLE 5.1 In a two degrees of freedom system shown in Fig. 5.2, let m1 = m2 = m and
ki = k2 = k. Find out the two natural frequencies of vibration and the amplitude ratios.
Solution
Substituting m1 = m2 = m and k1 = k2 = k in Eq. (5.16), we have
2 1 [4k 4k 2 3k k
=— —+ 0+
2 m in 2 m
Therefore, the natural frequencies are

3k
C°1,2 = \I—, Ans.
m M
For the first principal mode of vibration, letting w = \13 klm in Eq. (5.13), we get
X1 = 1 [k ± k _ ( 3k )1 = —1
m
X2 j1 k m
Also for the second mode of vibration, letting w = NIrt

I in Eq. (5.13), we get
(X \ 1
= —[k + k — m (1=
1 +1
,,,X2 i2 k m
Thus, the two amplitude ratios are +1 and —1 Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.2 Two simple pendulums are connected by a spring as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Determine the two natural frequencies of the system. Also establish the principal modes and
mode shapes.
m m
Fig. 53
Solution
Neglecting the mass of the rods and mass moment of inertia of the bob masses about their own
centres of gravity, the moment of inertia of the mass m about pivot = mL2. Let 01 and 02 be the
small angular displacements of pendulums from their mean equilibrium positions. Let us
assume that 01 > 02. With this assumption, the spring is in compression. In order to get
uncompressed length, the spring exerts outward forces on the two rods as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Taking moments of inertia about the two pivots, the Newton's law gives
mL2 91 = —(mgL)01 — ka2(01 — 02)
mL2 e2 = —(mgL)02 + ka2(01 — 02)
Assume 01 = A sin wt and 02 = B sin wt. Substituting for 01 , 02 and their higher derivatives
into the equations of motion, we get
(mgL + ka2 — niL2(02)A — (ka2)B = 0
— (ka2)A + (mgL + ka2 — niL 2(0 2)B = 0
The frequency equation is obtained by equating the amplitude ratios from each of the
two equations of motion. Thus
A ka2 mgL + ka2 — mL2(02

B 2 2
mgL + ka2 — mL CO ka2
Simplifying and arranging in the form of a quadratic equation in w2, we have
(mg', ka2 — mew ) 2 = (ka2 )2
Rewriting this as a quadratic equation in w2, we have
4 mgL + ka2 2 (mgL ka ) — (ka )

(0 2 (0 +
(mL2 )2 =0
mL2
2 ( 2 i
4 mgL + ka g +2ka g
or CO 2 w2 + =0
Me j lL mL2 L
which gives
2 g 2 g 2ka2
=—
L and (1)2 =
L mL2
g 2ka2
Therefore col = and 0)2 = Ans.
L mL2
For the first principal mode of vibration putting w = col in the expression for amplitude ratio,
we get
A ka2 + mgL — (mL2 )(g/L) —
( B )1
—
ka2
+1
and
iA ka2 + mgL — (mL2 )[(gIL)+(2ka21mL2 )]
= 1
B )2 — 2
ka
The mode shapes are as shown in Fig. 5.3. Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.3 For the system shown in Fig. 5.4, find out the natural frequencies of
vibration and the principal modes of vibration.
X2
m H wAA,-
\
kx ]
k(x 1
-
- x2)
2m --2
kr
cot = 0.634 klm
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.4
[SGSITS: July 1992, Dec. 2000 (PTDC)]
Solution
Let the displacements of the two masses be x1 and x2 from mean equilibrium positions as
shown in the Fig. 5.4. Assume x1 > x2. For the free body diagrams shown, the differential
equation of motion as obtained by applying Newton's law are
m11 = -k(x1 - x2) - kX1
and 2m12 = k(x1 — x2) — kx2
Let the assumed solutions be x1 = A sin wt and x2 = B sin wt
Substituting for x1, x2 and their derivatives in the differential equations of motion, we have
(2k — mo)2)A — kB = 0
and — kA + (2k — 2mw2)B = 0
The amplitude ratios from the above two equations are:
A k 2k —2mt02
= =
B 2k —mt02 k
or (2k — 2mw2)(2k — mw2) = k2
Simplifying further, the quadratic equation in w2 is:
r 3k 2
0)4 - ( k (0 2 + = 0
MI
12m2 /
The roots of this quadratic equation are:
0)2 = ( 3 ± Vi k
2 jm
Therefore coi = 2.366 klm and w22 = 0.634 klm
So coi = V2.366 klm and 0)2 = VO.634 klm Ans.

To obtain the first principal mode of vibration, let us put w2 = 2.366 klm in the expression for
amplitude ratio. Thus
r A) 2k — (2m)(2.366)(k/m) = 2k — 4.732k
=
B )1 k k - -2.732 Ans.
The second principal mode of vibration is similarly obtained by putting w2 = 0.634 klm
= 2k — (2m)(0.634)(klm) = + 0.732k
— 0.732 Ans.
C B j2 k k
The mode shapes for the two principal modes are shown in Fig. 5.4(b).
EXAMPLE 5.4 Derive the frequency equation for the pulley-mass system shown in
Fig. 5.5.The pulley has a mass of M and effective radius of R. Assume that the cord, which
passes over the pulley, does not slip. If k1 = 60 N/m, k2 = 40 N/m, m = 2 kg and M = 10 kg.
Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
(SGSITS: June 2001, Nov. 2001, June 2005; M.D.U. 1995)
k2(RO)
t k i (x — RO)
m
Fig. 5.5 A spring-mass-pulley system of two degrees of freedom with free body diagram.
Solution
As shown in the free body diagram in Fig. 5.5(b), the only external force acting on the mass
m is due to the spring. Assume a displacement of x for the mass m and an angular displacement
of 0 for the pulley, with respect to their respective static equilibrium positions. The relative
displacement to which the spring is subjected is given by (x — Re). Corresponding spring force
is k(x — Re). The other spring is connected to the ground at one end and, therefore, is
subjected to a relative displacement of (Re). The free body diagram of the pulley is, therefore,
as shown in Fig. 5.5.
Applying Newton's law to the free body diagrams of the mass and pulley and assuming
x > Re, following differential equations of motion may be written as
ml =—k i (x — Re)
and ha = +ko - RO)R — k2(R20)

Let us assume that the resultant motion is periodic and is composed of two harmonics of
different amplitudes and frequencies. Since our intention is to establish the two natural
frequencies and the corresponding principal modes of vibrations, let us assume the solutions as
x = A sin wt and 0 = B sin wt
Therefore / = —A o)2 sin wt and a = —Bw2 sin wt
Substituting above values in the differential equations of motion, we get
(k1 — mw2)A — k1 RB = 0
—k1 RA + (k1 R2 + k2R2 — low 2 )B = 0
Substituting /0 = MR2/2 and writing in the form of amplitude ratios, we have
A [k1 + k2 —(M12)(02 ]R2
B k1 — m(02 ki R
The frequency equation is obtained by equating the two amplitude ratios and simplifying them.
Thus
r AnD2
(Min R2(04 — + m(k1 k2 )R2 I CO2 + k1 k2 R2 =0
2 2
Dividing out by MmR2/2, we get
4 [ki ± 2(k1 k2 )] 2 2k1 k2

=0
111 M Mm
The two roots of the quadratic equation are:
2 1 [k1 2(k1 k2)1 1 4(k1 + k2 )2 4ki(ki — k2 )

(DI,2 = + Ans.
2 m M J 2\ m M2 Mm
With k1 = 60 m, k2 = 40 m, m = 2 kg and M = 10 kg, the two natural frequencies are
2 1 60 2(60 + 40)1 1 (60 4(60 + 40)2 4 x 60(60 — 40)

(D
''2- 2[2 10 2 \ 2 (10)2 10 x 2
1 1 5,10
or ah2,2 = 25 ± —
2 V900 + 400 + 240 = 25 ± = 44.62 and 5.378
2
Therefore mi = 6.68 rad/s and 0)2 = 2.32 rad/s Ans.
To establish the mode shapes, let us put values of each of the two frequencies. Thus, from the
expression for amplitude ratio, we have
A {k1 + k2 — (M/2)(02 )R = [100 — 5(44.62)]

= = 2.05
B )1 k1 60
A ) = [100 - 5(5.378)] =
and 1.218
60
The mode shapes are shown in Fig. 5.5 Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.5 Two uniform slender rods, each weighing 0.73 N/cm, are suspended at their
upper ends and connected by a spring of stiffness 8.76 N/cm as shown in Fig. 5.6. The system
is displaced slightly and released. What are the natural frequencies of the oscillation?
Fig. 5.6 Spring connected rods.
Solution
Let the rods suspended at P and Q have small angular displacements of 01 and 02 respectively.
Assume 01 to be larger than 02. The spring in this case is in compression and the force in the
spring will tend to push the two rods apart. The force of compression in the spring =
90k(01 — 02). The weight W1 of rod PA = 0.73 x 180 = 131.4 N. Similarly, the weight W2 of
the rod QB = 0.73 x 90 = 65.7 N. The spring stiffness k = 8.76 x 100 = 876 N/m.
Let Ii be the mass moment of inertia of the rod PA about pivot P and /2 be the mass
moment of inertia of the second rod QB about the pivot Q. As the rods have a distributed
mass, we have
/ r
1 WI L21 and /2 = — 1 W2
Ii=- L22
3 g / 3 \ g /
( 0.73x180"
Therefore II = 1.82 = 14.47 kg-m2
3 x 9.81 ,
( 0.73 x 9e
Also /2 = 0.92 = 1.81 kg-m2
3 x 9.81 ,
Assuming both the rods to swing to the right and considering the moments of the spring force
and that of the weight of the rods about the respective pivots, we have from Newton's law
II al = —W1(0.9)01 — k(01 — 02)(0.9)2
and 72 92 = —W2(0.45)02 + k(01 — 02)(0.9)2

Assuming a solution of the form 01 = A sin on and 02 = B sin on
so that al = —A o)2 sin on and e2 = 430)2 sin wt,
(0.9Wi + 0.81k — /1 0)2)A — 0.81kB = 0
and —0.81kA + (0.45W2 + 0.81k — /2 0)2)B = 0

Substituting the values of W1 , W2, k, Ii and I2, we have

(827.82 — 14.470)2 )A — 709.56B = 0
and — 709.56A + (740.0 —1.810)2 )B = 0
Dividing out Eq. (i) by 14.47 and Eq. (ii) by 1.81, we get
(57.2 — 0)2)A — 49B = 0
and —392A + (408.8— 0)2)B = 0
The characteristic frequency equation is obtained from
(57.2 — 0)2 ) —49

=0
—392 (408.8 — 0)2 )
Solving the determinant, we get
(57.2 — m2)(408.8 — w2) — 49(392) = 0
which simplifies to
0)4 — 466w2 + 4175.36 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in CO2 having roots as 9.15 and 456.8.
Therefore w1 = 3.02 rad/s and CO2 = 21.37 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.6 One type of seismograph, a device that records earthquakes, can be
modelled as shown in Fig. 5.7. For this model, determine (a) the differential equations of
motion (b) the frequency equation and the natural frequencies.
Fig. 5.7 A model of a seismograph with free body diagrams.
Solution
The Fig. 5.7 shows the model of the seismograph in displaced position. Let the displacement
of the mass M be x and that of the oscillating pendulum be 0 from static equilibrium position.
Let us assume 0 to be small. Applying Newton's law to the free body diagram of the mass, we
have
MI = -k(x - a0)
which simplifies to
MI + kx — ka0 = 0
Similarly, applying Newton's law to the free body diagram of the pendulum by taking
moments of inertia about the pivot 0, we get
loo = —mgLO + ka(x — a0)

which simplifies to
Io o + (mgL + ka2)0 — kax = 0
Neglecting the mass moment of inertia of the bob about its own centre of gravity, I = mL2
For obtaining solutions to the differential equations of motion, let us assume that
(k — M (.0 2)A — kaB = 0
and —kaA + (mgL + ka2 — I0c02)B = 0
The amplitude ratio, as obtained from above, is:
A ka mgL + ka 2 - mL2 CO 2
= =
B k — M(02 ka
This leads to the quadratic equation in w2 as under:
(0)2)2 [ k ± mgL + ka2 1 (c)

2 kg
+M =0
M Me iL,
2
,,2 1[k mgL + ka2 1 1 [k + mgL + ka2 kg
+ 4 Ans.
w1' 2 M mL2 2 1\ M mL2 ML
EXAMPLE 5.7 Two uniform rods AB and CD are pivoted at their upper ends as shown in
Fig. 5.8. Their lower ends are at the same level and are connected by a spring. Each rod
weighs 5 kg/m and is vertical in equilibrium position with the spring unstrained. The spring
has a stiffness of 2940 N/m. The spring is now compressed slightly and released. Find the
frequency of the resulting vibrations if the effect of gravity is neglected. If AB moves through
1° on either side of the vertical, find the corresponding angular amplitude of CD and the
maximum force in the spring.
(SGSITS: Dec. 1998, Oct. 2004)
Solution
The mass moment of inertia of the pendulums AB and CD are:
Mal4 5 x 1,31 M ,L22 5 x 1,32

IA = = and /c =
3 3 3 3
Fig. 5.8 Spring connected double pendulum.
Neglecting the effect of weight of the rods and assuming ei > 02, the equations of motion
become
,L3,
5 =— (L1 01 — L202 ) kLi
)
L32
`
and 5 02 = (L1 01 — L202 ) kL2
3
)
Rearranging the equations, we have

3 'N
5 LI + (L1 01 L202 ) kLi = 0

)
7 3 'N
L2
and 5 02 — (L1 01 — L202 ) kL2 =0
l3 )
Assume the solutions ei = A sin wt and 02 = B sin on
Substituting for 01 , 02 and their second time derivatives, we have
LI
Ha —5 0) 2 A —(kLi L2 )B=0
l3 )
3 'N
L ,
—(kL1L2 )A + [kL22 — 5=, co- B=0
l 3
A kLi L2 kL22 —5(L32 /3)(02

The amplitude ratio
B —5(03)(02 kLi L2
Simplifying and rewriting as a quadratic equation in CO2, we have
[ 2 3 k+k 2
0) — — — —10) = 0
5,L2 L11
3 k 1 c•
Therefore, the roots are mi = 0 and w2 = — — + —
\ 5 L2 L1
Substituting L1 = 0.75, L2 = 1.0 and k = 2940, we have
m2 = 64.16 rad/s Ans.
The corresponding mode shape is obtained by substituting CO = CO2. Thus
r 2 '\ 2
A_ 1 5 1 M.16
= 1.78 Ans.
B 0.75 3 l0.75 2940
5.3 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS

Consider the undamped torsional system shown in Fig. 5.9 consisting of two rotors of
moments of inertia /1 and /2 and coupled by a shaft of torsional stiffness k. Let 01 and 02 be the
angular displacements of the two rotors at any instant from the equilibrium position. Let us
consider the angle 0 to be positive in clockwise direction when viewed from the left. Assuming
02 to be larger than 01 , the twist in the shaft is (02 — 01 ). For this relative angular displacement,
the resisting torque exerted by the shaft on rotor 1 is k(02 — 01 ) and —k(02 — 01 ) on rotor 2.
Using Newton's law, the differential equations of motion may be written as
hal = k(02 — 0) (5.19)
and /2 92 = —k(02 — 0) (5.20)
A B
A Node point
LI L2
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.9 Two rotor torsional system and the principal modes of vibration.
These equations may be rewritten as

Ii a l + k(01 — 02) = 0 (5.21)
and /2 92 + k(02 — 0) = 0 (5.22)

For establishing the principal modes of vibration, let the solution be

= A sin cot and 02 = B sin on (5.23)
Substituting for 01 , 02 and their second time derivatives and cancelling out common sin wt
term, we have
(k — 11 0)2 )A — kB = 0 (5.24)
and — kA + (k — 2o)2)B = 0 (5.25)
Equations (5.24) and (5.25) give the same amplitude ratio as
A_ k k — I2co2
B k — 11 (02 = k
Thus, for the same amplitude ratio A/B, we have
k k — /2(02
= (5.26)
k — Il w2
Cross-multiplication and further simplification give the frequency equation
{(/1 /2)co2 — k(/1 + /2) CO2 = 0 (5.27)
One of the two natural frequencies of this system is obviously zero. The corresponding
amplitude ratio for this frequency turns out to be
A
— = +1
B
This means that the two rotors rotate by same amount in same sense and, therefore, the shaft is
not twisted at all. Thus, strictly speaking, the system is not a two degree of freedom system.
The other natural frequency, as obtained from Eq. (5.27), is
k(11 + /2 )
w= (5.28)
/1 /2
Substituting for CO from above in Eq. (5.26), we have
A =1 (/2 k(/1 + 12 )
B k ./ I II 2
r
A=, / /2
or — 1+ 2 =
B 11 II
Thus, the amplitudes of vibration of the two rotors are in opposite sense and in the inverse
ratio to their moments of inertia. Figure 5.9(b) shows the two mode shapes corresponding
to the two natural frequencies. The mode shape also demonstrates the node point, i.e. the point
of zero amplitude of torsional vibration. It follows from the two similar triangles that
L1 /L2 = A/B.
EXAMPLE 5.8 Two bodies having equal masses of 60 kg each and radius of gyration
0.3 m are keyed to both ends of a shaft 0.8 m long. The diameter of the shaft is 0.08 m for
0.30 m length, 0.10 m for 0.2 m length and 0.09 m for rest of the length. Find the frequency
of torsional vibrations. Take G = 9 x 1011 N/m2.
(Punjab University 1999)
Solution
The mass moment of inertia of the two end rotors 1 = 60 x (0.3)2 = 5.4 kg-m2.
The torsional stiffnesses of the three segments of the shaft are:
GJI 9 x 101 I x 7t x 0.084

k = = — 1.20637 x 107 N-m/rad
L1 32 x 0.3
GJ2 9 x10 II x7r x0.10 4

= = = 4.41786 x 107 N-m/rad
L2 32 x 0.2
GJ 9 x 1011 X 7r x 0.09 4
k6 = 3 = = 1.93237 x 107 N-m/rad
L3 32 x 0.3
where J = polar moment of inertia of the respective segments of shaft.
Since the same torque is transmitted from one end to the other in the shaft, therefore, the
shafts corresponding to stiffnesses kfl , ki2 and ki.3 are in series and the equivalent stiffness k is
given by
r
1 1 1
_ = _ ± _ ± _ =
1 1 1 1
+ + x10-7
k kt1 k t2 k o 1.20637 4.41786 1.93237 ]
Therefore k = 0.6358143 x 107 N-m/rad

Figure 5.10(a) shows an equivalent system with two end rotors connected through a shaft
of uniform diameter with equivalent torsional stiffness of shaft k = 0.6358143 x 107 N-m/rad.
The differential equations for the two rotors are:
'I 01 = -k(01 - 02)
and 12 e2 = +k(01 - 02)
A/B = +1 102 = 0
02 101 = 0
—
k
02
II 12 Node point
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10 Torsional vibration of a shaft with two end rotors (a semi-definite system).
Assume solutions as 0 = A sin wt and 02 = B sin wt

Then a l = —A o)2 sin wt and e2 = —&02 sin wt
Substituting in above equations of motion, we get
(k —11 (02 )A — kB= 0
—kA + (k — 12(02)B =0
The amplitude ratios are:
A k k — 120)2
. .
B k —11 0)2 k
Therefore, the frequency equation, as obtained from above, is:
1/20)4 — (/1 + /2)km2 + k2 — k2 = 0
or 1/1 /2 m2 — (II + 12)k) to2 = 0
This is a special case in which one of the natural frequencies is zero. This case goes under the
category of semi-definite systems. The other root is given by
2 (II ± /2 )k (5.4 + 5.4)(0.6358143 x 107 )
0) = = = 2354867.78
(/1 /2 ) (5.4)(5.4)
Therefore CO = 1534.5 rad/s Ans.
Substituting in the expression for amplitude ratio, we have
(A = 0.6358143 x 107 — 5.4 x 2354867.78
= —1.0
B )1 0.6358143 x 107
and for CO = 0, the amplitude ratio is
1 iC = 0.6358143 x 107 — 0
= +1.0
/3'12 0.6358143 x 10'
Thus, at CO = 0, the two rotors will rotate together as a rigid body without disturbing the forces
acting upon it. The mode shape for the other case is shown in Fig. 5.10.
EXAMPLE 5.9 Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes for the torsional system shown
in Fig. 5.11 for Ii = 1, 12 = 2/ and kti = krz = kr.
Solution
Let 0 and 02 be the angular displacements of rotors /1 and /2, respectively. The shaft kti is,
therefore, subjected to angular twist of 0 while the shaft kt2 is subjected to a relative angular
twist of (0i — 02). Assuming 0 > 02, the free body diagram of the two rotors is as shown in
Fig. 5.11(b). Taking couples acting counter clockwise (as seen from top) as negative, the
differential equations of motion are:
hal = Ai 01 — kr2(01 — 02)

and 12 e2 = —kt2( 01 — 02)
kr2(01 - 02)
(a)
Fig. 5.11
Substituting for k fl, kt2, I I , /2 and rearranging, we have

1O + 2091 — kt192 = 0
and 2182 + kt192 — kt191 = 0

Assume solutions as 0 = A sin wt and 02 = B sin mt. Substituting for 01 , 02 and their second
time derivatives and eliminating sin wt term, we have
(2kt — I(02 )A— kt 13 = 0
—kt A + (kt —2I(02 )B =0

The amplitude ratio becomes
A kt kt —2'0)2
. .
B 2kt —1o 2 kt
Simplifying, the frequency equation becomes
2120)4_ c /mt U2 + M 2 = 0
Solving, we have
2 5Ikt ± \I(5Ikt )2 — 8120

°)1,2 =
472
k k
or col = ,\I (5 — N1
177) ; (02 = ,\I (5+.\1
/77) Ans.
4/ 4/
Mode shapes, as obtained by substituting values of w1 and w2 are
1
= 1 — — (5 —,F7)
B 2
1
= 1— (5+ V177) Ans.
B 2
5.4 FORCED UNDAMPED VIBRATION WITH HARMONIC

EXCITATION (2 d.o.f.)
Consider the forced undamped two degree of freedom system shown in Fig. 5.12. Let the
masses m1 and m2 to be interconnected through a coupling spring of stiffness k2 and let the two
masses be connected to the frame through springs k1 and k3 as shown in the figure. Since the
system is linear, the principle of superposition holds good. Thus, when the excitation forces
are applied to both the masses, the resultant motion of the masses will be the linear
combination of the motions due to each of the forces acting alone. Hence, for the purpose of
analysis, it is sufficient to assume that only one mass is subjected to harmonic excitation.
Therefore, let an excitation force F0 sin wt be applied to the mass m1 .
F0 sin cot
m2
k3x2
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.12 (a) Forced undamped two degree (b) Free body diagram of the two masses (x1 > x2)
of freedom system.
Applying Newton's second law to the free body diagrams of the two masses and
assuming x1 > x2, we have
m1 = — k2(xi — x2) + F0 sin wt
and M212 = —k3x2 k2(X1 — x2)
Rearranging, we get the differential equations of motion as
m1 11 + (k1 + k2)x i — k2x2 = F0 sin wt (5.28)
and m212+ (k2 k3)X2 k2X1 =0 (5.29)

Since damping is absent, each mass will vibrate in phase or out of phase with the excitation
force.
To establish principal modes of vibration, assuming the resultant motion to be harmonic,
let the solution for steady state case be
x1 = X1 sin on and x2 = X2 sin wt
1E0 Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Substituting for x1 , x2 and their second time derivatives in Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29), we have
{(k1 + k2 — m i co2)X1 — k2X2 ) sin wt = F0 sin wt (5.30)
{—k2X1 + (k2 + k3 — m2 w2)X2 ) sin an = 0 (5.31)

Equating coefficients of sin wt terms on either side of Eqs. (5.30) and (5.31), we get
(k1 + k2 — m 1 m2)Xi — k2X2 = Fo (5.32)
and —k2X1 + (k2 + k3 — m2 w2)X2 = 0 (5.33)

These are simultaneous algebraic equations in X1 and X2. Solving for X1 and X2, using
Cramer's rule, we have
F0 —k2
0 +(k2 + k3 — m2(02) ,,,2
Fo (k2 ± k3 — ni2 u, )
Xi = = (5.34)
Am Am
(ki + k2 — m1 0)2 ) F0
—k2 +0 = F0 k 2
and X2 = (5.35)
AU) ACO
where
(ki + k2 —mi c02) —k2
AO) =
—k2 (k2 + k3 — m2(02 )
The characteristic/frequency equation may be obtained by above determinant to zero.

Thus, roots of this characteristic equation are called the eigen values and this type of problem
is called the eigen value problem. It follows that if mi and CO2 are the roots of the
characteristic equation, then
ki + k2 — m1 m2 —k2
=0 (5.36)
—k2 +k2 + k3 — m2m2
If m2i and mi are the roots of the characteristic equation, Aco = 0, then the determinant Am
will vanish for CO = w1 and also when CO = CO2. In either case, the amplitudes X1 and X2 of both
the masses will approach infinity, which implies resonance. Thus, in a system like this, there
are two resonance frequencies (identical with the two natural frequencies) and at resonance,
all the masses have infinite amplitude of vibration.
5.5 COORDINATE COUPLING
It may be verified from Sections (5.1) through (5.4) that the differential equations of motion
for two degree of freedom system are, in general, coupled. The coupling exists because both
the coordinates appear in each equation. In the most general form, the two differential
equations of motion can be expressed as
m11 .11 + m1212 + ki 'Xi + k12X2 = 0

and M2I I + M22 .2. + k21x1 + k22x2 = 0
Let us now express these equations in matrix form as under:
[M I I MI2 1 . 1 [ki 1 ki 2 11Xi 0

± . = (5.37)
M2I M22 . 2 k2 I k22 X2 {0
The mass matrix is nondiagonal as the terms m12 and m21 are non-zero and the stiffness
matrix is nondiagonal because the terms k12 and k21 are nonzero. Equation (5.37) shows that
there exists mass/dynamical coupling between the coordinates as the mass matrix is non-
diagonal. There also exists elastic/stiffness/static coupling because the stiffness matrix is also
nondiagonal. Usually, it is the choice of coordinates that establish the type of coupling in a
system.
For an undamped system, it is always possible to device a coordinate system with which
the system is free of all forms of coupling. The two differential equations of motion are then
said to be decoupled. It is then possible to solve each equation independent of the other. Such
coordinates are called principal/normal coordinates. For a damped system, however, this may
not be possible always.
Static and dynamic coupling

To understand the problem of static and dynamic coupling fully, let us consider Fig. 5.13(a),
which may be assumed to be an idealized mathematical model of an automobile. The rigid slab
of mass m represents the body with its centre of gravity at G located at a distance of a from the
spring k1 and at b from the spring k2. The springs k1 and k2 stimulate the suspension. The tires
are assumed to have negligible mass but infinite stiffness. Let I be the mass moment of inertia
of the body about the centre of gravity G. Let us assume further that the mass centre does not
coincide with the geometric centre, i.e. a # b. This represents a two degree of freedom system
as two coordinates are required to describe its motion. The choice of coordinates will decide
the type of coupling.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.13 Coordinate coupling.

Figure 5.13(b) shows the free body diagram of the body in the displaced condition. The
displacement consists of vertical translation x (t) of the centre of mass G and rotation 0(t)
about G. The linear displacement x(t) is measured from the static equilibrium position which
implies that the weight W (= mg) is balanced by the corresponding initial compressive forces
in the spring. Thus, applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram (assume x > a0),
the force equation in vertical direction is:
mi = —k1 (x — ae) — k2(x + be) (5.38)
Similarly, by applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram, the moment equation
about G is:
10 = +ki (x — ae)a — k2(x + be)b (5.39)
Rearranging Eqs. (5.38) and (5.39), we have
mi + (k 1 + k2)x — (k 1 a — k2b)0 = 0 (5.40)
/a + (ki a2 + k2b2)0 — (k1 a — k2b)x = 0 (5.41)

These equations can be put up in matrix form as under:
rm 01 fl' [ (ki + k2 ) —(ki a— k2b) if x

± (5.42)
Lo iito —(k 1 a— k2b) +(k1 a2 + k2b2)ile {0
It follows from Eq. (5.42) that the mass matrix is diagonal as the nondiagonal terms are zero
while this is not so in stiffness matrix. Hence, the system has static coupling between the two
coordinates. With a view to eliminate static coupling, an obvious condition that follows from
Eq. (5.35) is that k 1 a = k2b. Once this is achieved, the nondiagonal terms will be reduced to
zero and static/elastic coupling will disappear.
Let us identify a point C along the body at a distance of a l and b1 respectively from k1
and k2 such that ki a i = k2b1 . It is logical to expect that if a force is applied normal to the body
at C, it should produce pure translation without any angular oscillation. The force is applied at
C, while point G being the mass centre, the inertia force acts through G. The body is,
therefore, subjected to a couple and gives rise to angular oscillations. Thus, if xc is the
displacement given at point C, the acceleration ic is possible only if the body is associated
with an angular acceleration 0 such that .'ic = ee, where e = al — a. The differential
equations, therefore, are reduced to
mic — meo = —k i (xc — a l e) — k2(xc + b i e) (5.43)
and I9 — mi ce = ki (xc — a 1 O)a 1 — k2(xc + b 1 0)b 1 (5.44)
Remembering that ki a i = k2b i , these equations may be rearranged as
m ic — meO + (ki + k2)xc = 0 (5.45)
and —mei c + 79 + (ki ai + k2bi)0 = 0 (5.46)

which can be expressed in matrix form as under:
[m —me1{1c [(ki + k2 ) 0 x'

(5.47)
—me I a 0 (ki 4 + k2b?)1{1 9 {0
Since the equations of motion are coupled through the mass/inertia terms, such a coupling is
called the dynamic or inertial coupling.
EXAMPLE 5.10 A schematic representation of an automobile is shown in Fig. 5.14. If the

automobile weighs 17.8 kN and has a radius of gyration about the centre of gravity of 1.37 m,
find the principal modes of vibration of the automobile. The combined front springs k1 is
440 N/cm and combined rear springs k2 is 475 N/cm.
C.G
L2
x
Fig. 5.14
Solution
Consider a simplified model of automobile having motion in the longitudinal vertical plane.
Let x be the coordinate for vertical motion of translation and 0 as the coordinate for angular
motion of pitching in the vertical plane.
The equations of motion are:
mi = —k1 (x — L1 0) — k2(x + L20)

and Io = k1 (x — L1 0)L1 — k2(x + L20)L2
where
I = mk2, the mass moment of inertia of the automobile.
Rearranging the terms, we get
mi + (k1 + k2)x — (k1 L1 — k2L2)0 = 0
and Io + (ki L? + k2L2)0 — (k1 L1 — k2L2)x = 0
It follows from the above two equations that there is a static coupling between the coordinates
x and 0. Assume the solutions
Substituting for x, 0 and their second derivatives with respect to time and cancelling out
sin wt term, we have
(k1 + k2 — mw 2)A — (k1 L1 — k2L2)B = 0
and —(k1 L1 — k2L2)A + (k1 L21 + k2L2 — Iw2)B = 0
The amplitude ratio is given by
A . k1 L1 — k2L2 ki Lj + k2L2 — /m2
B k1 + k2 — ma)2 ki ll — k2L2
Substituting the values, we have
(44,000 x1.2) — (47,500 x 1.8)

= 44,000(1.2)2 + 47,500(1.8)2 —(17,800 x 1.372/9.81)(02
44,000 +47,500 —(17,800/9.81)0 2 (44,000 x 1.2) — (47,500 x1.8)
Simplifying, we get
—32,700 = 2,17, 260 — 3405.6 (02
91,500 —1814.50 2 —32,700
Dividing out numerator and denominator on both sides by 1814.5, we get
—18.02 119.7 —1.877(02
=
50.43 — m2 —18.02
Simplifying further, we have the quadratic equation
m4 — 114.2m2 + 3043 = 0
The roots of this equation are
mi = 27.61 and m22 = 86.59
Therefore m1 = 5.25 rad/s and w2 = 9.3 rad/s Ans.
From the amplitude ratio, the principal modes are
(A _ 119.7 —1.877(27.61)
= 3.77
B j1 — —18.02
A 119.7 —1.877 (86.59)

— = = 2.38 Ans.
Bj2 —18.02
5.6 DYNAMIC VIBRATION ABSORBER

When a machine or a structure is subjected to an excitation at a constant frequency close to the
resonance, violent vibrations are induced and the force transmitted to the foundation is
excessive. At the onset, let us assume that the given system can be represented by a single
degree of freedom system subjected to harmonic excitation and it is required to control the
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom 1t7
vibrations. It is possible at times to change the spring or mass of the system so as to limit the
vibration to some acceptable level. But this is not always true. The problem may be resolved
by adding another single degree of freedom system, called auxiliary system (see Fig. 5.15), to
the main system. This transforms the whole system into a two degree of freedom system with
two natural frequencies. The clue to this approach may be found in Eq. (5.34). When an
auxiliary spring-mass system is added to the main system, the stiffness k3 in Fig. 5.12 becomes
redundant. The equation shows that with k3 equal to zero, the amplitude X1 can be reduced to
zero if k2/m2 be made equal to (.02, where CO is the excitation frequency of the main system.
Since k2/m2 is the natural frequency of the auxiliary system, this process is technically called
auxiliary system tuned to the frequency of excitation.
ki x
F, sin um in 1 F, sin um
k2(x ] — x2)
m2
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.15 (a) A dynamic vibration absorber (b) Equivalent system and free body diagram.
A dynamic vibration absorber is a small vibratory system (Fig. 5.15) coupled to a

machine or structure, so as to control its vibrations. When the machine or structure, vibrating
violently at or very near to its natural frequency, a spring mass system k2, m2, tuned to the
frequency of excitation will act as a vibration absorber and reduce the motion of the mass m1
to zero. Figure 5.15(b) represents the equivalent system and the free body diagrams of the
masses. Using Newton's second law of motion, as applied to the free body diagrams of the
masses m1 and m2, the differential equations of motion are:
m1 11 = — k2(x1 — x2) + Feq sin on
and M2 12 = +k2(/1 — x2)
Rearranging the above equations, we have
m1 / 1 + (k1 + k2)x1 — k2x2 = Feq sin an (5.48)

and m212 k2x2 — k2X1 = 0 (5.49)
111iC Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
For steady state solution, assume solutions x1 = X1 sin wt and x2 = X2 sin wt. Substituting for
x1 , x2 and their second time derivatives in Eqs. (5.48) and (5.49), we have
{(k1 + k2 —mi c02 )X1 — k2X2} sin wt = Feq sin cot
and {—k2 X1 + (k2 — M20)2 ) X2 ] sin cot =0
Cancelling out common terms and also because sin an # 0 at all the time, we get
(k1 + k2 — nt1 o2)X1 — k2X2 = Feq (5.50)
and —k2 + (k2 — m20)2 ) X2 = 0 (5.51)
Solving for X1 and X2 using Cramer's rule, we get
Feq —k2 (ki + k2 —mi o)2 ) Feq

0 (k2 — 2 —k2 0
= mew) and X2 = (5.52)
AO) Ow
The frequency equation is given by
(ki + k2 — m1 w2 ) —k2
=0 (5.53)
—k2 (k2 — m2(02 )
which simplifies to
mim2 0)4 - {(k1 + k2)m2 + k2m1 } (02 + ki k2 = 0 (5.54)
Dividing out Eq. (5.54) by ki k2, we have
r
M1m2 co 4 '1 + 1‘2 m2 +
ml 0)2 + 1 = 0 (5.55)
k1 k2 j k 1 / k2 k1
In Eq. (5.55), the natural frequency of the main system is mi 1 = Vki /mi and the natural
frequency of the auxiliary system is m22 = Vk2 /m2 and, therefore, the Eq. (5.55) may be
rewritten as
r 2r 2 [r ( 2 r 2
CO k2 0)
— 1 — — 1=0 (5.56)
\. \0)22 / k11 (022 \ 0)11
When the main system and auxiliary system have same natural frequency (i.e. when
0)11 = 0)22), let
(.0
—°) =r and =r
(t)ii C°22
Further, letting mass ratio m2/m l = µ, Eq. (5.56) reduces to
(r2)2 — (2 + p)r 2 + 1 = 0 (5.57)
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom 1a7
This is a parabolic equation and the resonance frequencies of the tuned absorber system can be
obtained from the roots of this equation. It is easy to see that the new resonance frequencies of
tuned system depend on the mass ratio µ as a parameter. Let us assume that the resonance
occurs at
r=r1 = and r r2 =
0)1 1 6°22
where the two roots are given by
u + 1V
r12, r22 = ( 2 + (2+,11)2 4
2 j 2
2
or r2 +— (5.58)
2j
Thus, the two new natural frequencies, when w11 = m22, are given by
r 2
CO ill ill
— =I1. + — ± 1 (1. + — —1 (5.59)
0)1 1) 2i \ 2i
Figure 5.16 depicts the effect of mass ratio µ on the spread of the two new resonating
frequencies about the line co/m11 = of,/ ail! = 1. Solving the determinants in Eq. (5.52), we
have
F (k2 — m2u, Feq k2
X l = eq and x2 = (5.60)
Ow
1.6
%,1
"" 1.4
12
cr
V.
1.0
0.8
0.6 Mass ratio itt

0 02 0.4 0.6 08
Fig. 5.16 Effect of mass ratio on the spread of frequency ratio.
Clearly, at co = Vk2 /m2 , the amplitude of vibration of the main mass m1 is
=0
It follows from Eq. (5.59) that there are two resonance frequencies. The steady state
response of the dynamic vibration absorber is, therefore, similar to that shown in Figs. 5.17(a)
and (b). It is interesting to see as to what happens to the amplitude X2 of auxiliary mass under
this condition. The expression for X2, as obtained from Eqs. (5.52) and (5.53), we have
Feq k2
X2 =
2 )(k2 _ m2(02 )— id
(k1 +k 2 — c)
0
:1
II
Amplitu de X1
:1 X2
Amplitu de
:1
1
1 '
W1 W2
Excitation frequency Excitation frequency
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.17 Frequency response curves for (a) main system and (b) absorber.
Under tuned condition, substituting k2 = m2w2, the above equation gives

Feq
X2 = — (5.61)
k2
This shows that displacement X2 in the auxiliary mass is out of phase with the
displacement X1 of the main mass m1 and further, the force exerted by the spring on the mass
m1 is equal and opposite to the excitation force Feq sin wt. In other words, the auxiliary system
produces a force equal and opposite to the excitation force. This explains the name dynamic
vibration absorber.
It is thus seen that an important design requirement of dynamic vibration absorber is that
w = Vk2 /M2 . This implies that a large number of combinations of k2 and m2 values can meet
the requirement of dynamic vibration absorber. The size of the auxiliary mass m2 will depend
on the size of the disturbing force Feq and the maximum value of X2 that is permissible.
There being two resonance frequencies, the steady state response of the dynamic
vibration absorber is similar to that shown in Fig. 5.17. It follows that the effect of the size of
the absorber mass m2 is to change the range of resonance frequencies. When mass ratio µ is
very small, the effect of the absorber mass is insignificant and the resonance frequencies are
quite close to the natural frequencies of the main and absorber systems. Conversely, when the
mass ratio µ is of the order of 0.6 to 0.8, the new resonance frequencies are quite apart.
Effectiveness of the absorber demands that the new frequencies should be at least 20 per cent
away from the impressed frequency. This is because should the excitation frequency change
due to the reasons beyond control and approach one of the two new resonance frequencies,
large amplitude of vibration will again be experienced.
Effect of mass ratio on the response frequency ratio: It is pertinent to note that for tuning
the auxiliary system to the frequency of excitation of the main mass, we have a wide choice of
absorber parameters. The most preferred choice is dictated by the limitations placed on the
amplitude X2 of the absorber motion. The curve shown in Fig. 5.16 is useful in deciding the
size of the absorber mass m2. For a given machine mass m1, the range of the new resonant
frequencies (for the resulting 2 d.o.f. system) depends on the absorber mass m2. Thus, when
the absorber mass m2 is quite small in relation to the machine mass m1 , the two new resonating
frequencies will be quite close to the line = 1) under ideal conditions.
EXAMPLE 5.11 A small reciprocating machine weighs 220 N and runs at a constant speed
of 6000 rpm. After it was installed, it was found that the forcing frequency is too close to the
natural frequency of the system. What dynamic vibration absorber should be added if the
nearest natural frequency of the system should be at least 20 per cent from the impressed
frequency?
(SGSITS: June 1998, Dec. 1999)
Solution
Let the mass of 220 N of the reciprocating machine be placed on spring of stiffness k1 . The
excitation frequency CO = (2,r)(6000)/60 = 628 rad/s
From Eq. (5.57), taking r1 = 0.8, we have
(0.82)2 — (2 + µ)(0.8)2 + 1 = 0
Therefore µ = 0.2
or m2 = k2 = 0.2
m1 k1
Again, taking r2 = 1.2, we have
(1 .22)2 — (2 + /1)1.22 + 1 =0
or µ = 0.134
Since with larger value of mass ratio, the spread of frequencies is also larger, the mass ratio of
= 0.2 ensures spread of frequencies of at least 20 per cent on either side of the original
resonating frequency.
k 2 = M2 =
Thus, with p. = 0.2, 0.2
k1 m1
220
and, therefore, m2 = 0.2 x — = 4.49 kg Ans.
9.81
EXAMPLE 5.12 In a refrigeration plant, a section of pipe carrying the refrigerant vibrated
violently at a compressor speed of 230 rpm. To eliminate this difficulty, it was proposed to
clamp a cantilever spring mass system to the pipe to act as an absorber. For a trial test, a 905
gm absorber tuned to 230 rpm, resulted in two natural frequencies of 198 and 272 cpm. If the
absorber system is to be designed so that the natural frequencies lie outside the region 160 and
320 cpm, what must be the weight and spring stiffness?
(SGSITS: Sept. 1990)
Solution
The natural frequencies of the main and auxiliary spring-mass systems are
(//i = Jk1 lm1 (for pipe) and 022 = Vk2 /m2 (for absorber)
Let the upper and lower natural frequencies of the combined systems be w1 and w2.
Then, from the data, it follows that w11 = 0)22 = 230.
For m2 = 0.905 kg, the two natural frequencies of the combined system are 198 and 272 cpm.
From 2 r22 = 2 + ,u 1
v
i2
u) —4 (i)
2j 2
It follows that
r12 + r2 = 2 +,u
( 198 )2 272 )2
Thus
230) 230) = 2 +
Therefore µ = 2.1396 — 2 = 0.1396

0.905
Hence = - 6.48 kg
0.1396
For designing the absorber system, which ensures that the two natural frequencies lie outside
the range of 160 and 320 cpm, we proceed as under:
It follows from the Eq. (i) that
ri2 r22 =1
Therefore, substituting r? = 1/ri in Eq. (ii), we have
+r2 = 2 +,u
r2
1 + r2
Therefore = 2 + ,u
r22
With r2 = 320/230 = 1.39, we have
2+ = 2.45
or = 0.45
Similarly, with r1 = 160/230 = 0.696, we have
1+ ri4
2 =2+,u
which gives 2 + µ = 2.549

or µ = 0.549
As the spread of frequencies increase with increase in mass ratio µ, a larger value of µ takes
care of both the restrictions of 160 < natural frequencies < 320 cpm.
Hence µ = 0.549 and, therefore, for the absorber m = (0.549)(6.48) = 3.56 kg Ans.
Also, the spring stiffness
2
k = m 0)222 = 5.21 (230 X 271- = 5.21 x24.08
60
Therefore k = 3022.4 N/m Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.13 A machine runs at 5500 rpm. Its forcing frequency is very near to its
natural frequency. If the nearest frequency of the machine is to be at least 20 per cent from the
forced frequency, design a suitable vibration absorber for the system. Assume the mass of the
machine as 30 kg.
Solution
The natural frequency of the system at 5500 rpm is
5500
ain = 2g = 575.96 rad/s
60
Let the two new natural frequencies be denoted by w. Then, for 20 per cent variation, we have
r1 = — = 0.8
(On
so that r2 = — = 1.2
(On
From Eq. (5.57), we have

(r2)2 — (2 + ,u)r2 + 1 = 0
Therefore, for r = 0.8, we have
(0.82 )2 — (2 + ,u)(0.8)2 + 1 = 0
which yields µ = 0.202
Similarly, for r = 1.2, we have
= 0.134
A larger value of µ leads to a wider frequency distribution and, therefore, taking µ = 0.202,
we have
Mass ratio µ = = 0.202
Therefore m = 30 x 0.202 = 6.06 kg Ans.

1Epe Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
From w =con = k1 /M, we have

k1 = 575.962 x 30 = 9952 KN/m
Similarly k2 = o)2n x m = (575.96)2 x 6.06
or k2 = 2010 KN/m Ans.
5.7 TORSIONAL VIBRATION ABSORBER
Torsional vibrations of shafts and rotors usually consist of torsional oscillations superimposed
upon their rotation. Principle of undamped dynamic vibration absorber is also applicable in
torsional vibration. Figure 5.18 shows schematic arrangement of a torsional vibration absorber
system in which kt1 and ki.2 are, respectively, the torsional stiffness of main and the auxiliary
shafts and Ii and 12 are, respectively, the mass moments of inertia of the main and auxiliary
rotors. The excitation torque is T sin wt. When the excitation frequency CO coincides with the
natural frequency (Dni = Vkti //i , addition of a tuned vibration absorber tuned to the frequency
of excitation will eliminate the excessive torsional vibration of the main rotor.
T sin on
Fig. 5.18 Torsional vibration absorber.
5.8 PENDULUM TYPE DYNAMIC VIBRATION ABSORBER
A system, subjected to torsional vibrations, receives certain number of disturbing torques per
revolution. The order number equals the number of disturbing torques received per revolution
by the system. Thus, a twin cylinder engine operating on four stroke cycle has an order
number of one while a six cylinder engine operating on four stroke cycle has an order number
of three. For a given engine order, the vibration absorbers can be effective only if the natural
frequency of the absorber system also changes continually with the speed of the engine. This is
possible with the centrifugal pendulum absorber if designed suitably for a given machine. In
case of reciprocating engines, as in automobiles, the exciting torques T are proportional to the
speed of the engine and, in practice, the speed of the engine may vary over a wide range.
Mathematically
T • N = constant
1
or Ta —
N
The centrifugal pendulum absorber, shown in Fig. 5.19, is somewhat analogous to the
dynamic vibration absorber described in Fig. 5.15 under Section 5.6. The dynamic vibration
absorber is used to nullify an unbalanced vertical disturbing force, whereas the centrifugal
pendulum absorber helps in nullifying torsional disturbing couples on a rotating member. To
absorb torsional vibrations effectively for a given engine order, the natural frequency of the
absorber should also change continuously with the speed of the engine.
Fig. 5.19 Centrifugal dynamic vibration absorber.
Figure 5.19 shows a simple pendulum OA of length L carrying mass m and attached at 0
to the periphery of a rotating disc of radius R. Let C be the centre of the disk and let the
pendulum be displaced through angle 0 with respect to the radial line CO at the given instant.
Let 0 be the angle between the pendulum and the radial line CA. Further, let CO be the average
speed of rotation of the disc with some superimposed oscillation T sin non.
As the disc rotates with angular velocity CO, the pendulum bob is subjected to centrifugal
force mw 2r which acts along the radial line CA, where r is the distance CA. This centrifugal
force can be resolved in two components—one along the pendulum and the other in a direction
transverse to the pendulum. The transverse component of force constitutes an inertia couple
mw2rL sin 0 on the pendulum. Thus, considering the equilibrium of the pendulum, the
differential equation of motion may be written as
mL29 = —mrw 2L sin 0
Dividing out by mL2, the differential equation of motion reduces to
a L w2 sin 0 = 0 (5.62)
+ (L I
Applying Lami's theorem to the triangle AOC, we have
R r
=
sin 0 sin(180 — 0)
Therefore r sin 0 = R sin 0
Substituting for r sin 0 in Eq. (5.62), we have
a+—
R (02 sin 0 = 0
L
If the angle of oscillation 0 is assumed to be small, this equation reduces to
B+ (02 6' = 0 (5.63)

L
The differential equation of motion represents simple harmonic motion with natural frequency
(1)n =
The natural frequency in cycles per second of the rotating member is given by
c (Dn (t) R
in = = _N
\17? (5.64)
271- 271- L L
where N = revolutions per second of the rotating member

It follows that the natural frequency of the pendulum absorber varies linearly with the
speed of the rotating member. The pendulum absorber will be effective if its natural frequency
L equals the excitation frequency or the frequency of the disturbing torque. Therefore, it
follows from the Eq. (5.64) that
T
R fn Disturbing torques/second
L N Revolutions/second
TR Disturbing torques impulses

or = = Order number (5.65)
L Revolution
Thus, while designing a pendulum absorber, one must equate the order number of the
engine to.\/.,.
/ Finally, taking some suitable value of R, he must establish the length of the
pendulum. For a given amplitude of disturbing torque, greater the mass of the pendulum, the
smaller is its amplitude of vibration. Thus, to ensure smaller amplitude of vibration, the
pendulum mass should be chosen as large as possible.
Bifilar suspension: In practical applications, an arrangement of the type shown in Fig. 5.19
is not feasible owing to space limitations. For instance, for absorbing the third order torsional
amplitude in an I.C. engine, the length of the pendulum absorber required is R/9. For a given
radius R = 18, available within the space of the crank shaft, the required length of the
pendulum is 2 cm, which is too small. A bifilar pendulum is used to solve this problem. It
consists of a large U-shaped counterweight loosely fitted around crank shaft overhang and
suspended on two pins of diameter d. The holes in the counterweight and the crank web are of
slightly larger diameter D, as shown in Fig. 5.20. Thus, the counterweight is free to roll on the
III
Fig. 5.20 Bifilar type centrifugal pendulum absorber.
two pins which themselves roll in the bigger holes in the crank web. Each weight can, thus,
have curvilinear motion of translation, with each point on the weight moving in an arc of a
circle of radius (D — d). Thus, the length of the pendulum L = (D — d).
EXAMPLE 5.14 A double pendulum of lengths L1 and L2, masses m1 and m2 is shown in
Fig. 5.21. If m1 = m2 = 5 kg and L1 = L2 = 25 cm, find the natural frequencies.
(SGSITS: Jan. 1997)
0
F°—
(1,1 0 + L20)
Fig. 5.21 Double pendulum.
Solution
Let the pendulum OA be displaced through 0 and the pendulum AB be displaced through 0
from their respective mean equilibrium positions. Assuming both 0 and 0 to be small, let the
horizontal displacements of the pendulum masses m1 and m2 from their respective mean
equilibrium positions be L1 0 and (L1 0 + L20). The horizontal components of accelerations
(directed towards mean equilibrium position), to which masses m1 and m2 are subjected, are:
L1 B and (L1 0 + L20 )

Therefore, the restoring force acting on the mass m2 is m2(L1 + L2 0 ).

The effect of this force at A is equivalent to a force m2(L1 0 + L2 0 ) and a restoring couple
m2(L2 cos 0)(L1 9 + L2 0 ) on the pendulum AB.
Thus, considering the algebraic summation of couples at A, for equilibrium, we have for
small 0
m2L2 (Li O + L2 0) = —m2gL2 sin 0
which simplifies to
m2L22 0 + m2gL20 + m2L1 L29 = 0 (i)
Similarly, the total gravitational pull at the mass m1 is (m1 + m2)g and the accelerating force
on the mass m1 is m2(L1 + L2 0).
Hence, for equilibrium, considering algebraic summation of the couples at 0 is
= -(m1 + m2)gL1 0 MAL I + L2 0 )Li

which simplifies to
(m1 + m2)L?9 + (m1 + m2)gL1 O + m2L1L20 = 0
Dividing out Eq. (i) by m2L3 and Eq. (ii) by (m1 + m2)/4, we get
/ r
g L1
0+ 0+ e= o
L2 L2
/ /
g m2 L2
and 0+ 0=o
L1 ml + m2 LI
Assuming solution of the form

0 = A i sin ox and 0 = A2 sin cot
so that
= —A i o)2 sin ox and a = —A2 w2 sin ox
Substituting for 0, 0 and their derivatives in Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get
/
2
— 0) LI
CO 2 A2 = 0
L2 i L2
and M2 L2 co
2 2
Ai + g — (0 A2 = 0
\ M I + M2 ) \ Li ) L1 I
Thus, from above two equations, we get

2 2
A1 = Lio) (g — Lic0 )(MI ± 1722 )
=
A2 g — L2CO2 m2L2C°2
Systems with Two Degrees of Freedom 1E7
Cross multiplying and arranging as a quadratic equation in cot, we have

m1 L1 L2co4 — (m1 + m2)(L1 + L2)g m2 + g2(mi + m2) = 0
Dividing out by m1 (LI L2), we have
w4 - (MI + m2)(L1 + L2 )
g 1 (02 + [g2 (MI + m2) =0
m1 L1 L2 m1 L1 L2
Substituting values of m1 , m2 and LI , L2, we have

oil — 156.96 m2 + 3079.555 = 0
2 156.96 ±110.987
or co =
2
Therefore col = 11.57 rad/s, cot = 4.79 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.15 Find the natural frequencies of vibration of the system shown in Fig. 5.22.
Fig. 5.22
(Punjab University: 1989)
Solution
Let the mass m1 be moved by a distance x to the right and in the process, let the pendulum be
displaced through the angle 0 as shown in the Fig. 5.22. The resultant displacement of the
mass m2 is, therefore, (x + LO). In the free body diagram of the bob mass m2, the restoring
couple is due to the gravitational pull. Thus, the equation of motion of the bob m2 is
m2(1 + La) = —m2 g sin 0
For small 0, the above equation may be rewritten as
/ + La + ge= 0 (i)
The tension T in the pendulum is given by T = m2 g cos 0. For small 0, T = m2 g. The
component of tension T at the mass m1 is m2 g sin 0 acting towards the right side.
Therefore, the equation of motion for the mass m1 is
m1 / = m2 g sin 0
For small 0, this simplifies to

m1 .1 - m2g0 = 0 (ii)
M2
Therefore x= g0
m1
Substituting for 1 from Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i), we get

(
1 M2 g0 =0
L8+ ..+—
m1 j
Therefore (pn = 1 + in2 g Ans.

m1 1 L
EXAMPLE 5.16 Two equal masses are attached to a string having high tension as shown in
Fig. 5.23. Determine the frequency equation and the natural frequencies of the system if
mi = M2 =
L L
m2
Fig. 5.23
Solution
For small amplitudes of oscillations the tension in the string can be assumed uniform all
throughout. For the amplitude x1 at the mass m1 , the differential equation of motion is:
m1 11 = —T sin a — T sin /3
For small angles a, 13, their sine values may be taken equal to the respective tangent values.
X1—X2 )
Mill H
x )T + T =0
Similarly, for mass m2,
x2 x1 - x2
m212 + (— T T =0
L j L
Assume the solutions as x1 = A sin wt and x2 = B sin wt,
so that the second derivatives are:
11 = —A0)2 sin wt and 1 2 = -&02 sin wt
Substituting for x1 , x2 and their second derivatives in the two differential equations of motion,
we have
(2T 17'
—mi(0 2 A— B=0
L I Lj
(T ( 2T
and — A + — —m2(02 B= 0
Lr L I
A TIL (2TIL)— m2(02

Therefore = =
B (2TIL)—m1e2 TIL
Solving further, the quadratic equation in w2 is

2 2
4 2T 2 4T T
MI M2(1) - 1( nl + M2 )6° + .L = 7
1
Dividing out by m1 m2, we have

\
w44 2T mi + m2
2T 3T 2
(02 + 2
=0
L ,,, mi m2 j m1m2L
When m1 = m2 = m, the above equation reduces to
4 4T 2 3T2
CO - ( CO + =0
mL j m 2 L2
7 , )2 r 7, 2
2T 1
Therefore ()2 = — + — , 16 —12
mL 2\ mL iill, )
T
or (02 = —
3T and
mL mL
7' T
Therefore 601 = 1.73 ,\I and (02 = ,\I— Ans.
mL mL
EXAMPLE 5.17 A torque To sin wt is applied to Ii of the torsional system shown in

Fig. 5.24. If the moment of inertia of the main system Ii = 0.75 kg-m2, the torsional stiffness
of the main system lc,1 = 7.5 x 105 N-m/rad, To = 294 N-m and w = 103 rad/s; specify the
minimum size /2 of the absorber and k the stiffness of each of the four absorber springs such
that the resonant frequencies are at least 20% from the excitation frequency. What will be the
amplitude of vibration of this absorber?
Fig. 5.24 Torsional vibration absorber.
Solution
The natural frequency of the main system,
kt1 7.5 x 105

(Di 1 = — = 1000 rad/s
I1 0.75
This being an undamped vibration absorber, the excitation frequency and the natural frequency
of the main system must be equal. The excitation frequency is, therefore = 1000 rad/s. Further,
for the absorber system to be effective, natural frequency of the absorber system mi 1 = 0)22.
Thus
0) I 0)
r= \iaTi = \ —
6°22
and from Eq. (5.57),
(r2)2 — (2 + jii)r2 + 1 = 0
or (r2)2 — 2r2 + 1 = yr2
0,2_ 1)2
Therefore /I = ‘
r2
Using the above equation, for r = 0.8, /I = 0.202, and for r = 1.2, /I = 0.134.
The larger of the two values of /I ensures a wider spread of frequencies and a greater
assurance that the resonant frequencies are at least 20% from the excitation frequency.
Hence /2 = 0.211 = 0.2 x 0.75 = 0.15 kg-m2 Ans.
t1 = kt2
Again from Ik
12 '
/2
k 2 = kt1 = 0.2 x 7.5 x 105 = 1.5 x 105 N/m
1
The four springs in parallel, each of stiffness k, contribute to the torsional stiffness kt2. Hence
4k x 0.12 =kt2 = 1.5 x 105
1.5 x 105
Therefore k= = 3.75 x 106 N/m Ans.
4 x 0.01
The amplitude of vibration of the absorber at the excitation frequency of 1000 rad/s is given
by Eq. (5.61) after changing the translational quantities into torsional quantities. Thus
To 294 _
= = 1.96 x 10-3 radian Ans.
kt2 1.5 x105
5.9 GENERALIZED COORDINATES AND LAGRANGE'S EQUATION

If a system has n degrees of freedom, it can be specified by a set of n independent coordinates.
These independent coordinates are called generalized coordinates. For instance, the position of
the bob of the conical pendulum of Fig. 5.1(c) can be described with the help of two
independent coordinates 0 and 0. The position of the conical pendulum can also be described
with the help of the three rectangular coordinates x, y and z. The coordinates x, y, z are,
however, not independent as they are related through the constraint equation
x2 +y2 + z2
Even with the set of coordinates x, y and z, therefore, the degree of freedom still remains
two. Lagrange's equations are used to write equations of motion directly in terms of any
generalized coordinates. When certain basic energy expressions of the system are known, the
Lagrange's method enables one to write down the equations of motion. It is a powerful tool in
the analysis of a complicated problem and in case of a dynamic system, yields the same results
as the Newton's law.
In its fundamental form for generalized coordinates qi, the Lagrange's equation is:
d [ a(K.E.)1 a(K.E.) a(P.E.) a(D.E.)

= Qt (5.66)
dt aqi aqi aqi aqi
where
K.E. = Kinetic energy of the system = (1/2) mX2
P.E. = Potential energy of the system = (1/2) kx2
D.E. = Dissipation energy of the system = (1/2) ci 2
Q, = The generalized external force acting on the system
Following examples will illustrate that Lagrange's equation approach is particularly useful for
systems having simple energy expressions.
EXAMPLE 5.18 Use Lagrange's equations to find the equations of motion for the two
degree of freedom spring—mass system as shown in Fig. 5.25.
Fig. 5.25
Solution
The two generalized coordinates for the system are x and y as shown. The total energy of the
system consists of kinetic energy, due to motion of masses and potential energy due to the
elasticity of coupling spring of stiffness k. Thus
•2
Kinetic energy (K.E.) = 1(m1 x + m2y• 2 )
2
1
Potential energy (P.E.) = —
2 k(y — x)2
The Lagrange's equation for a conservative system is:
d a(K.E.)1 a(K.E.) a(P.E.)

—0
dt [ aqi J aqi aqi
But a(K.E.)/a.i and, therefore

d [a(K.E.)1
= mil
dt
Also a(K.E.)/as; = m25' and, therefore
d [a(K.E.)1
=m25;
dt as;
Again
a(K.E.) a(K.E.)
=0 and =0
ax ay
Finally,
a(P.E.)
= k(-1)(y — x) = k(x— y)
ax
a(P.E.)
and = k(y — x)
ay
Hence, the two differential equations of motion are:

m1 .Z + k(x — y)= 0
m25; + k(y — x) = 0 Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.19 A simple pendulum of length L and mass m is pivoted to the mass M which
slides without friction on a horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 5.26. Derive the differential
equations of motion using approach of Lagrange's equation.
Fig. 5.26
Solution
For an assumed displacement x of the mass M, let 0 be the angular displacement of the
pendulum. Both the motions contribute to the kinetic energy of the system. The potential
energy of the system is due to the deformation in the spring and also due to the changes in the
position of the bob. Thus
Total linear displacement of the mass m = x + L sin 0
and, therefore, the total velocity of the bob mass m = X + Le cos 0
1 2 1 2
The kinetic energy (K.E.) = —2 Mi + -M (.i + 2iLe cos 0 + L202 cost 0)
2
For smaller angular swing 0, above expression simplifies to
1 2 1 2 •
K.E. = 2
—Mx + —m (x + 2iLO cos 0 + L2e2 )
2
1 2
The potential energy (P.E.) = —kx
2 + mgL(1— cos 0)
d [a(K.E.)1
Hence = [(M + m)x + mLe cos 0]
dt ai dt
[a(K.E.)1
Therefore = (M + m)..i + mL0 cos 0 — mLe2 sin 0
ddt ai
a(K.E.) a(P.E.)
Further =0 and = kx
ax ax
2)2 Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Hence, the first differential equation of motion is:
(M + m)i + mL e — (mL2O 2 )0 + kx = 0
For small 0, the last term becomes negligibly small and hence, neglected. Thus, the equation
becomes
(M + m)i + + kx = 0
d a(K.E.) d 2 •
Also, = (mL 0 + mLl cos0)
dt [ ae 1 dt
d ra(K.E.)1
or = mL2B + mLx cos° — mLie sin°
dt ae
For small 0, this reduces to
d [a(K.E.)
= mL2O + mLx
dt ae
a(K.E.) a(P.E.)
Further, for small 0, = 0 and = mgL0
ae ae
Thus, the second equation of motion, obtained by dividing all throughout by mL, is
La + ge + z = 0 Ans.
EXAMPLE 5.20 A motor M is driving a pump P. The rotor of the motor has a moment of
inertia and that of the rotor of the pump has /2. They are connected with two stub shafts, as
shown in Fig. 5.27. Determine the equivalent spring constant of the shaft between the two
rotors and the location of the nodal point if both the stub shafts have the same diameter. Take
shear modulus as G.
M
P
d1 d2 02
L2 -00 I2
Fig. 5.27 Torsional system with nodal point.
Solution
Same torque is transmitted through both the portions of stub shafts and, as such, the two
torsional springs are in series. The torsional stiffness of the two segments of the shaft are:
4 4
Girdi Gird2
k1 = and k2 =
32L1 32L2
The equivalent torsional stiffness for the shaft k is given by

1 1
— 1
k k1 k2
k l k2 = GA-di d2
or k=
+ k2 32(L2cli4 + Li d2 )
The equations of motion are:

/1 01 = —k(01 — 02)
and /2 02 = —k(01 — 02)

Assuming a solution 01 = A sin wt and 02 = B sin wt and substituting for 01 , 02 and their
derivatives, we have
(k — li o)2)A — kB = 0
and —kA + (k — I2w2)B = 0
A k k — I2co2
Therefore
B = k — I, w2
This leads to the quadratic equation in w2 as

(11 /2)w4 — + /2)km2 = 0
The roots of this quadratic equation are:
(a) w = 0 (rigid body motion) and
(11+12)k
(b) 2=
1112
Substituting this value of w2 in the amplitude ratio, we get

A = /-
B 11
Li A /2
Thus
L2 = B
This locates the nodal point on the shaft for the second mode of vibration. Ans.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
5.1 Figure 5.28 shows two rail road cars of mass 10 tonnes each. They are coupled by
springs of total stiffness 2.94 x 106 N/m. Find the natural frequencies of the system.
Fig. 5.28
5.2 Two identical circular cylinders are linked together as shown in Fig. 5.29. Determine
the natural frequencies of the system.
Fig. 5.29
5.3 For the coupled-pendulum as shown in Fig. 5.30, find the frequency equation.
5.4 Find out the two natural frequencies of vibration for the system shown in Fig. 5.31.
The light pendulum rod is pivoted at the centre of the roller. The spring acts through
the centre of the roller. Discuss the case when k = 0 and also when 1 = 0.
Fig. 5.31
5.5 Two identical pendulums are rigidly fastened to each end of a steel shaft of torsional
stiffness k, as shown in Fig. 5.32. The mass of the pendulum bob is m and the
weightless stiff rod of the pendulum is of length L. Assuming that the shaft is resting
on frictionless bearing, derive the equations of motion of the system.
Fig. 5.32
5.6 Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 5.33 if
k1 = 40 x 103 N/m, k2 = 50 x 103 N/m, k3 = 60 x 103 N/m, m1 = 10 kg, m2 = 12 kg,
r1 = 0.1 m and r2 = 0.11 m.
Fig. 5.33
5.7 Find the natural frequencies of the car with the following conditions:
Total mass of the car is 300 kg; wheel base 3.0 m; centre of gravity of the car is
1.5 m from the front axle; radius of gyration is 1.0 m and spring constants of front
and rear springs are 70 x 103 N/m each.
5.8 An airfoil wing, suspended in a wind tunnel, in its first bending and torsional modes
is represented schematically as shown in Fig. 5.34. The wing is suspended at a
distance of a from the centre of gravity, at 0 through a translational spring of
stiffness k and a torsional spring of stiffness IQ. Write down the equations of motion
for the system and obtain the two natural frequencies. Assume the following data:
m = 6 kg, I = 0.12 kg-m2, k = 6 x 103 N/m, IQ = 0.48 x 103 N-m/rad and a = 0.1 m.
—I a 1
Fig. 5.34
5.9 A rigid bar of mass per unit length m carries a point of mass M at its right end. The
bar is supported by two springs, as shown in Fig. 5.35. Derive the differential
equations for the translation of point A and rotation about A.
tF(r)
(3/4)L L/2 —►
Fig. 5.35
5.10 The system of Fig. 5.36 represents an airfoil section being tested in a wind tunnel.
Let the airfoil has total mass m and mass moment of inertia /c about the mass centre
C. Derive the differential equations of motion.
Fig. 5.36
5.11 A thin rod of length L and mass m is supported on two unequal springs of stiffnesses
k1 and k2, at points L1 and L2 from the centre, as shown in Fig. 5.37. Derive the
frequency equation and show that the two frequencies are equal if k1 = k2 and
L1 = L/2.
Fig. 5.37
5.12 Determine the two natural frequencies and mode shapes for the system shown in
Fig. 5.38. The string is stretched with a large tension T.
T
— 1.— T
, T
1...
T
,v, . .
m 2m
Fig. 5.38
5.13 An automobile of mass 2000 kg has a wheel base of 3.0 m. Its centre of gravity is
located 1.4m behind the front wheel axis and has a radius of gyration about its c.g.
as 1.1 m. The front springs have a combined stiffness of 5.88 x 106 N/m and rear
springs 6.37 x 106 N/m. Find the principal modes of vibration of the automobile and
locate the nodal points for each mode. Check the two natural frequencies by
considering the system, in turn, to be pivoted about these nodal points.
5.14 A section of pipe pertaining to a certain machine vibrates with large amplitude at a
compressor speed of 220 rpm. For analysing this system, a spring mass system was
suspended from the pipe to act as an absorber. A 1 kg absorber mass tuned to
220 cpm resulted in two resonant frequencies of 188 and 258 cpm. What must be the
mass and the spring stiffness of the absorber if the resonant frequencies are to lie
outside the range of 150 to 310 cpm?
(SGSITS: April 2003, Nov. 2003)
5.15 A jig used to size coal contains a screen that reciprocates with a frequency of
600 cpm. The jig weighs 2220 N and has a fundamental frequency of 400 cpm. If an
absorber weighing 555 N is to be installed to eliminate the vibration of the jig frame,
determine the absorber spring stiffness. What will be the resulting two natural
frequencies of the system?
Multi-Degree of Freedom
Systems
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first five chapters, an attempt has been made to represent complex physical systems
through simple mathematical models of one and two degrees of freedom. This approach was
helpful to explain the dynamic behaviour of the physical systems. In specific type of problems,
these mathematical models are closer to real systems and as such, the results obtained are
meaningful and useful for the purpose of design applications. However, such idealizations
are not possible in many cases of dynamic systems and mathematical models with larger
degrees of freedom must be considered. In principle, when the number of degrees of freedom
is greater than two, essentially the problem does not change much from that of two degrees of
freedom. In general, for a system with n-degrees of freedom, there are n number of
differential equations of motion, n number of natural frequencies, and an even number of
principal modes of vibration. Figure 6.1(a) represents a mathematical model of an n-degree of
freedom system.
It was pointed out in Sections 1.9 and 1.11 that most of the real-life vibrational systems
are of continuous type with mass and stiffness as distributed parameters. Such systems can be
considered to have an infinite number of degrees of freedom, because the system is fully
described only when the motion is defined at each and every point of the system. The vibration
analysis of continuous/distributed parameter systems requires the solution of partial differential
equations, which is generally quite difficult. As a matter of fact, analytical solutions do not
exist for many partial differential equations and one may require numerical methods for
solving them. In quite a few cases, the mass and stiffness distribution are highly non-uniform.
In all such cases, it may be desirable to construct lumped parameter models consisting of finite
number of mass and spring elements. This is particularly so in case of mechanical systems,
where even a uniform shaft may carry rotating members like pulleys, flywheels.
214
Multi-Degree of Freedom Systems 211
6.2 EQUATION OF MOTION

For a vibratory system of n-degrees of freedom, the motion is represented by n differential
equations of motion. These equations can be established using Newton's second law of motion,
using Lagrange's equation or by using influence coefficients method. The equations of motion
are not entirely independent. In order to solve these equations simultaneously, for establishing
all the natural frequencies, one is required to evaluate determinants of nth order. Alternatively,
solutions may be obtained using the Stodola method, Holzer's method and the method of
Matrix iteration. These are called approximate methods of determining natural frequencies. A
n-degrees of freedom system is shown in Fig. 6.1(a).
To explain as to how the method based on Newton's law enables establishing the
differential equations of motion, consider a three degrees of freedom system shown in
Fig. 6.1(b). From the free body diagrams of the three masses, assuming x1 > x2 > x3 and using
Newton's second law, the differential equations may be written as under:
m111 = — k2(Xi — x2) (6.1)
M212 = +k2(X1 — x2) — k3(x2 — x3) (6.2)
m3x3 = +k3(x2 — x3) — k4X3 (6.3)
(a) n-d.o.f. system (b) 3-d.o.f. system

Fig. 6.1 Multi-degrees of freedom system.
Simplifying and rearranging, Equations (6.1), (6.2) and (6.3) may be rewritten as:
m111 + (k1 + k2)x1 — k2x2 = 0
M212 (k2 k3)x2 k3x3 k2x1 = 0
1723.X3 (k3 1(4)X3 — k3x2 = 0
The above differential equations can be expressed in matrix form as under:
m1 0 0 (k1 + k2 ) —k2 0 { xi
0 m2 0 + —k2 (k2 + k3 ) —k3 X2 (6.4)
0 0 m3 0 —k3 ( k3 + k4 ) X3
In the above matrix representation, the matrix
-m1 0 0
[m] 0 m2 0
0 0 m3
is called the mass /inertia matrix. The stiffness matrix is given by
(k1 + k2 ) —k2 0
[k] —k2 ( k2 + k3) —k3
0 —k3 ( k3 + k4 )
Readers may note that the mass matrix is a diagonal matrix, while the stiffness matrix is a
square symmetric. The matrix equation in Eq. (6.4) may also be expressed simply as
[M]{I) + [K]{x} = 0 (6.5)

For obtaining mode shapes and the natural frequencies, let the assumed solutions be
x1 = A sin wt, x2 = B sin wt and x3 = C sin wt
Substituting for xi , x2, x3 and their second derivatives in above equations and eliminating
common factor of sin wt, we have
(ki + k2 — m i co2) A — k2 B = 0
—k2A + (k2 + k3 — m2w2) B — k3C = 0
—k3B + (k3 + k4 — m3w2) C = 0
The characteristic frequency equation is, therefore, given by the determinant (ref. Eq. 5.9) as
under:
(k1 + k2 — mi c02 ) —k2 0
Am -k2 (k2 + k3 — m2(02 ) —k3 =0 (6.6)
0 —k3 (k3 + k4 — m3(02 )
Expanding this determinant and solving the resulting cubic equation in w2, one gets the three
natural frequencies. Also, the amplitude ratios for the principal modes of vibration are given as
under:
A k2 2
= B k3 + k4 — M3CO
, and =
B ki + k2 — mi ar C k3
EXAMPLE 6.1 For the system shown in Fig. 6.1(b), assume that the spring k4 is removed,
thereby detaching mass m3 from the frame. Further, assume that k1 = 3k, k2 = k3 = k and
m1 = 4m, m2 = 2m, m3 = m, so that the system appears as at Fig. 6.2. Find out the three natural
frequencies for the system.
Fig. 6.2
(SGSITS: Feb. 1992)
Solution
For the given data and k4 = 0, the characteristic frequency equation represented by Eq. (6.6)
reduces to
4k — 4mm2 —k 0
ACO —k 2k —2m(02 —k =0
0 —k k — m(02
Expanding the determinant, the characteristic frequency equation becomes

(4k — 4mw2){(2k — 2mw2)(k — mw2) — k2} + (—k) (-1)3 {(—k)(k — mw2) — 0} = 0
or (k — mw2){8 (k m(02)2 4k2} (k2)(k mw2) = 0
or (k — mco2)(8m2 al — 16mkw2 + 3k2) = 0
The first root of the frequency equation is obtained from k — mw2 = 0

Thus, the first root is w1 = NIcn.
I
The other two roots are established from
w4
—
8m2 W16mkw2 + 3k2 = 0
Dividing out by 8m2, we get
(0 4 _ 2 Hic (02 + —
3 Hic 2 =0
MI 8 mj
The two other frequencies, as obtained by solving the above quadratic equation, are:
k) 1±)
(D2 = — and (03= Ans.
0.21( m 1.79( m
EXAMPLE 6.2 Calculate the natural frequencies of the three unequal masses attached at the
quarter points of a high tension string shown in Fig. 6.3.
Fig. 63
Solution
Let x1 , x2 and x3 be the displacements of the three masses as shown in Fig. 6.3 and assume
further that the tension T in the string remains unchanged for small angles of oscillations.
Considering free body diagrams of the three masses and considering equilibrium in the lateral
direction, we have
2mi 1 = T sin 01 — T sin 02
M12 = —T sin 02 — T sin 03
and 3m13 = T sin 03 — T sin 04
Expressing the sine of the angles 01 , 02 and 03 in terms of the displacements x1 , x2, x3, we have
xi (x, —x i
2rnli+T( T ' =0
L L j
(x, — x i (x, — X3
m:i 2 + T +T ' =0
L L j
..x, — X3
and 3mi3 + T T ' =0
Assume the resulting oscillatory motion to be harmonic, let us assume the solutions as:
x1 = A sin on, x2 = B sin ox and x3 = C sin ox
Substituting for x1 , x2, x3 and their second time derivatives and dividing out by sin on, we get
(2T
— 2mo A — (— B= 0
L
( 2T
—(—A + -—m(02 B—(IC=0
L1 L Li
T B + 2T _
and 37)7(02 C = 0
L1 L
The frequency equation is, therefore, obtained by solving the determinant
2T T
— — 2rnco2 0
L L
T 2T 2 -T
-- =0
LL —L —Trim
T 2T
0 — 3rnco2
L L
Expanding the determinant, we get
2 3
22m T 4 19mT2 2 4T
6m30)6 CO + CO - =0
L2 I L3
Dividing out by m3, we get

r 19T 2 r 3
6 — (22T 4 2 4T
60) CO +
2 T2
CO =0
\ mL 1 M
The three roots of this cubic equation in w2 are:
T T
mi = 0.56,\ I — , co2 = 0.83 T and co3 = 1.59 — rad/s Ans.
mL mL V mL
6.3 THE MATRIX METHOD (EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS)
In Eq. (6.4), the acceleration and displacement vectors are respectively represented as
{
x2 and
X3
In absence of any ambiguity, the brackets and braces in Eq. (6.5) can be dispensed with and
the differential equations of motion in matrix form may be rewritten using capital letters as
MX + KX = 0 (6.7)
Equation (6.7) may be premultiplied by /1/1-1, so that
= I, which is a unit matrix
and /1/1-1K = A, which is a dynamic matrix.
With this, Eq. (6.7) becomes
+ AX = 0 (6.8)
Remembering that X and X are vectors and in simple harmonic motion, the acceleration
is w2 times the displacement, the above two vectors may be assumed to be related as X = —AX,
where A, = w2. Equation (6.8) may, then, be rewritten as
[A — AI]{XI = 0 (6.9)
The characteristic frequency equation is, then, given by the following determinant:
[A — AI] = 0 (6.10)
The roots Ai of the characteristic equation are called the eigenvalues and the natural
frequencies are related to the eigenvalues as
aa 2 (6.11)
= (Di
The vector X1, representing displacements, is called eigenvector. This eigenvector represents
the mode shape for a given frequency of the system. As an obvious corollary, for a system
with n-degrees of freedom, there will be n eigenvalues and n eigenvectors. To obtain a mode
shape X1, one has to substitute corresponding eigenvalue Ai in Eq. (6.9).
EXAMPLE 6.3 Find the natural frequency of the 3-d.o.f. system shown in Fig. 6.4. Use the
matrix method.
Fig. 6.4
Solution
With reference to Fig. 6.4, assume x1 > x2 > x3, so that both the springs of stiffness k are in
compression. Considering the free body diagrams of the three masses, the differential
equations of motion may be written, using Newton's law, as
4m11 = —3kx 1 — k(xi — x2)
2in 1 2 = k (X I - x2 ) k( X 2 - x3)
and m13 = +k(x2 — x3)

These equations may be rewritten as
4m11 + 4kxi — kx2 = 0
2M12 21a2 /al 1a3 = 0

and m13 + kx3 kx2 = 0
These equations may be expressed in matrix form as
4m 0 0 4k -k 0 x1
0 2m 0 —k 2k —k x2 =0
0 0 0 —k k x3
The mass/inertia matrix and the stiffness matrix are:
4m 0 0 4k —k 0
[m] 0 2m 0 and [K] —k 2k —k
0 0 m 0 —k k
The dynamic matrix is, therefore, given by

[C] = [M]- I [K]
For establishing the inverse of the matrix [M], the array of the cofactors and the adjoint of [M]
are:
2m2 0 0 2m 2 0 0
[Mtn ] = 0 2m 0 adj [M] = 0 4m2 0
0 0 m 0 0 8m2
Again EMI = 4m(2m2 — 0) = 8m3

1/4m 0 0
[M]_ i adj[M]
Therefore = = 0 1/2m 0
0 0 1/m
The dynamic matrix is given by
1/4m 0 0 4k —k 0 klm —kl4m 0

[C] = 0 1/2m 0 —k 2k —k —kl2m klm —kl2m
0 0 1/m 0 —k k 0 —klm klm
The matrix equation then becomes

{1}+ [C]{x} = 0
For simple harmonic oscillations of frequency CO, we have
[C]{X} - w2{X} = 0
Letting m2 = A, we have
— CI{X} = 0
For non-trivial solution,

f(A) = det IM — CI = 0
1 0 0
where I = 0 1 0
0 0 1
The characteristic frequency equation can, therefore, be written as
(2— klm) +kl4m 0

f (2) = kl2m (2 — klm) kl2m =0
0 klm (2— klm)
2
I2 kl 2 Ic k2 ( 03( k 1, k k
+ it — — — — 01+ 0 = 0
in ) Mi 22 1 4m I M j 2m
Taking out common factor, the equation becomes
rzi k[( 2 k 2 5k2

, =0
in ) mj 8m-
which on simplification becomes
2 k[2,2 22 r k + 3k2 =0
( mj iii j 8m2
The roots of the quadratic equation
k 3k 2
[22 —24 — + 1= 0
m j 8m`
are A, = 0.21 (klm) and A, = 1.79(k/m)

Hence, the three frequencies are:
k
mi = I—
,\ , m2 = 0.458 ,\1±
1 and co3 = 1.337 Ans.
m m VVm
6.4 METHOD OF INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS AND MAXWELL'S

RECIPROCAL THEOREM
Apart from the method based on Newton's second law of motion, the method of influence
coefficients provides yet another approach to establish differential equations of motion. When
combined with more advanced computational aids, the method is widely used for the analysis
of complex structures such as airplane wings.
An influence coefficient, denoted by ou, is the static deflection of the system at position
i due to a unit force applied at position j when the unit force is the only force acting. Thus, the
influence coefficient also measures the elastic properties of the system. To understand the
utility of the concept of influence coefficients, consider the simply supported beam shown in
Fig. 6.5(a). Let there be three forces F1 , F2 and F3 acting at the positions 1, 2 and 3. Assume
that the total deflection at position 1 to be a linear combination of individual deflections at
position 1 due to forces F1 , F2 and F3 acting one at a time. Thus
01 = Fi + F2312 + F3313
F1 F2 F3 PI P2
2
7747 1
1 1 2 7747 7747 1
1
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.5 A simply supported beam with point loads.
Similarly, total deflections at stations 2 and 3 are given by
A2 = FI 321 + F2322 + F3323

A3 = FI 331 + F2332 + F3333 (6.12)
From the Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, it follows that 1.13 = 3 19 which implies that the
deflection at position i due to a unit load acting at position j equals the deflection at position j
due to a unit load acting at position i of the same system.
To prove the Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, consider the elastic simply supported beam
shown in Fig. 6.5(b) which is acted upon by two vertical forces P1 and P2 at stations
(positions) 1 and 2 respectively. The influence coefficients involved in this case are, thus, 811,
3129 322 and 321. Further, assume that the loading is carried out in two stages.
In the first stage, assume that the load P1 alone is applied at station 1. The deflections at
the stations 1 and 2 due to P1 alone are P1311 and /31 321 respectively. The potential/strain
energy in the beam on account of the deflection under the gradually applied force P1 is 1/2
(P1 )2311. When the force P2 is applied at station 2, it produces deflection P2312 at station 1,
where load P1 already exists. Also, under the load P2, the deflection caused at station 2 is 322.
Hence, the total potential energy of the beam is
7,2. ,,D 1 ro
U =— r1 + El kr2u12) r2 u22 (6.13)
2 2
Next, let us assume the force P2 to be applied to the station 2 of the beam, followed by force
P1 at station 1. The expression for the total potential energy in this case can be similarly
written as
7.7 D2 A D iD A 1 D2 A
= u 22
Iu kr 21) ri (6.14)
2
Final states of the system being identical for the two methods of loading, the two
potential energies must be identical. Comparing the right hand sides of the Eqs. (6.13) and
(6.14), we get 312 = 321. This proves the Maxwell's theorem.
EXAMPLE 6.4 Determine the influence coefficients of the pendulum of lengths L1 and L2
and masses m1 and m2 as shown in Fig. 6.6.
-).- I N
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.6
Solution
Apply a unit force to mass m1 as shown in Fig. 6.6(a) and let T be the tension in the pendulum
arm of length L1 . Then, for equilibrium of forces
T sin 0 = 1
and T cos 0 = g(mi + m2 + m3)
Dividing out, we get
1
tan 0 =
g(m1 + m2 + m3 )
For small values of 0, sin 0 = tan 0

But sin 0 = Ona-i•
Hence, by comparison
L1
811 = g(m1 +m2 +m3
)
It follows from Fig. 6.4(a) that 311 = 321 = 331
Again, applying a unit horizontal force at mass m2 is equivalent to applying a unit

horizontal force at m1 together with a couple. Thus, when a unit horizontal force is applied at
m2, the mass m1 is displaced by the same amount on but the masses m2 and m3 are displaced
through an additional distance of L2/g(m2 + m3).
Thus 312 = 311
L2
and 322 = 332 = 311 +
g(m2 + n13)
Similarly, when a unit horizontal load is applied at the mass m3, by the same logic, the masses
m1 and m2 undergo displacements same as before, while the mass m3 undergoes additional
displacements of L2/gm3.
Thus
313 = 3119 323 = 332 and 333 = 322 + L3

gm3
Li
Thus, the influence coefficients are on = 312 = 313 =
g(m1 +m2 +m3 )
Also
L1
331 =
g(m1 +m2 +m3 )
L1 L2
332 = +
g(m1 +m2 +m3 ) g(m2 +m3)
L1 L2 L,
333 = + + ' Ans.
g(m1 + m2 + m3 ) g(m2 + m3 ) gm3
EXAMPLE 6.5 Determine the influence coefficients of the three degrees of freedom spring-
mass system as shown in Fig. 6.7 and hence, find out the three natural frequencies of the
system.
Fig. 6.7
Solution
When a unit force is applied to the mass 4m, it is balanced by the spring force developed in the
spring of stiffness 3k, the other springs do not share the force. The elongation in the spring of
stiffness 3k is, therefore, 1/3k. Thus on = 1/3k.
Since the other two springs remain unstrained, the other two masses, namely 2m and m
will move down by the same distance. Therefore
1
021 = 331 = k
3
By Maxwell's reciprocal theorem,
2 1
312 = U13 = K
3
To establish the influence coefficient 322 apply a unit force at the mass 2m. The lower most
spring remains unstrained and the two upper springs are in series and have an equivalent spring
stiffness of 3k/4. Thus, the two springs together will have an elongation of 4/3k and therefore
4,
322 332 ic
This is obvious as the lower most spring remains unstrained.

In order to find out the influence coefficient 333, consider the unit load to be applied to
mass m. Each of the three springs is now subjected to the unit load and as such, all the three
springs can be considered to be in series. The equivalent stiffness k' is given by
1 1 1 1
—=—+—+—
k' 3k k k
3k
or k' =
7
Therefore, the total deflection in mass m 333 = 7/3k
Thus
1 1
311 312
3k SIC 313 = 3k
4 4
321
3k 322 = 3k 9 323 = 3k
1 4 7
031
3k 332 = 3k 9 333 = 3k
Since this is a dynamic system, the inertia forces acting on masses 4m, 2m and m each
contributes to deflections at the three masses. By substituting for inertia forces in Eq. (6.12),
we get
XI = -mI 11 11 - M2i2312 M313313
33
x2 = -ml x 1 321 - M2i2322 M313323
and x3 = -MI x 1 331 - M2i2332 M313333

Assuming harmonic solutions x1 = X1 sin wt, x2 = X2 sin wt and x3 = X3 sin wt and

substituting appropriate values of masses, influence coefficients and second time derivatives of
displacements and eliminating sin wt as common, we get
r 4mo)2 r 2mo)2 r MO)2
1 X1 + X2 + X3 = 0
l 3k / l 3k I
3k I
r r
4m0)2 8m0)2
/ 2
4m0)
Xi + 1 X2 + X3 = 0
3k /
3k /
3k
/
8m0)2 r 7mo)2
/ 2
4m0)
Xi + X2 + 1 X3 = 0
3k 3k 3k
Dividing out above equations by (mw2/3k) and putting A, = (3k/mm2), these equations become
(4 — A)X1 + 2X2 + X3 = 0
4X1 + (8 — A)X2 + 4X3 = 0
4X1 + 8X2 + (7 — A)X3 = 0
The frequency equation is then given by the following determinant equation:
4—2 2 1
4 8—2 =0 4
4 8 7 —2
Simplifying the determinant equation, we get the following cubic equation in A,.
2,3 — 192,2 + 72A, — 72 = 0
The roots of this cubic equation are:
A, = 1.68, 3.0 and 14.32.
3k
Thus — 1.68.3.0 and 14.32
mw
(k k
Therefore o)2 = 1.786( I. , 0.209 (—
mi m1 mj
and the three natural frequencies are:
k
mi = 1.33 ,\I I. , co2 = ,\I— and co3 = 0.457 ,\11. Ans.
m m m
6.5 ORTHOGONALITY OF THE PRINCIPAL MODES OF VIBRATION

The Maxwell's reciprocal theorem tells us that the stiffness matrix is always symmetric. This is
true, in general, about the mass matrix too. Orthogonality of the principal modes can be taken
to be the direct consequence of the property of symmetry. The principle implies that the
principal modes are orthogonal to each other. The orthogonality of principal modes can have a
direct geometrical interpretation for n = 2 or 3. With respect to a coordinate frame (x, y, z) in
analytic geometry, let vector A be represented by its components a l , a2, a3 along with x, y, z.
Similarly, let another vector B be represented by its components b1 , b2, b3 along x, y, z.
The two vectors A and B are orthogonal (i.e. perpendicular to one another) if
A.B = a i b i + a2b2 + a3b3 = 0 (6.15)
Readers may compare this equation with Eqs. (6.16a), (6.16b) and (6.16c) which represent the
orthogonality principle for a system with three degrees of freedom.
MIA IA2 m2B1B2 M3CI C2 = 0 (6.16a)
MIA IA3 m2B1B3 M3CI C3 = 0 (6.16b)
m1A2A3 m2B2B3 m3C2C3 = 0 (6.16c)
where m1 , m2, m3 are the three masses of the system and Ai, Bi and Ci(i = 1, 2, 3) are the
amplitudes of vibration of the three masses in ith mode.
For an n-degree of freedom system, the orthogonality principle is
=0 (6.17)
i=i
where r # s are the principle modes of vibration of the system.
The orthogonality principle may be considered to be a fundamental property of vibrating
systems having two or more degrees of freedom. Its importance lies in practical calculations of
natural frequencies as also for the treatment of forced vibrations. Thus, expansion theorem
applied to vibration problems reveals that any general motion x(t) for n masses may be splitted
into components each of which corresponds to a principal mode. Readers may recall that this is
the basis of obtaining the response of a vibrating system. This goes under the name modal
analysis. Equation (6.17) can also be used to check the accuracy of the computation of normal
modes.
6.6 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF DETERMINING FUNDAMENTAL

FREQUENCIES
In the preceding sections, the natural frequencies (eigenvalues) and the principal modes
(eigenvectors) were established by equating the characteristic determinant to zero. Although
this is an exact method, for large number of degrees of freedom solving the determinant of
large order becomes increasingly difficult. Only for few degree of freedom systems with
special forms of excitation, exact solution can be found. For systems having larger number of
degrees of freedom, the very first difficulty in obtaining exact solution lies in obtaining the
roots of the characteristic equation. Electronic computers using numerical methods are used to
establish eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix equation. These methods often help us to
establish two frequencies between which the exact solution lies. This is a very important
feature from the viewpoint of engineering applications where an exact solution is not essential
but, on the other hand, is more than enough to have percentage deviation of approximate
solution, with respect to correct solution, to be within acceptable limits. Again, all the 'n'
frequencies are not useful in the design of today's high speed machines. In fact, only the lowest
few frequencies and corresponding mode shapes, covering the operational speed range of the
system, are of interest to us to assess its performance. It is not advisable, therefore, to use lot
of computational time in establishing unwanted higher frequencies and corresponding mode
shapes. The approximate (numerical) methods are, therefore, required to generate first few
frequencies and corresponding mode shapes of a multi-degrees of freedom system.
When the number of degrees of freedom is large, the problems are generally solved by
computers or other methods such as Rayleigh, Rayleigh-Ritz, Holzer, Stodola, matrix method.
There are two simple methods to estimate the fundamental frequency of the system. The
Dunkerley's method provides the lower bound on the fundamental frequency while the
Rayleigh's method establishes the upper bound. The exact value of the fundamental frequency
of a system, therefore, lies in between limits established by Dunkerley's and Rayleigh's
approximation.
6.6.1 Dunkerley's Lower Bound Approximation
Dunkerley's formula establishes lower bound to the fundamental frequency. In principle, the
Dunkerley's equation represents a relation between the fundamental frequency of the system to
the frequencies of the component parts.
Referring to Fig. 6.8, when the load on the system consists of point loads, the
Dunkerley's equation may be written as
1 1 1 1
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 (6.18)
6° 6°1 6°2 6°3
where neglecting the weight of the beam, CO is the natural frequency of the system and the
natural frequencies corresponding to the loads W1 , W2 and W3 are w1 , m2 and w3. This
approach can be best understood through the following examples.
4P 2P
L/4 L/4
Fig. 6.8 Simply supported beam with three point loads.
EXAMPLE 6.6 A solid steel shaft of uniform diameter, which carries two discs of weights
600 N and 1000 N, is represented by a simply supported beam as shown in Fig. 6.9. Determine
the fundamental natural frequency assuming E = 19.6 x 106 N/cm2 and I = 40 cm4.
600 N 1000 N
1 5 cm - __ 10cm_____ 10 cm
Fig. 6.9 Simply supported beam carrying point loads with deflection curve.
Solution
The deflection curve for the shaft is as shown in Fig. 6.9 by dashed line.
For a simply supported beam of length L with a point load W at a distance of a from one
end and b from the other, the deflection at a distance x from the left hand support is given by
y = WbX (L2 — X 2 — b 2 ) for 0< x < a

6EIL
Wb [L 03 + (L2 _ b 2 ) x _ x 3
and Y= (x for a<x<L
6EIL b
Also, the deflection under the off-centred load is given by
Wa2b2
Y=
3EIL
Thus, putting W = 1 in the above expressions, the influence coefficients are:
(5)2 (20)2
— 0.17 x 10-6 cm
3(19.6 x 106 )(40)(25)
Also
(15)2 (10)2
4522 = = 0.383 x 10-6 cm
3(19.6 x 106 )(40)(25)
Consider first the beam with the single point load W1 = 600 N alone. The deflection under the
load due to the load itself
y1 = 600 x 0.17 x 10-6 = 0.000102 cm
Therefore
g= 981
cal = = 3101.2 rad/s
yi \/0.000102
Also, considering the load W2 = 1000 N to act alone on the beam,
y2 = 1000 x 0.383 x 10-6 = 0.000383 cm
g
981
and c°2 = = 1600.4 rad/s
y2 0.000383
Using Dunkerley's equation, we have

1 1 1
= ,+ , — 2022622.96
con' 3101.2' 1600.42
Therefore (on = 1422.2 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 6.7 Find the natural frequency of vibration for the system shown in Fig. 6.10 by
the Dunkerley's method. Take E = 1.96 x 1011 N/m2 and I = 4 x 10-7 m4.
Fig. 6.10
Solution
Neglecting the weight of the shaft, the deflection under the disc of mass M1 due to its own
weight is given by
= TIT
vv1 X 2 2
100 X 9.81 x18
Yi (3a x) = (54 —18) = 0.024 m
6E1 6 x1.96 x1011 x 4 x10 '
Similarly, deflection under the mass M2, due to its own weight W2 is
TIT2 2
" X 2 (3L x) = 50 x 9.81 x 0.30
Y2 = , (0.90 — 0.30) = 0.0000563 m
6E1 6 x1.96 x1011 x 4 x10—
9.81
Therefore col = — 639.3 rad/s
0.000024
9.81
and (02 = — 417.43 rad/s
0.0000563
Using the Dunkerley's equation, therefore, we have
2
1 ( 1 1
w22n — 639.3j + 417.43]
Therefore (.0„2 = 122164.13

and so con = 349.5 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 6.8 A simply supported beam AB of length 1.2 m carries transverse loads of
200 N, 800 N and 400 N respectively at the distances of 30 cm, 60 cm and 90 cm from the left
hand support. Find the natural frequency of the transverse vibration.
Solution
Let col , cot and o)3 be the three natural frequencies respectively when the weight of the beam
is neglected and each of the three loads namely of 200 N, 800 N and 400 N are acting singly
on the beam.
Deflection at a distance x in a simply supported beam of length L, under a load W distant
a from the left hand support and b from the other support, is given by
W (L — a) 2
y— (L — x2— b-)
2
6EIL
The deflection yi under the load of 200 N due to the load itself is, therefore
200 x 0.90
Yi = (1.202 — 0.302 — 0.902 ) = 13.5 m
6 x 1.20 x EI El
I 9.81 EI
Therefore col = = 0.851\0 rad/s
,\ 13.5
Similarly, deflection under the load 800 N due to the load itself is:
Y2 = 800 x 0.60 (1.20 48 m
2 — 0.602 — 0.602 ) =
6 x 1.20 x EI El
I 9.81 El
Therefore w2 = , 48 = 0.452,0 rad/s
Finally, deflection under the load 400 N due to the load itself is:
400 x 0.90
Y3 = [1.202 — 0.902 — 0.302 ] = 27m
6 x 1.20 x EI El
19.81 El
Therefore co3 = 27 = 0.603 VT/ rad/s
Therefore, using Dunkerley's equation, we get

'N2
1 1 1 1 1
=
con2 El (0.852 j 0.452 j 0.603 j
1 _ 9.0225
or m
—n2 El
Therefore
TI Ans.
co = = 0.333 VT/
3.004
6.6.2 Rayleigh's Method

Readers may recall that energy method was used for calculating the natural frequency of a one
degree of freedom system. The method consists in equating the maximum kinetic energy to
maximum potential energy of the system. The same principle can be used to determine the
fundamental frequency of a multi-degree of freedom system, provided the true dynamic
deflection curve for fundamental mode is known. Strictly speaking, this is a numerical
method, but usually in the very first trial, it yields frequency close enough to the fundamental
natural frequency. Again, this being the case of a multi-degree of freedom system, there are
many masses and, therefore, many components of potential and kinetic energies. However, the
motion in a principal mode of vibration is simple harmonic and all the masses vibrate at the
same frequency with the masses passing through the mean equilibrium position simultaneously
and reaching their extreme positions at the same instant. This turns out to be an important
feature permitting use of the Rayleigh's method in multi-degree of freedom problems.
There are two important steps in the procedure adopted in finding the first natural
frequency using the Rayleigh's method.
(a) Assume a dynamic deflection for the given system that is consistent with the
boundary conditions.
(b) Determine the maximum potential energy and the maximum kinetic energy of the
system for the assumed dynamic deflection curve and equate the two to find out the
natural frequency.
In a simple harmonic motion taking place at a natural frequency con, the maximum velocity is
given by y con. Therefore, mathematically
1 2 1
Mi (Y") = — Mi gYi (6.19)
2 2
or 2 gEmiyi (6.20)
(1)n =
Emiy7
where Mi and yi represent the mass and deflection at a station i.
It is important to note that if a curve other than the true deflection curve is assumed for
the fundamental mode, then the natural frequency so calculated will be higher than the actual
value of the fundamental natural frequency. The reasons for this may be attributed to the
possible presence of additional constraints responsible for forcing the deflection curve away
from the actual deflection curve. The additional constraints necessarily lead to increased
stiffness. Needless to say that higher value of the estimated frequency leads to a larger range of
frequencies between which the fundamental natural frequency lies. If a reasonable deflection
curve is assumed, Rayleigh's principle helps us to provide a good estimate of the fundamental
frequency, generally within 10 per cent error. In general, the use of static deflection curve of
the beam/shaft leads to a fairly accurate value of the fundamental frequency. A more accurate
value of the fundamental natural frequency can be established if the deflection curve due to
inertia load is considered, the inertia loads being obtained on the basis of frequency determined
from Eq. (6.20). Alternatively, in order to have greater accuracy, the approximate curve can
be repeatedly refined, rendering the process to be iterative in nature. The method ensures a fast
convergence with a fairly accurate value of fundamental natural frequency.
A generalized form of Eq. (6.20), incorporating the case of distributed mass of a
beam/shaft, can be derived as under:
Consider a uniform beam of length L and of mass p per unit length. The maximum
potential/elastic-strain energy of this beam in bending is given by
1L
P.E. = —f M d 9 (6.21)
2
o
where M is the bending moment and de is the change in the slope of the beam over a distance
dx.
Readers may recall from the theory of beam bending that
M _ 1 = dO _ d 2 y
El R dx dx 2
dx
It follows that de = —
R
Substituting for 1/R, we get
m
d9= — dx
El
Substituting for de in Eq. (6.21), we get
1 L r M2
P.E. = —f dx
2 0 El /
1 L r2
or P.E. = —El f — dx
2 o El i
Lr 2 2
d y
or P.E. = 1E7 f dx (6.22)
2 o v/x 2 )
Also, the maximum kinetic energy in the beam due to the mass and velocity y0), is
L
K.E. = — f p(ycon )2 dx (6.23)
2o
where con is the natural frequency corresponding to the assumed deflection curve.
Equating the maximum potential energy to the maximum kinetic energy, we have
L
f (d 2 y/dx 2 )2 dx
2 El o
0)n = p (6.24)
L
f y 2 dx
0
EXAMPLE 6.9 Find the fundamental natural frequency of transverse vibration for the
system shown in Fig. 6.9 using Rayleigh's method.
Solution
The deflection at station 1 due to a unit load at station 2 is given by
10 x 5 (252 _ 52 _102) = 0.2126 x le cm
6.12 =
6x40x19.6x10 6 x25
Therefore 3-21= 312 = 0.2126 x le cm
Also, from Example 6.6, we have
811 = 0.17 x le cm and 322 = 0.383 x le cm
Therefore yl = 600(0.17 x 10-6) + 1000(0.2126 x 10-6) = 0.0003146 cm
Also, Y2 = 600(0.2126 x 10-6) + 1000( 0.383 x 10-6) = 0.0005106 cm
Multiplying and dividing by g, the acceleration due to gravity, on the right hand side of
Eq. (6.20)
2 g (Wyi ) 981[600 (0.0003146) + 1000 (0.0005106)]

(On =
Wi y7 600 (0.0003146)2 + 1000 (0.0005106)2
Therefore con = 2143288.8

or con = 1464 rad/s Ans.
Note: Readers may compare the value of fundamental frequency (namely 1422.2 rad/s)
obtained by using Dunkerley's method, with the value 1464 rad/s as obtained by using
Rayleigh's method.
EXAMPLE 6.10 Find the fundamental natural frequency of vibration for the system shown
in Fig. 6.10 using Rayleigh's method. E = 1.96 x 1011 N/m2 and I = 4 x 10-7 m4.
Solution
The influence coefficients are computed by assuming unit load to be placed first at station 1
and then at station 2. Using deflection formulae for a cantilever beam, we have
(0.18)3
811 = - 2.4796 x le m
3(1.96 x 1011 )(4 x 10-7 )
(0.3)3
822 = - 1.148 x 10-7 m
3(1.96 x 1011 )(4 x 10-7 )
Deflection in a cantilever beam at a distance x from support due to a unit load at a distance a
from the support (x > a) is given by
a 2 (3x — a)
8x = 6E7
Therefore, by putting x = L, we get
2 (0.18)2 (3 x 0.30 - 0.18) _

21 = 4.9592 x 10 m
6(1.96 x 1011 )(4 x 10-7 )
Clearly, 312 = 321 = 4.9592 x 10 m

Therefore, the deflections at stations 1 and 2 due to masses M1 and M2 acting
simultaneously are:
y i = 100 x 9.81 x 2.4796 x 10-8 + 50 x 9.81 x 4.9592 x 10 = 0.4865 x 10-4 m
and y2 = 100 x 9.81 x 4.9592 x 10-8 + 50 x 9.81 x 1.148 x 10-7 = 1.0496 x 10-4 m
Thus, using Reyleigh's formula
9.81 (MLY1+M2Y2) = 9.81(100 x 0.4865 x 10-4 + 50 x 1.0496 x 10-4 )

(On
±M2Yi 100(0.4865 x 10-4 )2 + 50(1.0496 x 10-4 )2
0.09921
Therefore - 354.94 rad/s Ans.
0.78751 x 10-6
The natural frequency so established assumes static deflection values. A more correct value of
natural frequency can be obtained by considering dynamic deflections due to the inertia loads.
Thus, at the assumed frequency of 354.94 rad/s, the inertia loads at the stations 1 and 2 are:
F1 = Mi yi m2n = 100(0.4865 x 10-4) x 354.942 = 612.9 N
F2 = M2Y2 (1)2n = 50(1.0496 x 10-4) x 354.942 = 661.15 N
The revised values of deflections at the stations 1 and 2 due to these dynamic loads are:
= 612.9 x 2.4796 x 10 + 661.15 x 4.9592 x 10-8 = 0.4798 x 10-4 m
and y'2 = 612.9 x 4.9592 x le + 661.15 x 1.148 x 10-7 = 1.0629 x le m
Using these values of dynamic loads and the corresponding dynamic deflections, we have
(60;02 612.9 X 0.4798 x10-4 + 661.15 x1.0629 x10-4 996.8x10-4

100 (0.4798 x 10-4 )2 + 50(1.0629 x 10-4 )2 79.508 x 10-8
Therefore 60, = V12.537 x 104 = 354.08 rad/s Ans.

Evidently, this is a refined (a more correct) solution.
EXAMPLE 6.11 Find, using Rayleigh's method, fundamental natural frequency of

transverse vibration of a simply supported beam of length L and of uniform cross section with
mass per unit length as p.
Solution
To begin with, let us assume the deflection curve to be a sine curve. Assuming it to be a half
sine curve, the equation of the deflection curve is:
gx
y = Y sin —
L
dy = (lr7CX d2y ,, IC )2 IC X
Therefore Y cos — and = —r (— sini —
dx Lj L dx 2 L L
Hence, from Eq. (6.24)
Lr 2
2
It' It x
f — Y sin — dx
2 EI ,:) L2 L EI TC 4
=
(Dn = 2
1,
pe
P I ( Y sin g
— x dx
o L /
2
g IEI
or (1)n = — — Ans.
L2 o\P
6.7 STODOLA'S METHOD
The method is named after Aurel Boreslav Stodola, a swiss engineer who joined the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich in 1892 to occupy the chair of thermal machinery.
His areas of interest included machine design, automatic controls, thermodynamics, rotor
dynamics and steam turbines. The main features of Stodola method is that it is an iterative
process that converges fast to yield the principal modes and natural frequencies of free
undamped multi-degree of freedom vibrating systems. Its a yet another interesting feature is
that it is a physical approach and there is no need to derive differential equations of motion.
The working principle of the method is based on the fact that, in general, the inertia force and
the deflection attain their maximum values at the same time; their directions are, however, just
opposite. The inertia force may, therefore, be interpreted as a dynamic force, which is usually
many times more than the static loads. The method may be described briefly as under:
1. The process is initiated by assuming an arbitrary deflection curve for the
fundamental mode. A set of arbitrary static deflections can also be used to initiate the
process. But this is not compulsory.
2. Using these assumed deflections next, inertia forces are established in terms of co,,
where con is the unknown natural frequency of fundamental mode.
3. These inertia forces are assumed to act as dynamic forces on the system to establish
the deflection curve in terms of con.
4. The iterative process is stopped (and the process is said to have converged) if the
assumed deflection curve and the derived deflection curve in Step (3) are similar.
When this is true, the two expressions are equated to find out con.
5. If the two deflection curves are not similar, the deflection curve so derived in
Step (3) is taken to be the starting point for the next iteration. This is used to
compute the inertia forces which, in turn, are used to establish the refined deflection
curve. The process is repeated until convergence is obtained.
In a discrete system, the relative values of deflection at the masses can be taken to be a
measure of the deflection curve. Readers may verify that whatever be the assumed deflection
curve (initial), the process converges fast to the desired deflection curve corresponding to the
fundamental mode. The method can also be used to establish the higher modes of vibration.
EXAMPLE 6.12 For the system shown in Fig. 6.10, find out the fundamental natural
frequency of vibration using Stodola method.
Solution
Though it is possible to start the iterative process by assuming initial deflections to be those
given by static deflections, let us take a more liberal view of assuming Yi = y2 = 1. For this
choice y2/y i = 1 and using the values of influence coefficients from Example 6.10 namely
81 = 2.4796 x 10-8, 322 = 1.148 x 10-7, 812 = 321 = 4.9592 x 10-8
Trial 1
With the trial value of yl = y2 = 1,
F1 = 100(1)(o2„ and F2 = 50(1)(o2„
The revised values of deflections for the above forces are:
Yi = 1000)2, x 2.4796 X 10-8 + 50m2, x 4.9592 x 10-8 = (4.9592 x 10-6)(o2n
Y2 = 1000)2, x 4.9592 x 10-8 + 500)2, x 1.148 x 10-7 = (10.6992 x 10 6)(o2n
The current deflection curve can be compared with the initial one through the ratio
-6
y2 10.6992 x 10
= 2.1574
Yi 4.9592 x 10-'
This ratio is far from similar to the initially assumed ratio.
Trial 2
In accordance with this ratio, we assume yl = 1, y2 = 2.1574
The refined values of the inertia forces are:
Fl = 100w2„ x 1 = 100w2„ and F2 = 50 (02„ x 2.1574 = 107.87
The revised values of the deflections are:
yi = 1000)2, x 2.4796 x 10-8 + 107.870)2, x 4.9592 x 10-8 = (7.829 x 10-6) co2n
Y2 = 100w2n x 4.9592 x 10-8 + 107.87w2n x 1.148 x 10-7 = (17.3427 x 10-6) dn
The current deflection curve can be compared with the one in last trial through the ratio
y2 17.3427 x 10-6
= 2.215
Yi 7.829 x 10-
6
At this stage, the deflection ratio has a deviation of 2.67% from that in the last trial. Based on
this iteration the natural frequency can be obtained as under:
yi = 1 = (7.829 x 10-6) COn2
2 1
Therefore n - 127730.23
7.829 x 10-6
and con = 357.39 rad/s
In order to have a still better result, let us have one more trial.
Trial 3
The new trial values are y i = 1 and y2 = 2.215.
The revised values of inertia forces are:
F1 = 100m2n x 1 = 100m2n and F2 = 50(02n X 2.215 = 110.75 co2n
The revised values of the deflections are:
y i = (100m2n) x 2.4796 x 104 + (110.75m2n) x 4.9592 x 10-8 = 7.9719 x 10-6 o)2n
Y2 = 000(020 X 4.9592 x 10-8 + (110.75m2n) x 1.148 x 10-7 = 17.6733 x 10-6 (02n

Y2 = 17.6733 x 10-6
Therefore = 2.2169
Yi 7.9719 X 10-'
This ratio is very close to the ratio obtained in Trial 2 and, therefore, convergence is obtained.
Hence from y i = 1 = 7.9719 x 10-6 X con2,
o)n = 354.17 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 6.13 Calculate the fundamental natural frequency of vibration of the system as
shown in Fig. 6.11 by Stodola method.
3k 2k
m —\AAAh— 2m v\ AN\r 3m
//////////////////////////////////////////
Fig. 6.11
Solution
By placing a horizontal unit load at the mass 3m, each spring is subjected to a unit force and
all the springs being in series
1 1 1 11
+
- 3k + 2k k 6k
L 6k
Therefore = -
11
1 11
Therefore, the deflection at the mass 3m = =—
6k/11 6k
=11
Thus
333 6k
Again the deflection at the mass 2m, due to the force as above, is resisted only by the
springs of stiffnesses 3k and 2k. Their effective stiffness (being in series) is 6k/5.
Therefore
6
5k = 332
323 = —
Similarly, the deflection at the mass m is resisted by the only spring of stiffness 3k.
1
Therefore
313 3k 331
Again, when a unit horizontal force is applied on mass 2m, the effective stiffness of the
two springs opposing deflection in mass 2m = 6k/5
5
Therefore 32.2 = -
6k
For this unit load at the mass 2m, the deflection at the mass m is opposed by spring 3k
alone. The resulting deflection at mass m = 1/3k.
Therefore 812 — — 821

3k
Finally, if a unit horizontal force is applied on mass m, the deflection caused there itself
= 1/3k.
Therefore 011 =—
31k
The influence coefficients (ou) are summarized as under:

1 1 1
311 = — , 312 = 3k
3k ' •3k
313 =
1 5 5
321 = 9 322 =
3k 6k 9 323 =•6 k
1 5 11
331 = 9
3k 032 = 6k ' •6 k
333 =
Trial 1
Assume a unit deflection at each of the three masses. The inertia forces at the three masses
corresponding to the natural frequency w are:
F1 = (M)(1)(02, F2 = (2M)(1)(02, F3 = (3m)(1 )w 2
The deflections at the three stations are due to contributions from all the three inertia forces.
Thus
, 1 , 1 • 2 mc0 2
yi = (mo -)(— •+ (2mo )(— + (3mco2)(:
3k j 3k j k
, 1 , 5 9111(02
Y2 = (M(01(— •+ (2m(01(— + (37/10/2) 5 :
3k j 6k j ( 2k
, 1 , • 15mco2
Y3 = (mo -)(- • (2mo)-)(- + (3mco2)(a
ii =
3k j+ 6k j 2k
Therefore, the deflection ratios are:
yi = 4 yi = 4
Y2 9' Y3 15
These ratios being much different than the assumed values of deflection ratios of 1, we move
on to next trial.
Trial 2
The proportionate values of deflections are:
Yi = 1, Y2 = 2.25, y3 = 3.75
The new values of inertia forces are:
F1 = m(1)w2, F2 = 2M(2.25)(02, F3 = 3m(3.75)w2
The new deflections are therefore
• 16.7mco2
Yi = (m(02) (- + (4.5mco2)( Y + (11.25mco2)( 1
31c) vc1 3k
13.458mc02
Y2 = (m(02) (- + (4.5mw2) + (11.25mco2)( 5 =
31c) 6k 1 6k 2k
124.708mco2
y3 = (m(02) (- + (4.5mw2) + (11.25mco2)( ii =
31c) 6k 1 6k 1 2k
Therefore, the deflection ratios are:
Yi
= 1.241, Yi = 0.1339
Y2 Y3
Trial 3
The proportionate values of the three deflections are:
Yi = 1, Y2 = 0.8, y3 = 7.467
Fi = m(1)w2, F2 = 2M(0.8)(02, F3 = 3m(7.467)w2
The revised values of deflections are:

, 1 7 1 r
M(02
y i = (mco-)(— • (1.6mo)(— + (22.401mo)2) —
1 • 8.334
3k ,+ 3k, 3k, = k I
r
7 1 ` mw 2
Y2 = (MO ) •+ (1.6MCO2) ( + (22.401mo)2)(-
6 • 20.334
3k , 6k, 5k, = k I
r
1 , 5 M 0)2
Y3 = (mw) (— •+ (1.6mo) (— + (22.401mo)2)(6k
1 = • 42.735
3k , 6k , , k I
The deflections are in the proportion:
Yi : Y2 : Y3 = 1 : 2.44 : 5.128
Trial 4
F1 = m(1)w2, F2 = 2M(2.44)(02, F3 = 3m(5.128)w2
The revised values of deflections are:
1 r ma)2
Yi = (m(02) — + (4.88mm2) — + (15.384mw2)(-
3 • 7.088
3k, 3k, 1k
,= k I
r
1' mw 2
Y2 = (m(02)(3 + (4.88mw2) + (15.384mw2)(-
6 • 17.22
k, 6k, 5k, = k I
r
7 1 7 5 mw 2
Y3 = (mw) + (4.88mo)(— + (15.384mco2)(—
11 = 32.604
3k , 6k, 6k, k I
y i : Y2 : y3 = 1 : 2.429 : 4.6
This is close to the previous set of proportionate deflections.
To have a greater amount of accuracy, let us go for one more trial.
Trial 5
The refined values of the inertia forces are
F1 = m(1)w2, F2 = 2m(2.429)w2, F3 = 3m(4.6)w2
The new set of deflections are:
7 1 1 r ma)2
Yi = 07(0241 : + (4.858mo )(— + (13.8mw2 ) (— = 6.55
c 3k, 3k , k I
r
, 5 mw 2
i : + (4.858mw2)
Y2 = (n(02)(v + (13.8mco-) — = 15.88
c 6k, 6k , k I
r
7 11 mw 2
i : + (4.858mw2)
y3 = 07(02)(v + (13.8mo )(— = 29.682
c 6k, 6k, k I

y : Y2 : y3 = 1 : 2.424 : 4.53
This proportion of deflection values is quite close to the previous trial value and, therefore, is
taken to be the final value.
r
mw2
From 6.55 — 1, we have w = 0.39 Icrz
r
mw2
Also from 15.88 = 2.424, we have w = 0.39 1c'n
r
mw2
Finally from 29.682 = 4.53, we have w = 0.39 N/ Icrz Ans.
Note: In all the iterative type of problems, a reasonable initial solution (guess) is essential for
reducing the computational time. In the above problem, this could be done by considering the
static deflection of each mass as the initial solution.
6.8 THE HOLZER METHOD
The Holzer method is a tabular method which is used for the analysis of multi-degree of
freedom system. It is useful for the study of free and forced vibrations and also for systems
with and without damping. The approach is equally effective for rectilinear as well as
rotational mode and is useful for semi-definite systems too. With semi-definite systems, the
underlying assumption is that no external torque is required by a conservative system to
maintain its vibratory motion at the principal mode.
This is a trial and error method and can be used to find the higher modes independent of
fundamental mode. In addition to the natural frequencies, amplitude ratios of the masses and
the node points can also be established using this method. To understand the principle
underlying the method, consider the multi-rotor torsional system shown in Fig. 6.12.
- /I -12 -t a _,
kr] kr2 kna _ 1)
Fig. 6.12 Multi-rotor torsional system.
The n-rotor system has (n — 1) connecting shafts. Let the mass moments of inertia of
rotors be I I , 12, 13, ..., In and the torsional stiffness of the connecting shafts be lcd , kt2,
ko_1). Let Oh 02, 03, ..., On be the instantaneous angular displacements of various rotors
measured with respect to their equilibrium positions when the shaft is under torsional
oscillations. The angular twists in various shaft-segments are then given by
(01 — 02), (02 — 03), (03 — 04), •••, (0n-i — On)
Differential equations of motion for different rotors can be written down, using
Newton's second law, as under:
/I B I = — kt1(01 02)
I2 e2 = +kt1(01 02) kt2(02 03)
1383 = -FICt2( 02 - 03) - kt3( 03 - 04)
an-I = +kt(n-2)(en-2 — en-I) kt(n-1)( 0n-1 — On)
In9 n = +kt(n-I)(en-1 — On) (6.25)

Adding all the terms on the respective sides of equal to sign, we have
n
i9i = 0 (for free vibrations) (6.26)
However, when the system is subjected to external torques, then

n
=T (for forced vibrations) (6.27)
where T is the sum of all external torques acting on the system.

Reverting back to the case of free undamped vibration, as at Eq. 6.25, assume solutions
for the principle mode of vibration as
= A i sin wt
02 = A2 sin wt
03 = A3 sin wt
On = An sin wt
Substituting values of 01 , 02, 03, ..., 0„ in Eq. (6.25), we have

/1 m2A - kt i(A - A2) = 0
/2 m2A2 + kti(A - A2) - kt2(A2 - A3) = 0
/3m2A3 + kt2(A2 - A3) - kr3(A3 - A4) = 0
inco2An + kt(n _ 0(An_ i - An) = 0 (6.28)

Summation of all the terms in Eq. (6.28) on respective sides of equal to sign gives
110)2 Ai = 0 (6.29)
i=i
The above expression provides a convergence criteria in the iterative process, wherein the
guess value of the natural frequency is successively varied until it is sufficiently close to the
correct value of natural frequency.
Further in order to establish relation for angular twists, let us assume the amplitude of
oscillation of rotor 1 to be A I . The disc has simple harmonic motion and due to the inertia of
the disc II the torque acting on the shaft segment of stiffness kti is
—II 01 = / i co2A1 sin cot

The maximum value of this torque occurs when sin wt equals 1 and is given by / i co2A i . By the
definition of the torsional stiffness, therefore, the angular twist in shaft segment kt1 is:
BI = /12
0.) Al
kri
Again, for the equilibrium of the rotor 1, we have
Oi = -kdA - A2)
Substituting for 01 , 02 and O h we have
—/IA I co2 = —kdA I — A2)
1 /1(02
Therefore A2 = Ai
kri
In a similar way, total inertia torque on rotor 2 (i.e. sum of inertia torques on rotors 1 and 2)
is:
+ I2A2)w2 = — kt2(A2 - A3)
CO2 (/1 /2A2 )

Therefore A3 = A2
kt2
Continuing in a similar way, total inertia torque on last but one rotor (i.e. (n — 1) th rotor) is:
—(IIA + /2A2 + /3A3 + •• • + /„_1/1„_1 )co2 = —kto,_ 0(A„_1 — A,)
(II Ai +/2A2 +/3A3 + • • • + /n _ I An_ )0)2

Therefore An= An—I (6.30)
kt(n—I)
In practice, the method consists in assuming a guess value of natural frequency w and
amplitude of displacement A i for the first rotor. Next, Eqs. (6.29) and (6.30) may be used to
compute amplitude of displacement and total inertia torque on any other rotor. Depending on
the conditions given in the problem, the convergence criteria is used in the problem. Thus, if
free end conditions exist, the criteria at the Eq. (6.29) may be used. If the shaft is fixed at
some point, the displacement at the point, given by Eq. (6.30), will be zero. The iterations are
continued until, for the current trial value of frequency, suitable criteria for the problem is
satisfied. The method is best demonstrated through the following examples.
EXAMPLE 6.14 Using Holzer method, determine the natural frequencies of the spring-mass
system as shown in Fig. 6.13. Take m1 = m3 = 1 kg and m2 = 2 kg.
kj- 1 k2 = 1
al I -- m2 M3
Fig. 6.13
Solution
In the tabulation method to follow (see Table 6.1), the second column indicates the different
masses of the system which are available as the data. The third column gives the product of
mass and square of the frequency. These values are in terms of assumed value of frequency w.
The displacement values come next in the fourth column. The starting value of displacement
of the first mass is assumed to be unity and displacement of mass in the next row is calculated
TABLE 6.1
2 2
Position Mi MiCO MiXiCO E mixid ky E
Assumed frequency w = 0.25
1 1 0.0625 1 0.0625 0.0625 1 0.0625
2 2 0.125 0.9375 0.1172 0.1797 1 0.1797
3 1 0.0625 0.7578 0.0474 0.2896 1 0.2896
1 1 0.25 1 0.25 0.25 1 0.25
2 2 0.5 0.75 0.375 0.625 1 0.625
3 1 0.25 0.125 0.0313 0.65625 1 0.65625
1 1 0.5625 1 0.5625 0.5625 1 0.5625
2 2 1.125 0.4375 0.4922 1.0547 1 1.0547
3 1 0.5625 -0.617 -0.3472 0.7075 1 0.7075
1 1 0.36 1 0.36 0.36 1 0.36
2 2 0.72 0.64 0.4608 0.8208 1 0.8208
3 1 0.36 -0.181 -0.0651 0.7557 1 0.7557
1 1 0.3025 1 0.3025 0.3025 1 0.3025
2 2 0.605 0.6975 0.422 0.7245 1 0.7245
3 1 0.3025 -0.027 -0.0082 0.7163 1 0.7163
1 1 0.2916 1 0.2916 0.2916 1 0.2916
2 2 0.5832 0.7084 0.4131 0.7047 1 0.7047
3 1 0.2916 0.0037 0.00108 0.7058 1 0.7058
by subtracting the value given by Eq. (6.30) for each row, from the total displacement of
corresponding mass of preceding row. The entries in the fifth column are just the product of
entries in columns three and four. The total inertia force values up to the given mass are then
entered in the column six. The displacement values for the row in question is computed using
Eq. (6.30) in column eight.
The iterations are started usually by assuming a displacement of unity for the first mass
and some assumed value of frequency. When the assumed frequency equals the natural
frequency, the total inertia force in the column six for the last mass is zero. The amount of
deviation from zero, of total inertia torque in the sixth column for the last mass, indicates
amount of discrepancy in the assumed frequency. Needless to say that when the sign of
computed value in the sixth column for two successive frequencies col and cot changes, the
actual value of natural frequency can be assumed to lie between the above two values of
frequencies.
Readers may note that as the trial frequency is changed from 0.5 to 0.75 rad/s, the inertia
force on the last mass changes from 0.0313 to 0.3472, the change in sign indicating that the
actual frequency lies between 0.5 and 0.75 rad/s. The next trial value was, therefore, taken to
be 0.6 rad/s. But even with this trial value of m, the inertia force on the last mass is negative,
which goes to suggest that the actual value of m lies between 0.5 and 0.6. In the next iteration,
therefore, the trial value was taken to be 0.55 rad/s. Even with this trial value of m, the inertia
force on the last mass is still negative. The next trial value is, therefore, assumed to be
0.54 rad/s and with this trial value of m, the inertia force on the last mass approaches zero.
We, therefore, take con = 0.54 rad/s as the fundamental natural frequency. Ans.
For second natural frequency 42, another set of trials can be conducted with a starting
trial value of m as, say 0.8 and the displacement of the first mass as unity (See Table 6.2).
TABLE 6.2
2 2
Position Mi MiCO MiXiCO E mixico2 ky E mixico2/kii
1 1 0.64 1 0.64 0.64 1 0.64
2 2 1.28 0.36 0.4608 1.1008 1 1.1008
3 1 0.64 -0.7408 -0.474 -0.0133 1 -0.0133
1 1 1.44 1 1.44 1.44 1 1.44
2 2 2.88 -0.44 -1.2672 0.1728 1 0.1728
3 1 1.44 -0.6128 -0.8824 -0.7096 1 -0.7096
1 1 2.56 1 2.56 2.56 1 2.56
2 2 5.12 -1.56 -7.9872 -5.4272 1 -5.4272
3 1 2.56 3.8672 9.900 4.4728 1 4.4728
1 1 1.96 1 1.96 1.96 1 1.96
2 2 3.92 -0.96 -3.7632 -1.8032 1 -1.8032
3 1 1.96 0.8432 1.6527 -0.1505 1 -0.1505
(Cont.)
TABLE 6.2 (Cont.)

1 1 1.69 1 1.69 1.69 1 1.69
2 2 3.38 -0.69 -2.3322 -0.6422 1 -0.6422
3 1 1.69 -0.0478 -0.0808 -0.723 1 -0.723
1 1 1.7161 1 1.7161 1.7161 1 1.7161
2 2 3.4322 -0.7161 -2.4578 -0.7417 1 -0.741
3 1 1.7424 0.0256 0.0446 -0.6971 1 -0.6971
The second natural frequency is, therefore cone = 1.31 rad/s Ans.
EXAMPLE 6.15 For the torsional system shown in Fig. 6.14, determine the natural
frequencies and locate the relative positions of the nodes. Take 1 = I3 = 0.45 kg/m2,
IZ = 14 = 0.11 kg/m2, lc,1 = kt3 = 0.113 x 105 m-N/rad and kt2 = 0.226 x 105 m-N/rad.
1, 12 13 14
kr] kr3
kr2
Fig. 6.14 Four disc torsional system.
Solution
To begin with, an initial trial value is established by assuming a two disc system with a disc
(1 + /2) at one end and (13 + /4) at the opposite end of a shaft of stiffness equal to combined
shaft stiffness due to kt1, kt2 and kt3 assumed to be in series. The equivalent shaft stiffness kt is:
1 1 1 1
+ + =
0.113 x 10' 0.226 x 10' 0.113 x 10' kt
Therefore kt = 0.0452 x 105 m-N/rad
The differential equations of motion for the two rotor system are:
(1 + /2) el + kt(01 - 02) = 0
and (13 + 14) e2 kt(02 - 01 ) = 0

Assuming solutions as ei = A sin on and 02 = B sin wt, we have
[kt - (11 + 12)co2]A - ktB = 0
kA - [kt - (13 + 14)(o2]13 = 0

Transposing the terms in the above two equations, we have
A kt t - (13 + 14 ) w22
=k
B kt - (II +12 ) or- kt
Simplifying and writing in the form of a quadratic equation in cot, we have

[ 1 1 2
k, + (0 = 0
/3 + /4 /1 + /2
The only non-zero root of the quadratic equation is:
1 5[ 1 1
= 0.0452 x 10 - + - = 127 rad/s
[ /3 + /4 + /1 + /2 = 0.56 0.56
For the first natural frequency, the iterations are as given in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3
Position kg-m2 lio)2 ei I Iieico2 k fi x 104 E /filio)2/kfi

Assumed frequency w = 127
1 0.45 7258 1.0 7258 7258 1 0.7258
2 0.11 1774.2 0.2742 486.486 7744.49 2 0.387
3 0.45 7258 -0.1128 -818.7 6925.78 1 0.6925
4 0.11 1774.2 -0.8053 -1428.8 5497.0 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 8820 1.0 8820 8820 1 0. 8820
2 0.11 2156 0.118 254.4 9074.4 2 0.4537
3 0.45 8820 -0.3357 -2960.9 6113.5 1 0.6113
4 0.11 2156 -0.947 -2041.7 4071.7 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 11520 1.0 11520 11520 1 1.152
2 0.11 2816 -0.152 -428 11092 2 0.5546
3 0.45 11520 -0.7066 -8140 2952 1 0.295
4 0.11 2816 -1.001 -2818.8 133.2 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 12251.3 1.0 12251.3 12251.3 1 1.2251
2 0.11 2994.75 -0.225 -674.1 11577.18 2 0.57886
3 0.45 12251.3 -0.8038 -9847.6 1729.6 1 0.1729
4 0.11 2994.75 -0.9767 -2925 -1195.4 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 11664.5 1.0 11664.5 11664.5 1 1.1664
2 0.11 2851.31 -0.1664 -474.45 11190 2 0.5595
3 0.45 11664.5 -0.7259 -8467.3 2722.7 1 0.2722
4 0.11 2851.31 -0.9981 -2845.9 -123.18 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 11592.1 1.0 11592.1 11592.1 1 1.159
2 0.11 2833.6 -0.159 -450.54 11141.5 2 0.557
3 0.45 11592.1 -0.716 -8299.9 2841.55 1 0.2841
4 0.11 2833.6 -1.0001 -2833.8 7.66 = Ext. torque
The total inertia torque on the last rotor, as given in the sixth column, is the least (almost
approaching to zero) for w = 160.5 rad/s relative to other quantities in the sixth column and
therefore
o)n = 160.5 rad/s Ans.
For second natural frequency, the iterations are as given in Table 6.4.
TABLE 6.4
Position kg-m2 lio)2 ei Ii eiwz E Iieiw2 k fi x 104 E /i6lio)2/kfi

1 0.45 13005 1.0 13005 13005 1 1.30
2 0.11 3179 -0.3 -953.7 12051.3 2 0.602
3 0.45 13005 -0.902 -11730.5 320.79 1 0.032
4 0.11 3179 -0.934 -2969.19 -2648.4 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 25920 1.0 25920 25920 1 2.592
2 0.11 6336 -1.592 -10086.9 15833 2 0.792
3 0.45 25920 -2.384 -61793.3 -45960.3 1 -4.596
4 0.11 6336 2.212 14015.2 -31944.8 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 43245 1.0 43245 43245 1 4.32
2 0.11 10571 -3.32 -35095.7 8149.3 2 0.407
3 0.45 43245 -3.727 -161174 -153025 1
4 0.11 10571 11.57 122338 -30687 = Ext. torque -15.3
1 0.45 50501.25 1.0 50501.25 50501.25 1 5.05
2 0.11 12344.7 -4.05 -49996.2 505 2 0.0252
3 0.45 50501.25 -4.075 -205792 -205287 1 -20.53
4 0.11 12344.7 16.455 203132 -2154.9 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 51106 1.0 51106 51106 1 5.11
2 0.11 12492.6 -4.11 -51344.5 -238.5 2 -0.012
3 0.45 51106 -4.098 -209432 -209671 1 -20.96
4 0.11 12492.6 16.862 210650.2 979.2 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 50924 1.0 50924 50924 1 5.09
2 0.11 12448 -4.09 -50912 11.68 2 0.0006
3 0.45 50924 -4.091 -20833 -208318 1 -20.83
4 0.11 12448 16.739 208367 49.07 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 50909 1.0 50909 50909 1 5.09
2 0.11 12444 -4.09 -50898 11.2 2 0.00056
3 0.45 50909 -4.09 -208218 -208207 1 -20.82
4 0.11 12444 16.73 208188 -18.88 = Ext. torque
1 0.45 50909.4 1.0 50909.4 50909.4 1 5.091
2 0.11 12444.5 -4.091 -50910.5 -1.129 2 -0.00005
3 0.45 50909.4 -4.091 -208270 -208271 1 -20.827
4 0.11 12444.5 16.736 208271 0 = Ext. torque
Thus the second natural frequency turns out to be con2 = 336.351 rad/s Ans.
6.9 METHOD OF MATRIX ITERATION
Natural frequencies and the principal modes for a system with reasonably large number of
degrees of freedom can be conveniently established using the method of matrix iteration. The
method assumes that all the 'n' natural frequencies are distinct and well separated. From
Eq. (6.7), it follows that
{X) + [C]{X} = 0 (6.31)
where [C] = [M]-1 [K] is called the dynamic matrix.
Thus [C]{X} - m2,{X} = 0 (6.32)
or [C]{X} = AIX) (6.33)

This is a standard statement of an eigenvalue problem.
Stated in simple words, this implies that a column vector {X), transformed by a dynamic
matrix [C] results in a new column vector which is eigen value times the original vector {X).
The Eq. (6.33) is true for all modes and provides the basis for matrix iteration method.
Let the equations of motion in matrix form, based on either stiffness equation or flexibility
equation be given by
{ x1 all a12 al3 •• • ain x1
x2 x2
= a21 a22 a23 •• • a2n
(6.34)
Xn , an d an2 ann n,
The iteration is started by selecting a trial vector {X i ) which is then premultiplied by the
dynamic matrix [C] to obtain a new column vector. The resulting column vector is then
normalized, usually by making one of its components equal to unity. The normalized column
vector is again premultiplied by the dynamic matrix [C] to obtain a yet another new column
vector which is normalized in the same way as before. The process is repeated until the
successive normalized (column) vector converges to a common vector. This is the fundamental
eigenvector.
When flexibility influence coefficients are used to formulate the equations of motion, the
iteration process converges to the lowest mode present in the assumed deflection. It implies that
when the lowest mode is absent in the assumed deflection, the iteration process will converge to
the next lowest mode, i.e. the second mode.
EXAMPLE 6.16 Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 6.15 using
method of matrix iteration.
Solution
Applying unit forces at the mass m, 2m and 4m, the influence coefficients are established as
under:
all - a21 - a31 - a12 - a1 3 - 1/2k
a22 = a23 = a32 = 3/2k
and a33 = 5/2k
Fig. 6.15
The equations of motion can then be written using influence coefficients as

—
x1 = ( 1 )4m + (a12)2m + (a13)mi3
—
x2 = (a21)4mii + ( )2
, a22, -M -2 + -23,- - 3
- x3 = (a31)4mi1 + (a32)2m12 + (a33)mi3
This being a harmonic motion, replacing xl = —m2xi, we have

xl = (a11)4mm2x1 + (a12)2mm2x2 + (a13)mm2x3
x2 = (a21)4mco2x i + (a22)2mco2x2 + (a23)m CO2X3
X3 = a31)4mo)2x1 + (a32)2mo)2x2 + (a33)mw2x3
The above equations may be put up in matrix form as
{X 40'
11 2a12 a13
2
x2 = M(0 4 a2 I 2a22 a23 x2
x3 4a,-•, 2a32 a33 x3
Substituting for the influence coefficients, the above matrix equation becomes
{X 2 4 2 1 xl
02(0
x2 4 6 3 x2
2k
x3 4 6 5 x3
To begin the process of iteration, estimate the configuration for the first mode. Assuming
the displacements for all the three masses to take place in same direction (and remembering
that x3 > x1 + x2), let xi = 1, x2 = 2 and x3 = 4.
First iteration:
1 4 2 1 {12 1
M(.0
2
m a)2 M(.0
2
4 6 3 2 28 = (12) 2.33
2k 2k 2k
{4
2 4 6 5 4 36 3
Second iteration:
4 2 1 2 {
11.66
ma)2 ma) M(02
2.33 4 6 3 2.33 26.98 (11.66)
2k 2k 2k
3 4 6 5 3 32.98
Third iteration:
4 2 1 {1 2 11.45'
MCO
2
ma) ma)2
2.31 = 4 6 3 2.31 26.35 (11.45)
2k 2k 2k
2.83 4 6 5 2.83 32.01
Fourth iteration:
{1 2
4 2 1 m(02 11.4 2
MC.0 MC.0
2.3 = 4 6 3 2.3 26.2 (11.4) 2.3
2k 2k 2k
2.8 4 6 5 2.8 31.8 2.8
Since the ratio obtained is very close to the initial value
11.4 ma)2
or 1=
2k
2k
COI = = 0.419,\I rad/s Ans.
11.4 m
Since the matrix iteration method converges to the mode with lowest natural frequency,
one aims at removing the first mode. This step ensures that the convergence would be towards
the second mode. This can be done by putting constraints on the coordinates so that the first
mode is absent. To find the second principal mode, the orthogonal relation yields
{xi 2
-42 1 -0 -(m2x2 /mi x) -(m3x3 /m1 xi ) {xi
MC.0
x2 4 6 3 0 1 0 x2
2k
x3 4 6 5 0 0 1 x3
Note that m2x2 = (2m)(2.3), m3x3 = (m)(2.8) and mixi = (4m)(1)
{xi 2
4 2 1 0 -1.15 -0.7 x1
MC.0
or x2 4 6 3 0 1 0 x2
2k
x3 4 6 5 0 0 1 _
{ Xi 2 0 -2.6 -1.8 x1
MC.0
x2 0 1.4 0.2 x2
2k
x3 0 1.4 2.2 x3
Let the first trial vector be { 0

-1
First iteration:
{xi ' 2
0 -2.6 -1.8 1 2 -9
M(0 mat ma)
x2 0 1.4 0.2 0 0.2 k = ( 0.2) 1
2k 2k 2k
x3 0 1.4 2.2 -1 -2.2 11
Second iteration:
{-9 0 -2.6 -1.8 -9 {-22.4' {-6.22
M(0
2
ma)2 M(.0
2
1 0 1.4 0.2 1 3.6 = (3.6) 1
2k 2k 2k
11 0 1.4 2.2 11 25.6 7.11
Third iteration:
{-6.22 0 -2.6 -1.8 {-6.22" {-15.4' {-5.46
M(0
2
ma)2 M(.0
2
1 0 1.4 0.2 1 2.822 = (2.822) 1
2k 2k 2k
7.11 0 1.4 2.2 7.11 17.04 6.04
Fourth iteration:
{-5.46' 0 -2.6 -1.8 {-5.46" {-13.47' {-5.16'
ma) 2 ma)2 M(.0
2
1 = 0 1.4 0.2 2.608 = (2.608) 1
2k 2k 2k
6.04 0 1.4 2.2 6.04 14.688 5.632
Fifth iteration:
{-5.16' 0 -2.6 -1.8 -5.16 -12.74 {-5.04
m(0 2 m(02 ma)2
1 = 0 1.4 0.2 1 2.526 (2.526) 1
2k 2k 2k
5.632 0 1.4 2.2 5.632 13.79 5.46
Sixth iteration:
{-5.04' 0 -2.6 -1.8 -5.04 2-12.42 -4.984
m(0 2 ma) ma)
2
1 = 0 1.4 0.2 1 = 2.492 = (2.492) 1
2k 2k 2k
5.46 0 1.4 2.2 5.46 13.412 5.382
Seventh iteration:
-4.984 0 -2.6 -1.8 {-4.984" -12.29 -4.964
ma)2 M(0
2
ma)2
= 0 1.4 0.2 1 2.476 = (2.476) 1
2k 2k 2k
5.382 0 1.4 2.2 5.382 13.24 5.347
which repeats itself. Hence the second natural frequency Oh is established as follows:
2
M(0
2k (2.476) = 1
or
I 2k
0.8987 —k radis Ans.
w2 =
\ 2.476m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
6.1 Derive differential equations of motion for the general four degrees of freedom
spring-mass system, as shown in Fig. 6.16 and hence establish the expression for
natural frequencies.
Fig. 6.16
6.2 Determine the natural frequencies of the three degrees of freedom spring-mass
system shown in Fig. 6.17.
xI
3k
x3
Fig. 6.17
24e Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
6.3 A taut string with three equal masses attached is as shown in Fig. 6.18. The tension
in the string can be assumed to remain constant for small angles of oscillation. If an
excitation F0 sin cot is applied to the centre mass, determine the steady state motion.
F„ sin cot
m1 Im2 m3
Fig. 6.18
6.4 In Example 6.3, if the excitation force is absent and the three equal masses are
placed at equal distances apart, determine the natural frequencies and the principal
modes of vibration of the system.
6.5 Calculate the influence coefficients of the three degrees of freedom spring-mass
system shown in Fig. 6.17 where all the masses are equal to m and all the springs
equal to k. Hence, find out the fundamental natural frequency.
6.6 Using method of matrix iteration, determine natural frequencies of the triple
pendulum as shown in Fig. 6.19.
Fig. 6.19
6.7 The circular homogeneous cylinder of total mass M and radius 2a is suspended by a
spring of stiffness k1 and is free to rotate with respect to its centre of mass 0 as
shown in Fig. 6.20. Derive the equations of motion.
6.8 Use Holzer's method to find natural frequencies of the four mass system shown in
Fig. 6.21 if k = 10 N/cm and m = 1 kg.
FIGURE 6.21
(SGSITS: Dec. 1994)
6.9 A solid steel shaft of uniform diameter with two discs is represented by a simply
supported beam carrying two concentrated weights as shown in Fig. 6.22. Determine
the lowest natural frequency of the system using Rayleigh's method assuming
E = 1.96 x 1011 N/m2 and I = 100 cm4.
— r 40 kg 20 kg
D.<
(.
16 cm 8 cm 8 cm
-L
1
Fig. 6.22
6.10 For the shaft shown in Fig. 6.23, determine the influence coefficients. Hence, find
out the natural frequency of vibration of the system by Rayleigh's method.
Take E = 2 x 1011 N/cm2 and / = 4 x 10-7 m4
-r 25 kg -r 30 kg
1><1 l>4
0.1 m 0.1 m -L 0.1 m
Fig. 6.23
6.11 Determine the influence coefficients of the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 6.24
and hence find out the natural frequencies using the method of matrix iteration.
Fig. 6.24
6.12 The vibrations of a cantilever are given by y = Y(1 — cos gx/21). Calculate the
frequency with following data for the cantilever using Rayleigh's method. Take the
modulus of elasticity of the material 2 x 1011 N/m2, second moment of area about
bending axis 0.02 m4, mass 6 x 104 kg and length 30 m.
6.13 Determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system shown in Fig. 6.25
using the method of matrix iteration.
Fig. 6.25
6.14 Using the Holzer's method find the natural frequency of the system shown in
Fig. 6.26. Assume k = 1 kg/cm and m = 1 kg.
Fig. 6.26
6.15 Find the lowest natural frequency of transverse vibration for a cantilever carrying
uniformly distributed load by assuming the deflection curve to be (a) a sine curve,
(b) a parabola and (c) a static deflection curve.
Which one of the above is the closest to the first mode shape?
6.16 Find by Holzer's method the natural frequency of the torsional system shown in
Fig. 6.27 when the right end is fixed.
Fig. 6.27
6.17 Using Holzer's method, determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in
Fig. 6.28. Take lc, = 1 kg-cm/rad and I = 1 kg-cm2.
Whirling Motion and
Critical Speeds
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Turbines, compressors, electric motors and pumps incorporate heavy rotors that are mounted
on light weight, flexible shafts which in turn are supported in bearings. Unbalance exists in all
the rotors owing to manufacturing errors. An interesting feature of rotating shafts is that they
tend to bow out at certain speeds and whirl in a complicated manner. The rotational speed at
which a shaft tends to bow out is called the whirling or whipping or critical speed of the shaft.
Whirling motion is defined as the rotation of the plane, enclosed by the bent up shaft-axis and
the bearing centre line, about the bearing centre line itself. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.1. The
phenomenon of whirl results from various causes such as mass unbalance, hysteresis damping
in the shaft, gyroscopic forces, fluid friction in bearings, etc. The purpose of devoting a
separate chapter for this topic is to develop conceptual understanding about the whirl, the role
of damping in whirl and to bring home the concept of secondary critical speed.
Fig. 7.1 Whirl in a horizontal shaft.
To understand the phenomenon of whirl, let us consider the two component motions
associated with the shaft rotation. Both the motions take place simultaneously. The component
motions are:
260
Whirling Motion and Critical Speeds 247
1. Rotation about the bearing centre line of the plane, enclosed by bent up shaft axis
and bearing centre line (i.e. the whirling motion) and
2. The spinning motion of the rotor and shaft about its bent up shaft axis.
This is depicted clearly in Figure 7.1. The spinning motion of the rotor and the whirling
motion of shaft may take place in the same or opposite direction. Again the whirling speed
may or may not be equal to the rotational speed of the shaft. When the whirling speed equals
the speed of shaft rotation, the motion is called the synchronous whirl. Discussions pertaining
to non-synchronous shaft whirl are beyond the scope of this book.
The subject of shaft whirl and its general motion comes under the category of self-
excited motion (vibration) in which the exciting forces, inducing the motion, are controlled by
the motion itself. Critical speed of rotating shaft and associated whirling motion is one of the
important problems to be addressed by a design engineer and a maintenance engineer in their
day-to-day-activity.
The critical or whirling or whipping speed equals the natural frequency of transverse
vibration of the shaft. At the critical speed, the shaft is subjected to violent vibration in the
transverse direction. The excessive vibration, associated with the critical speed, may cause
permanent deformation of the shaft or structural damage; for instance blades of rotor of a
turbine may come in contact with the stator blades. Also large shaft-deflections, associated
with the critical speed, induce large bearing reactions and this may lead to bearing failure.
When the damping is neglected, the phase angle at the critical speed between the forcing
function and the resultant motion is 90° and a positive work done is added to the system in
every cycle. Thus, the amplitude of vibration goes on increasing with the number of cycles.
The phenomenon of amplitude build-up is, therefore, a time-dependent phenomenon.
7.2 CRITICAL SPEED OF A LIGHT VERTICAL SHAFT WITH SINGLE

DISC (WITHOUT DAMPING)
As shown in Fig. 7.2(a), consider a light vertical shaft in deflected position with a thin disc of
mass m mounted centrally on the shaft. Let 0 be the point of intersection of the bearing centre
line with the plane of the disc and let S be the geometric centre of the disc through which the
centre line of the shaft passes. The centre of gravity G is displaced from the geometric centre
S by a distance e which is called the eccentricity. This may be due to manufacturing
inaccuracies or due to slight variation in the density of the disc material. Let k be the bending
stiffness of the shaft at the disc and w be the angular speed of rotation of the rotor about the
shaft axis.
To begin with, the shaft is assumed to be straight. The centrifugal force (= mew2), due to
the spinning motion of the disc about the shaft axis, constitutes the excitation force and the
shaft is deflected through s = OS. It follows from the Eq. (4.25) that when damping ratio
C is zero, the phase angle between the deflection vector s and the excitation force mewl is also
zero. Stated in other words, the deflection s occurs in the direction of the excitation force with
reference to the point 0. The restoring force, due to the elastic nature of the shaft, is
proportional to the deflection s and acts in a direction opposite to that of s. The forces acting
on the rotor are, therefore, as under:
1. The centrifugal force mewl due to the spinning motion of the centre of gravity of the
rotor about the bent up shaft axis
2. The centrifugal force msw2 due to mass m carried by the shaft at S and revolving
with shaft about the bearing centre line at a radius of s
3. The elastic restoring force ks in radially inward direction
As the phase angle between force mewl and s is zero, the two centrifugal forces act in the
same direction. Various forces acting on the disc and the shaft are shown in the free body
diagram of the disc at Fig. 7.2(b).
m(s + e)co2
(b) Free body diagram of the disc
(a) A disc in a vertical shaft
Fig. 7.2 Critical speed for a light vertical shaft.
Thus, the forces acting in the radially outward direction = mew2 + msw2
and the only force acting in the radially inward direction = ks
Hence, for equilibrium of the disc,
ks = mem2 + msm2
Rearranging the terms, we get
(k — mw2)s = mew2
m ew 2
or s— (7.1)
k — mco 2
Dividing numerator and denominator by k on the right hand side and simplifying, we have
e(mIk)co2
s=
1— (mIk)(02
2 2
e(CO iCOn ) erg
or s= = (7.2)
1— (co2lcon2) 1— r2
s r2
or = (7.3)
e 1— r2
Dividing numerator and denominator by r2 on the right hand side, we have
s 1
= (7.4)
e (1Ir2 )-1
Conclusions
1. It follows from Eq. (7.3) that the amplitude of transverse vibration 's' approaches
infinity as r, the frequency ratio, approaches 1. In other words, when the shaft speed
CO approaches natural frequency CO, of transverse vibration, the amplitude of
transverse vibration approaches infinity. The corresponding shaft speed is called
critical speed of the shaft. At resonance (r = 1), the phase angle becomes 7r/2 and the
work done expression of Eq. (1.24) shows that work done is added to the system
cycle after cycle. The amplitude of transverse vibration, therefore, grows with time.
Hence, a rapid transition of the running speed through the critical speed tends to
restrict the whirl amplitude, but a slow transition of the critical speed will permit
time for amplitude to grow.
2. At r < 1 (i.e. when CO < mn), the amplitude ratio sle is positive, which implies that
the dynamic deflection s occurs in the same sense as that of the eccentricity e. Stated
in other words, the phase angle is zero between the vectors s and e. This condition is
popularly known as heavy side on the outside. Further, with r < 1, as 1/r2 > 1, it
follows from Eq. (7.4) that s > e always, ensuring OG = OS + SG. This is illustrated
in Fig. 7.3(a).
Heavy side Light side
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.3 (a) Illustration for heavy side on the outside. (b) Illustration for heavy side on the inside.
3. Again, at r > 1 (i.e. when CO > COO , the amplitude ratio sle is negative, which implies
that the dynamic deflection s takes place in a sense opposite to that of the eccentricity
e ensuring OG = OS - SG. Stated in other words, the phase angle between the
vectors s and e is iv radians. This condition is popularly known as heavy side on the
inside. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.3(b). Further, it follows from Eq. (7.4) that at this
condition, s > e always.
4. Finally, it follows from Eq. (7.4) that when r >> 1 (i.e. when CO >> COO , the
amplitude ratio sle approaches 1 from negative side. Physically this implies that the
phase angle is 180 degrees and the dynamic deflection s of the shaft equals the
eccentricity but is on the negative side of the bearing centre line. In other words, the
centre of gravity G lies on the bearing centre line and the shaft becomes stable and
runs very smoothly.
EXAMPLE 7.1 A shaft 12.5 mm diameter rotates in long bearings and a disc weighing
196 N is attached to the midspan of the shaft. The span of the shaft between the bearings is
600 mm. The mass centre of the disc is 0.5 mm from the axis of the shaft. Neglecting the mass
of the shaft and taking the deflection as for a beam fixed at both ends, determine the critical
speed of the shaft. Also determine the range of the speed over which the stress in the shaft due
to bending will not exceed 11.77 k-N/cm2. Take E = 1.96 x 107 N/cm2.
(SGSITS: Nov. 2001)
Solution
Assuming the shaft to be in horizontal position, the static deflection with the fixed end
condition under the gravitational pull on the disc is:
W/3 196(0.6)3 X 64
8= = , = 9.387 x 10-4 m
192 El 192(1.96 x 10'') ,r(0.0125)4
The natural frequency of transverse vibration is, therefore
g = 9.81
(Dn = = 102.23 rad/s
g 9.387 x 10-4
Therefore, the critical speed is given by
60 x 60 60 x 102.33
Nc= = = 976.2 rpm Ans.
2.ir 2.ir
For a central load of F on a fixed end beam, the maximum bending moment is M = Fl/8.
From the formula for beam bending, we have
M CT
=
I y'
740.0125)4
where I=
64
Substituting for the maximum bending moment M, the moment of inertia I and the value
of maximum permissible bending stress of 11.77 k-N/cm2 in the expression for beam-bending,
we have
Fl 11.77 x 107
81 0.0125/2
8 x 11.77 x 107 ;40.0125)4
Therefore F_ x = 301 N
0.0125/2 64 x 0.6
Maximum deflection produced under the above dynamic load is:
301 x 0.63 x 64
°max =
- 0.00144 metres
192(1.96 x 10") x ,r(0.0125)4
Thus, with s = omax = 0.00144 and e = 0.0005 m, we have
0.00144 r2
0.0005 1- r2
Arranging in the form of a quadratic equation in r, the frequency ratio, we have
r2 = 2.88 - 2.88 r2 and r2 = -2.88 + 2.88 r2
Thus, the two limiting values of r are:
2.88
= and r2
3.88 1.88
Therefore Nmin = = 0.86 x 976.2 = 839.5 rpm
and Nmax = r2A1 = 1.238 x 976.2 = 1208.5 rpm Ans.
EXAMPLE 7.2 A rotor having a mass of 5 kg is mounted midway on a 1 cm diameter shaft

supported at the ends by two bearings. The bearing span is 40 cm. Because of certain
manufacturing inaccuracies, the c.g. of the disc is 0.02 mm away from the geometric centres
of the rotor. If the system rotates at 3000 rpm, find the amplitude of steady state vibrations
and the dynamic force transmitted to the bearings. Neglect damping and take E = 1.96 x
1011 N/m2.
Solution
Nothing is mentioned about the end conditions of the shaft. Assuming the shaft to be simply
supported at the ends, the deflection under the mass is:
W/3 5 x 9.81 x 0.43 x 64
= - 0.00068 m
48 El 48(1.96 x 10" )ir (0.01)4
W 5 x 9.81
and the stiffness of shaft, k = = - 72132 N/m
8 0.00068
9.81
Therefore, the natural frequency of transverse vibration, con = - 120.1 rad/s
0.00068
2it- x 3000
The shaft speed in radians per seconds, CO = = 1007r rad/s
60
1007t
The frequency ratio is, therefore, given by r= = 2.616
120.1
2.6162
Therefore, from sle -
1- 2.6162
2.6162 x 0.02
= -0.0234 mm
s= 1- 2.6162
The negative sign indicates that the deflection s is in a direction opposite to that of the
centrifugal force mewl. Ans.
The restoring force on the rotor due to stiffness of shaft
0.0234=
ks = 72132 x 1.688 N
1000
The dynamic load on each of the two bearings is, therefore (1.688/2) = 0.844 N Ans.
Note: Readers may recall that ks = m(s + e)w2.
EXAMPLE 7.3 The rotor of a turbo supercharger weighing 88.3 N is keyed to the centre of
a 25 mm diameter steel shaft 40 cm between bearings. Determine:
(a) the critical speed of shaft,
(b) the amplitude of vibration of the rotor at a speed of 3200 rpm, if the eccentricity is
0.015 mm and
(c) vibratory force transmitted to the bearings at this speed.
Assume the shaft to be simply supported and that the shaft material has a density of 8 gm/cm3.
Take E = 2.06 x 10" N/m2.
(Roorkee University, 1969, changed to S.I. Units)
Solution
Total deflection at the centre due to dead weight of shaft (uniformly distributed load) and the
weight of the rotor is
5w14 W13
8= +
384 El 48 El
, x 8 x 9.81
where w= (2.5)- = 0.385 N/cm = 38.5 N/m
4 1000
[5 x38.5 x0.40 88.3 3
0.40 x64
Therefore S= +
8 1 1 48(2.06 x 1011 )7t (0.025)4
Hence 3 = 3.3 x Ho metres
The natural frequency con = 9.81= 545.2 rad/s

3.3 x10-5
60 x 545.2
The critical speed is, therefore, k= — 5206.3 rpm
2xg
3200
The frequency ratio, r = = 0.615
5206.3
The amplitude of vibration, s =

er 2 = 0.015 X 0.6152
— 0.00912 mm
1— r2 1-0.615 2
Equivalent load We of the dead weight at the centre of the shaft is given by
We /3 _ 5w14
48 El 384 El
5 x 48w/ =(_
5
Therefore We
vve = wl
384 8,
W + 5w//8
Equivalent shaft stiffness at the rotor k =
3.3 x 10-5
5 x 38.5 x 0.4
88.3 +
Therefore k= 8 — 2967424.24 N/m
3.3 x 10-5
Therefore, the total dynamic force transmitted to the two bearings is
2967424.24
ks = x 0.00912 = 27.06 N Ans.
1000
7.3 CRITICAL SPEED OF A VERTICAL, LIGHT-FLEXIBLE SHAFT

CARRYING SINGLE ROTOR WITH DAMPING
When damping is present either in the form of air resistance, structural damping, etc., the
analysis of the shaft for whirl becomes slightly more involved in the sense that damping force
also needs consideration in the force analysis. Consider Figure 7.4(a) which shows a light vertical
shaft carrying a disc of mass m that is assumed to be concentrated at the centre of gravity G. The
disc is mounted centrally on the shaft. Let CO be the angular speed of rotation of the shaft and let
e be the eccentricity of the disc. Let S be the geometric centre of the disc and s be the dynamic
deflection of the shaft at the disc, as measured from the bearing centre line. Let 0 be the point
of intersection of the bearing centre line with the plane of the disc. Thus
s = OS = dynamic deflection of the shaft at the disc,
e = SG = the eccentricity of c.g. of the disc,
CO = the angular speed rotation of the shaft,
(on = the natural frequency of transverse vibration of the shaft,
r = (o/on = the frequency ratio,
k = the stiffness of shaft in transverse vibration which depends on the length of shaft,
support conditions of the shaft, shaft material and the type and location of load
and c = equivalent coefficient of viscous damping.
Path of shaft
centre
Bearing
centre-line
(a) Light, vertical shaft with disc at centre (b) Free body diagram of the disc
Fig. 7.4 Light vertical shaft with damping under whirl.
This being the case of forced damped vibration, let 0 be the phase angle, by which
displacement vector s lags behind the excitation force mew2. Figure 7.4(b) shows the free body
diagram of the disc. There being two component motions involved, as explained in Section 7.1,
we need to consider two inertia (centrifugal) forces—mewl due to spinning motion of
eccentric mass m at radius e about S and msw2 due to whirling motion (i.e. rotation of plane
containing shaft and bearing axes) at radius s about the bearing centre line. Note that as the
disc is rigidly mounted on the shaft, the whole of the mass m can be assumed to be transferred
to S on the shaft and rotate with it at CO. Thus, the various forces acting on the disc are the
following:
1. Spring force ks, due to flexibility of shaft, acting in a direction opposite to the
dynamic deflection s
2. Damping force csw, acting in a direction opposite to the tangential velocity sw. This
is based on the assumption of equivalent viscous damping
3. Centrifugal force mewl acting in a direction with a phase advance of 0 with respect
to the deflection s
4. Centrifugal force msw2 due to rotation of disc of mass m and shaft about the bearing
centre line, with radius s. This force acts in a direction opposite to the radius vector
SO.
Note that the excitation force vector SG = mew2 leads the displacement vector OS by angle 0.
Therefore, the centrifugal force msw2 also act in the direction OS. As the velocity vector in
S.H.M. leads the displacement vector by 7r/2 radians, the damping force vector leads the spring
force by 7r/2 radians as shown in Fig. 7.4(b). Resolving the forces along and perpendicular to
the displacement s, we have
(k — mw 2) s = mew2 cos 0 (7.5)
and cws = mew2 sin 0 (7.6)
Squaring and adding on both sides of Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6), we have
{(k — mw2)2 + (c(0)2) s2 = (mew2)2 (sin20 + cos20)
2 (mew2 )2
or S =
m(02 )2 + (c(0)2 ]
[(k —
meo)2
or s— (7.7)
J (k — m(02)2 +(c(0)2
Also dividing Eq. (7.6) by Eq. (7.5) on corresponding sides, we get
co)
tan 0 = (7.8)
k — mco2
Dividing numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (7.8) by k and simplifying,
we get
gr g
tan 0 = = (7.9)
1— r2 (11r)— r
Also dividing numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (7.7) by k and
simplifying, we get
s r2
(7.10)
e \J(1— r2 )2 + (2;02
Dividing numerator and denominator on the right hand side of Eq. (7.10) by r2, we get
s_ 1
(7.11)
e V[(1/r2 ) — 1]2 + (2c/r)2
Conclusions
Readers may verify that the Eq. (7.10) is identical to the equation derived in Chapter 4 for
magnification factor. Following conclusions may be drawn from Eq. (7.10):
1. At r = 1, i.e. when shaft speed equals the critical speed, the amplitude of dynamic
deflection is quite large and is limited only by the amount of damping present in the
system. Again, it follows from the Eq. (7.9) that at this value of the frequency ratio,
tan 0 00. This implies that at r = 1, the phase angle 0 = 7r/2 radians for all the
values of 4".
2. When r < 1 (i.e. for finite value of CO < COO , tan 0 is positive and finite. The phase
angle 0, therefore, lies in the range (0 < 0 < ,r/2). The condition goes under the name
heavy side on the outside.
3. When r 00, the dynamic amplitude ratio sle 1. Further, at this value of
frequency ratio, tan 0 —0. In other words, 0 7r or the dynamic deflection s and
the eccentricity e act in opposite direction. The two conditions together implies that
sle = —1.
This condition implies that the centre of gravity lies on the bearing centre line and
the shaft rotates quite smoothly.
4. When r > 1 (i.e. when (0 > (00, tan 0 is negative. This implies that 7r/2 < 0 < 7r. This
condition goes under the name heavy side on the inside.
All the above cases are illustrated in Fig. 7.5.
(a) r « I (b) r=1 (c) r> I (d) r » I
Fig. 7.5 Phase relationships at different frequency ratios.
EXAMPLE 7.4 A steel shaft of diameter 1 cm is supported between two bearings which are
48 cm apart. A disc weighing 59 N is mounted midway between the bearings. The c.g. of the
disc is displaced by 0.25 cm from the geometric centre. The equivalent viscous damping can
be taken to be 0.39 N-s/cm at the centre. If the shaft rotates at 1200 rpm, find the maximum
stress in the shaft. Find the power required to drive the shaft at 1200 rpm.
[SGSITS: Dec. 1999, Feb. 2002, Oct. 2005 (PTDC)]
Solution
The stiffness of the shaft at the rotor is calculated as under:
48E1 = 48 x1.96 x10 7 x It x 14

k= = 417.6 N/cm
/3 483 x 64
(
417.69981)
Therefore, the natural frequency (Dn = — 83.3 rad/s
5
a) 21t x1200
The frequency ratio r= = — 1.508
07, 60 x 83.3
4. _ c _ 0.39
Also — 0.0389
cc 2V(417.6)(59/981)
The dynamic amplitude ratio is, therefore, given by

s 1.5082
= =1.777
0.25 J(1— 2.274)2 + (2 x 0.0389 x 1.508)2
Therefore s = 0.444 cm
The dynamic load is, therefore, given by
Fd = J(ks)2 + (CSO))2 = V(417.6 x 0.444)2 + (0.39 x 0.444 x 40702
Simplifying Fd = 186.7 N
Therefore, the maximum load on the shaft at the rotor = 186.7 + 59 = 245.7 N
From the formula for simple bending, we have
Maximum bending stress, cr = ( LI) y = (F1/ 4 ) (d/2) F x 48 x 64 — 122.2 F

I (g/64)d 4 4t x 2
Total maximum stress due to dynamic loading
Amax = 122.2 x 245.7 = 30024.5 N/cm2 Ans.
Maximum stress due to static loading only = 122.2 x 59 = 611 N/cm2
Also, the damping force = csw = 21.76 N
The damping torque is, therefore 21.76 x 0.444 = 9.66 N-cm
21tNT Dr x 1200 x (9.66/100)
Thus, power required to drive the shaft —
1000 = 1000 x 60
= 0.012 kW Ans.
EXAMPLE 7.5 A disc of mass 4 kg is mounted midway between bearings which may be
assumed to be simple supports. The bearing span is 50 cm. The steel shaft is of 10 mm
diameter and horizontal. The centre of the gravity of the disc is displaced 2 mm from the
geometric centre. The equivalent viscous damping at the centre of the disc shaft may be
assumed as 50 N-s/m. If the shaft rotates at 250 rpm, determine the maximum stress in the
shaft. Also find the power required to drive the shaft at this speed. Take E = 1.96 x 10" N/m2.
(Roorkee University, 1990-91)
Solution
The static deflection in the shaft under the disc is
W/3 (4 x 9.81)(0.5)3 x 64 _ 0.00106 m
S= =
48E1 48(1.96 x 10" )/r (0.01)4
I 9.81
The critical speed, wc = — 96.2 rad/s
,\ 0.00106
Also k = mw 2 = 4(96.2)2 = 37017.8 N/m
274250)
The rotational speed of the shaft, CO = = 26.18 rad/s
60
26.18
Therefore, the frequency ratio, r = = 0.272
96.2
50
The damping factor C = — 0.065
2(4)(96.2)
s 0.2722
Therefore . 0.08
e V(1-0.2722 )2 + (2 x 0.065 x 0.272)2
Thus s = (0.08)e = (0.08) x 2 = 0.16 mm
Total dynamic load on bearings, Fd = J(ks)2 + (CS02
Therefore Fd = j(37017.8 x 0.00016)2 + (50 x 26.16 x 0.00016)2 = 5.93 N
Total load on the shaft = 4 x 9.81 + 5.93 = 45.17 N

Fl 45.17 x 0.5
Maximum bending moment under the load, 4 = = 5.646 N-m
4
M y = 64(5.646) ()
0.01
The maximum bending stress, a = — 5.75 x 107 N/m2 Ans.
/ g(0.01) 2
The damping torque, s(ccos) = 50 x 26.16 (0.16 x 10-3)2 = 3.348 x 10-5 N-m
2g x 250 x 3.348 x10-5
Power required to drive the shaft = = 0.876 x 10-3 Watt Ans.
60
EXAMPLE 7.6 A rotor of mass 10 kg is mounted on a shaft of stiffness 5000 N/m at the
rotor. The equivalent damping coefficient of the system is 200 N-s/m. When the shaft rotates at
500 rpm, the power dissipated in damping is 8 Watts. Determine the eccentricity of the rotor.
(SGSITS: June 1998)
Solution
Power required to drive the shaft is given by
2gx500xT
power in Watts, 8 =
60
60 x 8
Therefore, the damping torque, T = — 0.153 N-m
2g x 500
2rc x 500
Rotational speed of the shaft = — 52.36 rads
60
But the damping torque, T = 0.153 = ccos2
I 0.153
Therefore s= = 3.82 x 10-3 m
,\ 200 x 52.36
15000
The critical speed of the shaft, co, = con = — 22.36 rad/s
\ 10
52.36
The frequency rato, r = = 2.34
22.36
The critical damping coefficient, cc = 2 x 10 x 22.36 = 447.2 N-s/m
The damping ratio is, therefore C ==

2000.447
447.2
s 2.342
Also = 1.108
e I(1- 2.342)2 + (2 x 0.447 x 2.34)2
s 3.82 x 10-3
Therefore e= = 3.447 x 10-3 m
1.108 = 1.108
The eccentricity of the rotor is, therefore e = 3.447 mm Ans.
EXAMPLE 7.7 A variable speed machine has a diametral clearance of 2 mm between the
stator and the rotor. The rotor has a mass of 37.5 kg and has an unbalance of 0.3 kg-cm. The
rotor is mounted on a steel shaft midway between the two bearings. The operating speed of the
machine varies from 500 to 6400 rpm. Specify the stiffness of the shaft so that the rotor is
always clear of the stator at any operating speed within the range.
(SGSITS: April 2005)
Solution
Assume simply supported end conditions and a modulus of elasticity E = 1.96 x 10" N/m2.
The diametral clearance of 2 mm sets the limit on the maximum permissible value of
dynamic deflection of s = 1 mm on either side of the rotor axis.
Given me = 0.3 kg-cm and, therefore e = 0.3/37.5 = 0.008 cm
r2
Thus
±0.08
1 = 1- r2
or 1 - r2 = ±0.08r2
1
Therefore r2 = and r2 - 1
1.08 0.92
or r1 = 0.962 and r2 = 1.043
Thus, for limiting the deflection s to less than or equal to 1 mm, we must have
0.962 r 1.043
It may be noted that for any value of r near 1, the dynamic deflection s shall be >1 mm. The
given range of machine speeds is 500 N 6400 rpm which corresponds to 52.36 CO
670.2 rad/s.
While scanning following options, any option that permits value of r between 0.962 and
1.043 in the working range of speeds has been discarded for obvious reasons.
(a) Let con = 500/0.96 = 520.8 rpm
Since the working range of machine speeds includes this speed, r = 1 condition is
obtainable and, therefore, this value of con is not acceptable.
(b) Let con = 6400/0.96 = 6666.7 rpm
With this natural frequency at 500 rpm, r = 500/6666.7 = 0.075. Thus, for any speed
in the working range, r < 0.96. This is acceptable.
(c) Let CO, = 500/1.04 = 480.77 rpm

Then, with this natural frequency, 6400/480.77 = 13.31
This solution is normally acceptable. However, since everytime machine is started
and the speed is brought up in the range 500-6400 rpm, the natural frequency of
480.77 rpm is crossed.
(d) Let CO, = 6400/1.04 = 6153.8 rpm
This is not acceptable because the resonating frequency lies in the working range
itself.
Taking con = 6666.7 rpm, the corresponding value in radians per second is 698.1 rad/s.
Thus, with this value of con, the stiffness of the shaft is
k = m(con )2 = 37.5 x 698.12 = 1.827 x 107 N/m Ans.
EXAMPLE 7.8 Calculate the whirling speed of a shaft of 20 mm diameter and 0.7 m long
carrying a mass of 1 kg at its mid-point. The density of the shaft material is 40 mg/m3 and
Young's modulus is 200 GN/m2. Assume the shaft to be freely supported.
Solution
The density of the material p = 40 x 106 g/m3 = 4 x 104 kg/m3
and the modulus of elasticity E = 200 x 109 N/m2 = 2 x 1011 N/m2
it
The dead weight of shaft/unit length = —
4 (0.02)2 x 1 x 40 x 103 x 9.81 = 123.28 N/m
it
The area moment of inertia of the shaft = —(0.02)4 = 7.854 x 10-9 m4
64
For a beam, carrying uniformly distributed load (u.d.l.) of w/unit length, the corresponding
natural frequency of transverse vibration, as obtained from Example 6.11, is
2 g4 Elg
(Dn =
w/ 4
The natural frequency of transverse vibration, due to point load alone is, therefore
48EIg
CO
n = e
w
Hence, using Dunkerley's formula, the critical speed due to u.d.l. and point load both
1 w/4 w/3 = /3 w/ W)
we 4 EIg 48EIg EIg jr 4 48)
0.73 1123.28 x 0.7 1 x 9.81

Therefore 2
= -9 A' 4 + 2.427 x 10-5
C0c 2x1011 x 7.854 x10 x9.81 48
2 1
Hence (pc = = 41203.13
2.427 x 10 -5
60 x i41203.13
Thus Alc = — 1938.4 rpm Ans.
2.ir
EXAMPLE 7.9 A vertical steel shaft of 15 mm diameter is held in long bearings 1 metre
apart and carries at its middle a disc of mass 15 kg. The eccentricity of the centre of gravity of
the disc from the centre of the rotor is 0.30 mm. The modulus of elasticity for the shaft
material is 200 N/m2 and the permissible stress is 70 MN/m2. Determine:
(a) The critical speed of the shaft and
(b) The range of speed over which it is unsafe to run the shaft.
Neglect the mass of the shaft.
(SGSITS: Aug. 2000)
Solution
End supports in long bearing imply fixed end conditions for which the bending moment and
deflection at the mid-span are given by
W/ W/3
M_ and 8 =
8 192E1
The permissible stress and modulus of elasticity for the shaft material are:
a= 70 x 106 N/m2 and E= 200 x 109 N/m2
The area moment of inertia of the shaft is
it
I = -(0.015)4 = 2.485 x 104 m4
64
(a) The static deflection at the centre of the shaft is
W/3 15 x 9.81 x13

3— = — 1.542 x 10-3 m
192E1 192 X 200 X 109 X 2.485 x 10-9
9.81
The natural frequency of transverse vibrations (on = — 79.76 rad/s
1.542 x10-3
,,, 60 x 79.76
or, the critical speed ivc = — 761.6 rpm Ans.
271-
From the equation of bending, it follows that
o- 2.485 x le x 70 x 106
M= Ix = — 23.19 N-m
d/2 0.015/2
(b) Thus, the maximum permissible bending moment = 23.19 N-m
Fmax X 1.0
Also, the bending moment at the mid-span is M —
8
Fmax8 X 1.0
Equating the two for common value of M, — 23.19
23.19 x 8
or Fmax = = 185.52 N
1.0
Therefore, by proportion, deflection due to load Fmax is obtained as
1.542 x 10-3 s
15 x 9.81 185.52
Therefore s = 185.52x 9.81 x 1.542 x 10-3 = 1.944 x 10-3 m

15
The relation for dynamic deflection gives
1.944 x 10-3 r2
0.3x10-3 1-r2
Thus ±6.48(1 - r2) = r2
2 .48
which gives r1 = = 0.866 and r22=6.48
— =1.182
7.48 5.48
Therefore r1 = 0.93 and r2 = 1.087
N
Thus 0.93 — 1.087
N,
Therefore Nmax = 1.087 x 761.6 = 827.86 rpm

and Nmin = 0.93 x 761.6 = 708.3 rpm Ans.
7.4 CRITICAL SPEEDS OF A SHAFT CARRYING MULTIPLE DISCS

(WITHOUT DAMPING)
For a shaft carrying multiple discs, there has to be as many critical speeds as the number of
discs. The method considers the deflections at the masses due to inertia forces at the two rotors
and takes into account the fact that at critical speeds, the eccentricities el and e2 are quite small
in comparison to the deflections s1 and s2 and may be neglected, therefore, in establishing
quadratic equation in cot.
Consider a light vertical shaft, carrying two discs, shown in Fig. 7.6 in deflected position
during rotation. Let s1 and s2 be the deflections in the shaft at the two discs, measured with
respect to bearing centre line. Further, let the two discs of masses M1 and M2 have their centres
of gravity displaced with respect to their geometric centres through distances el and e2
respectively and let s1 and s2 be the dynamic deflections when the shaft rotates at the critical
speed of CO. In the absence of damping, the centrifugal forces Msco2 and Mewl have a zero
phase angle between them. In other words, both the inertia forces act in the same direction.
Thus, the resultant centrifugal forces F1 and F2 on the masses M1 and M2 respectively, are as
under:
= M1 w2 (s1 + e1 )
and F2 = M2w2(s2 + e2) (7.12)

Fig. 7.6 Critical speeds of shaft with two rotors.
When damping is present and a phase angle exists between the two centrifugal forces, in
that case, e l and e2 may be treated as vectors with respect to s1 and s2 respectively.
In terms of influence coefficients, the expressions for dynamic deflections at the two
rotors may be written as
s1 =Fi + Oi2F2
and s2 = 821F1 + (522F2 (7.13)
Substituting for the forces F1 and F2 from Eq. (7.12), we get
s1 = OHM1 0)2(si + ei) + 312M2(02(s2 + e2)
s2 = 321MIC°2(S1 ei) + 322M2(02(s2 + e2) (7.14)
The above equations refer to the shaft rotation at the critical speed where s i >> e l and s2 >> e2.
Neglecting e l and e2 in comparison to si and s2 respectively, above equations may be expressed
as equations in variables si and s2 as under:
(S10410)21)Si + (312M2— 2)-2 = 0

and (32 0/11 m2)s + (322M2 m2 — 1)s2 = 0 (7.15)
This is a set of simultaneous equations in the variables si and s2 and could be solved to
establish these values. But more than that, the interest lies in establishing the critical speeds.
Further, the solutions to the set of equations is non-trivial only if following condition is
satisfied:
11141( 2 -1) 8121142(02

=0 (7.16)
6.21M16°2 (822M26°2 —1)
Solving the determinant and writing in the form of a quadratic equation in w2, we have
(311(522MIM2 - 512114042) 0 - (Sn* + 3221142)d + 1 = 0 (7.17)
Let 011322 - Oi2)MIM2 = a

and 311M1 + 3221142 = b (7.18)
The quadratic equation then appears as
am4 - bm2 + 1 = 0
The roots of the quadratic equation are
,,2 b±Vb 2 — 4a
'1,2 = (7.19)
2a
The roots of the quadratic equation in Eq. (7.19) give the first and second critical speeds.
When the number of discs are more than two, the solution becomes somewhat unmanageable.
However, in such cases, readers may take help of any of the methods discussed in Chapter 6.
EXAMPLE 7.10 Find the two critical speeds for the system shown in Fig. 7.7. Take
E = 1.96 x 1011 N/m2 and the shaft diameter being 5 cm. As shown in the figure, the two
rotors of masses 150 kg and 75 kg are placed at distances of 15 and 30 cm respectively from
the end-support of the cantilever shaft.
1 150 kg
/ I 1 75 kg
I-
/ -415 cm
/ I
T-30 cm
Fig. 7.7 Critical speeds of a shaft with two rotors.
Solution
It follows from the mechanics of solids that the deflection at rotor 1 due to a unit mass at rotor
1 itself is 311 = a3/3E1. Similarly, deflection at rotor 2 due to a unit load at the rotor 2 itself
is 322 = 13/3E1. Also the deflection at rotor 1 due to a unit load at the rotor 2 is
a2
812 = —
6E/ (31- a)
g(0.05)4
Area moment of inertia of shaft I = - 3.07 x 10-7 m2
64
The numerical values of these influence coefficients are:
0.153
31 1 - - 0.0187 x 104
3(1.96 x 1011 x 3.07 x 10-7)
0.152 ((1.90 - 0.15)

312 = 321 = - 0.0467 x 10-6
6 x1.96 x1011 x 3.07 x10-'
0.303
322 = ,, = 0.1496 x 10-6
3(1.96 x1011 x 3.07 x10-' )
Then, using Eq. 7.18, we get
a = *M2(811 322 - 312) = (150)(75){(0.0187 x 10-6 x 0.1496 X 1e) - (0.0467 X 10-6)2 )
Therefore a = 6.937 x 10-12
Similarly b = MA I + M2322 = 150(0.0187 x 10-6) + 75(0.1496 x 10-6)
= 1.4025 x 10-5
1.4025 x 10-5 + V(1.4025 x 10-5)2 - 4(6.937 x 10-12 )

col = =1947756.79
2(6.937 x10-12 )
Therefore col = 1395.6 rad/s
2 = 1.4025 x 10-5 - J(1.4025 x 10-5)2 - 4(6.937 x 10-12 )

Also (/)2 = 74010.5
2(6.937 x10-12 )
Therefore cot = 272 rad/s
Therefore, the first and second critical speeds are:
60 x 272
Aid = = 2597 rpm
2.ir
60 x 1395.6
Ncz = = 13327 rpm Ans.
2.ir
7.5 SECONDARY CRITICAL SPEED

Besides the main/primary critical speed caused by the centrifugal forces of unbalanced masses,
good amount of vibration has been observed at half the critical speed. This feature is noticed
only on shafts that are supported in horizontal position and the speed at which this occurs is
called secondary critical speed. In vertical shafts, this phenomenon is totally absent, indicating
that gravity must be one of the cause for the same. As the name suggests, the importance and
severity of this phenomenon is usually much less than that of the main/ primary critical speed.
To understand the phenomenon and to calculate the amplitude of the disturbing forces
involved, consider a uniform horizontal shaft carrying an unbalanced disc as shown in
Fig. 7.8. Assume further that the shaft is rotating without any vibration or whirl. This implies
that the geometrical centre S of the shaft is at rest and coincides with 0, the point at which the
bearing centre line intersects the plane of the disc. Let the centre of gravity of the disc be
located at G with an eccentricity of e. Thus, the centre of gravity G describes a circular path of
radius e, as shown in Fig. 7.9. For clockwise direction of rotation of the disc, when G is in the
left half of Fig. 7.9, the gravitational pull W provides a couple which retards the rotation. The
retarding couple is given by We cos cot.
Fig. 7.8 A horizontal uniform shaft with unbalanced disc.
Fig. 7.9 Secondary critical speed.
Further, let m be the mass of the disc and r its radius of gyration. When the centre of
gravity G is in the right half of Fig. 7.9, the angular acceleration a of the disc is given by
mr2a = We cos wt
The angular acceleration a is, therefore, given by
(We
a— cos wt
mr 2 j
As the centre of gravity G is moving in an arc of a circle of radius e, the tangential
acceleration at point G is given by
r
We
aG = ea = cos On
ynr 2 I
The tangential component of acceleration at point G indicates that there must be a force at G
acting in a direction tangent to the arc of the circle. This force is given by
r We 2
Ft matG = cos On
r2 j
The vertical component of this force is sin on times as large and is given by
r r
We2 2 [1 + cos 2 an] We2
FV = , COS On =
r- j 2 r2 j
We-
Thus F, = constant + cos 2wt
2r2
The constant part of the above force produces a small additional deflection of constant
magnitude in the shaft and does not warrant attention at this stage. It is the variable part of
frequency 2w of this expression that requires our attention. When the shaft speed assumes a
value equal to half the critical speed, the variations in the vertical force occurs at the natural
frequency and large amplitude of vibrations result.
Secondary critical speed caused by non-uniform flexibility of shaft

Phenomenon of secondary critical speed is also possible with a shaft that is not equally stiff in
all directions. Consider a shaft with cross sections of non-uniform flexibility (as in Fig. 7.10)
and carrying a perfectly balanced disc. The cross-sections shown in Fig. 7.10 have two
principal axes about which moment of inertia is maximum and minimum. For each quarter
revolution of the shaft the stiffness of the shaft in vertical direction passes from a maximum to
a minimum. Thus, in each full revolution the shaft the stiffness is twice a maximum and twice
a minimum. In other words, for each revolution of the shaft, the stiffness variation from a
maximum to a minimum passes through two full cycles.
Fig. 7.10 Shaft cross sections of non-uniform flexibility.
Thus, if the spring stiffness k of the shaft varies between the minimum (k — Ak) and the
maximum (k + Ak) about an average value k, then for a uniform speed CO of shaft rotation, the
stiffness is expressed as
kt = k + Ak sin 2wt
When the disc is not vibrating and the downward deflection of the shaft during rotation
is 3, the two vertical forces acting on the shaft are:
1. The gravitational pull mg, which acts downwards and
2. The restoring force due to elasticity of shaft equal to [k + Ak sin 20)0 which acts
upwards.
Evidently, the gravitational pull is balanced by the constant part of restoring spring force. The
unbalanced disturbing force is given by
Ak 8 sin 2wt
27$ Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering
Substituting 3 = mg/k, the magnitude of vertical disturbing force is

A , mg m ( ,6.1(
ZAK - VV
k j
When the shaft is running at half the critical speed, the impulses of this force occur at the
critical speed and vibrations are experienced.
In real-life problems, the order of magnitude of e/r in machines is expected to be the
same as that of AkIk. Further, each of the two ratios e/r and Aka is quite small (of the order
of 0.001) and in the former case, the ratio appears as square of e/r. Thus, the disturbing force
due to out of balance mass is much smaller than that in 'critical speed of non-uniform shaft
cross section'. Therefore, in majority of cases where secondary critical speed is observed, the
phenomenon is due to non-uniform cross section rather than to unbalanced mass.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
7.1 A rotor having a mass of 5 kg is mounted midway on a 1 cm diameter shaft

supported at the ends by two bearings. The bearing span is 40 cm. Because of certain
manufacturing inaccuracies, the c.g. of the disc is 0.02 mm away from the geometric
centre of the rotor. If the system rotates at 3000 rpm, find the amplitude of steady
state vibrations and the dynamic force transmitted to the bearings. Neglect damping
and take E = 1.96 x 1011 N/m2.
(SGSITS: June 2001)
7.2 A 55 kg compressor rotor is mounted on a shaft of stiffness 1.4 x 107 N/m.
Determine the critical speed of the rotor assuming the bearing to be rigid. If the
rotor has an eccentricity of 1000 micron and its operating speed is 6000 rpm,
determine the unbalance response. The damping in the system can be assumed to be
C = 0.05. If the compressor is started from rest, what will be the maximum whirl
amplitude of the rotor before it reaches its full operational speed?
7.3 A vertical shaft 1.3 cm in diameter rotates in long bearings and a disc weighing
142 N is attached to the midspan of the shaft. The span of the shaft between the
bearings is 48 cm. The mass centre of the disc is 0.05 cm from the axis of the
shaft. Neglecting the mass of the shaft and taking the deflection as for a beam fixed
at both ends, find the critical speed of rotation. Determine the range of speed over
which the stress in the shaft due to bending will exceed 120 k-N/cm2. Take E = 20.1
x 106 N/cm2.
(SGSITS: Aug. 1998, Aug. 2002)
7.4 For turbines operating above the critical speed, stops are provided to limit the
amplitude as it runs through the critical speed. In a certain turbine, a 15 kg rotor is
supported at the middle point of 25 mm diameter shaft. If the clearance between the
shaft and the stops is 0.5 mm and the eccentricity is 0.2 mm, determine the time
required for the shaft to hit the stops, assuming that the critical speed is reached with
zero velocity amplitude. Distance on the shaft between the bearings = 0.4 m.
Material of the shaft is steel.
Whirling Motion and Critical Speeds 2E1
7.5 A single rotor of mass 7 kg is mounted midway between bearings on a steel shaft of
1 cm diameter. The bearing span is 0.4 m. It is known that the c.g. of the rotor is
0.025 mm from the geometric axis. If the system rotates at 1000 rpm, find out the
amplitude of vibration, the dynamic load transmitted to the bearings and the
maximum stress in the shaft, when E = 2 x 107 N/cm2 and
(a) the shaft is vertically supported,
(b) the shaft is horizontally supported.
Neglect the weight of the shaft and the damping in the system. Assume the shaft to
be simply supported.
(SGSITS: Nov. 1997, Aug. 2003)
7.6 A vertical shaft 12.5 mm in diameter, rotates in spherical bearings with a span of
0.9 m and carries a disc of mass 10 kg midway between the two bearings. The mass
centre of the disc is 0.25 mm away from the geometric axis. If the stress in the shaft
is not to exceed 10.3 x 107 N/m2, determine the range of speed within which it is
unsafe to run the shaft. Neglect the mass of the shaft and the damping in the system.
(SGSITS: B.E. (PTDC), Dec. 2000)
7.7 The rotor of a turbo-supercharger of mass 20 kg is keyed to the centre of 2 cm
diameter steel shaft 30 cm between the bearings. Determine (a) the critical speed,
(b) the amplitude of vibration of rotor at a speed of 3300 rpm, if the eccentricity is
0.002 cm and the vibratory force transmitted to the bearings at this speed. Assume
the shaft to be simply supported.
7.8 A rotor having mass of 9.5 kg is mounted on a 12 mm horizontal steel shaft midway
between bearings that are 0.6 m apart. The centre of gravity of the disc is 6 mm
from its geometric centre. If the damping in the system is estimated at C = 0.1, draw
a diagram of the forces and displacements when the shaft rotates at 690 rpm.
Compare the maximum dead load stress in the shaft with the maximum stress at the
operating speed. Also determine the power required to drive the shaft at this speed.
7.9 For the system shown in Fig. 7.7, find the two whirling speeds. Take E = 1.96 x
1011 N/m2 and I= 1 x 104 m4.
Continuous Systems
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A class of mechanical systems, e.g. cables, rods, beams, diaphragms, plates, etc., have their
masses and elastic forces distributed rather than lumped together at certain discrete points in
the system. Our obvious choice in favour of lumped parameter approach, in earlier chapters,
was dictated by the mathematical model which is simple and still retains the essential features
of the physical system. It was assumed that the entire mass, elastic and damping properties
were concentrated at a finite number of points and the motion of the system can be completely
specified by giving displacements of these points as a function of time. Most vibrating bodies
are not of such a simple nature. In general, however, most of the real systems are continuous
and have distributed parameters. In continuous systems, all the bodies are assumed to be
isotropic and homogeneous, obeying Hooke's law within the elastic limit.
The type of mathematical model assumed is of fundamental importance in the analysis as
it dictates the mathematical formulation. Thus, whereas behaviour of lumped parameter system
is described by ordinary differential equations, the behaviour in continuous system is described
by partial differential equations. Discrete systems are characterized by finite degrees of
freedom as the number of lumped masses and the coordinates required to define the system
configuration are finite. As against this, the distributed parameter system assumes the
parameters (e.g. mass, elasticity and damping) to be concentrated at infinite number of points
and, therefore, the system is considered to have infinite degrees of freedom. Ordinary
differential equations are relatively easy to solve compared to partial differential equations, but
at the same time, the information obtained from a discrete model of the given system may not
be as accurate as that obtained from a model based on continuous system.
To determine eigen functions and natural frequencies, a consideration to boundary
conditions becomes essential. The boundary conditions may be due to geometric compatibility
purely called geometric boundary conditions. For instance in beams with fixed ends and
subjected to bending, zero deflection and zero slope at the ends constitute geometric boundary
conditions. Natural boundary conditions arise from the equilibrium of forces or bending
284
Continuous Systems 2E1
moments on account of natural boundary conditions resulting from balance of moments or

forces, called natural boundary conditions. The transverse vibrations of a uniform string
provide an excellent starting point for discussions in this chapter as it provides the most
readily-visualized physical system involving the propagation of wave.
8.2 VIBRATION OF STRINGS (TRANSVERSE WAVE PROPAGATION

ON A STRING)
By taking into account the forces which tend to return the string to its equilibrium position, it
is possible to derive a wave equation that was first derived by Euler in 1748. For this purpose,
assume that a flexible string of negligible stiffness and of uniform mass p per unit length is
rigidly supported at both ends and is stretched to a tension T. Let us take origin at the left
support and the x-axis in the horizontal direction along the string. Also, let the y-coordinate
represents the transverse displacement with respect to equilibrium position. When the
transverse displacement y is small, the tension T may be assumed to be constant throughout the
string. (In reality, the component T cos 0 is more nearly constant for the equilibrium of the
element.) This is true particularly when tension T in the string is large so that the change in the
tension in the string with deflection is appreciably small and can be ignored. Vibration of a
string is illustrated in Fig. 8.1.
x
Fig. 8.1 Vibration of a string.
Consider an element of length dx at a distance of x from the left support. Let this element
of string be displaced through y from the equilibrium position at any instant. As the tension is
assumed not to vary along the string, let T be the tension at both the ends of the element. If 0
be the angle of inclination of the element at the left end with the x-axis, then the angle of
inclination of the element at the right end with the x-axis is
ae
0+ — dx
ax
For small deflection and slope 0, the components of the tensions at the two ends along x-axis
balance each other.
Algebraic addition of the component of tension along y-axis is:
a e dx — TO T( dx
T 0+ —
ae`
( ax ax
If p is the mass per unit length of the string, then for the acceleration (a2y/at2), the differential
equation of motion along y-axis is
a2y (ae,
pdx— =T — dx
at2 ax ,
As 0 = ay/ax is the slope of the string element (alwax)= (a2y/ax2). Cancelling out the common
term dx from either side, we get
a2 y a2 y
P V = T X2
a2,, 1 a2,,
or .r .r (8.1)
ax2 c2 at2
—
T
where c= (8.2)
P
It will be shown later that solution of the Eq. (8.1) represents wave disturbances,
propagated through the string at a velocity equal to c. This equation is, therefore, known as a
wave equation.
The partial differential equation can be solved using the method of separation of
variables. To obtain the solution of Eq. (8.1), assume tentatively that y is a product of two
functions X(x) and G(t) where the two functions are respectively the function of x and t alone.
For the sake of simplicity, let us write
y = XG
It follows from the above equation that
a2 y = 2x
Gd
ax 2 dx 2
a2 y = d2 G
and x
at2 dt 2
Substituting these values in Eq. (8.1), we get
d 2X 1 d 2G
G = X
dx2 c2
dt 2
C2 d 2 X _ 1 d2G
or (8.3)
X dx 2 G dt 2
The left hand side of Eq. (8.3) is a function of x alone, while the right hand side is a
function of t alone. The expressions on the two sides can be equal only if each one of them is
a constant. The constant cannot be zero or positive because in that event no vibratory motion
Continuous Systems 281
is possible. The constant must, therefore, be a negative constant. Letting this to be —m2 in
Eq. (8.3), we get
2 2 2
C d X 1d G 2
dx = Gdt (1)
This leads to two ordinary differential equations as under:

2 ( 2
d X CO
X=0 (8.4a)
dx 2 c2 1
dG 2
and + 0 G =0 (8.4b)
dt 2
The solutions of the above equations are:
mx mx
X = A sin( — + B cos (8.5a)
c j c j
and G = C sin wt + D cos wt (8.5b)
Substituting for X and G in the assumed solution, we get
mx (ox
y = (A sin — +Bcos — (C sin an + D cos wt) (8.6)
c c j
where CO is the frequency of vibration and the Eq. (8.6) gives solution corresponding to one
value of CO. Since infinite number of values are possible for CO, the general solution can be
written as
y= Ai sin (t) x+ Bi coscoi x (Ci sin wi t + Di cos (pit) (8.7)

i=i c
The constants A, B, C and D in the above equation can be established from the boundary
conditions and the initial conditions given in the problem.
8.3 LONGITUDINAL VIBRATIONS OF BARS

Propagation of longitudinal waves in a bar or a rod is an another important type of wave
motion. During the propagation of longitudinal wave disturbance in a bar, the displacement of
particles of the bar is parallel to the axis. The bar is assumed to have a uniform cross section
A, and further, it is assumed that the plane sections normal to the axis remain plane and normal
to the axis during vibrations. When the lateral dimensions of the bar are small in comparison
to its length, each cross sectional plane of the bar may be considered to move back and forth
as a unit.
Consider a bar of length L, mass density p and uniform cross sectional area A. Consider
further, an element of elemental length dx at a distance of x from the left end as shown in
Fig. 8.2. At some time t during vibration, let P be the axial force at the left end of this
element. The force at the other end of the element will be given by [P + (aP/ax)dx]. Futher,
if s be the displacement of the left end of the element at that instant, the displacement at the
other end of the element is given by [s + (as/ax) dx]. Thus, the change in the length of the
element is (as/ax) dx. The unit strain is, therefore, given by (as/ax). This unit strain is related
to the stress (P/A) through the modulus of elasticity E as
as P
ax AE
or (AE)
ax = P (8.8)
x
A -0- P + (aPlax).dx
dx
s + (asiax).dx
S
1.1
A
dx + (aslax)•dx
Fig. 8.2 Longitudinal vibration of bars.
The element is in dynamic equilibrium under the action of net external force (aP/ax).
Applying Newton's second law and equating the rate of change of momentum to above force,
we get
a2s (a13
pAdx x = — dx
at 2 ax
Cancelling out the common term dx on either side, we get
a2s
= pA 2 (8.9)
a
x
ax at
Substituting for P from Eq. (8.8) in Eq. (8.9), we get
a2s r a2
(AE)— = pA
ax 2 ar e j
a2s = p a2s \
Thus
ax2 E at2
r
a2s 1 a2s
or = (8.10)
c2 at2
axe
E
where c= (8.11)
p
is the velocity of wave propagation in the bar.
Equation (8.10) is similar to Eq. (8.1) derived for vibrations in string. Therefore, the
solution of Eq. (8.10) can be obtained in a similar way and can be shown to be given by
coi
s= Ai sin —x + Bi cos (Di
— x (Ci sin wi t + Di cos (pit) (8.12)
i=1
8.4 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS OF CIRCULAR MEMBERS

The equations of motion for torsional vibration for a member with round uniform section and
those for longitudinal vibration of uniform rods are similar. To derive the equations of
motion, consider a circular shaft shown in Fig. 8.3 with an element of length dx distant x from
the left end of the shaft. As before, let us make assumption that cross section of the shaft
remains plane after twisting and radii remain straight.
(11 T + (aTlax)• dx
x
L
Fig. 8.3 Torsional vibration of circular shafts.
Let J be the polar moment of inertia of the cross section and G the shear modulus of
elasticity. Assume p to be the mass density of the shaft material. Let T and [T + (aT/ax) dx] be
the torques respectively at the left and right ends of the element. Further, let 0 be the angle of
twist at x from the left hand end of the shaft, then the angle of twist at the other end of the
element is:
+(—
at9` dx
ax
Therefore, the angular twist over the length dx is (a 6/ax) dx. Then, from torsion formula, we
have
T 0 lax) dx
J dx
i a 6,`
Therefore T = GJ (8.13)
ax
The element is under dynamic equilibrium under the effect of net torque (aT/ax)dx.
The mass moment of inertia of a thin circular disc of radius r about the centroidal axis is
given by I = mr2 / 2 , while the polar (area) moment of inertia is J = rcr4/ 2 . Thus, for expressing
mass M.I. in terms of J, we have
mass of element = (rcr2dx)p
2
Thus I = (.irr 2 dx) p = pJdx
The element is in dynamic equilibrium and applying Newton's second law, therefore, we have
a2e
(pJdx) = — dx
t2 ax
Cancelling out the common term dx from either side, we have
a2e
(p,f) = — (8.14)
t2 ax
Substituting for T from Eq. (8.13) in Eq. (8.14), we get

a2e ra 20,
(pJ)— =GJ
at2 ax`' 1
Cancelling out the common term J from either side and rearranging, we have
a2e =1 a2e (8.15)

ax2 e2 at 2
G
where C= (8.16)
p
The wave equation is similar to Eq. (8.10), where 0 and G/p replace s and E/p respectively.
The general solution is, therefore
0= Ai sin rD x+ Bi cos rpix (Ci sin wi t + Di cos wit) (8.17)

i=i
8.5 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF BEAMS

To derive the differential equation for the transverse vibrations of beams, consider an element
of length dx, acted upon by forces and moments as shown in Fig. 8.4. Let V and M be the
dx
- - x
t
x
M + (aM/ax) dx
Y
v ca Vlax)dx
p(x)
Fig. 8.4 Transverse vibration of beams.
shear force and bending moment respectively and let p(x) be the loading per unit length of the
beam. Considering equilibrium of vertical forces on the element, we get
p(x)dx — —dx = 0
ax
ax
Eliminating common term dx from either side, we have
p(x) = — (8.18)
ax
ax
This shows that the rate of change of shear force along the length of the element equals
the load per unit length. Also, for equilibrium, equating the resultant moment at any point on
the right face of the element to zero, we get
Vdx + p(x)dx(— — dx = 0
2 j ax
In the limiting case, when dx is small, the second term in the above equation can be
neglected in comparison to the other terms. After eliminating the common term dx, the
equation reduces to
am
V= (8.19)
ax
This shows that the rate of change of bending moment along the element equals the shear
force. Substituting for V from Eq. (8.19) in Eq. (8.18), we get
a 2m
p(x) = (8.20)
x2
For the coordinate system assumed in Fig. 8.4, the formula for simple bending dictates
relation between the curvature and bending moment as under:
=M (8.21)
ax2
and substituting for bending moment M in Eq. (8.20), we get
a2 r
p(x)= El
Y2 (8.22)
ax 2 ax
When the beam executes transverse vibration, it is under dynamic condition. A beam
vibrating about its static equilibrium position under its own weight is subjected to a load per
unit length arising out of inertia force, which is a function of mass and acceleration. The
transverse inertia force is contributed by the mass density p and the area of cross section A.
Thus, the inertia force per unit length is
/ a2y
p(x)=— pA
ate ,
Substituting for p(x) in Eq. (8.22), we get
a2 r a2 '\ / a2y
El Y =—pA
ax 2 l ax 2 j ate ,
a2 r a2 '\ r a2 ,,
or El Y + pA .) (8.23)
=0
ax 2 l ax 2 j at2 ,
For a constant value of E/, Eq. (8.23) reduces to

a2 v , r a4y'\
' + a' =0 (8.24)
at2 ax4 ,
. IEI
where a (8.25)
,\ pA
As in the case of a vibrating string, assume y to be a function of product of two

functions. Thus, let
y(x, t) = X(x)G(t)
For simplicity, let this relation be rewritten as y = XG
2 r 2
a y=x d G
Thus
at2 ldt2 ,
a 4y r
d4X
and =G
ax4 l dx 4 j
Substituting these values in Eq. (8.24), we get
r d4
d2G )!
A
'' + a 2'-'
(-7. =0
dt 2 l dx" j
r 2 r 4
1 d2G a d X
or = -- (8.26)
X dx 4
G dt 2 j
The left hand side of Eq. (8.26) is a function of t alone while the right hand side is a
function of x alone. This is possible only when each side is equal to a negative constant, say
cot where w is a real number.
r 2 r 4
1 d2G a d X 2
Thus =—— =—w
G dt2 i X dx 4
We thus have two equations:

d 2G 2
+ Ga) = 0 (8.27a)
dt 2
d4 X 4
and k X=0 (8.27b)
4
dx
where k = ,\16° (8.28)

a
The solutions of Equations (8.27a) and (8.27b) are:
G = A sin cot + B cos cot (8.29a)
X = DI sin kx + D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx + D4 cosh kx (8.29b)
Shape of normal mode of vibration is represented by X and is, therefore, called as the
normal function. The four boundary conditions can be used to evaluate the constants DI , D2,
D3 and D4. The four end conditions are listed in Table 8.1.
TABLE 8.1 Boundary conditions for different end conditions of beams in bending
End conditions Deflection y Slope dy/dx B.M. d2y/dx2 Shear force d3y/dx3
Hinged End zero — zero —
Fixed End zero zero
Free End — — zero zero
Therefore, the general solution may be written as

CXD
y= (Ai sin wit + Bi cos coit)(Dii sin ki x + D2i cos ki x + D3i sinh ki x + D4i cosh ki x) (8.30)
i=1
EXAMPLE 8.1 A rectangular bar of length L and uniform cross section, shown in Fig. 8.5
is having longitudinal vibrations. Derive the frequency equation if one end of the bar is fixed
and the other end is free.
L
—• x
Fig. 8.5 Bar fixed at one end and free at other.

Solution
The general solution for longitudinal vibration of a uniform bar is given by
s= (Ai sin — + Bi cos (Ci sin (pit + Di cos wit)

i=1 c
Taking the origin at the fixed end, the boundary conditions are:
s = 0 at x = 0
and as the tensile force at the free end is zero, as/ax = 0 at x = L
Substituting the first condition in the general equation, we get
CXD
0= (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit)

i=1
Therefore, Bi = 0
Therefore, the generalized equation now becomes
s= Ai sin (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit)

i=i
Differentiating partially with respect to x, we get
as co. co.
i cos (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit) = 0 at x = L
ax = A c
As (C1 sin wit + Di cos wit) # 0 and also Ai # 0,
col
we have cos =0
or co, = , where i = 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.

2L
Therefore, the general expression for longitudinal vibration is
igx
s= sin— (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit)
E
where c= Ans.
EXAMPLE 8.2 A rectangular bar of length L and uniform cross section is having
longitudinal vibrations. Derive the frequency equation if both the ends of the bar are free as
shown in Fig. 8.6.
Fig. 8.6 Longitudinal vibration in a bar free at both the ends.
Solution
The general solution for the longitudinal vibration of the bar is given by
mi x mi x
s = I (Ai sin — e,i sin (pit + Di cos (pit)
i=i c CI
Since both the ends are free, the forces at the two ends are zero, and, therefore
(
as as
= (— =0
ax 1x=0 ax ix=i,
Substituting the first boundary condition, we get
0 = Ai(C, sin wit + Di cos wit) or Ai = 0
co. co.L
and 0 = Bi sin (C, sin wit + Di cos wit)
c c
Since Bi —
( (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit) # 0, we get
c )
co l
sin = 0, which is the frequency equation. Ans.
Thus
and therefore (Di = —

L
EXAMPLE 8.3 A uniform bar of length L is initially compressed by equal forces at both the
ends as shown in Fig. 8.7. If these compressive forces are suddenly removed, find the
vibration produced.
rg— Reference plane
Fig. 8.7 Bar free at both the ends.

Solution
Since two equal compressive forces act at the two ends, the transverse cross sectional plane, at
the mid-length of the bar, does not move either way and, therefore, becomes the reference
plane. Thus, taking the origin at the left free end of the bar as before, let e denotes unit
compressive strain at time t = 0. Then, the initial compression distant x from the origin and
{(L/2) — x} from the midpoint of the bar is
L
(s)t=o = e( — -
2
Also, as at time t = 0, the forces are withdrawn, we have
= 0
The general solution for longitudinal vibration of the bar is
CXD
coi x r..t/i X
s =1,(Ai sin— + Bi cos (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit)
i=1
When both the ends are free, this equation reduces to (vide solution to the Example 8.2)
CXD
co; x
s= cos sin (pit + Di cos wit)
i=1
col
It was shown that = br and therefore wi =
ig igct i2rct "

Therefore S= ( COS Ci sin— + Di cos L
i =1 L
At t = 0, the initial condition dictates
L
e (— — x = f (x) =1,Di cos —
igx (i)
2 j i=1 L
Also, from the other initial condition, we have
(iIrc ig x
(i)t=o = Ci cos =0
L L
Since cos g x # 0, Ci = 0
tax
Thus s= Di cos — cos ittct
i=i
which, at t = 0, becomes
L ' —
e (-- x = f (x) = I Di cos ig x
2 j i=i L
This equation is the expansion of f(x) in a Fourier cosine series, where
2L igx
Di = — f f (x) cos — dx
L0 L
2 Lr i.irx
or Di =— j e x cos — dx
L 0 2
which simplifies to
L L
i.irx 2e igx
Di = e f cos dx — — f xcos dx
L
EL (. i.irx 2e xL( igx“" L L igx ,

or, D. = sin — — — sin — — f sin — ax
tg L Jo L i2r L Jo ig 0
EL 2e [1,2 . 2 ( ill" .X L
Thus Di = sin i ll" — — — sin 1,71- + L cos —
Or L ig 2 2 L J0
i ,71-
EL 2EL
Hence Di = -- sin ijr + (1 cosig)
ig 2 2
i TC
4EL
Clearly, when i is even, then Di = 0 and when i is odd, D, —
2 2
i TC
Therefore, the general solution is:
, 4LE — 1 i.lrx i.lrc

s(x,t)=
2
E — 2cos — cos
Tr i=1,3,5,... 1
where E = — = unit strain Ans.

AE
EXAMPLE 8.4 A uniform bar of length L is fixed at one end and connected at the other end
by a spring of stiffness k as shown in Fig. 8.8. Derive the frequency equation of the system.
Fig. 8.8 Bar fixed at one end and spring connected at the other.
Solution
From Example 8.1, general solution for a uniform bar fixed at one end and free at the other is
given by
s= E sin (Ci sin wit + Di cos wit) (i)

i=1,3,5,... C
The boundary conditions for the present problem are:

as
(s)., 0 = 0 and — k(s)x=L = AE —
axix=L
{co. co.L , COiL
AE cos (C, sin COit + Di cos wit) = — IC { sin '= (Ci sin (pit + Di cos (pi t)
c c c
AEcoi ) coi L co.L

or cos =— k sin
coi L AEcoi
Therefore tan =
c kc
This is the frequency equation for the system. Ans.
EXAMPLE 8.5 Determine the longitudinal vibrations of a uniform bar of length L,

subjected to a sinusoidal force F0 sin wt at the free end as shown in Fig. 8.9.
Fig. 8.9
Solution
For longitudinal vibration, the equation of motion is given by
a2s 1 a2s
ax2 c2 at2
where s is the displacement of any cross section and c2 = E/p.
For the forced vibration, let the steady state solution be assumed as
s(x, t) = X(x) sin wt
a2s
a2s = a2x 2,
so that sin cot and = —0) A sin cot
ax2 ax 2 at2
Substituting in the equation of motion and cancelling out the common term sin wt, we have
2
d X ( 0)2
X =0
dx 2 + c2
j
The solution of this differential equation is:
0)X 0)X
X(X) = Ai cos (—'\ + A2 Sin
C j CI
Substituting in the assumed solution, therefore, we have
cox cox
s(x, t) X(x) sin cot = [Al cos — + A2 sin sin cot
c j c j
Applying the boundary condition: s = 0 at x = 0, we have

A l sin cot = 0
This gives A l = 0, as sin cot # 0
The solution, therefore, becomes
cox
s(x, t) = X(x) sin cot = [A2 sin ( — I sin cot
c j
as
Again, applying the boundary condition: AE — = F0 sin cot at x = L, we have
ax
co ( cox
AE [ A2 — cos — sin cot = F0 sin cot
c c j
Foc coL,
Thus A2 = sec (—
AE(o c 1
Therefore, the solution becomes
Foc (0/, cox

s(x, t) = [sec( sin (— I sin cot Ans.
AEco c 1 c j
EXAMPLE 8.6 For the lateral vibration of the string shown in Fig. 8.10, determine the
equation of motion of the string when both the ends are fixed and the initial conditions are
given as y (x, 0) = ax(l — x)/12 and ay/at = 0 for 0 x 1.
... ------- r-----___ //

/ ,----..,----- ly = a/4 //
//
.-..— //2 //
►
/
Fig. 8.10
Solution
The general solution for a string problem is given by
y(x, t) = Ai sin (t) x+ cos (Li sin (pit + Di cos (pit)

i=i
For the fixed end conditions, we have y = 0 at x = 0 and also at x = 1. The first condition gives
CXD
0= (Bi )(Ci sin wit + Di cos wit)

i=1
Since the condition is true at all values of time t, we must have Bi = 0. Therefore, the solution
is:
co.x
y(x, t) = L (sin j(ui . + Di cos wit) (i)
i =1 c
Also, for condition: x = 1, y = 0, Eq. (i) gives
Orc
0 = sin which implies wi = —
1
Applying the initial condition, the deflection at t = 0 is given by
co. x
F(x) = y(x,0) = (Di sin
i=i c
Also, at t = 0, we have
(ay mx
= sin i (CO= 0
at it=o i=1
Hence Ci = 0
Substituting for we get
F(x) = D. sin igx
This equation is the expansion of F(x) in Fourier sine series, where
2 Oz. x , 2 i ax x Oz. x
Di = f t' (X) sin ax = — f — 1— — sin — ax
1 o 1 1 0 l 1
2a fi [ , x2 ,
or Di = x sin — ax — — sin — ax
12 0
Simplifying, we get
Di = 0, for even values of n

8a
and Di = for odd values of n
'
(003
8a 7CX ICC 1 3rcx 3Irc

Hence y(x, t) = sin — cos —t + — sin cos t + • ••1 Ans.
it 1 1 27 1 1
EXAMPLE 8.7 Determine the equation for the natural frequencies of a uniform rod
subjected to torsional oscillation with one end fixed and the other end free, as shown in
Fig. 8.11.
Fig. 8.11 Uniform bar under torsional oscillations.

(SGSITS: M.E., Dec. 1994)
Solution
The wave equation for torsional vibration, from Eq. 8.17, is as under:
ate 2 ate
=c
are axe
Let the steady state vibration be given by 0 = X(x) sin wt. Then, substituting for 0, in the wave
equation, we get
r 2 012
d X
+ —A=U
dx 2 j c
The solution of this equation is
(ox (ox
X(x) = A sin — + B cos —
c c
Thus, the assumed steady state solution becomes
(ox (ox
0 = ( A sin — + B cos — sin (at
c c j
Applying the boundary condition, namely at x = 0, 0 = 0, we get B = 0. The equation then

becomes
(ax
X(x) = A sin — sin wt
c
Also, at x = 1, the torque is zero.
Thus
ae 0)/
=A (— cos- sin an = 0
ax C/ C
Since A and sin on cannot be equal to zero at all the time, we have
0)/
cos— = 0
c
A necessary condition for the same is:
0)1 (2i + 1) 7r
=
c 2
(2i + 1) gc (2/ + l. It IG
or co = = Ans.
21 2 ,1\p
where i = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., etc.
EXAMPLE 8.8 The drill pipe of an oil well terminates at the lower end to a rod containing
a cutting bit. Derive the expression for the natural frequencies, assuming the drill pipe to be
uniform and fixed at the upper end and the rod and the cutter to be represented by an end mass
of moment of inertia I as shown in Fig. 8.12.
Fig. 8.12 Drill pipe under torsional oscillations.
Solution
The boundary conditions in the problem are as under:
(a) At the upper (fixed) end, where x = 0, the angle of twist 0 = 0
(b) At the lower end, where x = L, the torque equals the inertia torque T = —/(a219/at2)
= /(0219
which equals the shaft torque al(dO/dx) for equilibrium, J being the polar moment of inertia
of the shaft. Eqating the two torques, we have
(d 19
10)20= al (i)
dx 1
Continuous Systems 2C3
Also, for a torsional shaft, with one end fixed and other free, the equation of motion is
(ox (ox
( sin — + B cos — sin wt
0= A
For the boundary condition as at (i) above, 0 = 0 at x = L, gives B = 0. Thus, we have
(ox
= A sin— sin wt
(cle ,
Therefore = A (— cos —L sin cot
dx)x=1,
and (0)x=i, = A sin (—

1)L, sin wt
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get
cc)L
10)2 [A sin6°L
— sin cot] = GJ[A(= cos sin om
c
Cancelling out the common terms on either side of the equal to sign, we get
coL
/(02 [sin = GJ[( — cos(--
I cI
(oL GJ
Therefore tan— =
c /(oc
G
where c=
( coLVTo \ GP
Therefore tan =J
10)
Multiplying and dividing by L/ on the right hand side, we get
r = J pL
tan coL
G 1 I wL p
By transposition of the terms, we get
J pL
coLe tan coL,\Ip =
G I
But,/x ioxL= 4,d, the mass moment of inertia of the rod.
Therefore coLe tan coL\111 = /rod

G G I
This equation is of the form A, tan A, = 4,da, where A, = coL\IpIG and can be solved either
graphically or by using the tables.
EXAMPLE 8.9 Determine the natural frequencies of transverse vibration of a uniform beam
clamped at one end and free at the other.
(SGSITS: M.E. July 1993, May 1995)
Solution
At the clamped end, where x = 0, the boundary conditions are: y = 0 and dy/dx = 0. Similarly
at the free end, where x = L,
r
d2 y
the bending moment M = El dx 2
j
day
and shear force V = E/ =0
dx 3 j

y = Di sin kx + D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx + D4 cosh kx
Applying the first boundary condition at x = 0, it follows that
0 = D2 + D4 or D2 = —D4
The equation, therefore, reduces to
y = Di sin kx + D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx — D2 cosh kx
Differentiating with respect to x, we have
d = k(D1 cos kx — D2 sin kx + D3 cosh kx — D2 sinh kx)

dx
For x = 0, this reduces to
0 = k(D1 + D3) or DI = —D3
d2 2
Further = k (—D1 sin kx — D2 cos kx — DI sinh kx — D2 cosh kx)
dx 2
r \
d2y
Thus = —k2(D1 sin kL + D2 cos kL + DI sinh kL + D2 cosh kL) = 0
dx2 i x=L
Therefore D1 (sin kL + sinh kL) = —D2(cos kL + cosh kL) (i)

d3
LL y 3
Finally = k (—D1 cos kx + D2 sin kx — DI cosh kx — D2 sinh kx)
dx3
Continuous Systems 2C3
At x = L, we have
k3 (—D1 cos kL + D2 sin kL — D1 cosh kL — D2 sinh kL) = 0
or D1 (cos kL + cosh kL) = —D2 (sinh kL — sin kL) = 0
Therefore, from Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
sin kL + sinh kL cos kL + cosh kL
=
cos kL + cosh kL sinh kL — sin kL
which reduces to
cost kL + sine kL + 2cos kL cosh kL + cosh2 kL — sinh2 kL = 0
or 2(cos kL cosh kL + 1) = 0
The frequency equation is, therefore
cos kL cosh kL + 1 = 0
Corresponding to each normal mode of vibration, there is a specific value of kL which satisfies
above equation. The values corresponding to first and second modes are 1.875 and 4.695,
respectively.
The natural frequency for the first mode is, therefore, given using the expressions as under:
El
co = ka = k
pA
Substituting for k, for the first mode, we have
(1.875 2 = 3.515 I EI
co = a Ans.
L I ,\
L2 VPA
EXAMPLE 8.10 Determine the normal modes of transverse vibration of a simply supported
beam of length L and uniform cross section as shown in Fig. 8.13.
(SGSITS: M.E. Jan. 1993)
Fig. 8.13 Simply supported beam in transverse vibrations.

Solution
Deflection y, assumed to be a function of product of two functions, is given by
y(x, t) = X(x) G(t)
In Eq. (8.27), it was shown that the assumed solution leads to two ordinary differential
equations as under:
d 2G 2 d4 X 4
Go) = 0 and k X=0
dx 4
dt 2
The solutions of these equations were shown in Eqs. (8.29a) and (8.29b) to be
G = A sin wt + B cos cot
and y = DI sin kx + D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx + D4 cosh kx

For simply supported ends, we have
2y
at x = 0, y = 0 =
dx 2
The first condition gives 0 = D2 + D4
2
and from22= d k (—D1 sin kx — D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx — D2 cosh kx)
dx
For simply supported end conditions, at x = 0, equating right hand side to zero, we get
0 = k2 (—D2 — D2)
Therefore D2 = D4 = 0
Thus y = DI sin kx + D3 sinh kx
Applying the end boundary condition, namely at x = L, y = 0,
0 = DI sin kL + D3 sinh kL (i)
( d2
Also from = k2(—D1 sin kL + D3 sinh kL) = 0
dx 2 ix=L
Thus DI sin kL = D3 sinh kL (ii)
It follows from Eq. (i) that each of the terms must be separately zero. For finite k and L,
sinh kL # 0 and, therefore D3 = 0 and also, sin kL = 0.
But k = -\c
la and therefore sin (L.\ c/a) = 0.
Thus L-\(.
1/ct = irc, where i = 1, 2, 3, ...
i 2 g2 a
Therefore coi —
L2
and the normal function is given by

ijrx
= sin
The mode shapes are shown in Fig. 8.13.
EXAMPLE 8.11 Derive the frequency equation of transverse vibration of a beam of length
L with one end built-in and the other end simply supported as shown in Fig. 8.14.
Fig. 8.14
Solution
The boundary conditions for the beam are as under:
(i) The deflection y = 0, at x = 0 and also at x = L
(ii) The slope is zero at x = 0, while bending moment is zero at x = L
Deflection y, assumed to be a function of product of two functions, is given by
y(x, t) = X(x) G(t)
In Equations (8.27a) and (8.27b), it was shown that the assumed solution leads to two ordinary
differential equations as under:
d 2G d4X 4
1/0)2 = n and k X =0
dt 2 dx 4
The solutions of these equations were shown in Eqs. (8.29a) and (8.29b) to be
G = A sin wt + B cos cot
y = Di sin kx + D2 cos kx + D3 sinh kx + D4 cosh kx
Applying the boundary condition (i) above, we have
y = D2 -I- D4 = 0
Therefore D4 = —D2
and from the boundary condition, at x = L, we have
0 = DI sin kL + D2 cos kL + D3 sinh kL — D2 cosh kL (i)
Again, from the boundary condition (ii), we have
dy
= 0 = k(Di + D3)
dx
or D3 = —D1
The equation for deflection y, therefore, becomes
y = D1 sin kx + D2 cos kx — DI sinh kx — D2 cosh kx
Applying the boundary condition (ii), we have

( \
d2y
= 0 = k2(—D1 sin kL — D2 cos kL — D 1 sinh kL — D2 cosh kL)
dx2 Ix=L
This leads to the equation

—D1 (sin kL + sinh kL) — D 2(cos kL + cosh kL) = 0 (ii)
Substituting for D3 = —D1 in Eq. (i), we get
D1 (sin kL — sinh kL) + D 2(cos kL — cosh kL) = 0 (iii)
For non-trivial solution for the arbitrary constants DI and D2, following determinant must be
zero:
(sin kL — sinh kL) (cos kL — cosh kL)
=0
—(sin kL + sinh kL) —(cos kL + cosh kL)
Expanding the determinant, we get

sin kL (—cos kL — cosh kL) — sinh kL (—cos kL — cosh kL) — cos kL (—sin kL — sinh kL)
+ cosh kL (—sin kL — sinh kL) = 0
Simplifying, we get
—2(sin kL cosh kL — cos kL sinh kL) = 0
or tan kL = tanh kL,
which is the frequency equation. Ans.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
8.1 Determine the normal functions for free longitudinal vibration of a bar of length L
and uniform cross section. Both the ends of the bar are fixed.
8.2 A uniform bar of length L is initially stretched by an axial force Po applied at the
free end in the longitudinal direction. If this axial force is suddenly removed at time
t = 0, find the resulting longitudinal vibration of the bar.
8.3 A uniform bar of length L is built-in at both ends. The bar is set into longitudinal
motion by giving it a constant velocity I/0 at all points along the bar in the
x-direction. Find the resulting longitudinal vibration of the bar.
8.4 A uniform bar of length L is fixed at one end and the free end is stretched uniformly
to Lo and released at t = 0. Find the resulting longitudinal vibration.
8.5 A uniform bar of length L is free at one end and is forced to follow a sinusoidal
movement U0 sin wt at the other end. Find the steady state vibration.
8.6 List the boundary conditions for the two cantilevers as shown in Fig. 8.15.
x
L
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.15
8.7 Find the frequency equation of a beam with both ends free and having transverse
vibration.
8.8 Show that the normal functions are orthogonal for the beam shown in Fig. 8.14.
8.9 A uniform circular shaft of effective length L carries at its ends two rotors of mass
moments of inertia of Ii and 12 rigidly attached to the shaft. Derive the frequency
equation for the torsional vibration of the shaft.
8.10 A pulley of mass moment of inertia I is rigidly attached to the free end of a uniform
shaft of length L. Find the frequency equation for torsional vibration.
8.11 An external torque To sin wt is applied to the free end of a uniform shaft of length L.
Find the steady state vibration of the shaft.
8.12 A uniform circular shaft of length / is fixed at the two ends. At its middle point, a
torque To is applied which twists it by 00 radians at the middle point. If the torque is
released suddenly, find the subsequent motion.
Sound Level and Subjective
Response to Sound
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Sound may be described as a disturbance that propagates through a physical (elastic) medium.
It may be interesting to note that unlike light, which propagates in the form of transverse
waves consisting of crests and troughs, the sound propagates as longitudinal waves in which
the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation. A wave motion
provides a mechanism for the transfer of energy and momentum from one point to the other,
without involving any physical transport of matter. Waves (inclusive of sound wave) that are
propagated through elastic medium, are called mechanical waves.
Sound is created by a vibrating object. Whenever a portion of a deformable medium is
disturbed from its normal position by a vibrating object, the molecules transmitting the wave
oscillates back and forth about its equilibrium position in the direction of propagation of the
wave. This leads to production of alternate regions of compression and rarefaction similar to
those produced by longitudinal waves in a bar. Technically, sound is a pressure oscillation in
the air which radiates away from the source. Zones of compression and rarefaction radiate
outward or away from the sound source. The elastic properties associated with the medium
enables transmission of disturbance from one portion to the other. When these waves impinge
on ear-drum, the same is set in vibration. The resulting physiological response/sensation in the
human auditory system is described as sound. The sound pressure is, therefore, the incremental
variation about the ambient atmospheric pressure.
The wavelength A, of a sound wave is defined as the distance between like points on two
successive waves. Stated in other words, it is the distance between two successive compressions
or two successive rarefactions. Since a compression, travelling with a uniform velocity v,
moves through a distance of one wavelength in the time period T, we have
v
2=-v= vT m (9.1)
f
310
Sound Level and Subjective Response to Sound 311
where the velocity v of sound is the characteristic of the medium through which sound
propagates. The speed of sound in air is given by
v = YPo m/s (9.2)

p
Specific heat at constant pressure
where Y — Specific heat at constant volume
Po = Ambient or equilibrium pressure
and p = Ambient or equilibrium density
When air is the medium of propagation, within the range of conditions of interest, y is taken as
1.4. The Eq. (9.2) then becomes
1.4po
v= m/s (9.3)
p
9.2 SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TO SOUND

Subjective response is a response which is primarily measured by direct human opinion, rather
than the objective physical evidence. On the other hand, acoustical characteristics of speech-
sounds as well as those of music and noise may be measured with considerable precision by use
of standard acoustical instruments including microphones, frequency analysers, oscilloscopes,
sound level meters. Sound pressure level (S.P.L.), octave band measurements, etc. constitute
the objective responses. The result of such measurements may be expressed in terms of precise
physical parameters such as frequency, power, pressure level, time duration, etc. These
measures of sound-characteristics, however, do not give much indications of how a human
being would respond to the noise source as our perception of the noise source characteristics is
a subjective phenomenon. The subjective response is a key factor in noise-control, because all
the complaints are expected from human beings who may be subjected to threats of loss of
sleep/psychological disturbances, loss of work efficiency or loss of hearing capacity.
A sound wave is characterized by its pitch, loudness and tone quality. The objective
sound characteristics of amplitude of pressure and intensity is known to produce a sensation of
loudness, while pitch is the physical response to the frequency. The spectral distribution of
acoustic energy is known to produce a subjective response of quality of sound. Since sound
produced by a vibrating body is an auditory sensation, the above characteristics cannot be
measured objectively through instrumentation. These subjective and objective characteristics
are, however, related in some way. The pitch of the sound wave is primarily a function of
frequency but depends, to certain extent, on intensity and waveform also. In general, pitch of
a sound wave increases with increasing frequency and decreases with decreasing frequency.
Similarly, loudness depends primarily on the sound intensity, the relationship is, however,
nearly logarithmic. In general, loudness increases with increasing intensity. Besides intensity,
the loudness is also governed by frequency. The tone quality changes as the complexity of the
waveform increases. A sound of single frequency (e.g. a whine or squeal) is called a pure
tone. Pressure wave generated by the movement of a diaphragm is in the form of a sine wave
and this simple sound is called pure tone.
While dealing with human response to a sound, it is inconvenient to ask people their
opinion everytime we are required to judge the acceptability of a sound. Since people are
different, we can never rely on a few opinions on noisiness in order to judge its acceptability.
For instance, people may have acute hearing or simply be biased. It is not practical either to
evaluate acceptability of each noise source—mobile or stationary.
To answer the question as to whether or not each physically measured sound exposure is
acceptable, psycho-acoustic experiments as also social surveys have to be conducted. The
psycho-acoustic experiments are conducted in laboratory, while the social surveys are carried
out in real life. Both the activities are aimed at finding out what characteristics of sounds
promote the various subjective response and try to relate them quantitatively. In effect, the
efforts are directed to seek relationships between physical stimuli and our subjective response
to them. For this purpose, a carefully chosen groups of people are deployed so that the
relationship they report are representative of the way, public at large would react.
9.3 FREQUENCY DEPENDENT HUMAN RESPONSE TO SOUND
The frequency f of an oscillating disturbance is equal to the number of times every second the
disturbance passes from one extreme position to other and back to original position. The
number of cycles per second is called Hertz. The frequency of a simple pure tone sound wave
is called pitch of the tone.
The audible frequency range: Acoustic energy associated with frequencies above 20 kHz is
inaudible to a human being. The sound at frequencies above 20 kHz is, therefore, called
ultrasonic sound. The sound in the frequency range 15,000 Hz to 20,000 Hz may be audible
to those people having acute (sharp) hearing. For older people, sound at frequencies above
15,000 Hz is generally not audible. Examples of common sources which emit ultrasonic sound
in addition to audible sound are jet engines, high speed dental drills, spinning machines,
ultrasonic cleaners and mixers. In addition to ultrasonic sounds, these sources may also emit
audible sound. Ultrasonic waves have been used to detect voids, cracks and discontinuities in
various structures and machine members.
On the lower frequency side, the audible frequency range extends up to 15 Hz. Sounds at
frequency lower than 15 Hz cannot be heard, but can be felt only if they are sufficiently strong.
Such sounds are called infrasonic sound. Infrasonic sound occurs both naturally and
artificially in many guises. Naturally occurring infrasound may be produced by winds, thunder
storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, sea waves and many other sources. Examples of
infrasound of artificial origin can be seen in offices. Air conditioners, ventilation systems, oil
burning furnaces, pumps, motor vehicles, helicopters, gas turbines, rocket motors and large
reciprocating engines are the known sources of infra sound. Since the levels of the infra sounds
of artificial origin are far in excess of the levels of natural sources, man made infrasound poses
greater potential threat in respect of noise pollution.
Frequency based hearing sensitivity: Human auditory system is not equally sensitive at all
frequencies in the audible range. The sensitivity is quite good in the frequency range
1000 Hz to 4000 Hz. The sensitivity is maximum precisely in the vicinity of frequency of
3000 Hz for people with normal hearing capacity. Measurements through experimental probes
inserted into the auditory canal and connected to a microphone confirm the fact that resonance
does occur at about 3000 Hz frequency. Measurement under the resonant conditions indicate
that the acoustic pressure level at the drum is about 10 dB higher than that at the entrance to
the canal. Resonance curve being quite broad, significant gains in pressure are indicated over
a frequency range 2000-6000 Hz. However, contribution of other factors in increased
sensitivity in this frequency range could be more important. Table 9.1 demonstrates frequency
range of several sources of sound. In the field of industrial noise control, we are primarily
interested in the range of frequencies from about 63 Hz to 16000 Hz; the obvious reason being
that the sensitivity of human ear is greatly reduced below 63 Hz and above 16000 Hz
compared to its peak sensitivity.
TABLE 9.1 Approximate frequency range of a few sound sources
Source of sound Fundamental frequency range Harmonic range

Female voice 180-12000 Hz —
Male voice 95-9200 Hz —
Flute 280-2000 Hz 2000-16000 Hz
Violin 200-4000 Hz 4000-11000 Hz
Organ 20-8000 Hz 8000-16000 Hz
Piano 30-4186 Hz 4000-16000 Hz
Threshold of hearing: When there is no ambient sound in a room, the lowest sound intensity
that can be barely detected at any particular frequency is known as the threshold of hearing or
threshold of audibility at that frequency. Threshold of hearing is, thus, a measure to asses the
sensitivity of ear of an individual. Threshold of hearing varies from frequency to frequency.
Also, threshold of hearing at a given frequency varies from person to person, even if they are
considered to have normal hearing. The threshold of hearing also depends on age of the
listener and a progressive loss in the sensitivity at higher frequencies is a common observation
with increasing age.
Frequency range for human voice: Human voice spreads over frequency range of 80 to
8000 Hz. Human voice of frequency greater than 8000 Hz and smaller than 80 Hz is not
common in practice. Therefore, any loss of hearing capacity (threshold shift) of an individual
in the frequency range 15 to 80 Hz and 8000 to 16,000 Hz cannot be detected during human
conversation.
9.4 SOUND-PRESSURE DEPENDENT HUMAN RESPONSE

From a practical viewpoint, sound may be defined as a fluctuation in pressure in an elastic
medium. However, actual sound pressure may be so small that the sound cannot be heard until
the sound-pressure is raised to a required level. The minimum audible sound pressure for an adult
with normal hearing capacity in the region of maximum sensitivity is 2 x 10-5 Pascals (N/m2).
Loudness of the sound increases if at a given frequency, sound pressure is increased. When the
sound pressure is increased to 20 N/m2, the sound is so great that it can be felt. This is called
threshold of feeling. As against this, there is a sensation of pain when the sound pressure rises
to 200 N/m2. The sound pressure corresponding to threshold of hearing at 1000 Hz frequency
is called zero level sound pressure. Thus, the absolute sound pressure of 2 x 10-5, which
corresponds to threshold of hearing, is taken to be the reference pressure.
9.5 THE DECIBEL SCALE

The range of audible sound-pressures to which the human ear is likely to be subjected, is from
0.00002 to 200 N/m2. Similarly, the sound intensities associated with the acoustic environment
(e.g. audible sound intensities) range from 10-12 (at threshold of hearing) to 10 W/m2. In view
of very wide range of sound pressures and intensities, it is customary to describe these
quantities through the use of logarithmic scales known as sound levels. An obvious advantage
of using logarithmic scale is that we are saved from dealing in enormous numbers which might
be difficult to manipulate. Another advantage is that the human ear subjectively judges the
relative loudness of two sounds by the ratio of their intensities, which is a logarithmic
behaviour.
The 'decibel scale' was originally used by electrical engineers for use in the field of
telecommunication. The 'bel' in electrical measurement, represents a ratio ten to one. The
scale was chosen to compress a scale of enormous numbers. Mathematically, the 'bel' of a
quantity 'A' relative to the reference quantity 'Ao' is defined as
Bel = log10
S AO r
r
Similarly, the decibel of a quantity A relative to Ao is defined as
A
Decibel = 10 log10 — dB.re.A0 (9.4)
Ao j
Readers may recall that for common logarithm,
if x = 10m, then M = log 10(x) (9.5)
Thus
log 10 10 = 1.0, log10 100 = 2.0 and log 10 1000 = 3.0
Thus, a quantity A that is 100 times larger than A0 has a decibel level of 20 and a
quantity A that is 1000 times larger than A0 has a decibel level of 30.
Since the decibel is logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the quantity (say A) in
question to an arbitrarily chosen reference quantity, the argument of the logarithm (i.e. A/AO
is dimensionless. Therefore, the designation in decibels is referred to as the level of the
quantity referenced to the chosen or reference quantity as expressed in Eq. (9.4).
Sound power level: The term sound power level implies the acoustic power radiated by a
given sound source with respect to the international reference of 10-12 W. The sound power
level L is defined as
LW = 10 logi0 (W/W„) dB.re.W0 (9.6)
where W = sound power of the given source
and Wre = 10-12 W (reference power)
Sound intensity level (SIL): The sound intensity at a given point in a sound field, in a
given direction, is defined as the average sound power passing through an area of 1 m2
perpendicular to the given direction at that point. The sound intensity for a plane and spherical
sound wave, propagating in a free field (i.e. a field free from reflections of sound waves),
along the direction of wave propagation is given by
2
/ = IL_ (9.7)
pv
where p is the r.m.s sound pressure in N/m2

p is the density of the medium under constant equilibrium condition in kg/m3
and v is the velocity of the sound in the medium in m/s
The product pv is defined as the characteristic impedance of the medium. At a temperature of
20°C and the standard atmospheric pressure, the characteristic impedence of air is given by
pv = (1.21 kg/m3)(343 m/s) = 415 kg/m2 (9.8)
The decibel for sound intensity level (SIL) is defined as
r
= 10 log10 dB.re.I ref (9.9)
/ref
where I is the sound intensity in W/m2

and Iref is reference sound intensity, the usual value being 10-12 W/m2.
When referred to this scale, the threshold of hearing occurs at I = -ref
I = 10-12 W/m2 or at
r
= 10 log10 10 log10 1.0 = 0 dB
ref j
Similarly, the threshold of pain occurs at I = 1 W/m2 or at

r
1.0
Li = 10 1og 10 10 logi0( — 10 logi0 (1012 ) = 120 dB
/ref j j
Sound pressure level (SPL): This is the most common decibel scale used and is measured
directly on sound level meter. However, these meters read a time averaged pressure, i.e. the
root mean square pressure. Readers may recall that the root mean square pressure is given in
terms of the maximum pressure as Prms = j. As the intensity of sound is proportional to

the square of maximum sound pressure in N/m2, the sound pressure level is given by
( 2
L = 10 log10 „2
20 log10 dB .re.p re f (9.10)
P ref Pref
where the pressures p and Pref are the r.m.s. pressures in N/m2 and Pref = 2 x 10-5 N/m2.
In order to help readers develop an idea as to what is physically implied by a given sound
pressure level, typical values of sound pressure level of some of the common sounds are given
in Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 Sound pressure levels of representative sounds
Source of sound SPL (dB)
Large rocket engine (nearby) 180

Jet takeoff (nearby) 150
Jet aircraft and artillery fire 140
Pneumatic riveter, machine gun 130
Rock concert with amplifiers (2 m), jet takeoff (60 m) 120
Metal-biting (metal-to-metal contact) 110-114
Near elevated train, punch press 110
Heavy machine factory, automatic lathe 100
Combustion noise, furnace flares 87-120
Boiler shop, machine shop 95-118
Metal cutting jigsaw 102-104
Heavy truck (15 m ) 90
Concrete mixers, mobile compressor 73-75
Quiet factory and noisy office 70
Normal conversation (1 m) 60
Quiet office 50
Library 40
Soft whisper (5 m) 30
Rustling leaves 20
Normal breathing 10
9.6 RELATIONSHIP AMONG SOUND POWER, SOUND INTENSITY

AND SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL
9.6.1 Relation between Sound Power Level and Sound Intensity Level
Assume the sound source to be a point source and periodic sound waves to be propagating
from it in the form of spherical waves. Let I be the intensity of sound at a distance of r from
the source. The sound energy can be assumed to spread out equally in all directions and
considered to be distributed uniformly over a sphere of radius r and surface area s = 47cr2.
Thus, the intensity at a distance of r from a point source of power W watts is given by
W
7= 2 (9.11)
4gr
This is known as inverse square law, which states that the intensity of sound is inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from the source.
r
L,„ = 10 log 10 dB
Wref
Substituting W = SI and Wref = Sreflref in the expression of 4, above, we get
SI
LW = 10 log10
Sref / ref
( (
or LW = 10 log10 +10 log10
/ref j Sref
Taking reference as the surface area Sref of the imaginary sphere as 1 m2, readers may
verify that the first term on the right hand side is the sound intensity level L,. Hence, the above
expression may be rewritten as
L,„ = L, + 10 log10 S (9.12)
where S = 47cr2
Above expression helps us in finding out the sound intensity level at a distance of r from
the source of sound of known sound power level 4, and conversely, if the sound intensity
level L, is established by measurement at a distance of r from the source, the sound power level
of the source of sound can be estimated.
9.6.2 Relation between Sound Intensity Level and Sound Pressure Level
For a free progressive sound wave, the relation between the sound intensity I, maximum
pressure amplitude p in N/m2, the average density of air p (which is approximately equal to
1.20 kg/m3 at 20°C) and the velocity of wave propagation v is given by Eq. (9.7) as
/ = 1; 2
pv
Substituting for I from Eq. (9.7) in Eq. (9.9) we have

2 ( 2
Prms
Li = 10 log10 = 10 log10
2/,v/ref. pvI ref
This expression may be rewritten as
2 1[ (pref )2
Li =10 log10 [ prm, rms
(Pref )rms
2 PVIref
Taking (n ref)rms = 2 x 10-5 N/m2, the first term on the R.H.S. of the above expression
represents L.
Also taking /ref = 10-12 W/m2 and from Eq. (9.7),
pv = 415 kg/m2-s
The second term in the above expression is, therefore

s2
[ (2x10-)
10 logio , = 10 logio(400 = — 0.16
415 x 10-' ` 415
Therefore L1 = Lr - 0.16 (9.13)

Therefore, for all practical purposes, the sound pressure level is taken to be numerically
equal to the sound intensity level.
9.7 SUMMATION OF PURE TONES
The pressure variation in each of the two harmonic waves (pure tones) at a given location is
mathematically expressed as
pi = P1 sin (w1 t + 01 ) and p2 = P2 sin (colt + 02) (9.14)
where P1 and P2 are the peak amplitudes of pressure of the two pure tones and w1 and m2 are
the respective angular frequencies. Provided col # m2, the superposition of the two waves of
different amplitudes and phase angles is given by
r
131 + P2
(P2 )avg = (9.15)
\ s j
But, by definition (P1 /j)2 and (P2/j)2 are the mean square values of the respective
pressure waves. Therefore
(Pavg)2 = vpi).]2 [(192)rmsf (9.16)
Taking square root on either side, we get
Prins = V[(POrmsi 2 + [(P2)rms] 2 (9.17)
where A rms represents the r.m.s. pressure of the resultant wave. This equation assumes great
importance for us as, in sound measurement, the sound level meter measures the amplitude of
the r.m.s. pressure.
To understand the importance of Eq. (9.17), assume that two different sources produce
pure tone harmonic waves of r.m.s. sound pressure level of 70 dB each. With both the sound
sources operating simultaneously, the resultant sound pressure level will not be the simple
addition of the two sound levels. In fact, a close look at Eq. (9.17) shows that the resultant
sound pressure level on decibel scale of two or more sound pressure levels, cannot be obtained
by simple addition of individual sound pressure levels. To appreciate this, let us proceed as
under:
Dividing on both the sides of Eq. (9.16) by (p„f)2, we have
(Pavg)2 = [(P1)rms12 [(P2)rms12

(9.18)
(Pref)2 (Pref)2 (Pref)2
Also, 70 = 10 log10 (pilp2„f) for the first sound source
and 70 = 10 log10 (p2lp2„f) for the second sound source
where p1 and p2 are the r.m.s. sound pressures for the two waves
Taking the antilog on both sides of each equation, we get
2
70) • (10)70/10
P12 = antilog — for the first source
Pref 10
2
P2 70)
and 2 = antilog — • (10)70/10 for the second source
Pref 10
Substituting these values, the R.H.S. of Eq. (9.18) adds up to 2 x 107. Thus, by taking
common logarithm and multiplying by 10, the quantities on either side of Eq. (9.18), we have
Lr = 10 logic [ (Pavg) 2 1=10 log io (2 x107 )=10 x 7.301

2
(Pref)
Thus LP = 73.01 dB
EXAMPLE 9.1 Show that as the distance from a point source doubles, the sound intensity
level decreases by 6 dB.
(SGSITS: June 1998, June 2005, Nov. 2003)
Solution
Consider a point source of sound of given sound power level, from which sound propagates in
the form of spherical waves. Let L1 and L be the sound intensity levels at the distances of r and
2r respectively.
The surface area of the spherical wave at the distance of r from the source is
S = 47cr2
Also, the surface area of the spherical wave at the distance of 2r from the sources is
S = 470202 = 167cr2
The equation giving sound power level 4, in terms of SIL is
LW = L1 + 10 logS
This equation may be rewritten for distances r and 2r from the same source, as under:
LW = L1 + 10 log (47cr2)
LW = + 10 log (167cr2)
Comparing the right hand side of these equations, we get

L1 + 10 log (47cr2) = /.4 + 10 log (167cr2)
Thus, by transposition of terms

L1 — = 10 log (167cr2) — 10 log (47cr2)
2
16gr
or Li — 10 log — 6.02 dB Ans.
47zr2
EXAMPLE 9.2 At a distance of 4 m from a point source, the sound pressure level is 92 dB.
Assuming a free progressive spherical wave and standard atmospheric conditions, calculate the
sound power level of the source.
Solution
The sound power level is expressed in terms of SIL as
L,„ = L1 + 10 log S
where at a radius of 4 m, the spherical surface area is
S = 47c • 42 = 647c m2
Also, for the given location from the same power source
L1 =Lr = 92dB
Therefore Lw = 92 + 10 log (64 7r) = 92 + 10(2.303)
Hence L,„ = 115.3 dB Ans.
9.8 DECIBEL ADDITION, SUBTRACTION AND AVERAGING

The solution of industrial noise problems generally requires that pressures and powers be
manipulated by means of decibel additions and subtractions. Sometimes, the sound pressure
levels are averaged, again in decibels, in the calculation of source directivity. It is a rare
experience that the noise in a workplace could be attributed to a single sound source. Besides,
a background noise or ambient noise level is always present. Also, many times, the sound
pressure levels from a single source are measured in various frequency bands. Principle of
decibel addition enables us to estimate overall sound pressure level based on SPL in individual
frequency bands. In the discussions to follow, it is assumed that the various signals are
coherent, i.e. the frequency distributions of the signals are not dependent upon each other,
which is usually true. Also, the phase difference between the various signals have been
ignored.
Let 41 , 42, 43, Lp4, etc. be the sound pressure levels to be added. Then, by definition
2 ( 2
L 1 = 10 log PI dB, Lp2 = 10 log P2
, Lp3 = 10 log P3
Pref ) Pref Pref
r
and Lp4 = 10 log
p4
Pref
The square of the pressure ratios in each of the expressions above for Lp, is given by
( \2 ( \2
PI (Lpi P2 ( Lp2
= antilog = antilog
\ Pref \ 10 \ pref 10
( \2 ( \2 /L4\
P3 ( L p3 \ P4
= antilog and = antilog
\ Pref ,/ \ 10 / \ Pref ,/ 10
If Lp is the overall sound pressure level and p be the overall r.m.s. pressure, then from
Eq. (9.18),
r 2 2
P2 + P3 P4
Pref \Pref Pref ) Pref ) \Pref
which implies that
(L
/ L 3" (
/ L p, ( L p2 L p4 \
antilog = antilog + antilog + antilog + antilog (9.19)
10 J 10 10 \ 10 10
Using the relation in Eq. (9.5), Eq. (9.19) may, therefore, be rewritten as
10LP"0 = 10LPI" 0 + 10LP2"° + 10LP3"° + 10LP4/1° (9.20)
Decibel subtraction and background noise: In quite a few cases, it becomes desirable to
subtract an ambient or background sound pressure level from a total measured value of sound
level. This enables one to ascertain the SPL produced by a sound source. Procedure of decibel
subtraction can be established on lines similar to that for decibel addition.
Let Lp1 and Lp2 be the two sound pressure levels under consideration for decibel
subtraction and let the resultant SPL be given as Lp. Let these SPLs be expressed as
( (
Lp1 =10 log Pi , Lp2 = 10 log P2 and L = 10 log
Pref Pref ) \Pref
Treating Lp2 as the ambient or the background noise level and Lp1 as the total sound level
measured, the SPL Lp representing decibel subtraction is given by
r r
P = PI P2
Pref Pref ) \Pref )
which may be rewritten as
/LP \ /L ( L p2
PI \
antilog = antilog — antilog
\ 10 J \ 10 J \ 10
L I10 L 1110 L 2I10
or 10 P =10 P - 10 P (9.21)
Averaging decibels: Situations do arise in practice when one has to report average decibels
at a location. For instance, the average SPL, L p, about a given source may be required for
determining directivity.
There are also situations in which one may be required to take readings of SPL at a
location several times and then consider the average value of SPL. The averaging of decibels
is carried out on lines similar to that of decibel addition.
Let Lp,(i = 1, 2, 3,..., n) be the n values of SPL measured, for which the average SPL
is required.
The addition of these SPLs is denoted by
Lp = 10 log
0 co Lpiti o dB
i=1
The average value is, therefore, obtained by dividing the sum by n, the number of such
measurements.
L /]0
Thus L p = 10 log [-
1 j (10) p` dB (9.22)
n i=i
9.9 APPROXIMATE METHOD FOR DECIBEL ADDITION

Let Lp1 and Lp2 be the sound pressure levels of sounds from two sources. The overall SPL, Lp,
is given by
1, 110 1, 1110 1, 2110
10 P = 10 P + 10 P
Further, let Lp1 > 42. Then, the above equation may be rearranged as
1, 110 1, 1110 -( LP1- )1101

10 P = 10 P [1 + 10 L P2
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get

L L
= + log [1 + 10-(LPI-Lp2)t10
10 10
Multiplying by 10, we get
Lp = Lp1 +10 log [1 + 10-(Lp1-Lp2)fl0 (9.23)
Thus, whether or not the contribution of SPL of the second source (42) is significant
depends on the difference (Lp1 - 42). The fifth column in Table 9.3 denotes decibels needed
to be added to Lp1 for getting the overall SPL. It can be seen that when the difference
(Lp1 - Lp2) > 10, the contribution of Lp2 to overall SPL is less than 0.5 dB, which is
insignificant.
TABLE 9.3 Addition of sound levels (approximate method)
Duff in SPL 11(10)"' n = 10 log[ 1 + 11(10)"'] Lp = LLB + n Addition to

(Lpi - Lp2) higher SPL = n
0 1.0 10 log 2.0 Lp1 + 3.0 3.0
1 0.794 10 log 1.794 Lp1 + 2.54 2.5
2 0.631 10 log 1.631 Lp1 + 2.1 2.0
3 0.5 10 log 1.5 Lp1 + 1.76 2.0
4 0.398 10 log 1.398 Lp1 + 1.455 1.5
5 0.316 10 log 1.316 Lp1 + 1.19 1.0
6 0.25 10 log 1.25 Lp1 + 0.97 1.0
7 0.1995 10 log 1.1995 Lp1 + 0.79 1.0
8 0.1585 10 log 1.1585 Lp1 + 0.64 0.5
9 0.126 10 log 1.126 Lp1 + 0.515 0.5
10 0.1 10 log 1.1 Lp1 + 0.4 0.5
An interesting case arises when (Lp1 - Lp2) = 0, which implies that Lp1 = 42. Here
m = 0 and n = log 2.0 a 3.0 dB, which means that when two sound sources of equal SPL
operate simultaneously, the overall SPL is 3 dB higher than the individual SPL.
EXAMPLE 9.3 If three sound sources of SPL 90, 92 and 88 operate simultaneously,
determine the total sound pressure level by exact and approximate method.
Solution
The three given sound pressure levels are:
Lp1 = 90 dB, Lp2 = 92 dB and Lp3 = 88 dB
Exact method:
The resultant SPL is given by
L 110
L = 10 log [1,10 dB
i=1
Now
10 log DO L 10 log (109m + 109'2 + 108'8) = 10 log (3.21585 x 109 )

i=i
or Lr = 95 dB Ans.
Approximate method:
The difference between the two lower sound pressure levels is 90 - 88 = 2 dB.
From Table 9.3, for this difference of SPL, the decibels to be added to 90 dB is 2. Hence,
their decibel addition is 90 + 2 = 92 dB. This SPL and the highest SPL of 92 are equal. The
difference being zero, the decibel addition from Table 9.3 is 92 + 3 = 95 dB. Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.4 An operator in a textile mill is operating five machines. The sound pressure
levels of the machines at his position are 95, 90, 92, 88, and 82 dB respectively.
(a) What is the total SPL at his position due to all the five machines?
(b) What would be the total SPL if the sound pressure levels were 91 dB, 86 dB, 83 dB,
80 dB and 87 dB?
Solution
(a) The five given sound pressure levels are 95, 90, 92, 88 and 82 dB.
The total SPL is given by
Lr = 10 log (109'5 + 109.0 + 109.2 + 108.8 + 1 08.2)
or Lp = 10 log (6.5366 x 109) = 98 dB Ans.
(b) In this case, the SPLs are 91, 86, 83, 80 and 87 dB.
The total SPL is given by
Lr = 10 log (1091 + 108.6 + 108.3 + 108.0 + 10 8.7)
or Lr = 10 log (2.4577 x 109) = 94 dB Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.5 In the Example 9.4, determine the SPL at the operator's position in part
(a) if (i) machine 1 is turned off and (ii) machines 2 and 3 are turned off.
Solution
(i) When the machine 1 of SPL 95 is turned off, the total SPL is given by
Lr = 10 log (109.0 + 109.2 + 108.8 + 108.2)
or Lr = 10 log (3.3743 x 109) = 95.3 dB Ans.
(ii) When the machines 2 and 3 are turned off, the total SPL is given by
Lr = 10 log (109'5 + 108.8 + 108.2)
or Lr = 10 log (3.9517 x 109) = 96 dB Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.6 When operating independently in the presence of background noise,

measurements at a given location of the SPL for machines 1, 2 and 3 are respectively 88 dB,
90 dB and 87 dB. When the machines are turned off, the sound pressure level at the same point
is 86 dB. Determine the overall SPL of the three machines independent of the background
noise.
Solution
The SPLs of the three machines independent of background noise are:
For machine 1: Lp1 = 10 log (108'8 — 108'6) = 83.67 dB
For machine 2: 42 = 10 log (109'0 — 108'6) = 87.8 dB
For machine 3: 43 = 10 log (108'7 — 108'6) = 80.13 dB
The overall SPL of the three machines independent of the background noise, based on above
values, is calculated as under:
Lr = 10 log (108.367 + 108.78 + 108.013) = 89.7 dB Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.7 Determine the average sound pressure level of the following set of measured
values:
Lpi = 94 dB, Lp2 = 90 dB, Lp3 = 99 dB, Lp4 = 89 dB
Solution
The average SPL using Eq. (9.22) is
L =10 log [— 101'ln /10 dB

n
Thus, in the present case, we have
E = 10 log [I (109'4 + io9.° + io9.9 +1o8.9 )] = 94.86 dB Ans.

4
EXAMPLE 9.8 An octave band analysis was done on an automatic wood lathe in operation.
It was found that the octave band sound pressure levels were 93 dB at 250 Hz, 94 dB at
500 Hz, 96 dB at 1000 Hz, 96 dB at 2000 Hz, 94 dB at 4000 Hz and 93 dB at 8000 Hz. What
is the total mean square pressure?
Solution
Sound at each octave-band may be considered to be originating from independent sound
source. The overall SPL may be determined using the relation
Lp = 10 log [i (10)LPI /I° idB

,=1
Thus Lp = 10 log (109'3 + 109'4 + 109'6 + 109'6 + 109'4 + 109.3)

Therefore, simplification gives
Lp = 10 log (1.69764409 x 101°) = 102.3 dB
By the definition of the SPL, from Eq. (9.10), we have
(
L = 102.3 =10 log
x 10-5 ,
Therefore p 2 = (2 x 10-5)2 antilog 10.23 = (2 x 10-5)2 (1010.23)
Hence p = (2 X 10-5)(1.698243652 x 1010 ) = 2.606 N/m2 Ans.
9.10 SOUND SPECTRA

A single signal (periodic) when resolved into frequency components is called the spectrum of
the signal.
The acoustical spectra plot is a graphical display of the frequency characteristics of

sound. It reveals the distribution of energy, from a source, as a function of frequencies. For
this purpose, the relative sound intensity or p2 is plotted along the ordinate and the frequency
w is plotted along the abscissa. Readers may refer to the Section 1.7 where it was shown as to
how two coherent harmonic (pure tone) waves produce a periodic wave by superposition. This
information may also be displayed by means of a spectrum plot as shown in Fig. 9.1. A
complex sound consists of a number of pure tones of different frequencies. The plot of
P;2.tvg
w 2w
Frequency Hz
Fig. 9.1 A typical spectrum plot.
acoustic spectra is established by plotting mean square pressure values of component tones
against corresponding frequencies plotted along abscissa. If the complex (mixed tone) sound
has component pure tones of frequencies col , m2 and co3, their spectrum plot is as shown in
Fig. 9.1. A source of sound waves generally vibrate with many frequencies. This includes
musical instruments too. The lowest frequency component is known as the fundamental
frequency, whereas the higher frequency components are called overtones. The sounds from
musical instrument generally consist of a base (or fundamental) note upon which is
superimposed a series of higher harmonics having frequencies which are the multiples of the
fundamental frequency. Noise from certain class of machines such as gearboxes is of similar
nature, though usually much richer in higher harmonics. Sound sources like gas burners and jet
engines produce a total sound that includes a random and variable mixture of many
frequencies. Such sounds are called noise. When the sound energy is uniformly spread over a
range of frequencies, such noise is called white noise by analogy with 'white light'. It follows,
therefore, that the character of noise is determined partly (and to a large extent of course) by
the spectrum noise energy as a function of frequency.
9.11 TYPES OF SOUND FIELDS

Sound fields may be of three types: the near field, far field and diffuse field. The region in
which the sound source cannot be treated as a point source emitting acoustic energy and the
inverse square law is not applicable is called near field. Generally, this region is located within
a few wavelengths of the source or within a few diameters of the source, whichever is larger.
The far field surrounds the near field such that the inverse square law is applicable.
Diffuse sound field is formed by multiple reflections from obstacles or barriers. The
acoustic energy per unit volume in diffuse sound field is constant throughout. Diffuse fields
are most commonly encountered in enclosed situations, while far fields are more likely to be
encountered in outdoor situations.
9.12 OCTAVE BAND ANALYSIS

Energy in a narrow frequency band is often isolated from adjacent bands using electrical filter
networks in the sound measuring instruments, so as to construct the spectrum plots as above.
The filters used for this purpose are generally of three types:
1. Narrow band filters, used for the construction of fine detail in the spectrums
2. One-third octave filters, used for a coarser but quicker measurements
3. One-octave filters for even coarser but more rapid measurements
In the solution of most of the real-life noise problems, the coarser measurements are
considered quite adequate for the given purpose. One-third octave band is considered best for
all sounds except those sounds which have their energy fairly evenly distributed (i.e. which
have flat frequency spectra) across the frequency bands. In order to establish the distribution of
energy, as a function of frequency, the measuring instruments help in filtering electronically,
the acoustic energy or equivalent mean square pressures into contiguous frequency bands. For
each frequency band, the overall sound pressure level of the filtered sound within the band is
measured. This overall SPL of the band is then plotted against the centre frequency fc of the
band in question. The word octave appears to be borrowed from musical notation. For the
difference, however, the acousticians are usually interested in using the term octave only as a
frequency ratio and not as a series of eight intervals.
An octave band is defined as a range of frequencies in which the highest frequency within
the range is twice the lowest frequency within the range. The readers may refer to the
Table 9.4 which lists the lower and upper cut-off frequencies L as also the centre frequency
fc of all the octave bands. Although audible frequency range extends between 15 to 15,000 Hz,
in practice sounds with frequency greater than 8000 Hz are not commonly encountered and are
not likely to give rise to complaints. For noise analysis, fixed octave bands have been
internationally agreed upon and are centred on 31.5 Hz frequency.
Since a logarithmic scale is conventionally used in sound measurement, the average or
centre frequency fc for a given frequency range is defined to be the arithmetic mean of fE, and
fi of the range on logarithmic scale. Thus, for one-octave band
fu = 2.f1 (9.24)
Since fc is the arithmetic mean of fE, and fi on logarithmic scale, we have
log f. = —
1 (log fu + log fi) (9.25)
2
or log ff.= log (fu fi) 1/2 (9.26)
TABLE 9.4 The centre, lower cut-off and upper cut-off frequencies of all the octave bands
One-third octave bands One-octave bands

f f f, f f f,
12.5 11 14
16 14 18 16 11 22
20 18 22
25 22 28
31.5 28 36 31.5 22 44
40 36 45
50 45 56
63 56 71 63 44 88
80 71 89
100 89 112
125 112 141 125 88 177
160 141 178
200 178 224
250 224 282 250 177 355
315 282 355
400 355 447
500 447 562 500 355 710
630 562 708
800 708 891
1000 891 1120 1000 710 1420
1250 1120 1410
1600 1410 1780
2000 1780 2240 2000 1420 2840
2500 2240 2820
3150 2820 3550
4000 3550 4470 4000 2840 5680
5000 4470 5620
6300 5620 7080
8000 7080 8910 8000 5680 11360
10,000 8910 11,220
12,500 11,220 14,130
16,000 14,130 17,780 16,000 11,360 22,720
20,000 17,780 22,390
Therefore, taking antilog,
f= \ILA (9.27)
or, from Eq. (9.24), f= Vifi (9.28)
Starting with the centre frequency of 31.5 Hz or even with the internationally accepted
standard centre frequency of 1000 Hz and using the relations in Eqs. (9.24) and (9.27), the
octave band frequencies are established as shown in Table 9.4.
In general, the upper frequency fu and lower frequency fi are related as
fu = 2mfi (9.29)
where m = 1, for one octave band

1
= — , for one-half octave band
2'
1
and = for one-third octave band
3
In this case, the expression for centre frequency f in Eq. (9.28) modifies to
fL = 2m12 f
1 (9.30)
The bandwidth for an m-octave band is, therefore, given by
B= - (2' - 1) fi (9.31)
Since fi = 2-m/2 f and fu = 2' = 2m/2 f,
we have B = fu - fi = (2m/2 - 2-m12y, Pfc (9.32)
where 13 = 0.707 for one octave band

= 0.384 for one-half octave band
= 0.231 for one-third octave band
All these bands (one-half, one-third and one octave) are, therefore, called constant
percentage frequency bands. In the case of one-half octave band analyser, twice as many data
points are available over the one-octave band analyser. In a similar way, with one-third octave
band analyser, we have three times as many data points and, therefore, a finer filtering process
of the sound is possible.
9.13 ANATOMY OF HUMAN EAR
Anatomy of human ear is a key to understand the subjective response. The human ear is as
complicated as the eye is. It is the transducer that enables the man to sense the sound waves
and thus hear. But, this is not all. The semicircular canals of the internal ear plays important
part in the maintenance of balance. The main components of the human ear and the hearing
mechanism are depicted in Fig. 9.2. The human ear is commonly divided into three main
components—the external ear, the middle ear and the internal ear.
External ear: The external ear has three parts pinna, auditory canal (auditory meatus) and
the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The pinna (or auricle) projects from the side of the head
and consists of a thin piece of elastic fibro-cartilage, covered with skin. The pinna acts as a
horn to receive sound waves and funnel them towards the auditory canal. However, the size of
this visible portion of the ear is small compared to the primary wavelengths that we hear and,
therefore, serves to enhance the reception of sound received from the front side but not from
the rear side. The auditory canal is a tubular passage of about 2.5 cm long and 5-7 mm in
diameter which is closed at its inner end by a stretched membrane. This forms a resonant
cavity at about 3 k-Hz which increases the sensitivity of the ear around this frequency. The
eardrum is a very shallow cone of about 7 mm in diameter with its apex directed inwards.
Semi circular canals

Ossicles
Vestibule of inner ear
Pinna
Drum
membrane
Auditory nerve
Cochlea
Auditory Eustachian tube

d
canal Middle
ear
(a)
Reissner's membrane
Tectorial membrane
Spiral ligament
Basilar membrane
Auditory nerve
Ossicles Oval window
Pinna Upper gallery of cochlea

IT Apex of cochlea
Auditory canal
A
V Lower gallery of cochlea
, Drum r"
membrane
Eustachian tube
(b)
Fig. 9.2 (a) The main components of human ear. (b) The hearing mechanism: the schematic
representation.
Middle ear: It is a small space within the temporal bone. The eardrum or tympanic
membrane separates it from the external ear. The middle ear consists of three tiny bones (also
called the ossicles)—hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup (stapes), which transmit the
vibrations of the tympanic membrane across the internal ear. The tympanic membrane is thin
and semi-transparent and the handle of the hammer is firmly attached to the inner surface. The
three bones in unison act like a transformer—stepping up the force and stepping down the
velocity. The footplate of the stirrup, which carries the step up force, covers an opening
known as the oval window of the inner ear. The anvil articulates with the hammer and the
stirrup.
Inner ear: The inner ear (or labyrinth) has three parts—the vestibule or entrance chamber,
the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The middle ear is connected to the vestibule through
two openings the oval window and the round window. Both these windows are sealed to
prevent any leakage of the liquid filling the inner ear, the former by the stirrup and its
supports and the latter by a thin membrane. The semicircular canals do not play any role in the
process of hearing and, therefore, need not be discussed here. Cochlea is the main component
of the inner ear where actual reception of sound takes place and is located inside the extremely
hard temporal bone. It is in the form of a spiral tube of roughly circular cross section and is
wound in the shape of a snail shell. The tube makes 23/4 turns round a central pillar bone,
which carries the nerve fibres from cochlea to brain. The cochlea tube has a total length of 3.1
cm, measured between the oval window and the apex. Its mean diameter is about 1.5 mm and
its area of cross section decreases in somewhat an irregular way from the base to the apex.
The function of the cochlea is to convert mechanical vibrations of the ossicles into neural
impulses. The cochlea tube is partitioned longitudinally into two fluid-filled channels, by
basilar membrane. This basilar membrane with its sensitive hair cells, in the lower part of the
partition and the organ of corti constitute the ultimate receptor organ. The basilar membrane is
about 3 cm long and 0.02 cm wide and has about 24,000 nerve ends terminated in hair cells
located on the membrane. The two galleries communicate only through a small opening at the
apex of the cochlea tube. The other end of the upper gallery connects with the oval window,
while the other end of the lower gallery connects with the round window.
9.14 MECHANISM OF HEARING

The vibrations of the ossicles are transmitted to the inner ear near the oval window. These
vibrations generate elastic waves through the perilymph liquid. These waves travel through
perilymph liquid via upper gallery, apex and lower gallery and finally, terminates at the round
window. The mass and stiffness of basilar membrane varies along the length of the cochlea
tube. Hence, high frequency waves produce large displacements of basilar membrane near the
oval window. As against this, the low frequency waves produce large displacement of
membrane near the apex. Thus, the cochlea acts very much like a frequency analyser and
enables the person to discriminate between tones of different frequencies.
The displacement of basilar membrane causes bending in the hair cells and the straining
of the hair cells produces electrical pulses due to piezoelectric effect. These electrical pulses are
transmitted through the nerve endings to the brain. General complaints of loss of hearing
capacity, usually, does not imply damage to eardrum or to middle ear. However, when
subjected to intense noise or blast, the eardrum can be ruptured. The components most likely
to receive injury due to intense/excessive noise is the organ of corti, its sensory hair cells and
nerve fibres attached to the basilar membrane.
Bone conduction: Conduction of sound to the inner ear by a path which involves bone of
the head is called bone conduction. The threshold of bone conduction is 60 dB higher than the
threshold of air conduction for hearing purposes. Average threshold of hearing through air is a
function of sound frequency. Average threshold of hearing in air conduction is taken to be 15
dB.
9.15 LOUDNESS
So far we have considered the measurable characteristics of sound, e.g. frequency and pressure.
These parameters are no doubt quite important, but the nature of general complaints about noise
nuisance is that 'the sound is too loud'. A sound level meter and an octave frequency analyser in
combination enable us to measure the pressure and sound frequencies. But these measurements do
not give directly the subjective evaluation of loudness. A sound which has a constant sound
pressure level can be made to appear quieter or louder by changing its frequency. Loudness is,
thus, an auditory impression of an observer about the strength of a sound. Unfortunately, no
direct relationship exists between the measured sound characteristics and the subjective
assessment of loudness or noisiness. Distinction between pleasant sound and unpleasant sound/
noise depends essentially on human reaction. The problem becomes all the more involved
because the human response may be biased because of special reference to a place, time,
psychological disposition and also because of liking or disliking for particular musical event.
The failure of sound pressure level (in decibel) to produce same subjective effect at
different frequencies becomes evident from the shape of threshold of hearing curve and equal
loudness contours shown in Fig. 9.3. As the name implies, an equal loudness contour
represents the sound pressure level required at each frequency. For this purpose, a group of
persons are asked to listen to a pure tone of, say, 40 dB SPL at 1000 Hz frequency. They are
also asked to remember carefully its loudness. The same group of individuals are then asked to
listen to another tone of frequency, say, 100 Hz and adjust the SPL of second sound so that it
120
100
90
Sound pressure level (dB re 0.0002
80
80
70
60
60
50
40
40
30
20
20
10
Threshold curve
20 60 100 1000 5000 10,000

Frequency (CPS)
Fig. 9.3 Equal loudness contours.

is as loud as the first one. In this case, the SPL of second sound will be higher than that of the
first. This SPL at 100 Hz frequency and the SPL of 40 dB at 1000 Hz frequency will be the
two points on the same equal loudness curve. The equal loudness contours of Fig. 9.3 follow
from experiments of this type performed on a group of individuals with normal hearing. Thus,
points at different frequencies on a given equal loudness contour represents SPLs required at
the corresponding frequencies to produce sound of the same loudness.
The numbers marked on each curve corresponds with the SPL of that curve at 1000 Hz
frequency. This number also represents the loudness in phons of all the points lying on this
curve at the corresponding frequencies. For instance, the equal loudness contour of 30 phons
corresponds to 30 dB SPL at 1000 Hz frequency and 50 dB SPL at 63 Hz frequency. This
goes to suggest that compared to SPL of sound at 1000 Hz frequency, in general, sounds of
higher SPLs are required at lower frequencies to produce sensation of same loudness. The
lowermost curve in the Fig. 9.3 represents a loudness level of a sound that is just audible and
is, therefore, called the threshold of hearing. Readers may verify that this loudness
corresponds to 0 dB approximately at 1000 Hz.
Sones-Phons
500 —=130
400 —E
300 7120
200 —E
150 L
110
100 =-=
80
60 zL 100
50 -
40
30 Z:_-90
20 —r
15 80
10 =*---
-. 70
5
4
3
2
1 = 40
0.5 =30
0.4 Z_E
0.3 —E
0.25
Fig. 9.4 A comparison of phon and sone scales of loudness.
A major limitation of phon unit is that loudness level in phons does not give a value
directly proportional to the loudness of a sound. For instance, let us listen to a sound of
40 phon carefully and then listen separately to a sound which is adjudged to be twice as loud
as the first sound. Measurements will confirm that the second sound is 10 phons higher than
the first sound. Experimental investigations with pure tone indicate that every increase of
10 phons corresponds approximately to a doubling of the loudness which unlike phon scale,
measures double the value on sone scale. This gives rise to the relationship between the
loudness level P in phons and loudness in sones S, and is expressed as
S 2(P - 40)/10 (9.33)
Figure 9.4 illustrates a comparison between the phon and sone scale. Taking logarithm on both
the sides, Eq. (9.33) may be expressed as
= P — 40
log10 S login 2
10 j
or log10 S = 0.03(P — 40)
or P = 40 + 33 log i0 S (9.34)
In conjunction with the equal loudness contours, the above expression enables us to estimate
loudness of any pure tone if its SPL is given.
9.16 LOUDNESS OF COMPOSITE SOUNDS

The equal loudness contours are based on pure tones and are, therefore, not useful for most
machinery and industrial noises which normally contain many components at different
frequencies. Evaluation of loudness of such complex noises, therefore, require special treatment.
The two most widely used methods, that are recommended by international organization, are the
Steven's method and Zwicker's method. Zwicker's method is a graphical method. Steven's
method is a widely used method and here will be briefly described.
Frequency analysers with sound signal inputs are able to measure the SPL in each octave
or one-third octave band. This enables us to present a spectrum of noise, showing how much
energy lies in the various frequency bands across the audible frequency range.
Steven's method: This method assumes that the octave band analysis of the concerned sound
is available. It may be outlined as under:
1. Establish octave band sound pressure levels of the concerned sound
2. Find the loudness index value (Ii) from Fig. 9.5 for the sound pressure level of each
octave band including Ln, the largest of all the loudness indices.
3. The total loudness in sones can then be determined by the empirical formula
L = Im(1 — K) + (9.35)
i=i
where I, is the loudness index in ith band
and K is the weighting factor for the chosen bands which is 0.3 for one octave bands,
0.2 for one-half octave bands and 0.15 for one-third octave bands.
120
110
100
Band pressure level (dB re 20 µPa)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5 1 2 5 2 5 1
100 1000 10,000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 9.5 Equal loudness index contours.
9.17 WEIGHTING NETWORKS
One important feature of human response to sound is that the human ear is less sensitive to
sound frequencies below about 500 Hz and above 8000 Hz compared to the human response
between these frequencies. This is apparent from the equal loudness contours illustrated in
Fig. 9.6. When the first sound level meter was used in 1920, it became apparent that the
simple decibel SPL measurement had two limitations—sound levels of different frequencies
could not be correctly related, and the measured values were not in agreement with the
subjective magnitudes (loudness) of the sound. The measuring instruments, on the other hand,
are designed to measure sound in the entire audible frequency range, objectively and faithfully.
To make an objective assessment of complaints about noise-nuisance from people, therefore, it
is advisable to apply corrections to the measured sound so as to introduce a human bias in the
sound measurements. In other words, the instruments are made to respond in a way similar to
the human ear.
120
Loudness level
(phons)
Sound pressure level (dB.re.20 µ Pa)
100
80
60
40
20
Hearing
0 threshold
I I I I I I I I I
10 100 1000 10,000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 9.6 Equal loudness contours.
Since the equal loudness contours rise steeply at low frequencies and less steeply at high
frequencies, it is desirable to subtract some decibels from the lower and upper frequency
bands, leaving them approximately the same elsewhere. It is logical to provide built-in
weighting networks into the sound level meters which incorporates above features into the
instrument. This is precisely the aim of A-weighting network. On the basis of measured equal
loudness contours, three weighting curves were proposed. A sound level meter has all the three
weighting networks built into its circuitry, which are designed to reflect the built-in bias of the
human ear. These networks are:
A-weighting network
This network reflects the ear's response to sounds of lower pressure levels (about 40 phons).
B-weighting network
This network reflects ear's response to sounds of moderate pressure level (about 70 phons).
C-weighting network
This network, which is essentially linear, reflects ear's response to relatively higher pressure
levels (about 100 phons) and is fairly flat. The C-weighted decibel is thus similar to the overall
sound pressure levels itself.
Earlier D-weighting network was also developed and was meant for the measurement of
aircraft noise. It has a maximum response in the frequency range of 3-4 k-Hz. At the time of
introduction, A-weighting was intended to be used as a scale for fairly low-level noises in the
20 to 55 dB SPL range. B-weighting was thought of as a scale to be used for levels from
50-85 dB SPL and C-weighting for higher levels. In practice B and C have been found to
correlate less well with the subjective response in comparison to A-scale and are rarely used.
Figure 9.7 illustrates the A, B, C and D weighting networks.
10
A
0
—10
—20
D
A
—30
B
—40
—50
—60
—70
101 2 5 102 2 5 103 2 5 104 2
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 9.7 Graphical representation A, B, C and D weightings.
To calculate a weighted sound level, the sound is first analysed into octave or one-third
octave bands. To arrive at the weighted SPLs, certain decibel values are added or subtracted
from the two octave band sound pressure levels as listed in Table 9.5.
TABLE 9.5 Weightings for one-third and one octave bands (f. is the centre frequency)
One-third octave bands Octave bands

f. A B C D f. A
25 —45 —20 —4 —19
31.5 —39 —17 —3 —17 31.5 —39 —17
40 —35 —14 —2 —15
50 —30 —12 —1 —13
63 —26 —9 —1 —11 63 —26 —11
80 —23 —7 —1 —9
100 —19 —6 0 —7
125 —16 —4 0 —6 125 —16 —6
160 —13 —3 0 —5
200 —11 —2 0 —3
250 —9 —1 0 —2 250 —9 —2
315 —7 —1 0 —1
400 —5 —1 0 —1
500 —3 0 0 0 500 —3 0
630 —2 0 0 0
800 —1 0 0 0
1000 0 0 0 0 1000 0 0
1250 1 0 0 2
1600 1 0 0 6
2000 1 0 0 8 2000 1 8
2500 1 0 0 10
(Contd.)
TABLE 9.5 Weightings for one-third and one octave bands (f. is the centre frequency) (Contd.)
One-third octave bands Octave bands

A B C D f. A
3150 1 0 -1 11
4000 1 —1 —1 11 4000 1 11
5000 1 —1 —1 10
6300 0 —2 —2 9
8000 —1 —3 —3 6 8000 —1 6
10,000 —3 —4 —4 3
12,500 —4 —6 —6 0
16,000 —7 —8 —9 —3 16,000 —7 —3
20,000 —9 —11 —11 —5
(Note: The weightings are to be added algebraically to the SPL in dB.re.20 pPa.)
A wealth of data has been collected by research workers using the A-network readings of
the sound level meter. For most practical applications, the A-weighting network is now used
almost exclusively in measurements that relate directly to the human response to noise, from
the view points of both hearing damage and annoyance. In problems associated with noise
control, it is usually necessary to convert calculated one octave band or one-third octave band
sound pressure levels to a total sound in dBA. Certain annoying noise sources (e.g. diesel
locomotive) have a large percentage of their energy below 200-250 Hz. A-weighted sound
level in such cases may provide a misleadingly low A-weighted sound level. For such cases,
C-weighted sound level is quite helpful.
EXAMPLE 9.9 Determine the total A-weighted sound level, L, of the following set of
octave band sound pressure levels:
ff. (Hz): 31.5 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000 16,000
SPL (dB): 75 66 70 61 60 75 82 80 87 90
Solution
The measured sound pressure levels in dB against the corresponding centre frequencies and the
corrections for A-weightings are as under:
f f. (Hz): 31.5 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000 16,000
SPL (dB): 75 66 70 61 60 75 82 80 87 90
Corrections: —39 —26 —16 —9 —3 0 1 1 —1 —7
The corrected
SPL dB(A): 36 40 54 52 57 75 83 81 86 83
The total sound pressure level L is obtained by adding corrected dB(A) in each of the
frequency bands. Thus
L = 10 log (103.6 + 104.0 + 105.4+ 105.2 - -5.7 + 107.5 + 108.3+ 108.1+ 108.6+ 108.3)
1U
Therefore L = 89.8 dB(A) Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.10 The octave band sound power levels for a machine are given in the
following table. Calculate the A-weighted sound power level.
f (Hz): 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
Power level LW (dB): 30.5 25.7 23.8 27.0 28.0 29.4 25.4 23.9
Solution
Centre frequency f (Hz): 63 125 250 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 8,000
Power level LW (dB): 30.5 25.7 23.8 27.0 28.0 29.4 25.4 23.9
A-weighted corrections: -26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0 +1.2 +1.0 -1.1
A-weighted 4, [dB(A)]: 4.3 9.6 15.2 23.8 28.0 30.6 26.4 22.8
Hence, the A-weighted sound power level is
LW = 10 log (100A3 + 100'96 + 101 '52 + 102'38 + 102'8 + 103'06 + 102.64 + 102.28)
Hence 4, = 34.3 dB(A) Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.11 Noises at the construction site is contributed by a few construction

activities such as: Piling work: 104 dB, Scraper: 93 dB, Bulldozer: 94 dB, Mobile compressor:
73 dB, and Mechanical shovel: 76 dB on A-weighting networks. What is the overall sound
pressure level?
(SGSITS: Dec. 2000, Feb. 2002, Oct. 2004, April 2005)
Solution
The overall sound pressure level is given by
(n
L = 10 log 10LPI/1° dB
0=1
Therefore Ln = 10 log (1010'4 + 1093 + 1094 + 1073 + 1076)
Hence Ln = 10 log (2.96857764 x 1010) = 104.72 dB(A) Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.12 Measurements for 1/1 octave band sound spectrum for the interior of a
small aircraft, flying under normal cruising conditions, are as under:
f (Hz): 8K 4K 2K 1K 500 250 125 63
SPL (dB): 70 79 80 82 85 96 98 100
Find the A-weighted SPLs at these centre frequencies and also the overall A-weighted SPL.
(SGSITS: Aug. 1991, Sept. 2002)
Solution
The corrected SPL with A-weightings, at the corresponding centre frequencies are:
L (Hz): 8K 4K 2K 1K 500 250 125 63
Corrections (dB): -1 +1 +1 0 -3 -9 -16 -26
Corrected SPL dB(A): 69 80 81 82 82 87 82 74
The overall A-weighted SPL is, therefore
Lp dB(A) = 10 log (10" + 108.0 + 108.1 + 108.2 + 108.2 + 108.7 + 108.2 + 107.4)
Therefore Lp dB(A) = 10 log (1235609879) = 90.92 dB(A) Ans.
EXAMPLE 9.13 The sound pressure level of a room is 65 dB before an air conditioner is
turned on. With air conditioner in operation, the SPL measures 72 dB. What is the sound
pressure level of the air conditioner alone?
Solution
Let L be the sound pressure level of the air conditioner alone. With the SPL of background
noise as 65 dB, we have
10
72/10 = 10LP/10 + 1065/10
The transposition of the terms gives
10LP/1° = 1072/10 — 1065/10
or = 10 log (107.2 - 106.5) = 71.03 dB Ans.
9.18 EQUIVALENT SOUND LEVEL

Realizing that the magnitude of sound is the most important in so far as the cumulative noise
effects are concerned, long term average sound level, referred to as equivalent sound level
(Leg), is considered to be the best measure for the magnitude of environmental noise. The
equivalent sound level (Leq) is the constant level that, over a given time period, transmits to the
receiver the same amount of acoustic energy as the actual time varying sound. Mathematically,
the equivalent continuous A-weighted sound level for a given time period from t1 to t2 is
defined as
t2 L
(Leq )A =10 logi 1 110 A t dt (9.36)
ti — t2
where LA(t) is the instantaneous sound level. The quantity in the square bracket gives the mean
value of (p2A1p2„f) over the period concerned. The sound intensity is approximately proportional
to the square of sound pressure. The equivalent continuous sound level is the constant sound
level which would expose the ear to the same amount of A-weighted sound energy as does the
actual time varying sound over the same period.
The Eq. (9.36) does not represent a simple equation but it certainly helps to describe Leg
when the level varies as a known function of time. Though the equation gives an average value,
it is certainly not the arithmetic average. In many cases, the variation of sound is not given as a
function of time but instead is available in the form of a histogram. In the histogram, the sound
level Li is plotted as the abscissa, while the fraction xi of total time, over which a particular sound
level occurs, is plotted as ordinate. This fraction represents the duration of ith interval over
which the sound stays at that value divided by the total time. Clearly
xi =1
i=1
In view of the discrete levels in place of a continuous function, the Eq. (9.36) becomes
(n
Leg = 10 logic, li xi 104/1° (9.37)
=1
When a single sound of constant level Li , exists for xi fraction of the total time and when
for the rest of the time the sound level is negligible (zero background noise), Eq. (9.37)
becomes
Leg = Li + 10 log10 xi (9.38)
Thus, as a hypothetical example, if a single sound of 112 dB(A) lasts for 1 second interval
during 24 hours, with no significant sound for the rest of the day, then with xi =
1/(24 x 3600), Eq. (9.38) gives
1
Leg = 112 + 10 log10
24 x 36001
or Leg = 112 — 49.36 = 62.64 dB
Impact or impulsive sound: Impulsive or impact sound is quite common nowadays. An

impact sound is one in which the sound pressure rises rapidly to some maximum value and then
decays followed by a quite period. An impulsive sound is defined in terms of three parameters—
the peak amplitude A, the rise time t,. and the decay time td. A complete knowledge of the
impulsive sound also requires information in respect of the shape of the waveform involved.
Especially when average sound level is required, an integrating or sound average meter is
able to provide information in the form of Leg value. In situations involving risk of hearing
impairment, this is generally considered sufficient. However, certain situations may demand
knowledge of the peak sound pressure level. Some of the sound level meters do have the
provision to measure the peak sound pressure level (sometimes called peak hold or absolute
peak). However, there are situations (e.g. in small firearms) in which the time required for
pressure rise is very short and the recorded peak sound pressure may not provide accurate
measurement of peak sound pressure level.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
9.1 Determine the total SPL due to three sound sources having sound pressure levels of
L1,1 = 90 dB, 42 = 95 dB and L1,3 = 94 dB respectively.
9.2 Determine the overall sound power level due to contributions from three octave
bands, designated as 4,1 = 100 dB, L,2 = 103 dB and Lvv3 = 106 dB.
9.3 A diesel powered heavy truck has the noise sources with SPL as under:
Straight exhaust: 98 dB; Fan: 88 dB; Engine: 83 dB; Air intake: 75 dB; Other
sources: 75 dB.
Calculate the overall SPL.
(SGSITS: Dec. 1997, Aug. 1998, June 2001, (M.E.) June 1998)
9.4 Determine the sound pressure level at a point due to a machine alone if at that point
the SPL Lp is 85 dB when the machine is off and 94 dB when the machine is
operating. Verify the results using the approximate method.
9.5 The SPL due to a machine in a room is measured at five different locations in the
room and found to be 83 dB, 86 dB, 82 dB, 85 dB and 83 dB. The sound pressure
level due to a second machine is also measured at these locations and found to be,
respectively 83 dB, 86 dB, 88 dB, 81 dB and 84 dB. What is the average SPL of
(a) the first machine and (b) the second machine.
9.6 At the operator's position, the sound pressure level in the 1 kHz band was found to
be 104 dB and 98 dB with the machines 'on' and 'off', respectively. Determine the
r.m.s. sound pressure at the operator's position due to only the machine.
9.7 Six machines operating individually, make sound levels of 78, 81, 81, 79, 72 and
65 dB respectively. Find overall sound pressure level when all of them operate
simultaneously.
(SGSITS: Dec. 2000, May 1997, (M.E.) Dec. 1995)
9.8 In the same area of a warehouse, there are four large machines. Machine 1 produce a
sound power of 1 W. Machines 2, 3 and 4 produce an acoustical power of 0.5 W,
0.75 W and 1.25 W, respectively. What is the total sound power level generated in
the area by the four machines?
9.9 A machine operator in a factory is surrounded by five machines. The machines
produce sound pressure levels of 95 dB, 87 dB, 90 dB, 93 dB and 88 dB respectively
at the operator's position, when there is no back ground noise. When the machines
are 'off', the SPL at his position is 88 dB. Determine the total sound pressure level
at his position due to both the machines and the ambient sound.
9.10 Define the following terms:
(a) Sound pressure level
(b) Sound power level
(c) Sound intensity level
Why do we need decibel sound level scale?
(SGSITS: Dec. 1997)
9.11 Explain briefly the following terms:
(a) Sound spectra
(b) Octave band analysis
Explain the need of Octave band analysis in noise control.
(SGSITS: Aug. 1998; June: 2001, (M.E.) June 2000)
9.12 Explain the following terms:
(a) Sound spectra
(b) One octave band
(c) One-third octave band analysis
Why do we need octave bands?
(SGSITS: Aug. 1994, Oct. 2004)
9.13 Explain the term 'loudness'. How does it vary with the frequency? How this
variation is taken into account in the subjective assessment?
(SGSITS: Dec. 1998)
9.14 Write short notes on:
(a) Octave band analysis and its importance
(b) Subjective and objective assessment of sound.
(SGSITS: Feb. 1997)
9.15 Draw equal loudness contours to demonstrate the sensitivity of human ear at
different frequencies.
(SGSITS: June 1999; Feb. 2002)
9.16 Explain the terms A, B and C weighting networks. Why are they needed?
(SGSITS: Aug. 1989; Sept. 2002)
10
Noise: Effects, Ratings and
Regulations
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Two common definitions of noise are:
1. Noise is an unwanted sound.
2. Noise is the wrong sound in the wrong place and at wrong time.
Noise is, thus, a sound whose acceptability is a matter of human perception. This definition,
however, needs to be extended to sound which is harmful or which interferes with normal
activities, particularly with communication and efficiency. In view of the element of
subjectivity involved in respect of time, place and mood of the listener, it is difficult to quantify
or delineate those sounds which constitute noise. For instance, what one person regards as an
intolerable nuisance, another person may easily tolerate or even enjoy. Noise is known to cause
annoyance, may lead to hearing impairment and may interfere with speech communication.
Again, to cause annoyance to the listener, a sound need not necessarily be loud. The
investigation of complaints of noise nuisance, therefore, is a matter of some complexity and
necessarily requires sound technical knowledge. Noise pollution, to a great extent, is the
outcome of the great industrial revolution the world has witnessed in the last century and is
known to double every ten years. Like air pollution and water pollution, noise has been
recognized today as a major pollutant of environment in the developed as well as developing
countries. Apart from the subjective assessment of noise, we are also concerned with following
other aspects of noise nuisance problem:
(a) The psychological aspect of annoyance, irritation, etc.
(b) The effect on work efficiency
(c) The harmful physical effects like giddiness, ocular disturbances, loss of memory,
loss of hearing, etc.
(d) Adverse effect on the quality of life in cities
343
In view of its subjective nature and the complexities involved in investigation and
litigation, concerning complaints of noise nuisance, objective assessment of sound using
measuring instruments become all the more essential.
10.2 NON-AUDITORY EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE

The World Health Organization defines health as "the state of complete physical, mental and
social well being and not merely an absence of disease and infirmity". Noise (as unwanted
sound) adversely affects the feeling of well being and to that effect, can be taken to pose threat
to the health of people. Most of us are aware about the ill effects of noise on our auditory
system. However, in view of its importance, this aspect needs separate treatment and will be
considered later. Besides hearing, noise may cause annoyance and interference in sleep,
communication and work. In the lines to follow, these effects are discussed briefly.
Annoyance and noisiness: Annoyance implies a feeling of displeasure or irritation evoked
by noise. The subjective parameters responsible for inducing annoyance depends on the
personality, situation, activity, intensity, spectral characteristics, intermittence and time of
exposure. As is expected, the annoyance increases with the intensity of sound, a sound of high
frequency is more annoying than the one of low frequency. A noise with a rapid rise in
strength is more disturbing than the same noise with a slower rise in strength. Again
intermittent or irregular sounds are more irritating than the regular ones. It must be
remembered, however, that the annoyance reactions are also sensitive to many non-acoustic
factors of social, psychological or economic nature. Therefore, one may expect considerable
variation in the reactions of individual to the same noise. In the urban areas, the traffic noise
is the primary cause of annoyance. Construction activities and industries also contribute to
annoyance in a significant way.
Attempts were made in the past to link annoyance with the loudness level. It was
concluded, however, that loudness did not necessarily describe noisiness or annoyance. This is
particularly so when the subjective response is compared with the sound coming from various
types of aircraft. In an endeavour to quantify perceived noisiness, a set of equal noisiness
contours, shown in Fig. 10.1, were prepared on lines similar to equal loudness contours. Unlike
equal loudness contours, however, they were derived for narrow bands of noise rather than pure
tones. The unit of noisiness is noy and is defined as the perceived noisiness in the frequency band
of 910-1090 Hz, with the centre frequency at 1000 Hz. It is assumed that the maximum sound
pressure level of 40 dB is approached at the rate of 5 dB/s, maintained at the 40 dB level for 2
s and then reduced at the same rate to repeat the cycle as long as desired. A noise with noisiness
of 3 noys is perceived to be three times as noisy as the noise of noisiness 1 noy.
Noisiness may be expressed more conveniently in terms of perceived noise level (PNL)
as PNdB or noys. Compared to the equal loudness contours, the equal noisiness contours
exhibit a more marked dip between the frequencies 2000 and 5000 Hz. The noy is the counter-
part in noisiness of the sone in loudness. This similarity also holds between perceived noise
decibel (PNdB) noisiness and phon in loudness. Thus, just as 40 phons equal one sone,
40 PNdB equals one noy. Also, just as 50 phons equal 2 sones, 50 PNdB equals 2 noys. The
perceived noise level can be calculated by first calculating the total noisiness in noys and then
converting the same into PNdB.
Noise: Effects, Ratings and Regulations 337
140
130
Noys
120 250
200
150
110 125
100
80
100 60
Band sound pressure level, dB re 20 pPa
50
40
90
30
80
70
60
3
50 2
40
0.5
30
0.1
20
10
0
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10k 20k
Frequency, Hz
Fig. 10.1 Perceived (equal) noisiness contours.
An equation similar to Eq. (9.34) may be used relating PNdB and noys as under:
PNdB = 40 + 33 log10 N (10.1)
where N represents the unit noys.
In the discussions on weighting networks in the Chapter 9, it was stated that dB(A) has
been found to be a good measure of noisiness. Despite its origin in the subjective assessment of
loudness, it is overwhelmingly recognized as the easiest way (involving commonsense) to judge
acceptability of sound. Computation of noisiness of composite sounds can be carried out on
lines similar to that of loudness of composite sounds. For this purpose, one needs to write
down the SPL in dB in each octave or one-third octave band. Using interpolation, if necessary,
he writes down the noisiness in noys from Fig. 10.1 for each such SPL. The noisiness of the
composite sounds in noys is then expressed as
Noisiness (noys) = N„,(1 — K) + (10.2)
where Ni is the noy value of ith band, N„, is the maximum noy value of all the bands and K is
a constant which equals 0.3 for one-octave bands, 0.2 for half-octave bands and 0.15 for
one-third octave bands. The noisiness so obtained in noys may be converted into PNdB using
Eq. (10.1).
EXAMPLE 10.1 Calculate the noisiness in PNdB of the sound whose octave band SPLs are
as under:
Centre frequency f 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
SPL (dB) 65 70 73 75 75 78 80 73 67
Solution
From Fig. 10.1, let us pick up the noy values for each frequency band. The curves do not exist
at 31.5 Hz and hence contribution at this frequency may be neglected. The contributions from
other bands of frequency 63 through 8000 Hz are as under:
Noys contributed: 2.7 6.0 12 11.5 14 29 21 11
The noisiness of the composite sound is given by Eq. (10.2) as
Noisiness (noys) = N„,(1 — K) +
The maximum noy value N„, is 29 and for one-octave measurement, K = 0.3. Hence,
Noisiness (noys) = 29(1 — 0.3) + (0.3)(2.7 + 6.0 + 12 + 11.5 + 14 + 29 + 21 + 11) = 52.16
Also, from Eq. (10.1), the noisiness in PNdB is given by
PNdB = 40 + 33 log 10 52.16 = 96.67 Ans.
As a concluding remark, it may be said that between perceived noise level (PNL) and
dB(A) scale, as a measure of noisiness, the choice is not that easy. Both these measures have
the limitations in that they are derived from experiments performed in the laboratory on small
samples of the population and in real life, the sound of a given source and the response to that
sound are subject to variations due to many factors not considered. Also, the difference in
accuracy between the two measures is not too large. The advantage in favour of dB(A) measure
is that it is easily obtained with sound level meters. The dB(A) measure has been widely
accepted as a measure of noisiness in all situations except in aircraft noise measurement where
more accuracy is required.
Effect on task performance: Noise may cause distraction of attention of a worker at the
workplace. It may also affect the psychological and clinical health of an individual. Noise may
produce additional strains on the body and may lead to fatigue directly or indirectly through
interference with sleep. The effect becomes more pronounced as the task becomes more
difficult and complex and the exposure time is stretched further. The number of errors
committed in computations increases under noisy conditions. Tasks involving vigilance,
information gathering and analytical process are more prone to be adversely affected.
Effect on sleep: Adequate and peaceful sleep is considered essential to overcome the mental
and physical fatigue due to various activities throughout the day. Interference with rest and
sleep due to noise is a common complaint in the industrialized society nowadays. Chronic loss
of sleep adversely affects the performance of an individual and may cause psychological
distress. Loss of sleep is one of the causes of many acute psychiatric illnesses. The noise is
more likely to prevent sleep if it is unusual and intermittent, particularly if there is a
resentment against the noise. The overall sound level is also important. Effect of noise on sleep
can be felt as the ambient noise level exceeds 35 dB(A) Leg. It is observed that the frequency
of awakening is lower for an impulsive noise independent of level. Noise from trucks and
aircraft flyovers appear to have pronounced effect on awakening from sleep. The probability
of awakening from sleep increases as the sound level of 40 dB(A) is exceeded.
Effect on speech communication: Surprisingly, man has an ability to hear and distinguish
sound of interest from a background of other sounds. Thus, one can listen to telephone ring or
music of interest in the background of conversation and other types of sound. Despite this,
many times, the background noise prevents the desired signals/warnings from reaching
receptors. This phenomenon goes under the name masking. The interference of noise with the
speech signals may lead to changes in the signal so much so that the quality of sound, its
distinctiveness, loudness and apparent location may change and make the signal inaudible or
unintelligible.
Masking is generally undesirable in speech communication, but sometimes becomes
useful in providing privacy to conversation in restaurants. It is also used as a tool for covering
disturbing noises in offices.
Effect on health: The effect of noise on cardiovascular system is observed in the form of
peripheral vascoconstriction which causes constriction of the small blood vessels in the limbs,
particularly in the skin. With moderate levels of acoustical stimulation, this is accompanied by
vasodilatation which increases the flow of the blood to the head. It is reported that this change
may occur in response to any change in the noise, not necessarily at the critical noise levels.
However, at really high noise levels, vascoconstriction with reduction in blood supply to the
head and all the parts of the body takes place. The obvious possible consequence is the
impaired performance of these organs.
Reportedly, noise induces changes in blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output and pulse
volume. The noise exposure, therefore, may increase diastolic blood pressure. The effect of
noise on increasing blood pressure is particularly significant in case of individuals whose blood
pressure is already high. Excessive noise also has an adverse effect on the digestive system of
human body and may lead to gastric pains (intense spasms of the pylorus). Noise also weakens
the coloured vision and results in a slower receptivity of visual impressions and in slower
adaptation to darkness.
Effect on the reproductive system: In view of the general vaso-constrictive effects of

noise, the blood flow to placenta, which is concerned with the nourishment of the fetus within
the uterus, is decreased. Reportedly, this leads to low birth weight both in animals and in the
population of humans exposed to high levels of noise. Various developmental abnormalities
and defective bone formation have also been noticed in the fetuses of animals subjected to
excessive noise levels. No case of developmental abnormalities in man has been reported so far.
Studies in respect of possible permanent effects of noise on general health are still on and
are in inconclusive stage.
10.3 AUDITORY EFFECTS OF NOISE

Noise induced hearing loss is either temporary or permanent in nature depending on length and
severity of noise exposure. A temporary hearing loss may last from a few seconds to a few
days and goes under the name temporary threshold shift (TTS). The TTS will disappear if the
subject is shifted to a quieter location for suitable duration. If the quieter period is not
available, the TTS will become chronic. Threshold shift implies increase in the minimum
sound pressure that is just enough for hearing sensation. Dullness of hearing, sometimes
accompanied by a ringing sensation (tinnitus) in the ears, is a symptom of temporary hearing
loss. The sensation of ringing sound, however, may be noticeable only in quiet surroundings.
Repeated exposures to noise can lead to permanent hearing loss.
For steady state noise, permanent threshold shift (which means permanent hearing loss)
may not occur from exposures to noise levels below 80 dB(A). The permanent threshold shift
(PTS) becomes significant at 85 dB(A) and poses serious threat to hearing as soon as level of
90 dB(A) is exceeded. Excessive and prolonged noise can permanently damage inner ear or
selectively destroy the hair cells. If the hair cells on the organ of corti are destroyed, they
cannot be regenerated and the process becomes irreversible. It may be recalled that the hair
cells convert the acoustic energy into electrical pulses that are fed via the nervous system to the
brain. Damage to inner ear includes harm to the auditory neurons, as well as damage to the
structure of the organ of corti. Noises having energy concentration between frequencies 2000
and 6000 Hz produce relatively higher TTS compared to noises with other energy
concentrations. In general, a person should not be exposed to A-weighted sound level in excess
of 80 dB(A) for more than 8 hours.
Hearing impairment from reasons other than that due to steady state noise can occur at
very high intensities. The most common type of damage is the rupture of eardrum due to
impulsive noise, usually a blast from explosion or gunfire. No permanent loss of hearing
results from a ruptured eardrum as the same can be repaired surgically or otherwise. The blast
can injure:
(a) the middle ear, where either the dislocation or fracture of the ossicles may take
place, a case which may be alleviated surgically and
(b) the inner ear, where possible rupture of inner ear membrane may take place, which
may lead to serious or total permanent deafness.
If the average loss in hearing level at frequencies of 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz exceeds
25 dB, it is indicative of hearing loss. The hearing impairment will be considered total when
the hearing level reaches 91.7 dB. A person suffering from noise-induced hearing loss exhibits
the greatest loss of hearing sensitivity in the neighborhood of 4000 Hz in audiogram. It must
be pointed out that 4 kHz is the region that is the most sensitive to damage resulting from
many types of industrial noise. With the onset of hearing loss in the region of 4000 Hz
frequency, if the noise exposure continues further, the dip at 4 kHz frequency deepens and
spreads to lower and higher frequencies. This is shown in Fig. 10.2. Such noise-induced
hearing loss leads to difficulties in hearing high-pitched sounds including some of the
industrial warning signals.
1 : No exposure
0
10 years
exposure
10
1 20 years
.qc 20 exposure
oci) 30
45 years
4 40 exposure
0 50 ....l
Approximate speech
.ii— —..
frequency range
60
70
200 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 6000 8000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 10.2 Audiograms illustrating reduction in hearing sensitivity consequent upon exposure to
long-term industrial noise.
As the dip in the region of 4 kHz widens affecting lower frequencies, reception of speech
is increasingly affected. The consonant components of speech bear most of the information and
many of them contain high frequency sound energy. This explains reduction in speech
intelligibility. Thus, while the affected individual is still able to hear the speech, he will not be
able to discriminate sufficiently well so as to understand the information it contains. The
problem becomes more severe when the noise-induced deafness is added to that normally
encountered with elderly persons (presbyacusis).
According to the audiometric studies made by Rai et al. (1976) on 51 naval crew on
three Indian naval ships, the noise on these ships was very high everywhere with a peak value
of 120 dB(A) in the engine room. It was reported that 78 per cent of the engine room
personnel had hearing loss in the entire frequency range of 125-10,000 Hz. As against this,
only 46 per cent of the personnel working at other places of the ship had the hearing loss in the
above frequency range.
In an another audiometric investigations carried out by Mukherjee et al. (1985) in the
frequency range of 125-12,000 Hz for coal mining workers, it was reported that workers with
exposure to noise at around 95-100 dB(A) for more than 10-15 years of service suffered
heavy loss in hearing capacity. Table 10.1 gives the measured values (average) of hearing loss
amongst various types of workers in coal mines after being exposed for 5 years.
TABLE 10.1 Hearing impairment amongst coal mining workers
Category of operator Average years of exposure Average hearing loss (dB)

Dumper 5.00 15
Pay loader 4.27 27
Scraper 4.5 23
Dozer 4.7 25
Shovel 8.00 27
Taylor et al. conducted studies on hearing impairment of weavers of a jute mill in 1965.
The results of the study are depicted in Fig. 10.3 which shows a plot of the median-estimated
noise-induced threshold shift as a function of years of exposure at the frequencies of 1000 Hz,
2000 Hz, 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz. The workers used to be subjected to an A-weighted sound
level of about 98 dB(A) for 8 hours a day, 5 days a week and 50 weeks a year.
50
4000 Hz
40
e"
3000 Hz
aio
.-&"
oC —
S 30
t
to -F., ..
/
-0
_z 20 / 2000 Hz .
''' i I/ ....................... ,,,. ./
.V, . /
./
: 10
• • 1000 Hz
......-'
—10
0 10 20 30 40 50
Exposure (Years)
Fig. 10.3 Median noise-induced threshold shift (corrected for the expected changes in threshold with age)
for jute weavers with 1 to 40 years of occupational exposure to noise with SPL 98 dB(A).
The period in years of occupational exposure of the workers ranged from 1 to 40 years.
With this level of exposure, a threshold shift of 25-55 dB at 4000 Hz frequency is expected
over the years due to the occupational exposure to the noise. This is practically confirmed by
the studies. The adverse effects start manifesting in the form of TTS. The evil effects keep on
accumulating due to the exposures day after day and year after year. With increasing years of
exposure, the threshold shift becomes permanent or nearly so. The process continues until the
jute mill workers become partially deaf.
10.4 NOISE STANDARDS AND LIMITS
Rapid industrialization, motorization and aviation, which took place after the Second World
War, has unmistakably resulted in increased noise pollution. This was particularly so in the
developed and developing countries. With the growing awareness amongst citizens about
quality of life, these countries were forced to initiate research projects aimed at assessing the
effect of noise on human beings. United States of America and most of the European countries
have introduced regulations about noise control to protect people from the hazards of excessive
noise. As a step forward in this direction, noise rating curves (NRC or simply NC curves) and
noise rating criterion were developed. The NC curves (Fig. 10.4) resemble the equal loudness
75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800

75 150 300 600 1200 2400 4800 9600
90
Noise criteria
NC curves
80
Octave band sound pressure level (dB re 0.0002 microbar)
NC-70 -
70
NC-60 -
60
50
40
30
20
Approximate
thresho d of
hearing for
continuous
noise
10
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Octave band center frequencies (cps)
Fig. 10.4 Noise rating curves.

contours and were developed to provide guidance in respect of acceptable level of noise at a
place of interest. The curves are concave upwards and tend to rise upwards at lower
frequencies. The curves appeared first in the work of Beranek et al. (1953) and were modified
by Schultz in the year 1968.
The noise levels which are acceptable in an occupied space such as a flat, house, shop,
factory, auditorium, library, etc. depends on the activities to be carried out in that space. The
noise level in a library has got to be different from that in a factory or a dance hall. Noise
rating curves enable us to assess this acceptability of noise levels at various places. These
curves weigh each part of frequency spectrum and taking into account the sensitivity of the
human ear for different frequencies, assess annoyance factor, speech interference level and
loudness level, etc.
The measurement norms require that noise levels must be measured in unoccupied rooms
in nine octave frequency bands from 31.5 to 8000 Hz. If the place in question has any
ventilation system, it must be kept operating and external noise sources, e.g. traffic, should be
normal while taking the measurements. Each one of the noise rating curves represents a code
for specifying measurements as also the permissible sound pressure in nine octave bands and
gives the maximum sound pressure level in any frequency band which will be acceptable.
Under no circumstances must the specified level be exceeded in corresponding octave
frequency band. Interpolation may have to be done to evaluate the noise spectrum and in most
cases, a single frequency determines the rating. For the same NC number, the curve gives
different pressure levels for different octave bands. The NC rating number equals the sound
pressure level in dB at the centre frequency of the octave band 1000-2000 Hz, that is
considered acceptable for specific application. Table 10.2 gives typical prescribed Noise Rating
Criteria for occupied space. A rating of NC-40 implies that in no octave frequency band
should the background level be higher than that given by NC-40 curve. In practice, a tolerance
of 2.5 dB is usually allowed. Most people agree that environments with background sound
levels under NC-30 are 'quiet' while those with levels above NC-55 are 'noisy'.
TABLE 10.2 Acceptable noise ratings for occupied space
Type of occupied space NRC number

Broadcasting studio 15
Concert hall, theatre with 500 seats 20
Classroom, music room, TV studio, churches, courtrooms 25
Sleeping room 25
Conference room with P.A. system 30
Cinema, hospital, library, living room 30
Private office 40
Restaurant 45
Gymnasium, public office, banks 50
Typing pools, works canteen, shops, light engineering works 55
Heavy engineering 70
EXAMPLE 10.2 The octave band analysis of the sound pressure levels in a light engineering
works is as follows:
Frequency f. (Hz): 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
SPL (dB): 72 71 64 62 62 58 54 45 37
Does the space requires acoustic treatment?
Solution
The permissible (acceptable) noise rating for light engineering works from Table 10.2 is 55.
Comparing with the NC curves in Fig. 10.4, the permissible SPL values for the above centre
frequencies, by interpolation are:
Frequency f (Hz): 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Acceptable SPL: 74 72 65.5 60 56 53.5 51.5 50 49.5
Thus, the maximum acceptable limit of SPL is exceeded at the centre frequencies of 250, 500,
1000 and 2000 Hz. Hence, acoustic treatment is necessary. Ans.
10.5 AMBIENT EMISSION NOISE STANDARDS IN INDIA

Noise pollution is now an offence in India, thanks to the promulgation of the Comprehensive
Air Act of 1986. Table 10.3 lists the various limits for the urban environmental ambient noise
issued in 1989 (vide notification issued from the Ministry of Environment and Forests on
Dec. 21, 1989). Silence zones are areas up to 100 m around certain premises like hospitals,
educational institutes and courts. The mixed areas have to be declared by the competent
authority from amongst the industrial, viable and residential areas.
TABLE 10.3 Ambient noise level standards in Leq applicable in India
Type of the area Environmental noise standards Leq in dB(A)

Day time (06 to 21 hours) Night time (21 to 06 hours)
Silence zone 50 45
Residential area 55 45
Commercial area 65 55
Industrial area 75 70
Bureau of Indian Standards had formulated noise standards prior to the adoption of the
above limits. These noise standards were meant for outdoor noise levels in residential areas as
also for indoor noise levels in various types of buildings (IS: 4954-1968). These standards/
limits, which are given in Table 10.4, appear to be rather hard looking to the prevailing noise
levels.
TABLE 10.4 Acceptable outdoor and indoor noise levels for different types of
residential areas and public/private places respectively (IS: 4954-1968)
Outdoor noise levels in residential areas
Type of residential area Acceptable noise level in dB(A)
Rural 25-35
Suburban 30-40
Residential urban 35-45
City 45-55
Industrial area 50-65
Indoor noise levels in public/ private places

Type of place/building Acceptable noise level in dB(A)
Radio and T.V. studios 25-30
Music room 30-35
Hospital, Classroom, Auditorium 35-40
Apartment, hotel, home 35-40
Conference room, Small office, Concert room,
Private offices 40-45
Libraries, large public office, banks, stores 45-50
Restaurants 50-55
The Bureau of Indian Standards has also fixed limits for estimated community response to
noise. According to these standards (IS: 9989-1981), which are given in Table 10.5, a sound
level which is 5 dB in excess of rated outdoor noise in residential areas, would draw sporadic
complaints. For a sound level which is 10 dB in excess overrated outdoor noise level, there
would be widespread complaints. Similarly, for a sound level which is 15 dB in excess of rated
outdoor noise, there would be threats of community action.
TABLE 10.5 Estimated community response to ambient noise as per IS: 9989-1981
Amount in dB(A) by which the

rating sound level exceeds the Estimated community response
noise criterion Category Description
0 None No observed reaction
5 Little Sporadic complaints
10 Medium Widespread complaints
15 Strong Threat of community action
20 Very strong Vigorous community action
10.6 HAZARDOUS NOISE EXPOSURE-LEGAL ASPECT

Noise measurement and its control are not enough to ensure hearing conservation of the
employees. The hearing threshold of affected people must be measured periodically. This helps
to know the loss of hearing capacity of such people from time to time. Noise-induced hearing
loss is a notifiable occupational disease under the Factories Act and is covered under the
Workmen's Compensation Act. Hearing measurements must be properly documented during the
employment of a workman in the factory.
As per the Rule 3(6) (a) of the Model Rules (Schedule XXIV) framed in India under the
Factories Act, 1948, in all cases where the prevailing noise levels exceed the permissible
levels, an effective hearing conservation programme must be undertaken. This includes,
amongst other hearing conservation measures, pre-employment and periodical surveys on
workers exposed to noise exceeding the permissible levels and rehabilitation of such workers
either by reducing the levels of noise exposure or by transferring them to places where noise
levels are relatively less or by any other suitable means.
Further, according to the Rule 3(6) (b) of the Model Rules cited above, every worker
employed in places where the noise level is in excess of the maximum permissible levels of
noise exposure, should be subjected to an audiometric test by a certified surgeon within
14 days of his/her first employment and, thereafter, should be re-examined at least once in
12 months. The Industrial Medicine Division in the Central Labour Institute, Mumbai and the
Regional Labour Institutes in Kolkata and Chennai, also have the facilities for conducting
audiometric tests.
10.7 HEARING CONSERVATION AND DAMAGE RISK CRITERIA
Overwhelming evidence suggests that long and continued noise exposures exceeding 85 dB(A) is
likely to cause hearing damage to a large percentage of human beings. Spread over last several
years, attempts were directed to formulate methods for quantifying relationship between noise
exposure and hearing loss. A number of criteria for hearing damage risk are based on the
relationship between temporary hearing loss and permanent hearing loss caused by long-term
noise exposure in the industry. Also, enough data has been compiled in the last several years that
have enabled to correlate the permanent hearing losses with long-term noise exposure.
The nature of this information is complex and has led to divergent bases upon which the
national standards rely. As it stands today, American and European national standards for
limiting exposure of noise are founded on different principles. Many European standards
assume an energy relationship between noise level and the permissible exposure time. For
instance, as per European norms, every increase in noise level by 3 dB necessitates safe
noise-exposure duration to be halved. As against this, the standards adopted in USA suggests
that for every increase of noise level by 5 dB, the safe noise-exposure duration be halved.
Related regulations in UK and USA are being considered here as representative examples
belonging to the two categories.
Regulations in United Kingdom

Medical Research Council, National Physical Laboratory and the studies conducted by them
are responsible for providing impetus to the establishment of the equal energy principle for
assessing hearing hazards in UK. The method of assessing potential hazard to hearing is based
on the report on the above information by Burns and Robinson. This information also forms
the basis for developing standard methods of assessment by the respective national bodies of a
number of European countries.
Equal energy principle: It was shown by Burns and Robinson that for steady state noise, a
relationship exists between A-weighted sound level and the duration of noise exposure. An
increase of 3 dB(A) sound level corresponds to the doubling of acoustic energy. Physically, this
implies that in respect of hazard, same acoustic energy is involved if a person is subjected to,
say, 96 dB(A) for 2 hours and 93 dB(A) for 4 hours. In a nut shell, this is the equal energy
principle. Atherley, Martin and Rice have investigated the problem further to show that the
principle may also be extended to the assessment of risk to hearing from industrial impact
noise as also from high level transients such as gunfire. As a result, it may be said that a single
and relatively simple principle forms the basis for the assessment of the most occupational
noise.
Since the equivalent sound level Leg incorporates the concept of A-weighted sound
energy, Leg may be taken to be a measure of noise dose. The values of sound level in dB(A)
together with the corresponding values of permissible duration of noise exposure, shown in
Table 10.6, represent an Leg of 90 dB(A) for eight hours. In UK, this noise dose is considered
to be a safe maximum at present. It may be noted that an Leg of 90 dB(A) for eight hours
involves same acoustic energy as an Leg of 85 dB(A) over 24 hours and are, therefore,
considered equivalent.
TABLE 10.6 Permissible sound levels and permissible exposure duration that give an
Leq for works of 8 hours a day at 90 dB(A) (UK Standards)
Sound level dB(A) Permissible daily exposure

90 8 hours
93 4 hours
96 2 hours
99 1 hour
102 30 minutes
105 15 minutes
108 7.5 minutes
111 225 seconds
114 112 seconds
117 56 seconds
120 28 seconds
123 14 seconds
126 7 seconds
129 3.5 seconds
132 2 seconds
135 1 second
Regulations in United States of America

The federal laws that govern noise levels in USA are:
1. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
2. Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1970
3. Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970
4. Noise Control Act of 1972
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Labour (DOL) and the
Department of Transportation (DOT) are the primary agencies within the federal government
that are designated to issue noise control regulations under the federal laws. The Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970 was enacted to ensure safe and healthful working
conditions for the working men and women. The Noise Control Act of 1972 gives the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the primary responsibility for safeguarding sound
levels in the community.
Under the Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act in 1969, the Department of Labour
promulgated an occupational noise exposure standard. Later, in 1970, the Occupational Safety
and Health Act extended the applicability of the requirements of this standard to all the
workers engaged in inter-state commerce. The EPA Report No. 550/9-74-004, 1974 identifies
maximum permissible equivalent sound level of Leg = 70 dB(A), measured on the basis of
exposure of 24 hours a day every day of the year. In order to provide a margin of safety,
however, this level is rounded off to 71.4 dB(A).
According to ISO 1999-1982, very little damage is caused to a person of average
susceptibility when he is exposed to noise levels up to 80 dB(A) of life time working exposure.
Noise levels exceeding 80 dB(A) may lead to health hazard, while exposure to noise level in
excess of 90 dB(A) may have serious consequences. After a continuous service of 40 years
under noise exposures of 90 dB(A) the percentage of risk is 21 due to noise alone. An
85 dB(A) exposure for a week of 40 hours with 50 weeks per year, instead, is likely to reduce
the risk to half the value at 90 dB(A).
In USA, the OSHA standards (1974) also propose a maximum exposure limit of
90 dB(A) for 8 hours a day. For the difference, however, the halving of the permitted duration
of exposure is set for each increment of 5 dB(A) in the SPL. An another deviation, from the
standards followed in UK, is that the maximum permissible noise level is set at 115 dB(A),
however short the duration of exposure may be. The maximum limit imposed for impulsive
noise is 140 dB(A) peak sound pressure level, 100 impulses per day. Further, with every
10 fold increase in the number of impulses, the peak SPL will decrease by 10 dB(A) for the
pulse. Table 10.7 gives the maximum permissible duration of daily exposure against various
sound levels for continuous sound as per OSHA-1970 standards. When in a particular
situation, the noise-exposure standard of Table 10.7 are exceeded, all feasible administrative
and engineering steps must be contemplated to reduce the noise levels to within the acceptable
limits. If such measures also fail, personal protective equipments must be used to accomplish
the objectives of the standard.
As can be verified from Examples 10.5 and 10.6, anomalies in OSHA-1970 standards
become visible on account of non-inclusion of durations of noise exposures between
85-89 dB(A). However, the current standards are considered adequate in view of aspects such
as cost of compliance for 85 dB(A) versus 90 dB(A) for 8 hours of continuous exposure. Use of
hearing protectors rather than engineering controls may be taken as acceptable long-term
solution.
Daily noise dose: Many times, it so happens that certain individuals move between many
different noise environments during the working day. Noise exposure of such individuals can
be obtained using noise dose meters. These instruments are portable and can be carried on
person.
TABLE 10.7 Industrial noise exposure criteria (OSHA-1970)
Sound levels dB(A) Permissible daily exposure Sound levels dB(A) Permissible daily exposure
Hrs. Min. Hrs. Min.
85 16 00 101 1 49
86 13 56 102 1 31
87 12 08 103 1 19
88 10 34 104 1 09
89 9 11 105 1 00
90 8 00 106 0 52
91 6 58 107 0 46
92 6 04 108 0 40
93 5 17 109 0 34
94 4 36 110 0 30
95 4 00 111 0 26
96 3 29 112 0 23
97 3 02 113 0 20
98 2 50 114 0 17
99 2 15 115 0 16
100 2 00
Note: Only the figures in bold represent the OSHA-1970 standards.
TABLE 10.8 Permissible exposure levels of impulsive or impact noise

Peak sound pressure level (dB) Daily permissible number of impulses or impacts
140 100
135 315
130 1,000
125 3,160
120 10,000
Notes: 1. No exposure in excess of 140 dB peak sound pressure level is permitted.
2. For any peak sound pressure level falling in between any figure and the next
higher or lower figure, as indicated in the first column, the permitted number of
impulses or impacts per day is to be determined by extrapolation on a proportional
basis.
The microphone of these noise dose meters can be separated from the instrument and should be
mounted preferably close to the ear of the individual, for whom the daily dose is required.
Thus, when the noise dose is encountered in the form of n-number of noise exposures at
different sound pressure levels, the daily dose D may be calculated as
D— +C 2 +C3+•••+ n (10.3)
T1 T2 T3 Tn
Cn
or D (10.4)
n Tfl
where C,, = the duration in hours for which a person is exposed to a given SPL
and T,, = the maximum exposure time limit in hours, permitted at that SPL
The daily dose D must be 1.
EXAMPLE 10.3 A worker is exposed to noise according to the following schedule:
Exposure level [dB(A)]: 92 95 97 102
Period of exposure (Hrs.): 3 2 2 1
Does the daily noise dose is exceeded as per OSHA standards?
Solution
The permissible time-duration for noise exposure at the four given SPLs are:
Permissible duration from
OSHA standards (Hrs.): (6-04) 4.0 3-02 1-31
Thus, the daily dose is given by
3 2 1
D= +2+
91/15 4 91/30 91/60
or D = 0.4945 + 0.5 + 0.659 + 0.659 = 2.313
Thus, the daily dose is exceeded. Ans.
EXAMPLE 10.4 In a factory, a worker works for 1 hour in steel fabrication shop, where
SPL is 102 dB(A). He then works in machine shop for 7 hours, where the SPL is 90 dB(A).
Is the OSHA regulation violated?
Solution
As per OSHA standards, the permissible duration for SPLs of 90 and 102 dB(A) are
respectively 8 hours and 1.5 hours. Hence, the daily dose is:
D=---+ 1= 1.542
D=
1.5 8
Hence, the daily dose is exceeded and the OSHA regulations are violated. Ans.
EXAMPLE 10.5 It has been found that a group of industrial employees are exposed to noise
according to the following schedule:
Exposure level dB(A): 85 90 92 95
Periods of exposure (Hrs.): 3 2 1 2
Does this daily dose exceed OSHA standard?
Solution
The first data, corresponding to 85 dB(A) does not come under OSHA regulations and so
2 1 2
D= + + = 0 .915
8 91/15 4
The daily dose is, thus, less than 1 and as such, the daily dose is not exceeded. Ans.
A little consideration shows that the situation changes altogether if the first data at
85 dB(A) is also considered (even if it is not the part of OSHA regulations). In that case, with
16 hours as the permissible exposure duration, the daily dose becomes
3
D = — + 0.912 = 1.0995
16
and, thus, the daily dose is exceeded.
EXAMPLE 10.6 A worker in a bottle manufacturing plant is rotated in various shops as

under:
1. Palletiser unit, where the sound pressure level is 100 dB(A): 1/2 hour
2. Washer unit, where the sound pressure level is 97 dB(A): 1/2 hour
3. Decapping unit, where the sound pressure level is 92 dB(A): 1 hour
4. Packing unit, where the sound pressure level is 87 dB(A): 4 hours
5. Bottle inspection unit, where the sound pressure level is 85 dB(A): 2 hours
Is the daily dose exceeded? If yes, suggest alternate schedule of duration of his stay in different
units so that the daily dose is not exceeded.
(SGSITS: June 1996, Nov. 2001, Dec. 2000, June 2005)
Solution
The permissible durations as per OSHA norms in hours and minutes against the activities 1-5
are indicated in parentheses as follows:
1 (2-00), 2 (3-02), 3 (6-04)
The activities are 4 and 5 not considered, as the corresponding SPLs are not covered under
OSHA. Converting the duration into hours, the daily dose is
1/2 1/2 1
D= + + = 0.5796 .-. 0.58
2 91/30 91/15
Thus, the daily dose is less than 1 and OSHA regulations are satisfied. Ans.
As in Example 10.5, if the exposures at 85 and 87 dB(A) are also considered, the daily
dose will increase by
4 2
+ = 0.45
182/15 16
The total daily dose in that case will be 1.03 and this being slightly greater than 1 will mean
violation of noise regulations. If the OSHA standards are modified in future suitably, then to
escape the penalty clause, we may have to reduce the stay of the worker in packing unit to
2.5 hours and increase the stay in bottle inspection unit to 3.5 hours, ensuring his duty period
to 8 hours. The total daily dose in that case will be approximately 0.9996. To be on the safe
side, under any eventuality, it may be advisable to cut down his stay in more noisy area. For
instance, he may be asked to stay in decapping section for 1/2 hour rather than 1 hour and
increase his stay in bottle inspection unit to 2.5 hours. This will bring down the daily dose to
0.96 approximately.
10.8 DAY-NIGHT SOUND LEVEL, Ldn

While calculating equivalent sound level Leg, it was assumed that same amount of noisiness
occurs from a sound having a high level but a short duration, as from a sound having a lower
level but occurring for a period long enough to ensure that the same amount of energy is
involved. Most sounds vary in an irregular fashion in terms of levels and the derivation of Leg
requires an integration [see Eq. (9.18)] of sound intensity on a continuous basis. It is a matter
of common observation that a sound of given intensity is considered more annoying during
night-time rather than during daytime. Day-night sound level aims at modifying the concept of
equivalent sound level by taking into account this feature.
In order to take into account the greater annoyance caused by a sound intrusion at night,
the day-night sound level has been proposed. It is assumed that the equivalent sound level
occurring between 10 pm to 7 am should be increased by 10 dB(A) before combining it with
the equivalent sound level between 7 am to 10 pm to account for greater proneness to
annoyance during night-time. Assuming Lo to be the equivalent sound level for the 15 hours
(7 am to 10 pm) of daytime and LN the equivalent sound level for the remaining 9 hours
(10 pm to 7 am) during night-time, the day-night sound level is given by
l
Ldn = 10 log lo { 1 [15(10)LD/I° 900)Loo (10.5)
4 l
The discussions on relative merits and demerits of Leg and Ldn are still inconclusive. When the
sound is continuous over a period of 24 hours, Ldn is greater than Leg by 6 dB(A). When the
frequency of occurrence of sound in night is only one-quarter of the frequency of occurrence
in day, the difference in Ldn and Leg is cut down to half (i.e. to 3 dB) only. Many sources of
noise (e.g. the transport system) operate less frequently in night than in daytime and therefore,
the difference between Ldn and Leg is small.
EXAMPLE 10.7 From noise measurements made in a particular community, it has been
determined that the day-time Leg is 79 dB(A) and the night-time Leg is 59 dB(A). Using these
data, determine the day-night A-weighted average sound level.
Solution
From Eq. (10.5), we have
1
Ldn = 10 10,g10[_ {15(10) 79/10 9(10)59/10 )]
24
or Ldn = 10 log10 (49943387.76) = 76.96
or Ldn = 80 dB(A) Ans.
10.9 TIME VARYING COMMUNITY NOISE

The EPA in USA issued two important documents on environmental noise. The one that was
issued in July 1973, deals with the criteria. The proposed criteria that is required to take care
of time varying community noise, takes noise level as well as duration into account. For the
sake of simplicity, the performance criteria are single number criteria. The four performance
criteria used are based upon statistical data and use A-weighted measurements. Three of these
criteria, namely Leq, the equivalent continuous sound level in dB(A), Ldn, the day-night
average sound level, LNp the noise pollution level and the LN, which represents noise levels
exceeded N per cent of time. The performance index LN is determined using an instrument that
employs an analyser for amplitude distribution. Leq has gained a wide acceptance in UK as the
simplest measure of a variable noise and has become the accepted unit for the evaluation of
noise as a hazard to hearing. Accordingly, Leq must be measured by some form of averaging
meter or derived from a statistical analysis of noise levels, unless the sound has a very simple
pattern of variation with time. However, Leq has not been accepted in USA as a measure of
hearing hazard. The ISO (1982) has suggested use of Leq as a means of evaluating the
equivalent level of some intermittent and irregular noises.
For the assessment of road traffic noise, the traffic noise index (TNI) was developed as
TNI = L90 + 4(L10 — L90) (10.6)
where L10 and L90 are the A-weighted SPLs that are exceeded respectively for 10 and 90 per
cent of time. The first term on the right hand side represents the background noise, while the
second term takes into account the variability of the noise.
There is some evidence that goes to show that annoyance depends on the variability of a
noise as also on the equivalent continuous sound level. The index of noise pollution level LNp
is based on both these factors and is expressed as
LNp = Leq + Ka (10.7)
where Leq is the equivalent continuous sound level in A-weighting, a is the standard deviation
of A-weighted instantaneous sound levels at discrete time intervals over a given period and K
is a constant tentatively set equal to 2.56. This value of K leads to the best fit with available
studies of subjective response to noise.
An alternative expression that can be used for noise pollution level of many community
noises is:
LNp = Leq + (L10 — L90) (10.8)
where L10 and L90 are the A-weighted SPLs that are exceeded respectively for 10 and 90 per
cent of the time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
10.1 A worker was exposed to noise according to the following schedule:

Period of exposure (Hrs.): 3 2 2 1
Does this daily dose exceed the OSHA standard?
10.2 In a particular community, the day-time Leq was 77 dB(A) and the night-time Leq
was 58 dB(A). Determine the day-night A-weighted average sound level.
10.3 From noise measurements made in a particular community, it has been observed that
the daytime Leg is 78.2 dB(A) and the night-time Leg is 59.3 dB(A). Using these data,
determine the day-night A-weighted average sound level.
10.4 A machine tool operator is required to work on machine tools as detailed below:
(a) A lathe machine, with noise level 87 dB(A) for 5 hours
(b) A drilling machine, with noise level 100 dB(A) for 1/2 hour
(c) A pedastal grinder, with noise level 92 dB(A) for 2 hours 30 min
Does this daily dose exceed (i) the OSHA standards and (ii) the British standards?
If yes, what changes in the schedule do you propose to comply with these standards?
10.5 An engineer serving in a heavy machine factory is exposed to a noise of SPL of
95 dB(A) for 3 hours on average, sits in his cabin having average SPL of 85 dB(A)
for 2 hours. For the remaining 3 hours, he is required to move outside the shop floor
where the average SPL is 80 dB(A). While on way to factory and back to residence,
he moves for 1 hour on motor cycle at an average SPL of 85 dB(A). If on return to
his residence, he listens to rock music of 85 dB(A) for 1/2 hour. Does he runs the
risk of hearing loss?
(SGSITS: Jan. 2000).
10.6 The sound levels experienced by an employee in a US plant are analysed by
computing the time he spends in various parts of the factory. He spends (a) one hour
a day at 100 dB(A), (b) three hours a day at 90 dB(A) and (c) four hours a day at 60
dB(A). Is his noise exposure permissible according to the Occupational Safety and
Health Act? Does his noise exposure exceed the maximum considered safe by the
EPA?
10.7 Explain the terms `TTS' and TTS' as used in hearing conservation. Explain the
significance of the table for permissible duration of noise-exposure from OSHA.
(SGSITS: Jan. 2000)
10.8 What is the logic in formulating regulations for industrial noise? What do you
understand by daily dose and how does it help in hearing conservation?
(SGSITS: Dec. 1995, Aug. 2003)
10.9 Explain the terms 'threshold shift' and 'daily dose of noise'.
(SGSITS: Nov. 2001)
11
Noise: Sources, Isolation
and Control
11.1 MAJOR SOURCES OF NOISE

Identification of major noise sources is an important activity in the direction of overall strategy
of noise control. In 1975, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of USA published a
list of product types which may qualify for consideration as major sources of noise. The
findings of the EPA indicate that medium and heavy-duty trucks contribute the most acoustic
energy to the environment of any highway. Pile drivers produce much higher noise levels than
any other construction equipment. This apart, the contribution of acoustic energy to the
environment by pile drivers does not match the contribution of acoustic energy to the
environment from dump trucks, concrete mixers and portable air compressors which are the
most widely used items of the construction equipments.
The list may be further categorized into the following major groups: surface
transportation, air transportation, recreational vehicles, lawn care, household appliances,
construction/industrial equipments. Although our main concern in this text is the industrial
noise (both within and around the industrial premises), there are some items like the trucks and
construction equipments, which have direct impact on the relationship between industry and
the community. Trucks are regularly deployed for transporting raw materials inside the
industry as also to transport the finished goods to destination from he industry. Table 11.1
gives an estimate of perceived annoyance due to different types of noise sources/activities in
India. This is based on the survey report prepared by Bombay Environmental Action Group
(1986).
364
Noise: Sources, Isolation and Control 353
TABLE 11.1 Estimated perceived annoyance due to different types of noise sources/activities in
India (based on a survey report of Bombay Environmental Action Group, 1986)
Source/activity that generates noise Percentage of persons annoyed

Loudspeakers 69
Traffic 60
Crackers 49
Festivals 49
Marriage functions 26
Open air cinema shows 17
Industries 12
Air traffic 3
Radio/television 3
Barking of dogs 2
Hawkers 2
A point of common interest for researchers and social workers is in respect of relative
importance of these noise sources in the urban areas of cities. Surveys are carried out in cities
to evaluate overall noise level at different critical localities as also to assess the contribution of
various noise sources at these localities. Results of a survey conducted by Bose and
Bhattacharya (1973) in the city of Calcutta to assess the relative contribution to noise by
various sources are given in Table 11.2. The results are interesting in the sense that they tell us
about the significant role played by the city traffic in the overall noise-nuisance problem in the
cities. It follows from the survey that major contributions to overall noise, in any Indian city,
are from transportation and the light industries, followed by entertainment and retail trade. It
gives us a clue that community noise cannot be reduced until the traffic noise and the industrial
noise are controlled effectively.
TABLE 11.2 Results of survey of community noise in urban areas of Greater Calcutta (1973)
Type of source Percentage of noise contribution

Transportation 31
Light industries, cottage industries 25
Entertainment 10
Retail trade 9
Heavy industry 7
A.C. and ventilating units in offices and public buildings 6
Construction activities 6
Social services (festivals, temples, processions,
Public meetings, etc.) 5
Aircrafts (civil and military both) 1
Besides traffic noise, the other serious noise producer is the mechanized industry. A
significant percentage of our population is subjected to hazardous noise levels generated by
different machines in the mechanized industry. Table 11.3 (due to Dix, 1981) gives a list of a
few more common machines/processes in mechanized industry producing excessive noise. The
level of the noise increases with the power of the machine.
TABLE 11.3 SPL of some of the hazardous noise producing machines and
processes (Dix, 1981)
Machine/industrial process Noise level dB(A)

Steel plate riveting 130
Oxygen torch 126
Pneumatic metal chipper 122
Boilermaker shop 120
Textile loom 112
Circular saw 110
Pile driver at 15 m 105
Farm tractor/powered lawn mower 103
Newspaper press 101
Coal face drill 100
Bench lathe 95
Milling machine 90
Bed press 86
High speed drill 85
Key press machine 82
Road traffic noise: Road traffic noise is the greatest single noise source in most cities of any
country and will continue to be a major problem, particularly in urban areas. One-way streets
have the advantage in that the traffic flow is smoother and there are lesser chances for the
vehicles to stop and restart. This is particularly true about the main roads. The road conditions
also matter, as it decides the rate of flow of traffic. With bad roads, the traffic becomes
noisier. Again, when the road-widening work starts, noise may increase because of
construction activity. When the work of road widening is completed, due to the reduced
distance between the roadway and houses, the noise may increase by 6 dB.
The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) conducted surveys in late fifties, to investigate
the problem of traffic noise and other noises in the cosmopolitan cities of Delhi, Bombay
(Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata). It was reported that outdoor noise level during the daytime
depended mainly on the number of pedestrians on the street, the density and type of vehicular
traffic and whether or not the locality consisted of open areas and wide streets or of narrow
streets flanked by tall buildings.
The report reveals that the areas with light traffic were found to have an average noise
level of about 65 dB(A) and areas with medium to heavy traffic had an average noise in the
range of 75-100 dB(A). Narrow streets with overflowing traffic had the maximum noise level.
Diesel—driven vehicles, tram cars and motorcycles were found to be noisier compared to the
petrol—driven vehicles. It was found that certain localities with lean traffic had specific noise
sources like electric substation, noisy trade activities, religious or social centres with blaring
loudspeakers and these noise sources rendered the area more noisy with the noise level of
65-80 dB(A). Areas close to the railway tracks were also found to be noisy.
11.2 NOISE SURVEY TECHNIQUES

Noise surveys are carried out for measuring noise in urban areas due to various sources of
noise like the road and air traffic, factories, construction activities, domestic appliances, etc. in
commercial and industrial areas. To a great extent, these measurements can be carried out
using an appropriate portable sound level meter (SLM) of Type 1 with its settings on
A-weighting network. The Type 1 SLM is intended especially for laboratory and field use
where the acoustical environment can be closely specified and/or controlled. The first step in
all such surveys is to ascertain the extent of truth in the complaint of noise nuisance. For this
purpose, a few relatively simple measurements may be taken at the complaint site. This will
ascertain whether or not the noise in the vicinity of busy traffic intersections, airports,
shipyards, construction sites and factories, etc. is in acceptable limits of annoyance to the local
residents and also to the working personnel in that area. If the initial measurements confirm
the seriousness of complaints, the internal and external filters may be used to process the signal
of sound level meter to identify the precise annoying frequencies or the harmful components
of noise. Alternatively, a tape or a floppy may be used in conjunction with suitable recording
device so that the record may be analysed at a later date using more sophisticated laboratory
equipments. Useful statistical parameters e.g. Leq(A), LN (percentile level), etc. can be
determined with the help of a portable printer. If necessary, a portable level recorder may be
used to establish the probability and cumulative distribution curves.
When continuous monitoring of sound levels is required to assess the effect of long-term
exposure to aircraft or traffic noise one may use outdoor microphone system in combination
with suitable pre-amplifier, filter sets/weighting network, keeping display system indoors. The
additional advantage of this system being that it can remain unattended for long periods
without being damaged by relatively severe whether conditions like rain, snowfall, etc. A
rain/windshield may also be used as a protection against rain/wind. For general applications,
the height of microphone for outdoor measurements should be kept 1.2 m. In the
measurements of traffic noise, it is usual to consider the whole traffic stream as a line source
with individual vehicles forming a part of the source. Variations in the noise with time is taken
care of by statistical analysis of the noise levels and evaluating parameters like Leq and LN.
In view of the importance of transportation noise in the overall noise-nuisance problem
and also in view of the importance of automobile noise to mechanical engineers, it is
interesting to know the measurement techniques of vehicular noise.
11.3 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE FOR VEHICULAR NOISE
For the measurements of vehicular noise, the vehicles can be either in the stationary position or
in the accelerating position. According to the survey methods incorporated in ISO: 5130-1982 E,
any open space with a flat area made of concrete, asphalt or any other hard material can
constitute a suitable test site. Any obstacle closure than 3 m to the microphone is not
permissible. The vehicle has to be at least at a distance of 1 m from the edge of the pavement.
At the time of taking measurement, the background noise shall be at least 10 dB less than the
levels measured during the test. The vehicle has to be located at the centre of the test area with
its gears in the neutral position and the clutch in the engaged condition. The microphone is to
be directed towards the outlet orifice and located at a distance of 0.5 m from the orifice. The
microphone should be held at the level of the outlet orifice of exhaust gases, but in any case,
the height above the ground should be at least 0.2 m. For free field measurement, the reference
axis of the SLM should be parallel to the ground and shall make an angle of 45 ±10 degrees
with the plane containing the direction of the flow of the exhaust gases. If n be the engine
speed for producing maximum power, the engine speed shall be stabilized as under:
For vehicles, other than motor cycles, with controlled ignition/diesel engine 3n/4
For motorcycles, if n > 500 rpm n/2
For motorcycles, if n > 500 rpm 3n/4
With the settings as above and when the engine speed stabilizes, the throttle is to be
suddenly closed and the noise is to be measured during this brief period of constant engine
speed and also throughout the retardation of engine speed. Only the highest level is to be
recorded. It must be remembered, however, that the values of noise level so obtained are not
the representatives of the total noise emitted by the vehicle when in motion.
For accelerating road vehicles in motion, the ISO: 362-1981 E specifies conditions for
measuring the noise emitted, and the measurements relate to the operating conditions of the
vehicle. The measured noise levels are reproducible and give the highest values of the noise
level consistent with urban driving conditions. The technique requires the test site to be
substantially levelled, dry and its texture be such that the tyre noise is not excessive. The space
of 50 m radius around the centre of the track should be free of large reflecting objects. The
test track as well as the surface of the site up to 10 m from the centre of the track, shall consist
of concrete, asphalt or similar hard materials. At the time of taking measurement, the
background noise shall be at least 10 dB less than the levels measured during the test. The
distance of the reference line C-C' on the test track from the microphone shall be 7.5 m and
the microphone shall be located 1.2 m above the ground. The reference axis of the sound level
meter shall be kept horizontal and for free-field measurement, shall be directed perpendicular
to the path of the vehicle. Figure 11.1 illustrates the geometrical configuration of the test site
for measuring noise of accelerated road vehicles.
P Microphone
P,
Microphone Q'
Fig. 11.1 Geometrical Configuration of the Test Site.
Measurements are to be taken on vehicles in unladen condition and before taking the
measurements, the engine should be brought to its normal operating condition in respect of
temperature and tuning. It is required that the vehicle shall approach the line P-P' in second
gear at a speed of 50 km/hr following its path along the centre line as closely as possible. As
soon as the front of the vehicle approaches the line P-P', the throttle shall be fully opened, as
quickly as possible, and held fully open until the rear of the vehicle reaches the line Q-Q'. At
this instant, the throttle shall be closed as quickly as possible. Reading of maximum SPL
indicated during each passage of the vehicle, between the lines P-P' and Q-Q' must be taken on
both sides of the vehicle. For the test readings to be valid, the difference between the two
readings of maximum SPL on two sides of the vehicle must not exceed 2 dB.
11.4 ROAD VEHICLES NOISE STANDARD

It was recognized in 1960s that the fast growth in transport vehicles were affecting the
environmental qualities in cities and towns world over. The world-wide awareness about the
harmful effects of noise from various modes of transport led to the introduction of regulations
in number of countries. Test procedures were also laid down wherein driving conditions were
so simulated as to generate condition of maximum noise level, expected under urban
conditions, as detailed above. Over the years, European Economic Community has
recommended noise limits for road vehicles for European countries and the major vehicle
manufacturers are primarily concerned with meeting these EEC noise limits rather than the
noise limits of individual member countries. Tables 11.4 and 11.5 illustrate the recommended
noise limits for various vehicles by EEC.
TABLE 11.4 Road vehicle noise limits: EEC recommendations
Vehicle description Noise limits in dB(A)

1972 1977 1985-86 1988-89 1995-96
Passenger car 82 80 80 77 74
Minibus > 9 seats > 3.5t — 81 81 78 for < 2t —
79 for (2t — 3.5t)
Bus > 9 seats > 3.5t 89 82 82 80 for < 150 kW 78
Bus > 9 seats > 147 kW — 85 85 83 —
Light truck/van < 3.5t — 81 81 78 for < 2t —
79 for (2t — 3.5t) —
Medium truck/van > 3.5t — 86 86 81 for < 75 kW —
83 for (75 — 150) kW
Heavy trucks > 147 kW > 12t 91 88 88 84 80
TABLE 11.5 Road vehicle noise limits: EEC recommendations (motor cycles)
Motorcycles 1978 1987 1995-96

Capacity 5 80 cc 78 77 75
Capacity 5 125 cc 80 80 for 80-175 cc 78
Capacity 5 350 cc 83 82 for > 175 cc —
Capacity 5 500 cc 85 82 for > 175 cc —
Capacity > 500 cc 86 82 for > 175 cc 80
Besides taking measures to cut down noise levels of road vehicles, widening of the roads,
ensuring better road conditions and resorting to one-way traffic, wherever possible, are some
of the steps to reduce traffic noise.
Main contributor to noise from road transport vehicles is the Engine propulsion system.
This includes engine, exhaust, airtake, cooling fan, part of gearbox, etc. As can be seen from
the Table 11.6, noise from engine propulsion system is mainly a function of the engine speed.
TABLE 11.6 Intensity of noise level as a function of engine speed for various parts of the
propulsion system (Priede, 1982)
Propulsion system component Speed factor governing intensity of noise level

Air intake N3 to N4.5, where N is the number of RPM
Exhaust N2 to N4.5,
Cooling fan N5 x D7, where D is the diameter of the fan
Engine N2 to N5 x B5 where B is the diameter of the cylinder
Gears N2
Tyres V2.5 to V4.5 x W3 where V is the vehicle speed in
km/hr and W is the tyre width.
11.5 NOISE DUE TO CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS AND DOMESTIC

APPLIANCES
This represents another category of noise sources which concern mechanical engineers. The
European Economic Community has laid down noise standards for construction equipments as
also for the earth-moving equipments. Since many countries follow these recommendations,
the same are reproduced in Tables 11.7 and 11.8.
TABLE 11.7 Noise limits prescribed by EEC for construction machinery, lawn mowers
Type of equipment Classification for operation Noise level in dB(A)

1986 1987 1991
Compressors Nominal air-flow in m3/min
Q55 101 100
5 < Q 5 10 102 100
10 < Q 5 30 104 102
Q > 30 106 104
Tower cranes welding generators Maximum welding current
200 A 104 101
> 200 A 101 100
Power generators Electric power in kVA
P52 104 102
2<P58 104 100
8 < P 5 240 103 100
P > 240 105 100
Hand held concrete Mass of appliance in kg
breakers and picks M < 20 110 108
20 5 M 5 35 113 111
M > 35 116 114
Lawn mowers Cutting width in cm
L550 96
50 < L 5 120 100
L > 120 105
TABLE 11.8 Noise limits prescribed by EEC for earth-moving machinery < 500 kW
Type of equipment Classification of electric Prescribed noise level in dB(A)

power in kVA 1997 2001
Tracked machines P 5 65 107 104
except excavators P > 65 LWA = 87 + 11 logioP LWA = 87 + 11 logioP
Wheeled dozers P 5 55 104 101
Loaders, excavator P > 55 LWA = 85 + 11 log ioP LWA = 82 + 11 log ioP
Loaders, excavators P 5 15 96 93
P > 15 LWA = 83 + 11 log ioP LWA = 80 + 11 log ioP
A number of domestic appliances are strong noise producers. Table 11.9 gives a list of
such domestic appliances along with their noise levels. As good citizens, all of us need to know
the extent up to which they cause indoor as well as outdoor noise nuisance. A variety of
appliances, e.g. food mixers/liquidizers, whistling kettles, electric drill, handoperated lawn
mowers, alarm clocks (electric), vacuum cleaners are capable of generating noise levels to the
tune of 77-91 dB.
TABLE 11.9 Typical domestic appliances and their noise levels
Domestic appliances Noise level in dB(A)

Food mixers/liquidizers 60-80
Whistling kettles 81
Toasters popping up 78
Coffee percolators 54
Gas cookers 44
Washing machines (washing/spinning) 66/72
Dish washers 69
Sewing machines (electric) 74
Alarm clocks 60-80
Exhaust fans 60
Vacuum cleaners 77
Electric drill (fast speed) 91
Hair driers (cold/hot) 70/71
Lawn mower (hand operated) 81
Bath water (filling/emptying) 73/66
Flush toilets (high level cistern/low level cistern) 82/76
Door bells 79
Telephones 77
In India, noise limits of some of the selected domestic appliances and construction
equipments have been notified in Part E, Schedule VI of Environment (Protection) Rules,
1986 published on May 19, 1993. These permissible noise limits are applicable at the
manufacturing stages and are given in Table 11.10. It is economically advisable to choose a
quieter machine which may be more expensive rather than using a cheaper one, which requires
considerable expenses during noise and vibration control exercise subsequently. For instance,
TABLE 11.10 Notified noise limits in India for domestic appliances and construction equipments at the
manufacturing stage
Category of domestic appliances/construction equipments Permissible noise limits in dB(A)
1. Window air conditioners (1-1.5t) 68

2. Air coolers 60
3. Refrigerators 46
4. Domestic diesel generators 85-90
5. Compactors (rollers), front loaders, Concrete mixures,
cranes (moveable), vibrators and saws 75
the choice of chiller in an air conditioning installation, in the order of increasing cost is: the
reciprocating chillers, centrifugal chillers and absorption machines. However, if the choice is
made in favour of the cheapest one (i.e. the reciprocating chiller), it will turn out to be much
more expensive because of the extra cost required at the time of controlling vibration and noise
in the plant. Again, gear pumps and other oil hydraulic pumps are usually exceedingly noisy
but due to less horse power requirement, a designer is tempted to make a choice in its favour.
Similarly, low-pressure, high capacity blowers are usually the most noisy even at low rpm and,
therefore, should not be preferred. Well-made centrifugal fans, particularly those with
backward curved airfoil blades are the least noisy. As against this large, high-speed propeller
type fans are usually the most noisy, as the tip speed becomes very high even at relatively low
rpm.
11.6 INDUSTRIAL NOISE SOURCES

There are two aspects of industrial noise—the noise inside the factory (which affects the
employees only) and the noise outside the industries. The noise which is considered
unacceptable by the employees, usually constitutes a noise nuisance to the adjoining residents
as well. Noise is not a new problem in industry. For a long time, however, this problem was
accepted by workers and management simply as a part of their job.
Most machines and manufacturing processes generate noise as an unwanted by-product of
their output. Offensive industrial noises can be divided in four categories:
1. Continuous machinery noise
2. High-speed repetitive actions that create intense tonal sounds
3. Flow induced noise
4. The impact of a working tool on a work-piece
A careful look at the industrial environment reveals that there exists a large variation of
noise sources. Many noise sources are characteristics of a given industry, while others are
common to a large number of widely different industrial plants. Some of the typical sources of
noise, that are commonly encountered, are listed in Table 11.11.
TABLE 11.11 Typical noise sources in industries
Category of noise sources Typical examples
Electro-mechanical devices Motor and generator

Impact process Punch, hammers, press
Moving metal surfaces contacting fluids Compressor, fan, pump
Gas stream Air intake, air, steam and gas jets, vent
Combustion process Furnace: flames and burners
Metal contacting metal Gears, gear trains, bearings and rollers
Moving fluids in confined metal spaces Ducts, pipe, valve
Unbalanced parts Shaft: vibrating, oscillating and reciprocating parts
Cutting tools Cutting, grinding and machining process
Independent studies indicate that in refineries, chemical plants and similar other
industrial plants, the priority ratings for noise reduction could be assigned in the order as
under:
Type of machines Priority ratings
Centrifugal compressor 1
Turbines 2
Centrifugal pumps 3
Reciprocating compressors 3
Gears 3
Rotary compressors 4
Gas turbines 5
Certainly, this need not necessarily be the order of priority in other projects.
Strictly speaking, there are enormous number of potential noise sources in industries. It
is not physically possible to list each and every source of industrial noise. However, there are
only a few basic noise-producing mechanisms, and their recognition enables us to adopt a
systematic approach aimed at noise control. For instance, a punch press noise originates from
several basic sources, e.g. metal-to-metal impact, gear meshing and high velocity air. In the
plastic moulding machines, the noise originates from cooling fans, hydraulic pumps and high
velocity air.
11.7 INDUSTRIAL NOISE CONTROL-STRATEGIES

Noise control does not necessarily mean reduction in noise level. A more logical definition of
noise control is maintenance of noise level appropriate for a given task. In industrial
applications, however, noise control does mean reduction in noise level. It follows from the
equal loudness contours that any sound of given sound pressure level sound the loudest at
frequencies between 2000 to 5000 Hz. We are, therefore, always at some pains to reduce
acoustic energy contents of sound at these frequencies first. This is all the more important,
because sounds generated by most of the mechanical equipments encompass the entire audible
frequency range of human beings. Large diesel engines, for instance, produce substantial
acoustic energy at frequencies between 30 Hz to 10,000 Hz. Also, the jet aircrafts have
significant output throughout the entire range.
Industrial and construction machinery cover a very wide range of equipments. For
controlling noise in an industrial plant, one has to decide the priority based not only on the
noise level of a machine but also on the number of machines of that type. To explain the
implied meaning, let us assume that machine P generates SPL of, say, 80 dB(A) and the
machine Q generates, say, 70 dB(A). Let us assume further that there is only one machine of
type P and, say, 16 machines of type Q each generating an SPL of 70 dB(A). Combined SPL
of these 16 machines will be 82 dB(A).
Noise control problem may be considered to be a system problem. All the components
that constitute a system can be manipulated to achieve a particular result. Any such system may
be assumed to consist of three parts—the source, path and receiver.
Any machine component/mechanism from which the acoustic energy originates is called
the source. A machine or moving parts like a gear, a fan, pump-impeller, compressor parts, a
press or a stationary component like an arc furnace may constitute a source. Identification of
source usually helps in taking steps to reduce/ eliminate troublesome vibration and/or noise.
Provision of an enclosure around the troublesome machine or machine component is one such
measure.
The path implies course/direction taken by sound pressure waves to reach the listener. A
path may be direct or indirect. It can also be airborne or structure borne or any combination
thereof. With each path, inherently different properties of attenuation, radiation, frequency and
absorption are associated. Many times, it is possible to modify the path along which the sound
is transmitted and reduce the noise nuisance at the receiver end. Provision of a barrier is one
such measure. A typical path followed by noise for reaching a nearby resident is illustrated in
Fig. 11.2.
Structure of
Machine House walls ,I,. Resident
factory
Fig. 11.2 Illustration of a typical path between a noise source and a resident.
In summer, as the house and factory windows are open and a direct path is available to
noise to propagate as airborne noise, directly from the source to the receiver the complainant
is the obvious receiver, who may be disturbed in his sleep. The complainant may be a secretary
taking dictation, audience during a course of a lecture or a resident who may feel that the noise
is interfering with his/her routine activities, and normal healthful life. Protecting the receiver
in an industry by providing an enclosure for him or earplugs/mufflers are some of the steps
that can be taken at the receiver end in reducing noise nuisance problem.
11.8 NOISE CONTROL AT THE SOURCE

Usually it is more economical and efficient to control the noise at the source. Methods of noise
control at the source may be broadly categorized as under:
Through vibration control: If the noise is attributed to unbalanced machine components,
they should be properly balanced. Suitable dampers may also be used to reduce the amplitude
of vibration. In some of the cases, it may be advantageous to alter the frequency of operation
to relatively insensitive frequency range (f < 500 Hz and f > 5 kHz). If vibrations are due to
dry friction, the parts should be suitably lubricated to minimize vibration and noise. One may
also think of using non-metallic gears in place of conventional metallic gears, wherever load
conditions permit. Replacement of straight spur gears by helical gears alone can reduce noise
level by 3 to 10 dB(A). Lower pressure angles usually produce quieter gears. Alternately,
vibrating parts can be isolated from surroundings and mounted on suitable vibration isolators.
The best type of mountings for a given machine are:
1. Steel or rubber springs: limiting machine speeds 11 rps
2. Rubber in shear: from 11.7 to 20 rps
3. Rubber or cork in compression: over 20 rps
4. Compressed steel braid: all speeds
As per general convention followed, all the manufacturers of vibration absorbers specify
the natural frequency of the isolators when supporting a specific weight. It is advised to ensure
that this natural frequency lies between 0.5 to 0.25 times the disturbing frequency.
By changing location/orientation of noise sources: Since sound intensity decreases as
square of the distance from the noise source, the location of the potential noise source may be
conveniently kept in the farthest corner of the industrial premises. Thus, the electric arc
furnaces, the impact-producing machines, the blowers, boilers, etc. may be located in the
farthest corner so that the rest of the industrial personnel can be saved of exposure to excessive
noise level. Similarly, the exhaust side of fans, blowers, IC engines, etc. may be directed away
from the factory premises. There is a word of caution, however. This can, at best, be a short-
term solution only. As the time passes, new factories/ residential colonies can develop in the
vicinity and the solution cited above can invite strong protests from the residents.
Changes in design and processes: Besides the option of choosing quieter equipments, one
may consider introducing a different process in place of the noisy process. For instance, one
may use forging presses rather than hammers and scraping may be substituted by chipping.
Such an approach certainly has its own limitation, primarily because an engineer has to justify
the cost of additional investment required.
Another obvious approach is to reduce the power consumption of the noisy equipment as
much as possible. This is because the acoustic power is approximately directly proportional to
the power consumed by the operation. Any step aimed at reducing the power requirement,
involving modifications to tools, procedures or equipment, is certain to reduce the noise.
Cooling towers located outside may become noise-nuisance at night. If two speed motors are
used in place of single speed motors, fan speed may be reduced during cooler evening hours.
This step may help to cut down the noise level by as much as 10 dB(A) at the night.
An appropriate design of a component, incorporating provisions of noise reduction, turn

out to be much more convenient and economical in long run. An interesting example follows
from American automobile industry. Because of noise regulations in USA, the automobile
manufacturers were required to cut down noise level of their products. This trend is visible in
the recommendations of EEC (vide Tables 11.4 and 11.5).
Noise from nozzles or open jets, used widely in industry, may be cut down significantly
by reducing pressures to a practical minimum (say, 200 kPa) for air discharged to the
atmosphere. One may also consider using discharge or exhaust mufflers specifically designed
for this purpose. It may also be possible to use automatic valves or similar devices to limit
discharges to only the necessary part of the working cycle. This may help to cut down the
noise level by 10-20 dB(A).
For reducing furnace noise, one may opt for electric furnaces which are much quieter
than those with burners. In case of existing 'noisy furnaces', the burners may be properly
adjusted. Well-muffled airintakes, provision of proper breeching and stacks result in quieter
furnaces.
Vibrating conveyors may have bare metal rollers. These conveyors are usually noise
producing, particularly when they employ bottle-to-bottle or cane-to-cane impact to move the
parts. Newer vibratory conveyors which are more efficient and much quieter are available for
almost any use. They can reduce the noise level by more than 20 dB(A).
Using sound enclosures: A yet another way of reducing noise-nuisance from a source, is to
provide a suitable enclosure around the source. There are different ways of classifying the
enclosures. We may have full enclosures or partial ones. Again, full enclosures can be of two
types—large or small. If the machine in the enclosure occupies a large portion of the enclosed
space, it is called a large enclosure, but if the machine occupies a small portion of the enclosed
volume, it is called a small enclosure. An enclosure may also be used to enclose people rather
than a machine. To be the most effective, an acoustic enclosure must be tight and the cracks as
well as openings must be kept to a bare minimum. This is essential because relatively small
openings can destroy the effectiveness of a well-designed enclosure drastically. It is necessary
to seal carefully mechanical, electrical and other utility connections, if any.
It is not enough to provide massive partitions around the source to obtain an effective
enclosure. This is because the volume enclosed, surrounding the source, becomes the reservoir
of acoustic energy. Due to the obstruction to the propagation of sound energy through the
enclosure walls, the sound level in the enclosure increases first. The sound level inside the
enclosure continues to grow until the rate of loss of energy within the enclosure becomes equal
to the rate of production of sound energy from the source. Since the sound can escape from the
enclosure only through the walls, it follows that the sound energy inside the enclosure will
build up until the rate of radiated sound energy through the walls is equal to the rate of
production of sound energy from the source. Thus, whatever sound energy is generated per
unit time from the source, the same is transmitted out through the walls. This is a situation
which indicates that the enclosure is no more effective.
It is, thus, imperative to provide alternative means (e.g. absorbing materials) within the
enclosure so that the acoustic energy can be absorbed and converted into the heat energy,
increasing the effectiveness of the enclosure. The walls of the enclosure, therefore, should be
made of combination of materials which will provide isolation, absorption, and damping.
Reflection of sound from the walls of the enclosure is responsible for build-up of acoustic
energy which, in turn, leads to the vibration of the walls and radiations of acoustic energy
thereby. To reduce the possibility of sound reflection from the walls of the enclosure, the
inside of the walls should be covered with suitable absorbing materials. It is rather unfortunate
that all the materials that have good sound-absorbing property, do also have good thermal-
insulating property. This naturally implies that temperature-sensitive processes cannot be
allowed to operate inside the enclosure. It is, however, possible to provide access for cooling
air by way of providing chimney-like construction.
A major problem faced with the acoustic enclosures is in respect of the access to various
parts of the machine that are enclosed in the enclosure. Access may be necessary for, say,
monitoring, adjustment of controls, the supply of raw materials and the removal of finished
products. Access doors for maintenance should be heavy and fit properly and the openings that
facilitate the flow of materials must be handled with care. A golden rule is that we should
never enclose more than what is actually necessary. Thus, if only a particular component of a
machine, e.g. a belt drive, a gearbox or the engine is considered to be the primary source of
noise, then only that component should be enclosed. A small window, preferably double
glazed, allows gauges to be read even with the enclosure in position. If the presence of
operator is considered necessary within the enclosure, he/she must be provided ear protector
(e.g. earplug or earmuff).
11.9 NOISE CONTROL ALONG THE PATH

By path, we mean the course taken by sound during propagation. As can be expected, different
paths have different properties of attenuation (i.e. reduction in magnitude), radiation,
frequency and absorption. The path taken by noise can be direct, indirect, airborne, structure-
borne or a combination of the two. It is, therefore, necessary to establish the major path along
which noise is transmitted. One must ascertain prominent one amongst the airborne and
structure- borne noise. When the medium in which the noise starts spreading from the source
is air, the noise is called airborne. Airborne noise is caused by sources that radiate directly to
the air such as traffic noise or music coming from an apartment. As against this, when the
noise starts with vibration within a structure, it is called structures-borne. The structure borne
noise has its origin in the vibrations of wall, floor or any building element caused by the direct
mechanical contact with the source, such as mechanical equipment or footsteps.
Apart from the noise control at the source, it is possible to obtain significant reduction in
the noise at the receiver by controlling the noise that 'builds up' from the indirect paths. This
phenomenon is called reverberation. The phenomenon of reverberation is attributed to lack of
absorbing surface in region where the source is kept. In industrial plants, the walls, floor and
the ceilings are typically hard and provides a good reflective surface for sound. At the source,
the reflected noise level will increase until the rate of sound absorption equals the rate of sound
generation. The reverberation or indirect path transmission may significantly affect the noise
level at a given location. It may be a desirable practice to provide highly sound absorbent
surfaces in a room so that the intensity of sound would be reduced each time the sound gets
reflected.
Pathways of airborne sound through partitions: Walls and other partitions are supposed
to prevent transmission of noise from one space to another. Following are the ways by which
the airborne noise may pass through a partition:
1. If the partition is rigid and non-porous, the incident sound penetrates into the
partition and having propagated through the material, radiates from the other side.
This is particularly true with a concrete wall. The transmission of sound energy of
this type through the walls and roofs is generally quite small for airborne sound, but
may be considerable for impact sound.
2. If the partition is flexible, it may be likened to a vibrating diaphragm which
generates soundwaves on the other side. This is particularly true with windowpanes
or a plaster board panel.
3. If the material of partition is porous, some of the sound energy gets converted into
heat due to friction between vibrating air particles in the material. A major portion
of the energy, however, propagates through the pores to the other side of the
partition. Such partition materials are, however, poor sound insulators, especially at
low frequencies.
4. Sound may pass through a crack or a gap in the partition. These gaps can be due to
joints in the panels, common electric outlets, common pipes or heating ducts.
The ratio of the airborne sound intensity of an infinitely large wall, on the side of the
source, to the sound intensity on the other side of the wall is called the transmission loss. It
can also be expressed as the difference of sound pressure levels in front and behind the wall.
The space on the rear side of the wall is supposed to be open. The transmission loss (TL) of a
partition (wall, ceiling or floor) varies with frequency. The TL values of different partitions
are, therefore, measured and tabulated against different frequencies ranging between 125 and
4000 Hz. Table 11.12 gives some of the representative values of TL for some commonly-used
constructions for building partitions. The data for walls and floor-ceilings are taken from
Berendt et al., 1967, while that for windows and doors are taken from Bishop Hirtle, 1968.
The very fact that the 'transmission loss' is frequency dependent makes its use difficult
in practice. A single average value of TL would be handy and, therefore, desirable. However,
due to its frequency dependence, it could correspond poorly to the subjective impression of
sound insulation. A practical approach consists in evolving a single number criteria, called the
sound transmission class (STC), by applying appropriate weightings to the TL values obtained
from the table similar to Table 11.12. The standard contour is comparable with the shape of
the A-weighting curve of the level meter. The STC of a given specimen is established by
plotting the TL values against frequency, as shown in Fig. 11.3. This TL curve is now
compared with a standardized reference frequency curve—the STC contour—as it is called.
The STC contour is moved vertically, parallel to itself, until the sum of deviations of the test
curve from the STC contour on the lower side of the contour at 16 test frequencies is less than
or equal to 32 dB and at the same time, none of these deviations exceeds 8 dB. With this
adjustment, the TL value of the intersection point of the STC contour with the 500 Hz
frequency line is taken to be the sound transmission class value. The deviations of the TL
curve below the STC contour is indicated by the cross-hatched area.
TABLE 11.12 Transmission Loss in dB for a few common building constructions
Material Thickness (cm) Frequency (Hz) Ratings

125 250 500 1K 2K 4K STC HC
(A) Walls
1 Solid concrete 8 35 40 44 52 59 64 47
2 Concrete (15), layers of plaster 18 39 42 50 58 64 66 53
3 Solid concrete blocks, layers of plaster 41 50 54 59 65 71 68 63
4 Brick (30), without plaster 31 45 44 52 58 60 61 56
5 Brick (11), layers of plaster 14 34 34 41 50 56 58 42
6 Stone (61), layers of plaster 64 50 53 52 58 61 68 56
7 Cylinder block (10), layer of plaster 13 36 37 44 51 55 62 46
8 Hollow gypsum block (10) gypsum 15 25 37 46 53 56 63 47
lath + resilient clips
9 Double brick (11) wall, cavity (15), 46 48 54 58 64 69 75 62
layer of plaster
(B) Floor ceilings
1 Reinforced concrete slab 10 48 42 45 55 57 66 44 25
2 Reinforced concrete slab + carpeting 11 48 42 45 55 57 66 44 80
and pad
3 Concrete (15), wood, battens floating 24 38 44 52 55 60 65 55 57
on glass wool, layer of plaster
4 Concrete (14), floating floor, 38 40 46 54 59 62 68 55 53
suspended ceiling
(C) Windows
1 Sliding, aluminum frame 0.2 10 14 17 18 18 20
2 Double window (0.2), air space (0.5) 1.0 18 21 19 24 27 18
(D) Doors
1 Hollow-core flush, 6.7 kg 4 11 16 16 16 21 23
2 Solid-core flush, 21.1 kg 4 20 25 23 25 25 28
Note: The numbers in parantheses indicate thickness in cm.
70
60
Transmission loss (dB)
50
40
38
30 STC-38
contour
20
10
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Band centre frequency
Fig. 11.3 Determination of the STC.
Impact insulation class (IIC): The impact noise is a structure-borne noise and in most of
the cases, the impact noise is generated in floor-ceiling systems of multistorey buildings.
Evaluation of all ceiling-floor constructions has to be done in terms of reduction of both the
airborne noise and structure-borne impact vibrations.
It is important to note that whereas the airborne noise can be reduced by heavy, rigid
materials, the structure-borne noise is best reduced by something soft, e.g. cork or springs.
The IIC is a single number rating for evaluating the performance of floor-ceiling in
reducing the impact sound. A higher value of IIC rating ensures a more efficient floor-ceiling
in terms of reducing impact-sound transmission. Noise is generated by a standard tapping
machine of known performance characteristics, which serves as an impact 'source'. The
machine hammers on the floor specimen and the sound pressure level is measured at 16 test
frequencies in the room below. The performance curve is compared with a reference IIC
contour, and the IIC is established by following a procedure similar to that used in the
determination of the STC for a material. Table 11.12 also lists IIC rating values for a few
selected floor-ceiling materials.
Sound absorbing materials: At the onset, it must be understood that all materials are
acoustic materials in the strict sense of the term. All these materials absorb, reflect or radiate
sound and also damp vibrations. In fact, the acoustic characteristics are as basic as the other
properties of materials such as elasticity, hardness or density. The acoustical properties of the
materials are directly related to the basic physical properties of the materials. To reduce
significantly the indirect sound that reaches the receiver by reflected path, sound absorption
material can be applied to the ceiling, floor, and walls to remove as much reflected sound as
possible.
Porous acoustic materials are the materials which possess a cellular structure of
interlocking pores. The sound energy gets converted into thermal energy within these
interconnected open cells. The viscous flow losses caused by the wave propagation in the
material and internal frictional losses caused by the motion of the material's fibres, constitute
the actual mechanism of noise reduction. Thickness, density, porosity, flow resistance, fibre
orientation are some of the parameters that decide the absorption characteristics of a material.
Common porous absorption materials are available in different forms. They are made from
vegetable/mineral fibres and elastomeric foams. The porous materials may be available either
as pre-fabricated units, e.g. glass blankets, fibre-boards or lay-in tiles. The material may be
either sprayed or trowelled on the surface. The absorption material can also be in the form of
a foam or open-cell plastic. Each type of material has its own advantages and disadvantages
and use of a specific material is dictated by the type of application. Besides the acoustic
efficiency, the cost of installation/maintenance, wear resistance, the aesthetics and
environmental factors govern the choice of material.
11.10 ACOUSTIC BARRIERS

Often, noise isolation is helpful in reducing the airborne noise before it reaches the receiver.
This is accomplished by introducing a sound barrier between a source of noise and a receiver
so as to reduce the direct component of noise at the receiver. It must be remembered that the
barriers do not reduce reverberant noise.
The acoustic barrier consists of a heavy non-porous material or a combination of two

such materials so that their acoustic impedance (p.v), is an extreme mismatch to that of the
intervening air. In principle, the natural frequency of the barrier should be quite small
compared to that of the noise. The most promising acoustical materials are those which reflect,
contain or isolate the sound. Containing sound and introducing a barrier to reduce the airborne
noise constitute a major problem in most noise-control works. While any surface reflects some
of the acoustic energy incident on it, only heavy (massive) and airtight surfaces can
significantly and effectively contain or stop the sound. The purpose of a barrier is usually to
maintain certain difference of sound level on its two sides. Thus, if a noise level of 60 dB
exists on the source side and the permissible noise level on the other side is only 40 dB, then
the barrier wall must provide an isolation of 20 dB at least.
It is possible to locate a new building relatively close to the noise source if the noise
levels at the building site are effectively reduced through some measure, e.g. through thick
growth of trees or by constructing a shielding wall. When the barriers are located between the
sound source and the building, they interrupt airborne noise. A sound wave incident on the
barrier wall, is reflected back towards the sound source, but the sound waves incident at the
edge are diffracted (bent) while entering the space on the other side of the barrier. The
reflection of sound waves from the barrier gives rise to the phenomenon of reverberation. The
effectiveness of a barrier reduces at low frequencies (with longer wavelength) as the sound
waves bend around the wall edge with the wavelength becoming comparable with the size of
the wall. From economical considerations, the usual height of a barrier wall is kept 6 metres.
A barrier wall of this type can ensure noise reduction around 10-15 dB. For a higher
attenuation, the barrier wall should be located close to the noise source.
Hedges and single row trees cause an illusion of noise reduction; their actual contribution
in noise reduction from traffic noise is only minor. For better results, thick wooded patches are
essential. A reduction of 3-4 dB at lower frequencies and 10-12 dB at higher frequencies is
possible if 30 metres thick wooded area of leafy trees is provided. Barriers used in open-plan
offices do not extend up to ceiling and provides only a visual separation of the working zone.
Their actual contribution in terms of acoustic isolation is very limited.
11.11 NOISE CONTROL AT THE RECEIVER

Probably, the most obvious and economical noise-control method at the receiver end is to
isolate him/her from the noise. This is particularly true if a single operator is exposed to
excessive noise level. If he/she is not required to move quite often, providing a totally enclosed
booth or a partial booth for him/her may be a good proposition. The interior of such booth
should be made up of highly absorptive material/lining and the viewing panels should be made
so as to provide attenuation of almost the same order as that of booth panels. The noise
exposure level for the operator can be reduced by 5-25 dB(A) with such arrangement.
Alternatively, a method based on administrative control, described under 'Daily Noise
Dose' in Section 10.7, may be used to save the operators and employees from excessive noise
exposures. The method consists in rotating operators between noisy and quiet operational
workplaces during the working hours.
Methods aimed at personal protection: It is primarily the responsibility of the industry to

protect employees against hearing loss due to excessive noise exposure in the industry. The
most sensitive part of the human ear that is prone to damage due to intense noise is the cochlea
(inner ear). The hearing protection devices are designed to reduce (attenuate) the noise level
that enters the outer and middle ears before it reaches the inner ear. The noise spectrum must
be taken into account. Noise of a narrow band concentration is more likely to damage hearing
rather than noise of wide octave range. The two sets of noise level criteria, suggested in this
connection, are given in Table 11.13.
TABLE 11.13 Hearing hazard noise levels
Octave centre frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Wide band noise (dB) 103 97 92 89 87 85 85 87
Narrow band noise (dB) 98 92 87 84 82 80 80 82
Whenever an industrial worker is exposed to noise level of 85 dB or more in any of the

speech interference octaves during the normal working hours, he/she must be advised to wear
some ear defender. He/she should also be asked to undergo audiometric test under the guidance
of competent specialists.
Ear defenders. Whenever it is not practical to reduce noise in an industry to an acceptable
level, it is necessary to protect the hearing of the employee through ear defenders. Ear
defenders of good quality are capable of reducing the noise level at the ear by about 35-45 dB,
depending on the frequency of the sound. Apart from the passage through ear defender, the
vibrations of the skull from the incident sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear by way
of the outer and middle ears or directly to the inner ear. Due to this additional pathway of the
sound, the maximum attenuation obtainable with hearing protectors is limited to approximately
55 dB. Maximum attenuation obtainable also depends on parameters such as type of protector
used, the compliance of the material used in the device, the design and the prevailing
frequency components of the noise. A certain degree of responsibility rests with the employer
to educate the employee about the necessity of wearing hearing protectors and to persuade him
to follow the instructions. There are many types and brands of hearing protectors available in
the market and while selecting a particular protector one needs to consider factors such as
comfort, acceptability by wearer, cost, durability, hygiene, chemical stability and availability.
Earplugs (aural or inserts): The earplugs or the inserts fit directly into the ear canal. They
are made of rubber, plastic or wax-impregnated cotton. The insert will be effective only if
they fit properly in the ear canal ensuring contact along the entire circumference. For this
purpose, they should be so shaped as to exert outward pressure for proper sealing action. The
earplugs are available in following categories:
Pre-fabricated earplugs: The pre-fabricated/pre-moulded earplugs are available in three to
five different sizes. They are made from soft, flexible material so as to conform readily to
various shapes of ear canal and provide snug, airtight and comfortable fit. The earplug must
have non-toxic material and smooth surfaces and should permit easy cleaning with soap and
water. Necessarily, the material should be such as to permit the earplug to retain its shape and
flexibility over long period of use, even in the presence of earwax. They may have
symmetrical or asymmetrical shape and may have one or more flexible flanges that will adapt
to a large number of different shapes of ear canals. The V-51 R is one of the most versatile
and efficient pre-moulded ear plug. It has an asymmetric shape with a single flexible flange
that enables the plug to fit inside a variety of different ear-shaped canals.
Disposable and malleable earplugs: They are made from non-porous, easily-formed, low-
cost materials such as cotton, wax, glass wool or combination thereof. These earplugs are
reasonably comfortable and if made correctly, can provide attenuation comparable to that
obtained from the pre-fabricated type. Ordinary cotton wool is extremely porous and cannot
offer enough attenuation. In view of its inefficiency and the possible dangers on account of
false sense of security, its use should be avoided. The most practical and efficient type of
protection can be obtained by using glass wool as disposable hearing protector. It consists of
extremely fine glass fibres of about 1 micron thickness and can ensure reasonable attenuation
when inserted in ear canal as per the instructions of the manufacturer.
Some of the disadvantages of the earplugs are that they require tight seal and, therefore,
may cause discomfort. These plugs can be lost easily and cannot be monitored easily by safety
personnel. They become hard or shrink if not replaced at required intervals. They may elicit a
rough response on insertion by the user. To make them more comfortable for user, they are,
therefore, likely to be tempered with by user by way of cutting bungs or drilling holes. This
will certainly alter or destroy the attenuation capability of the earplug.
Custom moulded earplugs: These inserts are generally available in the form of kits
containing some form of silicon rubber and a fixative agent. The two are mixed together
before inserting into the ear canal and the outer ear of an individual. When subjected to curing,
a permanent earplug is obtained for the person concerned. The earplug can be inserted and
removed any number of times without affecting their performance. These earplugs enjoy
psychological advantage in that they will only fit the person for whom it was intended.
TABLE 11.14 Attenuation in dB obtainable for different hearing protectors at given test frequencies in
terms of mean values and standard deviation (in parentheses)
Types of protectors Attenuation in dB at different test frequencies (mean values and

standard deviations)
125 Hz 250 Hz 500 Hz 1 kHz 2 kHz 4 kHz 8 kHz
Dry cotton wool plugs 2 (2) 3 (2) 4 (3) 8 (3) 12 (6) 12 (4) 9 (5)
Waxed cotton wool plugs 6 (7) 10 (9) 12 (9) 16 (8) 27 (11) 32 (9) 26 (9)
Glass wool plugs 7 (4) 11 (5) 13 (4) 17 (7) 29 (6) 35 (7) 31 (8)
Personalized ear-mould plugs 15 (7) 15 (8) 16 (5) 17 (5) 30 (5) 41 (5) 28 (7)
Pre-moulded (V-51 R) type plugs 21 (7) 21 (9) 22 (9) 37 (7) 32 (5) 32 (8) 33 (9)
Foam-seal muffs 8 (6) 14 (5) 24 (6) 34 (8) 36 (7) 43 (8) 31 (8)
Fluid-seal muffs 13 (6) 20 (6) 33 (6) 35 (6) 38 (7) 47 (8) 41 (8)
Flying helmet (aircraft) 14 (4) 17 (5) 29 (4) 32 (5) 48 (7) 59 (9) 54 (9)
Semi-insert protectors: These are also called super-aural or canal caps which seal the
external opening of the ear canal and help in achieving sound attenuation. They consist of two
conical soft rubber caps, which are pressed against the entrance to ear canal by a narrow spring
headband. The semi-insert protectors have the obvious advantage in that a single semi-insert
will fit the majority of ears.
The semi-insert protectors are captive and may be reused hygienically at any time. These
inserts are, therefore, especially suitable in industries like food industries, where the loss of
earplug must be avoided. This is equally true for people who are frequently required to enter
noisy environment for short time periods. They are, however, not as comfortable as the other
types of ear defenders, particularly when they must be pressed firmly against the entrance to
ear canal.
Earmuffs: Earmuffs consist of plastic rigid cups that cover completely the external ear and
are held tightly against the sides of the head by a spring-loaded band. The earmuff band is
usually adjustable to compensate for varying head sizes and ear positions. The adjustments may
also permit wearing the same over the top of the head, to the rear of the head or under the
chin. The earmuff seals may be filled with either plastic foam, air or liquid. Liquid-filled seals
are considered marginally better as they provide protection to ear with less headband tension.
Besides robustness, modern foam-filled seals are almost as good as the liquid seals. The force
with which the earmuffs press against the sides of the head is one of the parameters that
decides the attenuation. It is important, therefore, to maintain a correct head band pressure.
The advantage in favour of earmuff is that it provides greater attenuation and secondly,
a given size normally fits most people. Also, the earmuffs can be removed and replaced easily
in a more hygienic way. Thus, their use is recommended in dirty and highly noisy areas and
also for people who are frequently required to move in and out of noisy areas. The main
disadvantages of earmuffs are their cost and bulkiness. The earmuffs tend to make the ears hot.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
11.1 Discuss various methods used in controlling industrial noise.

(SGSITS: July 1996, Aug. 2003)
11.2 Write short notes on:
(a) sound enclosures and
(b) sound barriers used in noise control.
(SGSITS: Nov. 2001)
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1978.
20. May, Daryl N., Handbook of Noise Assessment, Van Nostrand Reinhold, London, 1978
21. Duerden, C., Noise Abatement, Butterworths, London, 1970.
22. Tempest, W., The Noise Handbook, Academic Press, New York, 1985.
23. Yang, S.J. and Ellison, A.J., Machinery Noise Measurement, Oxford University Press,
1985.
24. Singal, S.P., Noise Pollution and Control, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi.
25. Seto, W., Problems of Mechanical Vibrations, Schaum's Series, McGraw-Hill,
Singapore, 1964.
26. Simon Anvoner, Vibration Problems, Sir Isaak Pitman and Sons.
Answers to Selected Review
Questions
Chapter 1
1.1 (a) Velocity

20 units
w = 2.5 rad/s
Scale: I cm = 10 units
50 units 8 units
.4
Acceleration Displacement
(b) 4 units
Velocity
w = 0.5 rad/s
Scale: 1 cm = 2 units
2 units 8 units
4
Acceleration Displacement
1.2 (a) Frequency: 15,r rad/s, time period: 0.133 s

(b) Xmax = 12 mm, V,-,„ = 565.5 mm/s, amax = 26648 mm/s2
(c) At t = 0: X = 10.39 mm, V = 282.7 mm/s, a = 23077.8 mm/s2
At t = 0.2 s: X = 10.392 mm, V = —282.74 mm/s, a = 276933.4 mm/s2
1.3 t = 0.05 sec, .i max = 754 cm/s, / max = —947.48 m/s2
1.5 X = 10.61
1.7 0.4558 m/s2, 0.0465 g
1.8 V,g = 4.053 mm/s, Vrms = 4.502 mm/s, Vpp = 12.732 mm/s
aavg = 258.01 mm/s2, arms = 286.58 mm/s2
app = 810.57 mm/s2
387
332 Answers to Selected Review Questions
1.9 X = 0.689 mm, V = 166.4 mm/s;

Xavg = 0.4386 mm, Vavg = 105.93 mm/s;
Xpp 1.378 mm,
= 332.8 mm/s
Vpp =
1.12 19.635 N-m, 1.032 N-m

1.16 an = 0, bn = 0 when n is odd;
bn - -2 , when n is even
g(n. 1)
1
bo = —
12
CHAPTER 2
2.1 m = 0.422 kg
2.2 fn = 3.59 Hz
2.3 M = 32.49 kg
2.4 con = 35.15 rad/s
2.5 con = 28.98 rad/s
16ka2
2.6 = rad/s
\
k a2 + b2 g
2.7 con = + — rad/s
m lL2 L
(ki + k2)a 11
2.8 When b = ,
a[ mg
(k1 + k2)a2
an,„ = (a + b)19m, =
( a + b)m g}-
I 2g
2.9 fn = 1
27r\ 3(R- r)
2.10 con = 78.68 rad/s

2.11 con = 2.5 rad/s
sAL
2.12 + Ax = 0,
g
sL
= 27c \i— s
Answers to Selected Review Questions 3E3
2.13 fn = 11.6 cps
a2 + b2 k1 g a2 + , 2
2.14 k = k1 =
172 I W l b2
CHAPTER 3
3.1 s = 0.658 and cod = 7.14 rad/s

3.3 (mat) B + (ca2) B + (kb2)19 = 0
b k b
con = — — and cc = N/7n
I
am a
3.4 (m/2) B + (ca2) B + (ka2)0 = 0
4km316 c2a6
(a) cc = 2107n (b) COd = COn
a 4M3/6 k
3.5 ma2 o + kb20 + ca2 0 = 0,
= 2b km
cc
a
3.6 M12 0 + cb2 + ka2 0 = 0
b8
I cb 4
= 1— l' ; =
(1-)cl 4a2ekm3
2aL3 VICM 3
3.7 (a) 8.28 cm, velocity = —54.23 cm/s
(b) (i) cod = 3.82 Hz (ii) x2 = 0.028 cm
3.8 4.4 cm
3.9 c = 5.52 N-s/m
3.10 = 1.104
x5
3.11 (a) 1.673 (b) 3 cm
3.12 k = 57,100 N/m, Fd = 100 N
3.13 k = 2450 N/m, fn = 11.14 Hz
49/41 N, 2/41 cm from equilibrium position
3.14 c = 464.8 N-s/m, Td = 0.199 s
3.15 c , = 54.086 N-s/m, t = 8.67 s
3.16 c = 5.34 N-s/m
CHAPTER 4
4.1 (a) 0 = 0.338 rad
(b) T = 0.53 N-m/rad
(c) 0 = 115.3°
4.2 C= 0.196
fn = 10 Hz
4.3 (a) con = 31.62 rad/s
it
(b) 0 = - rad
2
(c) X = 7.9 x 10-3 m
(d) copeak = 14.14 rad/s
(e) cod = 24.5 rad/s
4.4 (a) X0 = 0.0233 m, Oo = 5.5867°
(b) X0 = 0.010012 m, Oo = 2.866°
4.5 (a) C = 0.175
(b) X = 0.15 cm
0 = 169° 4'
(c) N = 170.9 rpm
X = 0.357 cm
(d) Fd = 7.85 N
F, = 9.6 N
Resultant force F = 12.4 N
4.6 (a) Nreso = 668.8 rpm
(b) X = 6.04 x 10-3 m
4.7 con = 22.15 rad/s
cod = 21.57 rad/s
= 0.038 m, 0 = 42° 29'
4.8 X = 0.525 cm
T.R. = 26.54%
F, = 8010.4 N
4.9 X = 0.0305 cm
F, = 598.4 N
4.10 X = 0.036 mm
4.11 X = 0.069 mm
Fdyn = 0.94 N
4.12 X = 0.087 mm
Fdyn = 1.708 N
Answers to Selected Review Questions 333
4.13 F, = 553.4 N
X = 0.062 cm
4.14 F, = 798.8 N
X = 1.207 x 10-4 m
0 = 167° 25'
4.15 V = 26.86 km/hr
4.16 X = 2.123 cm
F = 3.46 N
4.17 X0 = 0.0735 m
4.18 c = 903.05 N-s/m
F, = 400 N
X = 0.969 cm
4.19 C = 0.3538
4.20 con = 5.66 rad/s
4.21 x = (1.0254) sin (2t - 50.19°) + 3 sin (3t - 90°)
4.22 a = 12.32027 m/s2
X = 123.2 mm
CHAPTER 5
5.1 col = 0 and (02 = 24.25 rad/s
5.2 col = 0 and (02 = \,17 rad/s

Tri
5.3 (4mL2)(.04 - (6mLg + 5kL2 )m2 + (2mg2 + 5Lgk) = 0
2 (2mg + 3Mg + 2k1) ± J(2mg + 3Mg + 2k1)2 - 24m1kg

5.4 COn =
6M1
2m
(i) co2, = 0, / (1+
j 3M
k
(ii) (02, = ,
m+ (3M/2)
5.5 (mL2)a1 + (mgL + k)191 - k02 = 0
(mL2) e2 (mgL + k)02 - k01 = 0
5.6 col = 165.2 rad/s
(02 = 95.06 rad/s
31ii2 Answers to Selected Review Questions
5.7 col = 21.6 rad/s

(02 = 32.4 rad/s
5.8 col = 68.095 rad/s
cot = 29.38 rad/s
4 + k2 k2e2 k1k2e2
5.10 (.0 (02 + = 0
Im
5.12 ofi,2 = ± N5)

2mL
( I° = -2.732, ( I° = 0.732
—/3 ),
5.13 col = 336.0 rad/s, co2 = 77.8 rad/s
= -9.178 x 10-3, = 13.58

B/1 B
5.14 µ= 0.62, M = 6.06 kg, k = 3224 N/m
CHAPTER 6
(k1 +k2 -m1(02) -k2 0 0

-k2 (k2 - k3 -m2(02) -k3 0
6.1 =0
0 -k3 (k3 + k4 -m3(02 ) -k4
0 0 -k4 (k4 + k5 -m4( 2)
6.2 The frequency equation is given by
( 24k 2 3\
6 (1(9 4 16k 2
(1) - (0 +
2
CO 3 =0
in j M
k
(01 = —, = = 2 \1±
1
m m
Fo (TIL)(2TIL - m(0 2 )
6.3 A=
(LmIT)3(06 -6(LmIT) 2(0 4 +(10LmIT)(0 2 -4
Fo (T L)(2T L - m(0 2 )2
B=
(LmIT)3(06 -6(LmIT) 2(0 4 +(10LmIT)(0 2 -4
Fo (TIL)(2TIL - m(0 2 )
C=
(LmIT)3(06 -6(LmIT) 2(0 4 +(10LmIT)(0 2 -4
The steady state motion is given by
xi(t) = A sin wt
x2(t) = B sin wt
x3(t) = C sin wt
2T
6.4 (Di = 0.6 (—T ), W3 = 3.4(—T
Lm " = '\11,rn \1 Lm
(B
= 1.4
Ail C 11
(B I.3
=(_ =0
Ain C111
1.4A 1
111\ 1.4A3
First mode Second mode Third mode
1
6.5 all = a22 = a33 =
2k
1
a12- a21 - a31 - a13- a23 - a32 -
4k
6.6 col = 0.65 \iglL„ W2 = 1.52 glL , (03 = 2.45 glL
6.7 3M11 + (k1 + 9k2)x1 - 2M12 - 6k2x2 - 3k2x3 = 0
(2M + 2m)/2 + 4k2x2 + 2k2x3 - 2M11 - 6k2x1 = 0
Mi3 k2x3 - 3k2X1 2k2x2 = 0
6.8 (1)1 = 0.30 rad/s, oh = 0.81 rad/s
= 1.45 rad/s, w4 = 2.83 rad/s
6.9 (1)1 = 0.0, m2 = 1.0, m3 = 1.7 rad/s
6.10 all = 5.55 x 10-9 m/N
a12 = 4.86 x 10-9 m/N
a22 = 5.55 x 10-9 m/N
= 1869.4 rad/s, f = 297.52 Hz
1
6.11 all = a12 = a13 =
3k
1
all =a31= 3k
31i12 Answers to Selected Review Questions
5
a22 = a32 = a23 = —
6k
11
= —
a33 6k
1 1.0
Principal modes: x2 2.425
x3 4.51 .,
6.12 w = 1.05 rad/s, f = 0.167 Hz
k k
6.13 coi = 0.44 — , m2 = 1.36
m m
k
co3 = 1.414
m
6.14 coi = 0.46 rad/s
co2 = 1.0 rad/s
m3 = 1.35 rad/s
I El
6.15 (b) For parabola: w1 = 3.53
ml4
\1 E7
(c) For static deflection curve: (Di = 3.575
m/4
6.16 con = 226 rad/s
6.17 col = 0.30 rad/s
(02 = 0.81 rad/s
m3 = 1.45 rad/s
(04 = 2.83 rad/s
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Amplitude: 0.0216 mm, Fd = 0.78 N on each

7.2 s = 2.746 mm, Smax = 10.0 mm
7.3 N1 = 1708.2 rpm; N2 = 1807.7 rpm
7.4 0.01145 s
7.5 s = -0.42 mm, 15.15 N on each bearing

Fd =
(a) (amax)vert = 3.24 x 107 N/m2

(b) (amax)hor = 10.24 x 107 N/m2
7.6 N1 = 367.5 rpm, N2 = 384.2 rpm
7.7 (a) N, = 3532.4 rpm
(b) s = 0.0137 cm, F, = 3740.6 N
7.8 astatic = 8240.25 N/cm2
amax = 119,106.7 N/cm2
Power = 518.76 W
7.9 N1 = 24,150.4 rpm
N2 = 4679 rpm
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Normal function:

ircx .
Xi =A sin— = 1, 5,
2L
8eL (-1)(i-1)/2 ( igx igat
8.2 y(x, t) = 2 / sin — ) cos (—
j=1,3,5,... (0 2 2L 2L )
4Vo L 1 igx igat
8.3 y(x, t) - L
L
Ir 2a i=1,3,5,... (02 sin—sin L
8(L0 - L) ijrat
8.4 y(x, t) = (-1)(i-l)/2 sin igx cos
2 2L 2L
i=1,2,3,... (i)2
Fo L a
8.5 y(x, t) = — cosec —L cos —
(1) (i - x) sin an
AE (oL a a
8.6 The boundary conditions are:
(a) At x = 0, y = 0
ay
At x = 0, =0
ax
At x = L, 0
ax 2 =
am a3 y
At x = L, — =- El = 0
ax ax3
ay
(b) At x = 0, y = 0 and - = 0
ax
a y /a3y
ay
At x = L, El -=-(kt)- and El = kl y
ax2 ax ax3
8.7 cos kL cosh kL = 1
c coiL o coiaIi L, i COiGJ ( coiL coiali coi L
8.9 col (COS sin /2 + sin + cos- = 0
a GJ a / a a GJ a 1
coi L GJ
8.10 tan =
a al o'
coL cox
8.11 0(x, t) - T0a sec -sin -sin cot
GJco a a
800 v i/rx i/rct
8.12 0 =„2- 's ( _ 00-0/2 1 , sin cos
A i=1,3,... (04 L j L j
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Lp 98.24 dB
9.2 Lc° = 108.44 dB
9.3 Lp = 98.57 dB
9.4 SPL of m/c = 93.4 dB
9.5 (Lp)i = 84.05 dB
(Lp)ll = 85.24 dB
9.6 Lp of m/c alone = 102.74 dB
9.7 Lp 86.16 dB
9.8 Lc° = 125.4 dB
9.9 Lp = 99 dB
CHAPTER 10
10.1 D = 2.313
(Permissible daily dose is exceeded.)
10.2 Ldn = 75 dB(A)
10.3 Ldn = 76.19 dB(A)
10.4 D = 1.074
(Permissible daily dose is exceeded.)
10.5 D = 0.75 (As per OSHA norms)
D = 0.9687 (As per ISO-1999-1982)
10.6 D = 0.875
Index
Absorber Auxiliary equation, 82

centrifugal, 197 spring-mass system, 189
order number, 198 Averaging of decibels, 322
dynamic vibration, 188-193
pendulum, 196, 204
shock, 96 Bandwidth, 320
torsional vibration, 196, 204 Base excitation, 147
Absolute peak, 341 absolute motion of the mass, 147
Accelerometers, 153-155, 157 relative motion of the mass, 147, 152
piezo-electric crystal type, 156 Basilar membrane, 331
Beats phenomenon, 11
Acceptable noise levels
Behaviour of the system, 116
indoor, 354
Bone conduction, 331
outdoor, 354
Boundary conditions, 284
Acceptable noise ratings, 352
Acoustic barriers, 380
Acoustic materials, 380
Centre frequency, 328
Airborne noise, 378 Characteristic equation, 82
Amplitude using matrix notation, 166
decay, 93, 103, 106 Characteristic impedance, 315
distortion, 155 Characteristic values, 83
of vibration, 41, 119 Cochlea tube, 331
ratio, 120, 168 Coefficient
Analogy of rectilinear and rotational systems, 44 of static friction, 102
Anatomy of human ear, 329 of damping, 27
external ear, 329 undetermined, method of, 117
inner ear (labyrinth), 330-331 Complementary function, 82, 117
middle ear, 330 Complex conjugate, 40
Angular oscillations, 42 Composite sounds, loudness, 334
Annoyance, 344 Coordinate, principal, 185
397
398 Index
Coupling, coordinate, 184 Effect of mass of

static and dynamic, 185-187 spring, 47
Cramer's rule, 166, 190 shaft, 67
Critical speeds of a Eigen values, 83, 219-220, 228
horizontal shaft, 280 problem, 184
shaft carrying multiple discs, 276 Eigen vectors, 219-220, 228
shaft carrying single disc with damping, 267-70 Elastic material, 109
shaft carrying single disc without damping, 261 Elastic strain energy, 26, 37
shaft carrying multiple discs without damping, 276 Energy
kinetic, 37, 234
potential, 26, 37, 39, 234
Damped frequency, 85 method, 36, 43, 233
Dampers Equivalent discrete model, 28
in series, 31 Equivalent sound level (Leq), 340
in parallel, 32 Equivalent spring and dashpot, 29
Damping Euler's formula, 40
coefficient, 27 Excitation, sinusoidal, 115, 128
factor(ratio), 83-84 Exponential decay rate, 93
Coulomb, 102
critical, 83-84, 86
dry friction, 27, 29, 102, 109 Far and near fields of sound, 326
eddy current, 81 Filters
hysteresis (structural), 27, 79, 109 narrow band, 327
hysteresis/slip, 4, 27, 79, 110 one-third octave band, 327
linear, 27 one octave band, 327
viscous, 26, 79, 80 First, second and third harmonics, 16, 167
viscous and coulomb, comparison, 107 Forces
Dashpot, 26 centrifugal, 261, 268
Day-night sound level (Ldn), 361 dynamic, 271
Decay rate, 86 inertia, 268
Decibel addition, 320, harmonic
approximate method, 322 vectorial representation of, 126, 140
Decibel averaging, 320, 322 work done by, 13
Decibel subtraction, 320 transmitted, 135
Decibel scale, 314 transmissibility, 135
Deflection Fourier series
dynamic, 233, 264, 276 analysis, 15
static, 37 coefficients, 17-19
curve, 233 Frequency band, constant percentage, 329
Diffuse sound field, 327 Frequency equation, 166
Degree of freedom, 27, 116 Frequency range
Double pendulum, spring connected, 169, 177 audible, 312
Dunkerley's method, 229 for human voice, 312
Frequency ratio, 119
Frequency response, 120
Ear defenders, 382 Frequency of vibration
Earmuffs, 384 beats, 12
Earplugs (aural or inserts), 382 damped natural, 81, 85
custom moulded, 383 with Coulomb damping, 103
disposable (malleable), 383 forced vibration, 119
pre-fabricated, 382 free undamped (natural), 40-41
Index 399
Fundamental frequency, 326 Lagrange's equation, 205

approximate method, 228 Laws of motion, 1
lower bound approximation, 229 Lissajous figures, 11
upper bound approximation, 229, 233 Logarithmic decrement, 93
Fundamental harmonic, 167 exact and approximate relation, 94
Loudness, 311, 332
index, 334
Generalized coordinates, 205 of composite sound, 334
equal contours, 332
equal index contours, 334
Harmonic analysis, 8
Harmonic excitation, 115, 128
Harmonic series, 18 Magnification factor, 120
Harmonically excited vibrations, 115 maximum value, 121
Hearing Masking, 347
conservation and Mass ratio, 190
damage risk criterion, 355 Mathematical models, 25, 27, 214
equal energy principle, 356 Matrix
impairment, 350 inertia, 216
personal protection, 382 iteration method, 215, 219, 251
loss, temporary and permanent, 348 mass, 185
mechanism of, 331 stiffness, 185, 216
sensitivity, frequency based, 312 Maxwell's reciprocal theorem, 222-223
audiograms, 349 Method of separation of variables, 286
threshold of, 313 Method of undetermined coefficients, 117
Heavy side Method of Influence coefficients, 222
on the inside, 264, 270 Misalignment, 3
on the outside, 263, 269 Mode shapes, 168
Histograms, 340 Motion
Holzer's method, 215, 243 aperiodic, 84-85
Human response harmonic, 147
frequency based, 312 addition of, 8
sound pressure based, 313 vectorial representation, 4, 5
non-harmonic periodic, 156
periodic, 8
Impact insulation class (ITC), 380 pitching, 187
Impedance of medium, characteristics, 315 simple harmonic, 4
Influence coefficients, 222, 277 spinning, 261
Inverse square law, 317 transmissibility, 147
Isolators, 90, 135 Multi-degree of freedom system, 163, 214
Isolation of vibration, 135
using springs alone, 135
using springs and damper, 138 Narrowband filters, 327
Iteration technique, 245, 251 Natural frequency, 40-41
Effect of orientation, 60
Newton's second law of motion, 38, 42, 44
Karman induced vibration, 3 Node points, 168, 178-179
Karman vortices, 4 Noise
Kinetic energy, 37, 39 background, 320
Kinetic friction, 102 daily dose of, 357-358
333 Index
industrial, 372 Perceived (equal) noisiness contours, 345

structure borne, 377 Permanent threshold shift (PTS), 348
time varying community, 361 Periodic non-harmonic excitation, 15
traffic, 365-366 Phase difference, 6
index (TNI), 362 Phase angle
vehicular, measurement techniques of, 367-369 values, 123
Noise, effects of, 343 of whirling shaft, 264
auditory, 348 Phase distortion, 155-156
non-auditory, 344 Phone scale, 333
Noise control Piezoelectric effect, 331
along the path, 377 Pitch, 311
at the receiver, 381 Presbyacusis, 349
at the source, 375 Principal modes
definition, 343 of vibration, 164, 167, 178
personal protection, 382 orthogonality of, 227-228
ratings, 343 Principle of superposition, 29, 183
Noise rating criterion, 351 Pure tone, 312
regulations, 343 summation, 318
standards and limits, 351
Noise exposure criteria, 355
Noise level, perceived, 344 Q-(quality) factor, 120
Noise measurement norms, 352
Noise pollution level, 362
Noise producing machines and processes, 366 Rayleigh's method, 39, 233
Noise rating curves (NRC), 351 Reciprocating unbalance, 130
Noise reduction, priority ratings for, 373 Recoilless guns, 86, 90
Noise standards, road vehicles, 369 Resonance, 121
for construction machinery, 370-371 Resonating condition, 121
for domestic appliances, 371-372 Root mean square pressure, 316
Noise sources, 364-366 Rotating force vectors, 126
Noise standards in India, 353 Rotating unbalance, 127
Noise survey techniques, 366-367 Round window, 331
Noisiness (noys), 344 Rubber, 109
contours, 345
of composite sound, 345
Secondary critical speed of shaft, 281
Seismic instruments, 153
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), mechanical arrangement, 154
356-357 Seismograph, 175
OSHA standards, 358 Self-excited vibrations, 102, 261
Oval window, 331 Semi-insert protectors, 383
Overshoot, 86, 96 Servomechanism, 86
Overtones, 326 Shaft
wtth non-uniform section, 28
effect of mass, 67
Particular integral, 117 non-uniform flexibility, 281
Peak hold, 341 Sone scale, 333
Pendulum Sound
compound, 45 complex, 326
conical, 164 enclosures, 376
simple, 43 high pitched, 349
Index 339
impact or impulsive, 347 Suspension

infrasonic, 312 automobile, 86
level, 314 bifiliar, 198-199
subjective response, 311 trifiliar, 78
ultrasonic, 312 Synchronous whirl, 261
velocity of, 310-311 Systems
Sound absorbing materials, 380 conservative, 1, 26, 36
Sound fields, types, 326-327 continuous, 27, 284
Sound intensity, 315-316 coupled, 163
Sound intensity level (SIL), 315-316 discrete, 27, 284
Sound intensity level and sound power level, relation distributed parameter, 27, 284
between, 317 dynamic, 1
Sound pressure, 310 elements of, 26
audible, 314 linear, 28
zero level, 314 lumped parameter, 27
Sound pressure level (SPL), 315-316 multi-rotor torsional, 243
Sound power level, 315-316 non-linear, 28, 29
reverberation, 77, 381 overdamped, 84
Sound power level and sound intensity level, 316 response of, 36, 116
Sound wave characteristics semi-definite, 181
frequency, 311 stafility of, 56, 61
loudness, 311 undamped free, 36
pitch, 311 underdamped, 85
tone, 311
Sound spectra, 325
Sound transmission class (STC), 378 Threshold of feeling, 314
Sound wave propagation, 310 Threshold shift
Speech intelligibility, 347 permanent, 348
Spectrum temporary, 348
of the signal, 325 Time period, 5
plot, 326 of damped vibrations, 93
Spring constant (stiffiless), 26 Torsional rigidity, 28
Springs Transducer, seismic
equivalent, 29, 59 secondary, 154
hard, 33 variable reluctance type, 154
in parallel, 30 Transient response, 115, 117
in series, 29 Transmissibility ratio, 136
linear 26 for variable speed machine, 141
Static equilibrium, 37 Transmission loss, 378
Steady state response, 119 Transverse vibrations of beams, 290
Steven's method, 334 Transverse vibrations of strings, 285
Stiffness
equivalent, 33
of shaft, 53 Unbalance, rotating, 3
torsional, 52, 56 Unstable equilibrium, 61
Stodola method, 215, 237
Structural (solid) damping, 109
Subjective response, 311 Vector
Summation of pure tones, 318 displacement, velocity, acceleration, 5
Superposition principle, 29, 183 rotating, 5
Support (base) excitation, 147 sum of, 8
30$ Index
Vibrations Vibratory system

acceleration, 8 linear, 28
causes of, 3 non-linear, 28
characteristics of, 6 Vibrometer, 154, 157
desirable aspects 2, Viscosity, 79
damped-free, 79, 81
displacement, peak-to-peak, 7 Wave equation, 286
due to reciprocating unbalance, 130 Wavelength, 310
due to rotating unbalance, 127 Wave propagation, spherical, 316
due to dry friction, 3 Waves
forced, 36, 116 mechanical, 310
forced undamped, 183 periodic half sine, 21
free, 36 periodic square top, 20
free damped, 81 Wave velocity, 286
Weighting networks, 335
isolation, 135
A, B, C, D, 336
linear, 28, 29
Weightings for one and one-third Octave bands,
longitudinal, of bars, 287
336-337
modes of, 164, 167, 168, 305 Whipping speed, 260
pickups, 153, 154 Whirl, 260
torsional, 178, 289 oil, 4
transverse synchronous, 261
of teams, 290 Whirling motion of shafts, 260
of strings, 285 dynamic force, 271
undesirable aspects, 1 phase relationship, 270
velocity, 8 Wind-induced vibration, 3
Vibratory motion Work done by harmonic force, 13
linear, 1
angular, 42 Zwicker's method, 334
ibratiolls
ffilleerinly
mt.
Mechanical Vibrationsand Noise Enffineerinff
okar
Vio r
THE AUTHOR
A.G. AMBEKAR, Ph.D. (HT Delhi), is
Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, S.G.S. Institute of Technology
and Science (SGSITS), Indore (Madhya
Pradesh). Earlier, he was Head, Department of
all
Mechanical Engineering, for 5 years and Dean
(academic) for 3 years at SGSITS. He has
about 40 years of teaching experience.
A recipient of the N.K. lyengar Memorial
Gold Medal of Institution of Engineers (India)
and a life member of Institution of Engineers
(India) and Indian Society of Technical
Eng
Education (ISTE), Dr. Ambekar has been
a technical paper reviewer for Journal of
Mechanical Design, published by American
Society of Mechanical Engineers. He has to his
credit several research papers published
in national and international journals and has
also presented research papers in a number
of national and international conferences.
ISBN 81-203-2900-7
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Ashok G. Ambekar - Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering-PHI Learning Private Limited (2013)

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Ashok G. Ambekar - Mechanical Vibrations and Noise Engineering-PHI Learning Private Limited (2013)

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Mechanical

Seventh Printing º º º January, 2013

3. DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS 79–114

4. HARMONICALLY EXCITED VIBRATION (SYSTEMS WITH SINGLE

5. SYSTEMS WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM 163–213

6. MULTI-DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS 214–259

7. WHIRLING MOTION AND CRITICAL SPEEDS 260–283

8. CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 284–309

9. SOUND LEVEL AND SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TO SOUND 310–342

9.7 Summation of Pure Tones 318

10. NOISE: EFFECTS, RATINGS AND REGULATIONS 343–363

11. NOISE: SOURCES, ISOLATION AND CONTROL 364–384

1.3 MAIN CAUSES OF VIBRATION

Fig. 1.1 Illustrations of Karman-induced resonant vibration.

1.4 VECTOR METHOD OF REPRESENTING HARMONIC MOTION

Fig. 1.3 Rotating vectors.

1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

Xrms = Ti = 0.179 cm Ans.

Simple Harmonic motion is of great concern to us because it is the simplest form of

Fig. 1.4 Experimental demonstration of simple harmonic motion.

1.6 HARMONIC ANALYSIS

1.6.1 Addition of Harmonic Motions

and x2 = X2 sin (wt + 0) (1.13)

where X = J(X1 + X2 cos 0)2 + (X2 sin 0)2

or X = VX? + ,q + 2Xi X2 COS 0 (1.17)

Fig. 1.5 Addition of vectors.

EXAMPLE 1.3 A body is subjected to two harmonic motions as given below:

and X sin 0 = — [15 sin — + 8 cos —

1.6.2 Lissajous Figures: A case of harmonic motions directed along

jklcos0= sin 2 0 (1.22)

1.6.3 Beats Phenomenon

i.e. x = a sin wi t + b sin wet

Fig. 1.6 Beats phenomenon.

Substituting e = (col — co2), we get

1.7 WORK DONE BY A HARMONIC FORCE ON A HARMONIC

The work done is given by

Therefore W = 27r [— 0 + j/2] = 7r.\/ = 5.44 Nm Ans.

1.8 PERIODIC, NON-HARMONIC EXCITATION: FOURIER SERIES

Fig. 1.7 A periodic but non-harmonic function.

f(t) = a l sin an + a2sin 2an + a3sin Rot + • • • + bp + bi cos wt

f(t)=b0 + 1,(an sin not + bn cos not)

1.9 EVALUATION OF COEFFICIENTS OF FOURIER'S SERIES

Thus, the work done per cycle is given by

By putting different values of n as 1, 2, 3,..., etc., the coefficients a l , a2, a3 , ...

Fig. 1.8 Periodic square top wave.

L OW0 [(00 lc° _ (0 2,7r1 col

(0F0 xlw ow \27r/(0

Thus an = — t [(cos nor— cos 0)— (cos 2n.ir — cos n.lr)]

Thus, an = 0 for all even and odd values of n.

From trigonometry, sin A cos B = (1/2) [sin (A - B) + sin (A + B)]

bn=[ —11 (1 +[ -11 ( 1 1)

2P0 2P0 ]_ 4P0

f(t)= 21313 413° icos ncot Ans.

EXAMPLE 1.8 Saw-tooth periodic motion of a follower, operated by a cam, is given in

EXAMPLE 1.10 A periodic motion observed on oscilloscope is as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Therefore b0 = 100(0.052 — 0) + 10 [-10(0.12 — 0.052 ) + 2(0.1 — 0.05)]

0.1 i0.1 i0.1

4 (cos 607rt ( cos 100771

EXAMPLE 1.11 In a rectilinear motion of a point, the acceleration amplitude is given by

1.10 MATHEMATICAL MODELS

1.11 ELEMENTS OF A VIBRATORY SYSTEM

Fig. 1.11 Elements of a vibratory system.

1.12 LUMPED/DISCRETE PARAMETER AND CONTINUOUS/

a 1I _G.12 GJ 3 GJ8 _GJ9