THE CATALYSTS AT WORK desirable color and flavor of

raisins, prunes, coffee, tea, and

Hey guys, do you know that right now, while you are reading cocoa can be attributed to
this LAS, there are billions of chemical reactions happening inside your browning reaction. Because of the
body? These are biochemical reactions ranging from the simple browning agents formed, changes
chemical reactions like the digestion of sucrose to glucose and fructose, in flavor, taste (i.e., bitter,
to complex chemical reactions like the production of ATP from food astringent) and quality is reduced.
molecules. Biochemical reactions are life-sustaining chemical reactions After cutting, brown fruits are safe
occurring in the cells of living organisms. It allows the organism to to eat up to a few hours. I hope you
perform its various cellular functions like growth, reproduction, enjoyed your fruitful day from
maintenance of structure, and maintenance of balance or homeostasis. fresh green fruits to brown fruits.
Inside the cells, these biochemical reactions are happening at very fast
speeds, but when these reactions are conducted and observed in test Enzymes can be divided into two general
tubes in a laboratory, they happen as slow as a snail. Why the difference structural classes: simple enzymes and conjugated
in speed? What is in the cells that is not found in the test tubes? enzymes.
Simple enzymes are composed only of proteins or amino acid
What hastens the various biochemical reactions? Enzymes. Enzymes... chains. Other than amino acid residues, they contain no chemical
Enzymes... groups. Pepsin, trypsin and steapsin are such enzymes.
Our life’s great facilitators are enzymes. For the biochemical Conjugated enzymes are composed of both a protein part called
reactions to happen fast, these enzymes create the needed conditions. apoenzyme and a nonprotein part called cofactor. Neither of the
They act as catalysts of biochemical reactions—they hasten, speed up individual parts of conjugated enzymes exhibit catalytic properties,
or start- up chemical reactions that happen in the cells of organisms. however, a combination of the apoenzyme and the cofactor produces a
biochemically active enzyme, called a holoenzyme.
What are the components of an enzyme? How do enzymes The two general structural classes may differ in terms of
speed up biochemical reactions? What are the factors that affect the structure but they function in the same way.
action or mechanisms of enzymes? Cofactors provide additional chemically reactive functional
groups besides those present in the amino acid side chains of
Enzymes are biological catalysts or assistants. It consists of
apoenzymes. This enables cofactors to perform chemical reactions that
various types of proteins that work to drive the chemical reaction
cannot be done by the standard twenty amino acids. A cofactor is
required for a specific action or nutrient. It can either launch a reaction
generally either a small organic
or speed it up.
molecule or an inorganic ion. Small
Peeling, bruising, or cutting fruits cause them to release enzymes
organic molecule that serve as a
like polyphenol oxidase (PPO, phenolase) that, with the presence of
cofactor is called a coenzyme. Most
oxygen in the surrounding air, goes into chemical reactions of plant
of the coenzymes are vitamins or are
compounds. These chemical reactions produce brown pigments
derived from vitamins. Fat soluble
through the process of enzymatic browning.
vitamins such as vitamin A,D,E,K
and water soluble vitamins such as
Fruits and vegetables’ life are limited by enzymatic browning that Vitamin B and C functions as
can be a significant problem. However, it is not always unwanted. The
coenzymes in the body. Typical inorganic ion cofactors are usually bump, this is because the enzyme acts basically to bring the
metal ions which include Zn2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, and Fe2+. The nonmetallic reactants together. Enzymes make chemical reactions to occur
Cl- ion occasionally acts as a cofactor. Dietary minerals are an efficiently as it lowers the amount of activation energy needed
important source of inorganic ion cofactors. for the reaction to occur. Since lower activation Figure 2b:
Enzymes are specific as only one enzyme acts on only one Activation Energy energy is required, chemical reaction will
substrate. A substrate is the chemical that the enzyme acts on. The proceed at a faster rate. Reactants
enzyme and the substrate shape match each other exactly like a puzzle and products have specific energies.
in a jigsaw. If the substrate is not acted upon by an enzyme it is For reactants to be transformed into
generally referred as a reactant. The active site of an enzyme is where products, activation energy is
the chemical reaction occurs and required. Figure 2c, indicates that
is said to be “complementary” to the substrate. The chemical reaction enzyme does not influence the
results in the production of the end chemical called product. (Refer to energy levels of the reactants nor the
Figure 1 above). products but only the amount of
activation energy required during
READ: STARCH -t TE DAY RIGHT!
Most biochemical reactions do not occur spontaneously. the process of chemical reaction.
instead, cells rely on In the absence of enzymes, many of our body processes, such as
enzymes to kick start digestion and the processing of nerve impulses, would
chemical reactions and simply occur slowly. The action of enzymes, speeds up biochemical
speed them up. In fact, if reactions making life possible.
enzymes do not work,
biochemical reactions Generally, the working mechanism of an enzyme can be
would proceed too slowly. described as follows. Each enzyme acts upon a specific target called
Remember that in a substrate, which is transformed into usable products. In other words,
chemical reaction, reactants the enzyme reacts with the substrate forming an enzyme-substrate
complex. Once the reaction is completed,
react to form a product. Look at Figure 2a, reactants are on the left side the enzyme remains the same, but the
Figure
while 2a: Activation
the product is on theEnergy
right part. The boxes that separates them substrate is transformed into products.
© RichochetScience For example, the enzyme sucrase acts
represents the activation energy. You can take these boxes as walls of
energy “speed bump”. The larger the bump, the slower the reaction. upon the substrate sucrose to form
products – fructose and glucose.
Look at Figure 2b. The yellow There are theories that help
bump represents a chemical explain the working mechanism of
reaction without an enzyme, enzymes. First is the Lock and Key Theory. In this theory, the
while the orange bump enzyme is the lock and the substrate is the key. As with a lock and
represents a chemical reaction the key that opens it, the shapes must be complementary, and this
with the action of an enzyme. shape is definite. Study Figure 3.
The orange bump is much lower
as compared to the yellow Figure 3: Lock and Key Theory
 The other theory that explains the mechanisms of enzymes
is the Induced-fit Theory. Accordingly, the shape of the active site
is not rigid, it is flexible, and it changes, as the substrate comes into
contact with the enzyme.

Figure 4: Induced-Fit
- Theory
HARVESTING THE CELL’S ENERGY RESERVES
Hi! How are you today! I hope you did great in the previous lessons. I
am pretty sure that you are enjoying reading and accomplishing the activity
sheets.
Do you know what is an oil rig used for? An oil rig is a large machine
that is used for drilling deep holes in the earth so that oil can be extracted
from fossil fuel reserves. Take note that oil is a fossil fuel, a form of energy
that is very useful. It is used to run different machineries such as generators
and different forms of transport vehicles. Do you also know that a similar
process of tapping energy
reserves into a very useful
form occurs within the cell?
Energy reserves in the form
of glucose is being extracted
to produce adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the
energy currency of the cell
which is utilized to power up
different cellular activities
and functions. This process of
energy transformation is done
through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic
reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
One of the metabolic processes that is involved in cellular respiration
is the oxidation reduction reactions or REDOX reactions which involve the
transfer of electrons from one molecule to another.
In this lesson, we are going to journey on a three-stage adventure (1-
Dig, 2- Drill and 3-Draw). Just like in setting up an oilrig, first you must
dig a hole, drill down the pipes, and draw the oil out through a pump. The
activities that you are going to accomplish are as follows:
1. Dig – Dig out the concepts underlying REDOX reactions
a. Word Hunt (with definitions to be matched) – Search and match
b. Reading (Background for redox) and Guide Questions
2. Drill- Drill in identifying Oxidized and reduced molecules
Directions: Identify which molecule is oxidized or reduced
3. Draw – Draw out conclusions through concept mapping.
Imagine that you are a cell. You have just been given a big, juicy
glucose molecule, and you’d like to convert some of the energy in this
glucose molecule into a more usable form, one that you can use to power
your metabolic reactions. Out of that glucose molecule, what is the best way
for you to get as much energy as possible? How will you capture this energy
in a handy form?
Your cells and those of other living organisms are excellent at
harvesting energy from glucose and other organic molecules, such as fats
and amino acids. Here, we will get an overview of how cells break down
fuels. At a closer look, you will be learning the electron transfer reactions
(redox reactions) that are key to this process.
Catabolic reactions are the reactions that extract energy from
molecules like glucose. This involve breaking a larger molecule into smaller
pieces. For example, in the presence of oxygen when glucose is broken
down, it is converted into six carbon dioxide molecules and six water
molecules. The overall reaction for this process can be written as:
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟏𝟐𝑶𝟔 + 𝟔𝑶𝟐 → 𝟔𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝑯𝟐𝑶
In a cell, this overall reaction is broken down into many smaller
steps. Energy contained in the bonds of glucose is released in small bursts,
and some of it is captured in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Enough ATP is captured from glucose to keep the metabolism of the cell
running and most is dissipated as heat and others.
As electrons move,
they “carry energy” with
them and this energy is
harvested to make ATP.
When electrons are
transferred from one
molecule to another, the
molecule that loses is said to be oxidized, on the other hand, the one that
gains is said to be reduced. So, we have the phrase Oxidation Involves
Losing and Reduction Involves
Gaining (OIL RIG). And like what an oilrig
does which is to harvest natural energy reserves to produce oil (fuel),
REDOX reactions occur as cellular processes of harvesting energy reserves
from glucose to produce ATP (fuel for the cell).
In previous grade level, you may have learned in chemistry
that in a redox Figure 2: Oxidation & Reduction Reactions
reaction, when one molecule loses electrons, it will be oxidized, while
another molecule gains electrons (the ones lost by the first molecule) it will
be reduced. To make it more memorable, you can use this mnemonic:
“Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (OIL RIG).
 To identify whether electron transfer occurs in a chemical reaction,
a “bookkeeping system” known as oxidation numbers are used. It is the
number that represents the charge that an atom appears to have when the
electrons in each bond it is participating in are assigned to the more
electronegative of the two atoms involved in the bond.
There are several rules for determining oxidation numbers.
1. The oxidation number of an element in its elemental state is zero.
For example, the oxidation number of copper in Cu is zero, and the
oxidation number of chlorine in Cl2 is zero.
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge on
the ion. For example, the Na+ ion has an oxidation number of +1,
and the S2+ ion has an oxidation number of -2.
3. The oxidation numbers of Groups IA and IIA metals in compounds
are always +1, and +2, respectively.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 in most hydrogen-
containing compounds.
5. The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 in most oxygen-containing
compounds.
6. In binary molecular compounds, the more electronegative element
is assigned a negative oxidation number equal to its charge in
binary ionic compounds. For example, in CCl4 the element Cl is the
more electronegative, and its oxidation number is -1 (the same as in
the simple Cl- ion).
7. For a compound, the sum of the individual oxidation numbers is
equal to zero; for a polyatomic ion, the sum is equal to the charge
on the ion.
 GETTING READY
You learned that the proteins that act as catalysts are enzymes.
Enzymes are one of the most important types of protein in our body.
Without the use of enzymes, many of our bodies processes, such
as digestion and the processing of nerve impulses, would simply occur
slowly. The addition of enzymes, however, speeds up these biochemical
reactions making life as we know it possible.
Like an athlete, he must get ready for his event in order to
succeed in his chosen endeavor. Getting ready for the trainings, getting
ready for his body, and getting ready for his big day. Enzymes need
specific conditions to perform optimally. The enzymes activity is
affected by certain conditions. It must be presented with optimum
environmental conditions to work at their maximum capacity.
What are the factors that affect enzymatic activity? How does
each factor affect enzyme activity?
Enzyme activity is a measure of the rate at which an enzyme
converts substrate to products in a biochemical reaction. There are four
factors that we are going to look on how it affects enzyme activity:
temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration.
With slight alterations in pH, temperature, or other protein denaturants,
enzyme activity is affected dramatically. A good baker realize that
overheating yeast kills the action of the yeast. A person suffering from
a high fever runs the risk of denaturing certain enzymes. To avoid the
loss of enzyme activity, the biochemist must exercise extreme caution
in handling it. Even vigorous shaking of an enzyme solution can destroy
enzyme activity.
What is temperature? Enzyme concentration? Substrate concentration?
pH?
First Condition: T EMPERATURE
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy (energy of
motion) of molecules. When molecules are moving faster and
colliding more frequently it means that the temperature is higher.
This
concept
applies
to
collisions between substrate molecules and enzymes. As the
temperature increases on an enzymatically catalyzed reaction,
does the rate (velocity) of the reaction also increases.
You learned from the previous Learning Activity Sheet that
each enzyme is specific to one substrate molecule or type
of molecule. A functioning enzyme has a complementary
active site. The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction is affected
by temperature. (See Figure 1- Left)
When there is an increased in temperature, the reaction
also increases as the molecules have more kinetic energy. This is only
possible to occur up to the optimum temperature which is usually at
400C. Optimum temperature is the temperature at which an enzyme
exhibits maximum activity. Beyond a certain point, however,
denaturation will occur when the temperature increases.
Thus, the increased energy begins to cause disruptions in the tertiary
structure of the enzyme. The enzyme changes shape and the active site
no longer matches the shape of the substrate molecule. The enzyme is
denatured. Look at Figure 1-Right, the active site is distorted, it
mismatched the substrates.
Did you know:
For human enzymes, the optimum temperature is around 37
0
C, normal body temperature. A person who has a fever where
body core temperature exceeds 400C can be in a life threatening
situation because such a temperature is sufficient to initiate
enzyme denaturation. The loss of function of critical enzymes,
 particularly those of the central nervous system can result in dys
function sufficient to cause death.
Second Condition: pH—ACIDITY or BASICITY Did you know:
Biochemical buffers help maintain the optimum pH for an enzyme.
The pH is Each enzyme has a characteristic optimum pH, which usually falls
clearly defined as the within the physiological pH range of 7.0– 7.5. Notable exceptions to
measurement for the acidic or this generalization are the digestive enzymes pepsin and trypsin.
alkaline nature of a solution. Pepsin, which is active in the stomach, functions best at a pH of 2.0.
More precisely, pH indicates On the other hand, trypsin, which operates in the small intestine,
the concentration of dissolved functions best at a pH of 8.0.
hydrogen ions (H+) in the
particular solution. An
increase or decrease in the pH
changes the ion concentration
in the solution.
Enzymatic activity is affected by the pH of an
enzyme’s environment. This is not surprising because the charge
on acidic and basic amino acids located at the active site depends
on pH. Small changes in pH (less than one unit) can result in
enzyme denaturation and subsequent loss of catalytic activity.
Most enzymes exhibit maximum activity over a very narrow
pH range. Only within this narrow pH range do the enzyme’s amino
acids exist in properly charged forms. Optimum pH is the pH at
which an enzyme exhibits maximum activity.
Changes in the structural shapes of the enzymes and
substrates may be reversible within a narrow pH range. The enzyme
and the substrate may undergo denaturation when there is a
significant change in pH levels. In such cases, they cannot identify
each other. Therefore, there will be no reaction. This is why in an
enzyme activity, pH is a determining factor.
A variation from normal pH can also affect substrates. This
causes either protonation or deprotonation of groups on the
substrate. Protonation is the addition of a proton to a chemical
species. Deprotonation is the removal of a proton from a chemical
compound. The interaction between the altered substrate and the
enzyme active site may be less efficient than normal—or even
impossible.
 If there are little or few enzymes and numerous substrates the
reaction would take some time to occur or no reaction at all.
At present, pandemic is being experienced globally. From our
normal way of living (normal binding of substrate and enzyme),
inhibited by the covid-19 pandemic (inhibitors: competitive and
noncompetitive) to new normal way which is regulated by controlling
(regulation of enzyme activity by feedback control).
When cells continually produces large amounts of an enzyme for
which substrate concentration is always very low, is a waste energy. The
production of the enzyme needs to be “turned off.” A product of an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction that is present in plentiful (more amounts in
a cell, is a waste of energy if the enzyme continues to catalyze the
reaction that produces the product. The enzyme needs to be “turned off.”
Areas where there are greater risks on the infection from
COVID-19 virus had to be “turned off”—community quarantined. The
in and out of the people had to be regulated to control the spread of the
virus. Likewise, regulation of enzyme activity within a cell is a
necessity for many reasons like the cells’ activity mentioned above.
Many, but not all, of the enzymes responsible for regulating
cellular processes are allosteric enzymes. It is an enzyme with two or
more protein chains (quaternary structure) and two kinds of binding
sites (substrate and regulator). Some regulators of allosteric enzyme
function are inhibitors (negative regulators), and some increase enzyme
activity (positive regulators).
One of the mechanisms by which allosteric enzyme activity is
regulated is feedback control. Feedback control is a process in which
activation or inhibition of the first reaction in a reaction sequence is
controlled by a product of the reaction sequence.
At this time of uncertainty, feedback inhibition/ control is
necessary both to cells as they perform cellular processes with the help
of enzymes; the people as we have to combat this pandemic to live the
new normal. Without feedback inhibition, our bodies might produce too
much of some substances, and not enough of others, thus wasting our
precious resources, which is something the human body hates to do!
Stay safe.