CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Cassava, (Manihot Esculenta) is a woody shrub of the Euphorbiaceous (Spurge family) native to
South America, which is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in the tropical and subtropical
regions, for its edible, starchy, tuberous root. It is the third largest source of carbohydrates for
human food. It is also the most important root crop in terms of tonnage input in developing
countries. Apart from being the source of calories for more than 500 million people worldwide,
cassava has become a vital raw material and chemical additives for the production of industrial
starch, ethanol, additives, animal feeds, and many other export products. The rapidly growing
demand for cassava food products as well as developing the lucrative export market of its by-
products has induced the need for an increase in production of the root crop Adebija et al.,
(2018). However, the agricultural sector in Nigeria is a very strong driver of the economy. The
sector employed about 70% of the nation’s labour force. It has the capacity and key to poverty
alleviation and food security in the country, more than 74% of the farming population in Nigeria
consists of smallholder farmers; each of them owns or cultivates less than 5 hectares of farm land
Ojeka et al., (2016). However, less than 50% of the country’s cultivatable agricultural land is
under cultivation. Even then, smallholder and traditional farmers who use rudimentary
production technologies dominated it and this resulted to low yield in Nigeria Udemezue et al.,
(2019). Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava tuber in the world with average annual
production of about 35 million mts over the last five years Ayodele et al., (2011).

Currently, average annual output from cassava stands at about 54 million mts due to
governmental policy on food importation and this will keep on moving since more capable hands
engage in cassava production. However, about one-third of the total national output comes from
Niger Delta region where many livelihoods depend on cassava as a main source of food and
income. However, the importance of cassava to the livelihoods of many millions of the poor
people has made the crop a target for intervention Udemezue et al., (2016). The potential of the
crop is numerous because it offers the cheap source of food calories and the highest yield per
unit area. Cassava has multiple roles as famine reserve, food and cash crop, industrial raw
material and livestock feed Osipira-Patino et al., (2015). Across the country, cassava production
has undergone a tremendous increase for different reasons, specifically due to introduction of
high yielding and disease-resistant varieties, early maturing ones, among other factors Sanni et
al., (2009).

1.2 Problem Statement

Despite the potentials, there are still some challenges to the development of the cassava
subsector in Nigeria. According to Udemezue, (2019), the major challenges to the development
of the cassava subsector in Africa include the following: low yields, fragmented, smaller-holder
farms, limited adoption of improved seeds, low use of herbicides, trade and transport, limited use
of fertilizers and irrigation, weak access to markets, low use of mechanization, high prices of
cassava roots, stems, limited access to finance etc. This study is to research and know how the
knowledge of physical and mechanical properties of cassava stems, tubers and soil related to
cassava harvesting can be applied to solve the above listed problems.

1.3 Aim and Objectives.

 To review an already existing work or research
 To identify problems of physical and mechanical properties of cassava stems, tubers and
soil related to cassava harvesting and
 To proffer solutions to the identified problems.
1.4 Scope of the Problem.

This research work is limited to research knowledge only and not field work. Nevertheless, it
covers all the theoretical knowledge of physical and mechanical properties of cassava stems,
tubers and soil related to cassava harvesting for the commercial farming of cassava which will in
turn help in the growth of agriculture in Nigeria as a whole.

1.5 Justification

Despite economic transformation and urbanization, declining proportion of the workforce

employed in the agricultural sector at national levels, and high food prices relative to other
developing countries, the advancement of cassava harvesting machineries has been gradual
which hinders the mechanize farming of cassava. This study or research will bring some ideas on
how the knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of cassava tubers, stems and soil
related to cassava harvesting will contribute to the advancement of cassava harvesting and hence
it worth giving attention to in the development of post-harvest machines and for the betterment
of agriculture.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Cassava as a Tuber Crop in Africa

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), whose origin can be traced from Brazil, is arguably one of
the main root and tuber crops grown in the world. The white and milky pulp of the tuberous root
often called Akpu in the local dialect occupies an important place in the diet of several people of
Africa. In this vain, cassava is the third most important food production in the tropics after rice
and maize. Africa is the largest producer, accounting for more than 50% of the world production.

Cassava in the tropics, particularly in Africa, is due to the simplicity of its cultivation; its ability
to grow on marginal lands that are difficult to use for other crops; its resistance to drought
conditions, which, moreover, justifies its extension in the Sahelian zones; and the possibility of
leaving it in the ground and harvesting it progressively, thus allowing for extensive management
of its food consumption. As the main component of the food ratio of more than 25% of the
African population for an average annual consumption of 100 kg of roots per inhabitant, cassava
is, in Central and Western Africa, a crop destined totally and exclusively for human food.
However, in emerging economies and cassava producers, as it happens in Brazil, Malaysia,
Thailand, and South Africa, the development of cassava cultivation is supported by a process of
upgrading the tuber in various food and nonfood industrial systems (animal feed, starches, sugar
derivatives, glues, etc.), with highly significant capital gains. In Central and Western Africa, only
Nigeria has embarked on a policy of industrial valorization of cassava.

Finally, in the countries of Central and Western Africa, cassava is closely linked to rural poverty,
although it is not the cause of it; the tuber is sociologically perceived as the culture of the poor,
because the marginal areas where cassava is grown are those where poor people generally live.
Moreover, the narrowness of individual crop areas, the isolation of production areas, and the low
technological level of the processing system are all constraints which limit the productivity of the
root and its access to the market and contribute to reducing the level of its industrial valorization.

The above observations have justified a series of reflections on the promotion of cassava
development strategies, such as the forum on the Global Cassava Development Strategy (Rome,
April 2000), which proposed an approach to make cassava more competitive on the market. This
approach is based on identifying and developing the potential markets for cassava and its
products and improving varieties and yields to supply these markets with quality tubers and, at
competitive prices, technological valorization of the tuber in response to the needs of consumers.
In fact, it is a matter of integrating cassava into the lucrative market of starch products, through
the development of finished and semifinished products likely to contribute to the agricultural
development and economic growth of the producing countries. The great variability of cassava
peasant processing systems and products constitutes a foundation whose mastery of practices and
associated constraints is the key element for the development of markets and the quality of
products.

2.2 Cassava in Nigeria

Originally a crop of South America, it was introduced into Nigeria's southern part during the
period of slave trade proliferated by Portuguese explorers and colonizers in the sixteenth century.
However, its importance to the country got a boost in the late nineteenth century when more
formerly enslaved Nigerians returned to their homeland and introduced processing techniques.
Over the years, it has become a major economic sustenance crop and it has attained the status of
largest producer in the world with recorded production of 34 million tonnes and is a cash crop of
great importance to the people of Nigeria.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) production is vital to the economy of Nigeria as the country is the
world's largest producer of the commodity. The crop is produced in 24 of the country's 36 states.
In 1999, Nigeria produced 33 million tonnes, while a decade later, it produced approximately 45
million tonnes, which is almost 19% of production in the world. The average yield per hectare is
10.6 tonnes. In Nigeria, cassava production is well-developed as an organized agricultural crop.
It has well-established multiplication and processing techniques for food products and cattle
feed. There are more than 40 cassava varieties in use. Cassava is processed in many processing
centres and fabricating enterprises set up in different parts of the country.

The demand for cassava roots and products are high and fast rising. However, the current food
production is far from being able to meet the food needs of the geometrically growing population
in the sub-region (Poverty, Oxford and Human Development Initiative, 2017; and FAO, 2018).
Nigeria currently holds the record of the largest producer of cassava in the world, but the trend in
yield performance (production per hectare) remains low. This low yield may be linked to
ineffective agronomic practices and inefficient management of production resources.

This line of argument has been robustly debated in the literature (Tadele and Assefa, 2012; and
Fakayode et al., 2008). According to Moyo (2016), poor management of agricultural lands has
consistently affected sustainable production of food in sub-Saharan Africa. This has largely
contributed to poor performance of the agricultural sector in terms of efficient use of productive
(Denning et al., 2009; and Tadele and Assefa, 2012) despite the fact that more than 60% of
Nigerian population is in agriculture (Mgbenka et al., 2016; and Moyo, 2016). However, there
are increasing concerns that sustaining the availability of cassava products to Nigerian
households may be significantly affected by the increasing demand by the expanding agro-allied
firms/industries which are using cassava as critical input. In view of this, Juma (2015) advocated
innovative approach to agriculture and food (cassava) production. This is a way to avoid waste of
productive resources i.e land and protect the environment while exploring the soil for sufficient
food production with a view to ultimately achieving zero hunger.

The increasing importance of cassava (Manihot esculenta) among crops grown in Nigeria is not
only connected to its increasing demand as food but also as food security (FAO, 2018). Cassava
products are dietary staple food in Nigeria and other countries in SSA. Nigeria is populated with
about 200 million people, and 7 in every 10 Nigerians consume, at least, a product of cassava
once in a day (Njoku and Muoneke, 2008).

These products include: cassava flakes (gari), cassava flour (pupuru and lafun), cassava paste
(fufu) which are derived from cassava roots. It is a widely acceptable energy food source to over
600 million consumers of cassava across the globe (Hershey et al., 2001; and FAO, 2015). Its
relatively higher, energy yield per hectare (El-Sharkawy, 2003). This could have endeared it
directly to farmers and indirectly to consumers. These cassava products (Paste & Flakes) are
prepared using hot water to make it into solid food that can be eaten with soup source (e.g
vegetables, draw soup etc). Besides the rich carbohydrate content of the root, the leaves are also
good soup ingredients and it is frequently consumed by people living in the southwest and
southeastern parts of Nigeria. Cassava has been found to contain calcium, vitamins B and C, and
other essential minerals (Montagnac et al., 2009). However, the quantity of nutrients in cassava
is dependent on the varieties, age at the harvest time, soil conditions, climate and other
environmental factors (Cock, 1982; and IITA). Evidence from recent research break-through has
shown a blend of some cassava varieties fortified with missing micronutrients (Okwulehie et al.,
2014; and Howe et al., 2009). The deployment of clear cut technologies in producing different
varieties and processing of cassava products has indescribably increased the satisfaction
attributes of cassava. In view of these, cassava products which used to be associated with the
poor have become more acceptable to more consumers across income groups. The implication of
this therefore is, if supply of cassava does not grow at the same rate as demand, the cassava
market equilibrium will be altered, and in response, prices of cassava products will always
fluctuate accordingly.

Major cassava producing states in Nigeria are Benue, Kogi, Cross River, Ondo, Imo, Akwa
Ibom, and Rivers states (Daniels et al., 2011).

Experts have argued that the cassava production is one of the well-developed agricultural crops
in Nigeria because of its relatively well established and processing techniques. Cassava can be
processed into varieties of products – e.g food and starch for industrial use. According to
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), cultivating cassava comes with a lot of
convenience. Some of which include: its ability to do well in poor soils, its labour requirements
are low, it can be inter-cropped with other crops, it matures within a period of 6 months–3 years
after planting. According to Hauser et al. (2014), the most preferred precipitation for cassava
plant is an annual rainfall of 1000 mm or more. It thus implies that an average of 50mm rainfall
per month spreading over a period of 6 months can sufficiently meet the water need of cassava
plant.
The plant does not tolerate extremely stony or sandy, clayey, salt affected, waterlogged and
shallow soils but performs excellently well on well-drained soils rich in aluminium and
manganese. Notwithstanding, cassava is highly tolerant to erratic weather condition including a
range of rainfall (El-Sharkawy, 2003).

Evidence across States in Nigeria shows that government investments and intervention to
enhance cassava production have resulted to increased output and also stimulated the rural
economy. Local processing of cassava has created jobs for many rural women and the local
fabricators and thus, has significantly stimulated the rural economy.

2.3 Uses of Cassava

Cassava, which is rich in starch in the form of carbohydrate, has multiple uses. It is consumed in
many processed forms, in the industry and also as livestock feed. Roots or leaves are made into
flours. Flours are of three types, yellow garri, white garri, or intermediate colour, with yellow
garri considered the best product in Nigeria. Its other products are as dry extraction of starch,
glue or adhesives, modified starch in pharmaceutical as dextrins, as processing inputs, as
industrial starch for drilling, and processed foods.

Food Industries

The food industries are one of the largest consumers of starch and starch products. In addition,
large quantities of starch are sold in the form of products sold in small packages for household
cooking. Cassava, sago and other tropical starches were extensively used for food prior to the
Second World War, but their volume declined owing to the disruption of world trade caused by
the war. Attempts were made to develop waxy maize as a replacement for normal non-cereal
starches; but the production of cassava starch has increased considerably in recent years.

Unmodified starch, modified starch and glucose are used in the food industry for one or more of
the following purposes:

(a) directly as cooked starch food, custard and other forms;

(b) thickener using the paste properties of starch (soups, baby foods, sauces and gravies, etc.);
 (c) filler contributing to the solid content of soups, pills and tablets and other pharmaceutical
products, fee cream, etc.;

(d) binder, to consolidate the mass and prevent it from drying out during cooking (sausages and
processed meats);

(e) stabilizer, owing to the high water-holding capacity of starch (e.g., in fee cream).

Bakery Products

Although starch is the major constituent of flours, the art of' bread baking depends to a large
extent on the selection of flour with the proper gluten characteristics. Starch is used in biscuit
making, to increase volume and crispness. In Malaysia, cassava starch is used in sweetened and
unsweetened biscuits and in cream sandwiches at the rate of 5-10 percent in order to soften
zyestexture. add taste and render the biscuit nonstickv. The use of dextrose in some kinds of
yeast-raised bread and bakery products has certain advantages as it is readily available lo the
yeast and the resulting fermentation is quick and complete. It also imparts a golden brown colour
to the crust and permits longer conservation.

Confectioneries

In addition to the widespread use of dextrose and glucose syrup as sweetening agents in
confectioneries. starch and modified starches are also used in the manufacture of many types of
candies such as jellybeans. toffee. hard and soft gums, boiled sweets (hard candy). fondants and
Turkish delight. In confectioneries. starch is used principally in the manufacture of gums. pastes
and other types of sweets as an ingredient, in the making of moulds or for dusting sweets to
prevent them from sticking together. Dextrose prevents crystallization in boiled sweets and
reduces hvdroscopicity in the finished product.

Canned Fruits, Jams and Prederves

Recent advances in these industries include the partial replacement of sucrose by dextrose or
sulfur-dioxide-free glucose syrup. This helps to maintain the desired percentage of solids in the
products without giving excessive sweetness, thereby emphasizing the natural flavour of the
fruit. The tendency toward crystallization of sugars is also decreased.
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)

This product is used extensively in many parts of the world in powder or crystal form as a
flavouring agent in foods such as meats, vegetables, sauces and gravies. Cassava starch and
molasses are the major raw materials used in the manufacture of MSG in the Far East and Latin
American countries. The starch is usually hydrolyzed into glucose by boiling with hydrochloric
or sulfuric acid solutions in closed converters under pressure. The glucose is filtered and
converted into glutamic acid by bacterial fermentation. The resulting glutamic acid is refined,
filtered and treated with caustic soda to produce monosodium glutamate, which is then
centrifuged and dried in drum driers. The finished product is usually at least 99 percent pure.

The Production of Commercial Caramel

Caramel as a colouring agent for food, confectionery and liquor is extensively made of glucose
rather than sucrose because of its lower cost. If invert sugar, dextrose or glucose is heated alone,
a material is formed that is used for flavouring purposes; but if heated in the presence of certain
catalysts, the coloration is greatly heightened, and the darker brown products formed can be used
to colour many foodstuffs and beverages.

Uniform and controlled heating with uniform agitation is necessary to carry the caramellization
to the point where all the sugar has been destroyed without liberating the carbon.

The Glucose Industry

According to Whistler and Paschell, Abu Mansur, an Arabian teacher and pharmacologist, about
975 A.D. described the conversion of starch with saliva into an artificial honey. In 1811 Kirchoff
discovered that sugar could be produced by the acid hydrolysis of starch. Glucose, or dextrose
sugar, is found in nature in sweet fruits such as grapes and in honey. It is less sweet than sucrose
(cane or beet sugar) and also less soluble in water; however, when used in combination with
sucrose, the resulting sweetness is often greater than expected.

The commercial manufacture of glucose sugars from starch began during the Napoleonic Wars
with England, when suppliers of sucrose sugar were cut off from France by sea blockade. Rapid
progress was made in its production in the United States about the middle of the nineteenth
century.
2.4 Benefits/Importance of Cassava

2.4.1. Rich in Vitamin C

Cassava is rich in vitamin C. 100 grams of cassava can provide 20.6 milligrams of vitamin C. It
makes up for 20% of the Daily Value (DV). Studies shows that vitamin C supports the immune
cells by preventing oxidative stress. It is well known as a miraculous ingredient in skincare
products. For example, vitamin C has proven benefits in collagen production. As we age, our
skin is prone to losing firmness and youthfulness. We start to show signs of wrinkles, fine lines,
and dullness. It is due to decreased collagen production. Vitamin C serves as a vital cofactor in
collagen synthesis, which helps to slow down the ageing process.

Cassava’s vitamin C helps fight free radicals. Research shows that vitamin C exhibits antioxidant
properties—these properties aid in repairing damaged cells and stimulate skin rejuvenation.
People can combine the cassava roots and leaves to obtain the maximum effects of vitamin C.

2.4..2. Resistant Starch

Cassava is a good source of resistant starch that mimics soluble fibre properties. Consuming an
adequate amount of resistant starch improves blood sugar control and supports gut health. In
addition, studies suggest that the resistant starch present in cassava nurtures beneficial gut
bacteria.

Cassava starch converts into butyrate fatty acid during digestion, reducing colon inflammation
and boosting its defence mechanisms. A healthy gut and colon bring down the risk of colorectal
cancer.

2.4.3. Serves as Energy Fuel

Cassava is dense in carbohydrates. Therefore, it makes a good fuel source for athletes who
require high carbs. Consuming cooked cassava after training can be carb-loading and restores the
spent energy. Thus, it is a better choice for people looking for a recovery meal after high-
intensity exercises. The complex carbohydrate chain ensures consistent energy supply as well.

2.4.4 Protection Against Liver Cancer

Cassava supplies a healthy amount of magnesium. An investigative study shows that consuming
higher magnesium levels reduces the chances of developing liver cancer. In addition, magnesium
intake may prevent steatosis and steatohepatitis progression. These two conditions are
progenitors for liver cancer. Thus, adding cassava to the diet ensures a good supply of
magnesium.

2.4.5. Low in Sugar

Cassava is relatively low in sugar. One hundred grams of raw cassava contains only about 1.7
grams of sugar. Boiled cassava also has similar sugar levels. Only 1.3 grams of sugar is present
in 100 grams of cooked cassava root. However, no defined scientific evidence supports its use in
a diabetic diet. There is an opinion that cassava’s low sugar value does not cause a spike in blood
sugar levels. Cassava can be a good root vegetable for blood sugar management if you combine
the benefits of low sugar and resistant starch. Nonetheless, there is still a debate on this claim.

2.4.6. Repairs Kidney Damage

Elevated creatine can cause kidney damage and failure. Cassava leaf extract brings down the
creatinine levels in the serum. It also reduces the toxicity in kidney nephrons—the high levels of
carotenoids in cassava aid in restoring kidney function. However, a cassava-based diet may not
be ideal for renal dysfunction. Cassava contains cyanide-based compounds that may elevate urea
levels in the body. Therefore, it is not suitable for people with renal defects.

2.5 Cassava as a source of Garri/Starch

Cassava is one of the most important root crops in Nigeria. Apart from being a staple crop in
both rural and urban house-holds cassava is a major source of income to cassava farmers and
processors in the rural areas.

Nigeria is currently the world leading producer of cassava, producing about forty million
{40,000,000} MT per annum and cassava alone contributes about 5 % of agricultural GDP in
Nigeria for food or domestic purposes but its industrial processing and utilization has been very
limited.

Since the return to civil rule in 1999, Nigeria has witnessed steady but minimal growth of the
middle class. These growths continues to drive the increasing social and health awareness of the
need for hygienically well prepared foods required for good quality living standard of people.

This coupled with the geometrically exploding population and continued rural-urban drift
continues to fuel the demand for cassava starch, flour and Garri, a staple food in the country.

This report is to examine the financial viability or otherwise of establishing a multi-purpose

cassava processing plant in Nigeria processing cassava tubers to produce cassava starch, cassava
flour and Garri. The business would involve the sourcing and transportation of the major raw
material {Cassava Tubers} to the proposed processing plant, after which the product is processed
and packaged for sale in the local market.

It has been established through research that cassava starch has a lot of demand in the textile, oil
drilling, pharmaceuticals, and food/beverage industries while High Quality Cassava Flour
{HQCF} is used as substitute for wheat flour in bakery and confectionary. Garri, a product
gotten from the processing of cassava tubers is a very important staple food item in Nigeria. It is
one of the food items that defy socio-economic class, religious and ethnic boundaries, it is
doubtful if it is not eaten daily in one of every two homes in the country.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Physical properties of cassava stems

The cassava plant is a woody plant with erect stems and spirally arranged simple lobed leaves
with petioles (leaf stems) up to 30 cm in length. The plant produces petal-less flowers on a
raceme.
3.2 Physical Properties of Cassava Tubers

2.1 Physical Properties

The knowledge of density and the specific gravity of cassava is needed in calculating thermal
diffusivity in heat transfer. These help to figure out Reynolds number in pneumatic and
MATTER: International Journal of Science and Technology ISSN 2454-5880 107 hydraulic
handling of produce thereby anticipating the structure and composition. Also, the shape, size,
volume, area, colour, and appearance of cassava are important in the analysis of the behaviour of
the product in the handling of materials (Mohsenin, 1986). Designing components such as
hoppers, chutes, screw conveyors, storage bins, pneumatic conveyors, the coefficient of friction,
and angle of repose are determined. The sphericity of regular agricultural produce is between
0.32 and 1.00. Therefore, the lower the sphericity of the produce, the regular the produce. Since
the sphericity of the cassava varieties tested were high, ranging from 0.73 to .84. It is reported
that cassava is irregular in shape. (Simonyan, 2015). Subsequently, Adetan et l. (2003) showed
that 0.106 to 0.215 makes the proportion of peel for the cassava tuber. The rest of the physical
properties are shown in Table 1.

2.2 Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are defined as those that affect the behaviour of the agricultural material
under an applied force. The mechanical properties such as hardness, compressive strength,
impact and hear resistance as shown in Table 1 affect a series of agricultural production. Data on
these properties are useful for application in designing equipment for handling, milling, storage,
transportation and food processing. When the moisture content is lower, the tuber is harder nd he
ability to resists cutting and abrasion increases. This simply means that mechanical property
depends on moisture content. (Kolawole et al., 2007). Oupathum et al. (2019) stated that the
hearing stress and the specific shearing energy increase as the knife bevel angle increases from 0
to 40 degrees. Lomchangkum et al. (2020) also determined that the maximum cutting shear tress
and force increased with increasing tuber age due to the increase in density and starch content.
3.3 Physical Properties of Cassava Soil

3.4 Mechanical properties of cassava stems

3.5 Mechanical properties of cassava tubers Mechanical properties are defined as those that
affect the behaviour of the agricultural material under an applied force. The mechanical
properties such as hardness, compressive strength, impact and shear resistance as shown in Table
1 affect a series of agricultural production. Data in these properties are useful for application in
designing equipment for handling, milling, storage, transportation and food processing. When
the moisture content is lower, the tuber is harder and he ability to resists cutting and abrasion
increases. This simply means that mechanical property depends on moisture content. (Kolawole
et al., 2007). Oupathum et al. (2019) stated that the hearing stress and the specific shearing
energy increase as the knife bevel angle increases from 0 to 40 degrees. Lomchangkum et al.
(2020) also determined that the maximum cutting shear tress and force increased with increasing
tuber age due to the increase in density and starch ontent.

3.6 Mechanical properties of cassava soil

3.6.1 Cassava harvesting

In reality, the difficult operation in cassava production is harvesting since it requires a lot of
energy or man-power to harvest per plant. This is such that the highly perishable nature of the
crop deteriorates as early as 1-3 days after harvest. It is therefore important to harvest cassava at
the right time and in the proper manner (Agbetoye et al., 2003). Harvesting of cassava is in three
folds, thus manual, semi-manual and mechanized methods.

3.1 Manual Harvesting

The manual method involves the hand where cutlass, hoe, mattock and other indigenous tools are
used. This process is very difficult and is labour intensive when harvesting hectares of land. The
stem of the cassava plant is cut slightly above the soil surface. Afterwards, the cassava root is
uprooted from the soil by exerting force as shown in Figure 3 and 4 respectively. The cut stems
reused for the next crop planting. (Mongkol et al., 2007). According to Amponsah et al. (2018)
approximately 23-47 man h/ha is required for manual lifting of cassava with hands compared to
the use of a hoe which requires between 42-51 man h/ha. On moderately dry soils, manual
harvesting tools are preferable while soils with moderately higher moisture content are best for
manual uprooting techniques for cassava.
3.8 Parameters associated with cassava harvesting