Fire Safety Journal, 3 (1980181) 67 - 76
Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne --Printed in the Netherlands
Fires and Flashover in R o o m s -- A Simplified T h e o r y *
P. H. THOMAS
Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station, Borehamwood, Herts. WD6 2BL (Gt. Britain)
(Received May 26, 1980; in revised form August 18, 1980}
SUMMARY
A simplified form of energy balance for a
quasi steady compartment fire is presented. It
allows for mass transfer in a partially vitiated
but uniform atmosphere and for a thermal
feedback approximately representing the
radiation from hot gases and walls.
According to the magnitudes o f two dimen-
sionless parameters, one, characteristic o f the
ratio o f heat generation to wall loss, and the
other, characteristic o f the non-linear feedback,
one obtains eight types o f relation between
burning rate and ventilation rate. Several o f
these regimes exhibit a thermal instability that
has already been taken to represent one kind
o f 'flashover'. It arises from an increase in fire
area or a reduction in the ventilation. One
regime, however, exhibits a second instability
that arises from an increase in ventilation. The
first is thus consequent, primarily, on reducing
cooling, the second on increasing the oxygen
concentration, which, in turn, leads to a fall.
Both these falls in oxygen concentration lead
to ventilation-con trolled burning.
Newer materials include some which may
be more prone to these instabilities than are
traditional materials.
INTRODUCTION
Quintiere, McCaffery and den Braven [1]
have made c o m p u t a t i o n s of t he temperatures
in rooms containing fires of c o n s t a n t area but
subject to heating f r om the h o t smoke, h o t
walls, etc. The model e m p l o y e d was Quintiere's
[2] two layer mo d e l in which the lower layer
remained cold and at a m bi ent oxyge n concen-
tration. A thermal instability occurred which
*@)Crown copyright 1980.
67
could be regarded as one form of 'flashover',
and this has been shown by T hom as et al. [3,
4] to be a general result so long as the burning
rate is a strong enough function of tempera-
ture of the h o t gases in t he room .
Quintiere et al. [1] drew at t ent i on to pos-
sible mixing between the u p p e r and lower
layers which brings vitiated air t o the low level
fire, and remarked on its possible significance.
Here, a simple model of a r o o m fire is de-
scribed which includes in simplified form t he
effects of t hat vitiation t oget her with thermal
feedback (both convective and radiative).
The model identifies several regimes, in
particular one which exhibits t w o pairs of
criticalities. In order t o d e m o n s t r a t e and dis-
cuss this regime and its properties we shall
first describe the t h e o r y o f the uni form tem-
perature fire in detail.
THE MODEL
We consider an idealised c o m p a r t m e n t
having no thermal capacity in its walls nor in
the condensed and gaseous phases. The tem-
perature and the gas composition are con-
sidered as uniform -- i.e., we regard the fire as
a well stirred reactor. Infinite kinetics are
assumed and the air flow and the reaction
products are assumed i n d e p e n d e n t o f tem-
perature. The energy equation is then written
as:
, • ma
[hwAw + c ( m * + m ~ ) ] 0 =m~AHc ms<--
r
(1)
• ma
_ ma AH c m~ > - -
r r
(2)
we neglect radiation loss through the window
and linearise the dependence of m~ on B. Here
68

~°~" 2

10:

\,
\
\ .......

IA

y = ma{l+l/r) 10 -1 1 133 10
o<

Fig. 1. Stoichiometric solutions (eqn. (8)). Fig. 2.0~,~ Regimes (r = 2). The numbers in the spaces
refer to the number of intersections of rnf(ma) on the
stoichiometric line.

f o r simplicity we neglect t h e 'blockage e f f e c t ' f o r the mass transfer, an a s s u m p t i o n o n which we

c o m m e n t below, and write

+ Cg (Og -- Of
m f, - pgDgAf lNox/a r InAf (3)
5 Qf _

mf
hw is strictly n o t i n d e p e n d e n t o f 0, b u t in a s t e a d y state or in a fire a f t e r a long t i m e [4] t h e
main resistance t o h e a t f l o w is in t h e walls and a c o n s t a n t c o e f f i c i e n t m a y t h e n be t a k e n as a first
approximation.
T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o x y g e n , relative t o the e x t e r n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , is readily s h o w n t o be
Nox m*~ + rm*f if m : ,
- - - >mr
gox/a ma + m~ r

= 0 if ma
< : m f, .
r
T h e t e r m in b r a c k e t s is t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l mass t r a n s f e r n u m b e r c o r r e c t e d f o r a n e t r a d i a t i o n flux
In o n t o t h e fuel surface.
In t e r m s o f dimensionless variables these e q u a t i o n s are r e w r i t t e n f o r m*f < m*/r as
(1 + ma + m f ) ¢ = m~ (4)
and

mf . . . . . +~ + -- (5)
r \ ma + ~~f ] r
 69

where, for simplicity, we have neglected the difference between fuel surface temperature and
ambient temperature by comparison with other temperature differences and have taken an ap-
proximation form for radiation in terms of the temperature rise to a power p where p is of order
4. We shall n o t restrict the initial discussion to mf < ma/r but any solutions found outside this
condition are, of course, invalid physically.
For mf > ma/r the equations are taken as
(1 + ma + mf)¢ = mJr (6)

mf = ~b + ~ Cp.
-- (7)
r
Likewise, any solutions f o u n d outside the condition mf > m Jr are invalid.
All these equations can be discussed analytically. Babrauskas and Wickstrom [5] have dis-
cussed a version of the above w i t h o u t vitiation and w i t h o u t wall loss other than a temperature
d e p e n d e n t radiation loss through the window. They, like Thomas [6], only included the last
term in eqns. (5) and (7). For a constant m~ the second, ventilation-controlled pair give only one
value of ¢ and, hence, of mf. The mf(ma) characteristic is tangential to a line through the original
having a slope a.
On the stoichiometric line mf = mJr we m u s t have from eqns. (6) and (7) (or from eqns. (4)
and (5))
+ a ~ ¢p-1 = 1
r 1 - - ¢ ( I + r)
(~/~ _ ( I
v 1)P-i[1--a +ma(1 + 1 ) ] . (8)
rP(l + r) p-1 ~ ma(1 + 1/r)

has two stationary values (see Fig. 1)

/3L., = --r (1 + r)P-11[p--2~+-x/p2+ 4 ~ ( p - - 1 ) ] [ p - - 2 ( p - - 1 ) a + X / p 2 + 4 a ( p - - 1 ) l P - 1 I. (9)
2 2(p -- I)(I -- ~)
The + sign gives/3L. The higher root/~, does not exist for ~ < 1. Considering ~ as dependent on ¢
with the requirement that 0 < ¢(1 + r) < 1, eqn. (8) shows that there can be only one inter-
section on the stoichiometric if a > p 2 1 4 ( p - - 1). If ~ lies between 1 and p 2 [ 4 ( p - - 1) there can be
one, or for/] between values/3, and/]L 3 intersections, and for ~ < I (for which flu does not
exist) no intersection or, if ~ lies above ~L, 2 intersections (see Fig. 2). This is necessarily the
same for the fuel-controlled regime: both regimes meet on the stoichiometric line. However, for
the fuel-controlled regime the general treatment of the equations is more complicated. Equations
(4) and (5) can be arranged to give

(Y+Yu)(Y+YL)y = ~ ( ~ +~¢p-1) (10i)

where

2Yu,L = 1 + -- -+ 1- --4~. (10ii)

r

For ventilation-controlled fires, from eqns. (6) and (7)

y = [(r+~)¢+ ~-~¢P]/(1--r¢). (10iii)

Equations (10i) and (10ii) are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3 and depend on whether the
m i n i m u m of the left hand side of eqn. (10i) is greater or less than the m i n i m u m of the right hand
side, a condition that defines a saddle point
70

Little vitiation

Radiation High
fne;dibga• Ike ; aed~jal~'a°~

Hpgh vitiation "~

Temperature q~ Temperature ¢~

Fig. 3. Various regimes. (left) ~ < ~s, (right) ~ > ~3s.

1 [(r 2V~.+r))(p_~_l)]P
/~s - +1+ (11)
p--1 P ~-
i.e.,

(p -- 1)p-I
This is s h o w n in Fig. 2 f o r r = 2.
A t t h e saddle p o i n t , s,

(m~ + mf)s = Ys = x (12)

and
p
- - ( 1 +x)
r (p--l)
m~s= l--~+x 2+2x (13)

where
x = x/~(1 + l/r).
From eqns. (12) and (13), the saddle point lies on or above the stoichiometricline only
when

~ > (1 + x ) 1
( x)
-- . (14i)
p 1
This c o n d i t i o n is i n v a r i a b l y satisfied if ~ > p 2 / 4 ( p - - 1), i.e., 1.33 a p p r o x . I f ~ < 1 t h e c o n d i t i o n
e a n n o t be satisfied i f x < 2, i.e., if r < g1. H e n c e , f o r ~ < 1 a n d n o r m a l fuels n o t c o n t a i n i n g t h e i r
o w n o x y g e n , t h e saddle m a y lie on, or b e l o w , t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c line a n d so in t h e *valid' fuel-
c o n t r o l l e d region. I t d o e s so if ~ is less t h a n a value r e a d i l y e v a l u a t e d f r o m eqn. (14i) as

2(p - - 1)(1 + rp) + (p - - 2)2(1 + r) + (p - - 2)x/(1 + r ) [ p 2 ( 5 r + 1) - - 8 p r + 4r] l.

(14ii)
a < r 2(1 + rp) 2 1
F r o m Fig. 3 o n e sees h o w o n e o b t a i n s s o l u t i o n s t h a t e x c l u d e a c e r t a i n range o f y or a c e r t a i n
r a n g e o f ¢. A p a r t f r o m this, a n y value o f y gives t w o v a l u e s o f ¢ a n d vice versa. In Fig. 4(a) a n d
(b) t h e s e fuel r e g i m e s i t u a t i o n s are s h o w n d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y in t h e m~(ma) plane, t h o u g h f o r
m~/ma > 1/r t h e results h a v e n o p h y s i c a l m e a n i n g a n d m u s t be r e p l a c e d b y t h e v e n t i l a t i o n ~ o n -
t r o l l e d regime.
 71

(l+rna+rnf)q)= Heatloss
" ~ IStn°'Cmh;°=me:r}rc /
m~ Heatgeneration
Invald ~ion /'

m,l // q~
Fig. 5. Stability of ventilation-controlled fire.

\ va,,ro0,oo
~ ° n C : t ~ ~ m f =rna/r~

rna (1÷ma÷mf}q~= ~

(a) mf

~ U nSaetbls t a b l . ~ _ e

Invalidregi /
Fig. 6. Stability of fuel-controlled fires.

/ We note that in fuel controlled fires ~ < m~,
// Validregion
Illa
(b)
Fig. 4. Fuel-controlled fires. (a) ~ < ~s, (b) ~ > ~s-
STABILITY
Since m a is taken as independent of # and
mf increases with 4, all ventilation¢ontroUed
equilibria are stable. This is seen from the
heat balance (Fig. 5). A small shift from equi-
librium restores equilibrium. For fuel-
controlled fires we substitute for mf in terms
of ¢ on the right hand side of eqn. (5) and
obtain the heat generation explicitly in terms
of ¢
a(ma--r¢) a
mf = (1 -- 4) + -- ~.P (15)
r \ m a +~ r
so, necessarily, ma > r#. The comparison in
Fig. 6 of heat loss and generation shows that if
there are three equilibria for a given ma (irres-
pective of whether or not m~ < m J r ) , the
middle one only is unstable.
If there is only one equilibrium, it is stable.
In Babrauskas and Wickstrom's [5] model
the upper invalid regime is suppressed, and
the lowest solution excluded. They, like
Thomas [6], found only the unstable fuel-
controlled regime and a stable ventilation-
controlled one. The upper fuel-controlled
equilibrium is associated with high tempera-
tures. It normally does n o t exist in a valid
regime, but if it does, it can be shown t h a t it
is associated with low values of r, i.e., fuels
requiring little added oxygen.
DISCUSSION OF m f ( m a ) EQUILIBRIA
Consider fuel-controlled equilibrium with
m f < ma/r.
72
Invalid branch of solution
/// /~
mf
........."i'"
o:
ma
(a)
lnvalid branch of solution
Ventilation
i
~// ~/~
controlled , / / /~uel controlled
rnf
~'" /j /
ma
(b)
Fig. 7. Typical relationships between mf and rna,
< ~s and not between ~u and ~L. (a) O~> 1, (b) (~ < 1.
Firstly we consider the/3(~) plane, shown
in Fig. 2 as ~ vs. ,* for r = 2. It is possible to
show algebraically that for ~ < 1, ~s has a
minimum value with respect to 'r' and that
these minima are never less than ~L. Seven
regimes are identifiable plus an eighth on the
limit ~ -* 0. According to the value of r,/3~
m a y pass above or below the cusp where ~L
and ~u meet.
We will first consider the 'weak' feedback
fires/~ </~s. For these, there is a region of ¢
b e t w e e n the valid and the invalid region
where there are no solutions, and if ~ lies out-
side the region between/~u and ~L, m ~ ( m a ) is
as sketched in Fig. 7.
There is no criticality for ~ > 1, this only
appears when ~ > /3~ (see Fig. 4). The fuel-
controlled equilibrium shown is either the
only one or the lowest of three, it is therefore
stable. Figure 7(a) is the conventional relation
for m a n y fires having t w o modes of behaviour
(ventilation- and fuel-controlled), no criti-
/
mf
ma
(a)
mf
ma
(b)
Fig. 8. Typical relationships between mf and rn a
(~s > ~ > ~ L ) ' ( a ) ( ~ > 1 , ( b ) 0 < a < 1.
calities, and weak feedback effects, e.g., w o o d
cribs as the fuel.
If ~s > ~ > ~L the m ~ ( m a ) characteristics
are as previously described, with the addition
of a detached zone produced by the second
and middle (unstable) equilibrium lying below
the stoichiometric line (see Fig. 8). The point P
is an invalid non-stoichiometric c o m m o n solu-
tion to both fuel- and ventilation-controlled
regimes: the equality of the two expressions
for m~ in eqns. (5) and (7) (with ¢ defined
differently in the two equations) can be
factorised by m a - - rm~. If 'r' is sufficiently
small there is an upper stable fuel-controlled
regime, see Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 9.
For ~ > 1 and ~ > ~s, criticalities may
appear as in Fig. 10(a) and (b).
As before, a low 'r' modifies the m t ( m ~ )
zone to include a stable fuel controlled region
(not shown).
The last main region, ~ < 1 and/~ >>/3~ is
discussed in the next Section. Apart from this
 73

\
\
/
.~Stable regime exists only
~/~j/; if 7' is small . . . . gh
7 / / /i
~// , / f l ~ Unstable
mf

ma

Fig. 9. Effect of small 'r' on upper part of fuel-

controlled region. ma

(a)
t h e o n l y o t h e r result we n o t e h e r e is t h a t f o r
= 0 and a~ finite (= ~) t h e r e is n o solution \
at all unless ~ e x c e e d s \

r (p(1 + r)lP-1
, //

w h e n t h e s o l u t i o n consists o n l y o f t h e / J /.~/-Unstable
d e t a c h e d z o n e . It is this z e r o ~ c o n d i t i o n t h a t //;/
T h o m a s [61 (with p ; 2) a n d Babrauskas and
W i c k s t r o m [ 5] c o n s i d e r e d earlier.

ma

DISCUSSION OF FLASHOVER
(b)
T h o m a s et al. [3, 4] have i d e n t i f i e d the
unstable f u e l - c o n t r o l l e d regime as o n e pos- Fig. 10. Typical relationships between mf and ma,
sible s o u r c e o f flashover. Figure 11 shows >~sand~> 1.(a)~u>/3>~sand1.33>~> 1,
h o w t h e r e m a y , in fact, be t w o t h e r m a l insta- (b) ~ > ~u-
bilities. If ~ > 1 t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e mt(ma)
curve with its criticality m a y be w h o l l y w i t h i n
t h e v e n t i l a t i o n - c o n t r o l l e d region and so is
e x c l u d e d f r o m physical c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
If t h e saddle lies b e l o w the s t o i c h i o m e t r i c / "//i ~ iI

line (see e q n . (14)) t h e raising of/3 f r o m just

b e l o w t o just a b o v e ~s i n t r o d u c e s a criticality
at A and t h e s i t u a t i o n changes as in Fig. 11. mf
/(/;(
W h e t h e r t h e j u m p at the criticality is large
e n o u g h t o be d e s c r i b e d c o r r e c t l y as ignition
w o u l d involve us in a discussion o f t r a n s i e n t
p h e n o m e n a -- pressure changes, etc, it is how-
ever a d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n s t e a d y states.
If t h e saddle lies a b o v e t h e s t o i c h i o m e t r i c
/ ma

line, which it always does f o r ~ > 1.33, it is

in t h e region w h e r e f u e l - c o n t r o l l e d b e h a v i o u r
does n o t o b t a i n .
It m a y readily be s h o w n t h a t t h e m e a n con-
c e n t r a t i o n o f o x y g e n increases so long a s
mf/ma > dm~ldma, w h e r e t h e m~(ma) is tan-
gential t o t h e origin is a s t a t i o n a r y value.
H e n c e , b e l o w A a rise in m~ first leads t o an
Fig. 11. Behaviour near ~s./3 ~ ~s, ~ < 1 and saddle
below stoichiometric line. - - / 3 < ~s, -- -- --/3 > ~s.
increase in o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a greater
h e a t release, a n d a h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e . Even-
tually, t h e o x y g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n falls and
74

criticality A is reached and the fire becomes

ventilation controlled. Further increase in
ventilation leads to a drop in burning rate at
the upper stoichiometric condition.
The saddle point m a y be restated in terms
of the original variables. For this we take mf
/
In = keoO 4 where o is the S t e f a n - B o l t z m a n n
constant and, hence,

kero(AHc) 3
{is - he c J~
ma

27
(r
1+--+2 (16)
Fig. 12. The double criticality.
256
where
heAHcAf heat transfer processes. However, the model
Ol--
QehwAw as described has identified several modes of
fire behaviour, which provide a basis for con-
and where we have written ducting such analyses and interpreting them.
Figure 2 suggests t h a t for high fl, the transient
cpgD
- hf growth though increasing ~ is a more complex
5 process than for low/~. The regime with two
pairs of criticalities is especially interesting.
a convection mass transfer coefficient to the We consider two mf(ma) curves of the same
fuel bed. /~ but, by virtue of a change in burning area
If we write two slightly different values of ~. We assume
ngo that/3 is greater than both the two values of
OA D -- /3s. If ma is in the region shaded in Fig. 12 the
(1 + r)c
increase in Ae leads to a 'jump' to the ventila-
for the adiabatic temperature rise we have, tion controlled regime.
for r = 5, In both cases the temperature rises and the
oxygen concentration eventually falls to zero.
kaO~e However, a possibly important distinction
- 8.07
he may be noted. 'Ignition' (B) is essentially as-
sociated with a reduction in ventilation and so
and 0.22 for a = 1 and for ~ = 5, respectively. in cooling, raising the temperature and hence
In the former case a ratio of radiation transfer the mf, as a result of greater radiation feed-
to local convection transfer of nearly 10 is back.
required for criticality, and in the latter case a 'Ignition' (A) is associated with an increase
relatively small feedback contribution from in ventilation, which suggests t h a t it acts by
the radiation is sufficient. initially increasing the oxygen concentration
A necessary condition for fires being in the - so raising the concentration-dependent term
-

region o f criticalities or growing through them
is t h a t fl exceeds fls (eqn. (11)). The movement
from wood to fuels with smaller effective Qf
(and possibly larger AHc) and improved insu-
lation {lower hw), raises a and lowers/3s, and
so allows the region of criticalities to occur
with smaller fires.
To make definitive conclusions one needs
to c o n d u c t numerical analysis with a more
detailed model which represents better the
growing fire in a c o m p a r t m e n t and t h e various
and the heat release through the greater local
effects on mass transfer. Eventually this in-
crease in mf leads to falling oxygen concen-
tration.
A quasi-steady model will not make much
more of a distinction between (A) and (B),
but clearly the time constant associated with
the two processes m a y be different if radia-
tion feedback is primarily from the walls and
n o t the h o t smoke. In so far as ignition (A) is
associated more directly with gas phase reac-
 75

tions, a transient model with reaction kinetics A vitiated fire can exist in equilibrium,
might show that (A) is more liable to be ex- and if the thermal feedback is strong enough,
plosive than some kinds of (B). (A) might well a special type of instability can exist.
be related to 'flashover' in the original sense For a > 1, a rise in a, i.e., in Af/Q, can take
used by firemen -- an ignition resulting from 'weak' feedback fire across the ~s curve into
admitting air, though we have excluded the the 'strong' feedback zone introducing a
possibility of igniting u n b u r n t gases by our criticality and, hence, a type of 'flashover'.
assumptions of uniform mixing and uniform The lower Q/AHe is, the smaller the fire and
gas phase temperature. These effects require the weaker the coupling, hf, needs to be to
a more complex model for their considera- bring about such a 'flashover'.
tion. The existing model implies t h a t the
'jump' in mf may often be quite small and
perhaps insignificant. High 'jumps' are asso-
NOTATION
ciated with small a and low values of r, being A area
no more than about 25% for a = 1 and r = 5 C specific heat of all gases assumed equal
but over 300% for a = 0.04 and r = 5. D diffusion coefficient
The existence of 6u, 6,. and ~ and their ~Hc calorific value of fuel
basic significance is n o t necessarily altered by h heat transfer coefficient
generalising eqn. (5) by adding a constant k a coefficient of order 1
term and changing, within limits, the coeffi- in net radiation
cients of each term so t h a t the modified equa- m* mass flow rate
tion represents a linearised form of mr(B) or m m* c/h w A w -- dimensionless
an experimentally derived, linearised relation- concentration of oxygen
Nox
ship. concentration of oxygen ambient air
Nox/a
p an index ~ 4
Q heat required to produce unit mass of
CONCLUSION fuel volatiles at fuel surface
r stoichiometric ratio of air/fuel
This model is n o t directly associated with y=m a +rnf
the spread of fire -- the model does n o t in-
clude spread as a transient process. However,
any increase in Af and decrease in wall loss SUBSCRIPTS
can be described in a quasi steady manner by
this model as a first approximation. a air
We have explored the effects of vitiation f fuel or fuel surface
and non-linear thermal feedback and have g gas
seen that there are various regimes defining s saddle
the type of relationship between the fuel L lower of two roots
production rate mf and the air flow m~. There u upper of two roots
is a region, broadly defined by/3 < /~L when w wall (and other heat loss surfaces)
a < i, and by/3 </3s when a > 1.33, which pgcgDgAHcA f hfAf AHc
may be described by 'weak' feedback. For
/3 >> ~s, criticalities, unstable regimes, de- 6hwQfAw hwAw Qf
tached zones of equilibrium exist. For low rln5 c r
values of hf/A~ and Q/AH¢, any prevailing ~¢P - rgpf ~ In
feedback is more likely to be 'strong' than pgDAHc hf A H c
'weak'• The major factors defining the value
[3 - lerea(AHe/c)3/ht whenp ~ 4
of 9, the feedback, are the effective emissivity
and the fuel bed transfer coefficient, which is, 5 boundary layer thickness
in effect, the 'coupling' between the fire and e effective emissivity
the fuel. A high value of hf m a y tend to make 0 temperature rise
feedback 'weak' rather than 'strong' but in a p density
spreading fire, high h~ increases the propensity o S t e f a n - B o l t z m a n n constant
to spread. ¢ cOl~Hc
76
REFERENCES
1 J. G. Quintiere, B. J. McCaffrey and K. den Braven,
Experimental and theoretical analysis of quasi --
steady small scale enclosure fires, 17th Combustion
(Int.) Syrup., Leeds, U.K., 1979, Combustion
Institute, Pittsburg.
2 J. G. Quintiere, Growth of fire in building com-
partments, A S T M / N B S Syrup. Fire Standards and
Safety, Spec. Tech. Publ. 614, Am. Soc. Testing
Mater., Philadelphia, 1976, pp. 131 - 167.
3 P. H. Thomas, 17th Combustion (Int.) Symp.,
Leeds, U.K., 1979, (discussion of ref. 1).
4 P. H. Thomas, M. L. Bullen, J. G. Quintiere and
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5 V. Babrauskas and U. Wickstrom, Combust. Flame,
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6 P. H. Thomas, Some problem aspects of fully
developed room fires, ASTM/NBS Symp. Fire
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