JOURNAL OF APPUED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1, 45-57 (1980)

Effects of Restricting
First Graders' TV-Viewing
on Leisure Time Use,
IQ Change, and Cognitive Style*
SHARON GADBERRY
Adelphi University

Middle-class 6-year-olds matched for sex, age, pretest WPPSI IQ, and TV-
viewing time were blindly assigned to a restricted TV-viewing group or an unre-
stricted group. Restricted parents halved subjects' previous TV-viewing rates and
interacted 20 min./day with subjects for a 6-week period. Unrestricted TV par-
ents provided similar interactions but did not limit viewing. Results tentatively
suggest that TV restriction enhanced Performance IQ, reading time, and reflec-
tive Matching Familiar Figures scores.

Speculations persist among many educators and parents that increased television
viewing by children inhibits their cognitive growth. In fact, television was re-
cently implicated as a cause of declines in national SAT scores (Fiske, 1978).
There has been little research on the effects of increased viewing on cognitive
skills, in spite of pt~blic concern. This lack is partly because early studies,
comparing children of set owners or children in towns with television reception
to nonviewers, failed to demonstrate significant overall differences in school
achievement (Himelweit, Oppenheim & Vince, 1958; Schramm, Lyle & Parker,
1961). Secondly, experimental comparisons of television's effects on cognitive
skills are extremely difficult. Results may not be obtained in laboratory studies
because change required long-term cumulative input. Such field experiments
require extensive control over and assessment of home viewing habits. Thus,
nonsignificant initial results and lack of laboratory demonstrations of short-term
effects have discouraged further tests and experiments.
The hypothesis that television viewing undermines cognitive growth is
*Portions of this experimentwere previouslypresented at the American Psychological As-
sociation's 1978 meeting in Toronto.
45
46 GADBERRY

based on two assumptions: functional equivalence and negative displacement.

Television is functionally equivalent to alternative leisure time activities in the
sense that it serves the same needs: novelty, social reinforcement, information.
Because it is continuously available and instantly gratifying, television displaces
other pasttimes. Negative displacement occurs when viewing substitutes for an
activity or activities which provide more opportunity for skill practice, contin-
gent reinforcement and active exploration. Cognitive skills requiring more than
vicarious learning may develop more slowly if viewing replaces ability-
enhancing activities.
Early and current studies leave no doubt that television displaces many
childhood activities. Schramm et al. (1961) found that television's introduction
drastically reduced children's consumption of other media--radio, movies, mag-
azines and comics. Robinson (1972) reports that other activities, such as play,
community events, family visits, and even sleep are partially displaced by televi-
sion. Because children's viewing time has doubled since the 1950s (Lyle &
Hoffman, 1972), it is reasonable to presume that television is functionally equiv-
alent to, and tends to displace, a broad range of activities. However, we have no
current information regarding the category of activities currently displaced by
(and functionally equivalent to) television viewing.
Recent evidence reviewed by Murray and Kippax (1978) indicates support
for the negative-displacement hypothesis. Corteen (1977) found that reading
ability of a Canadian school-aged population declined after the town received
television reception. Moreover, group comparisons with owners of one or more
television sets indicated that reading scores were lower when TV was available,
and declined as more TV sets were present in the home. Harrison and Williams
(1977) found that in the same population verbal fluency, but not vocabulary and
visual-spatial ability, declined when television was available. Furu (1977) re-
ported that fifth graders' field dependency and impulsivity ~ignificantly increased
'subsequent to prior viewing of commercial (as opposed to educational) channels.
Gadberry (1977) obtained negative correlations between prior viewing amount
and subsequent school effort grades in middle-class first through sixth graders.
The fact that previous grades were uncorrelated with subsequent viewing rates
was supportive of a causal interpretation. The strongest effects were found for
first graders and initially low achievers.
Television's functional equivalence and displacement effects are probably
dependent on viewer differences, television content, and which cognitive skill is
assessed. Needs, interests, available activities, and the effects of experiences
vary with age, sex, social class, and other individual differences. Television
programs vary widely on such dimensions as prosocial modeling, format, infor-
mational vs. entertainment content, and appeal. Moreover, some cognitive skills
may be enhanced by viewing and others may decrease. In order to understand
and interpret television's effects on cognitive growth, it is necessary to simplify
by predicting to specific skills for specific populations.
 EFFECTS OF RESTRICTING FIRST GRADERS 47

The present study focused on middle-class first graders. It was expected

that the alternative activities available to this selected group would be likely to
provide more cognitive challenge than television. Moreover, displacement ef-
fects were expected to be strong at the critical juncture of school entry. Thus, a
relatively short period of imposing experimental conditions in the home might be
expected to have maximum effect.
The research strategy was to examine functional equivalent and displace-
ment effects in reverse. Whereas former studies examined the initial impact of
introducing television, the present study examined the effects of limiting televi-
sion in a TV-sophisticated population. Wechsler IQ scales, cognitive style
(impulsivity-reflectivity), and leisure time use were examined in order to clarify
each stage of the process by which viewing is expected to affect intellectual
growth.

METHOD

Subjects
Thirty middle-class subjects were matched as closely as possible for age, sex,
WPPSI full scale IQ, and viewing amounts. Then one member of each pair was
blindly assigned to either the unrestricted or to the restricted viewing group. The
unrestricted group subsequently lost three males whose mothers failed to fill out
experimental forms on a weekly basis. Analyses of variance of the remaining 27
subjects indicated no significant differences (p < .25) between groups on age
(mean = 78 mos.), or mothers' pretest estimates of daily viewing amount (mean
= 2.01 hours/day).
All mothers who volunteered were informed that the study required home
testing, plus extensive regulation of leisure time activities in the first term of first
grade. They were also told that the conditions would be imposed in order to
determine whether they would increase their child's intellectual performance. As
an incentive for completing the study, the author agreed to share individual test
results and the results of the study with parents subsequent to completion of the
experiment. Thus parental self-selection for both the experimental and control
groups was likely to be based on high intrinsic interest in furthering intellectual
development and commitment to maintaining home conditions.

Design and Procedure

Both experimental and control parents were given suggestions for additional
parental contact and were led to expect possible cognitive improvement as a
result. Additionally, experimental parents were asked to restrict television view-
ing amount on a daily basis.
48 GADBERRY

Mothers met with the author and undergraduate student assistants during
the second and third weeks of fall semester of first grade. At that time, they were
informed of home conditions they were expected to establish and maintain. Prior
to the meeting, pretesting had been conducted in the home. Conditions were
maintained for a period of six weeks; subjects were posttested within one week
after termination of conditions.
Each of five undergraduate psychology majors were assigned to a group of
six subjects. They paid weekly visits to subjects' homes, at which time they
discussed any problems or questions regarding the research, collected behavioral
records, and urged the maintenance of conditions.
Subsequent to the study, all parents were offered an individual interview in
which the author discussed their children's test scores and the results of the
experiment.

Unrestricted Viewing Condition

Mothers and, whenever possible, fathers were told that positive parent-child
interactions might be conducive to improved school achievement. Contact time
was defined as any exclusive parent-child interaction, lasting 20 minutes or
more, for the main purpose of mutual enjoyment and communication. A number
of activities were suggested to mothers and their advantages discussed: outdoor
games, car rides, table games, reading aloud, conversations, snacks, and, de-
pending on the positive reactions of the child, chores and homework. Any adult
in the family could conduct the contact time, but siblings or friends could not
participate. Mothers were given an example of recording daily contacts: indicate
time (8:00-8:20 PM), label the activity ("read a story together"), and child's
response ("talked a lot," "cried," etc.). Parents appeared to enjoy the contact
conditions, with the exception of the three dropouts, who protested that they
were not available for daily contact time.

TV-Restricted Condition
Parents were presented with currently popular arguments against viewing: the
imitation of aggression, the manipulative nature of advertisements, sexual and
racial stereotypes, and undermining of influence of parents and school. The
importance of gradual restriction was emphasized. Parents were asked to halve
the child's previous viewing time during, the first week, then progressively re-
duce viewing time to the lowest level comfortable for the family and the subject.
Along with the emphasis on time reduction, mothers were also asked to substitute
educational programs for commercial programs whenever possible. "Helpful
hints" were offered whenever needed for restricted viewing: (a) provide alterna-
tive activities, (b) turn off the set when a program ends, or when the child is no
longer attentive, (c) never suggest that the child watch television.
 EFFECTS OF RESTRICTINGFIRSTGRADERS 49

After the first week's behavioral reports were returned, the viewing
schedules o f restricted subjects were compared with their previously estimated
viewing levels, and with the rates of unrestricted viewers. If they exceeded half
the previous rate, the supervising students reiterated hints and emphasized the
importance of reducing viewing. During the remaining weeks, the author com-
pared viewing rates of restricted subjects to their controls' rates. Parents of
subjects whose rates exceeded half the amount of the controls' rates were urged
to restrict more during subsequent weeks.
Mothers in both groups were asked to keep the following weekly records in
preprinted data sheets: (a) Daily behavior (school days only): Rate child's be-
havior on a 1 to 5 scale---better than usual = 5; worse than usual = 1. Eight
behaviors were rated each day, coinciding with typical activities such as getting
re~idy for school, and eating breakfast. (b) TV viewing: list names of programs
each day, including weekends. (c) Contact time: describe daily interactions, time
of day, and child's response.

Dependent Measures
The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) was ad-
ministered in the home, approximately three months prior to assigning condi-
tions, by the author and a female clinically trained graduate student. Two
graduate students, one male and one female, who were blind to condition as-
signment, administered the posttest WPPSI and the MFF. Pre- and posttest
examiners tested equal numbers of subjects in each sex by conditions cell. A pre-
and posttest leisure time questionnaire was administered to parents in which they
were asked to estimate for the current week the amount of time their child spent
on an average weekday in each of nine activities: reading, coloring, structured
outdoor play (ball games, tag, etc.), unstructured outdoor play (sand box, bicycl-
ing), car fantasy, and doll fantasy, and watching others.

RESULTS

The degree to which mothers reported conformity to experimental instructions

was assessed by calculating weekly and total amounts for the following mea-
sures: (a) Viewing time: number of minutes; (b) Number of programs viewed; (c)
Number of commercial programs: programs aired on commercial channels, ac-
cording to the local TV guide; (d) Public TV programs: those aired on non-
commercial channels, according to local TV guide; (e) Aggressive programs:
cartoons and other programs containing chase, crime, or fighting. Two experi-
enced raters classified the programs by title and consulted on disagreements.
Unidentified programs and movie titles were not classified as aggressive.
Five two-way analyses unweighted means of variance (Winer, 1962) were
50 GADBERRY

conducted on viewing measures. There were no significant effects for sex: F

ratios, df (1, 23) ranged from 0 to .33. One sex by conditions interaction was
significant, indicating that girls in the control group viewed more educational
programs than subjects in the other three conditions F (1, 23) = 4.53, p < .05.
Table 1 contains means and F ratios for the effects of experimental condi-
tions on total viewing• Although both groups had previously been matched on
mothers' estimates of TV-viewing time, unrestricted viewers subsequently
watched approximately twice as much total time as restricted viewers; moreover,
they viewed over twice as many commercial programs and six times as many
aggressive programs• The mean daily viewing time (1.68 hours) for unrestricted
viewers was slightly less than the mean daily viewing time (2.01 hours) esti-
mated for the total group during mothers' pretests.

TABLE 1
Means and F Ratios:
TV-Restricted vs. Contact Conditions

Measure Group Means F Ratio

Restricted Unrestricted
TV TV (df = 1,23)

Total Viewing 1 349.8 705.6 13.1 * *

Total Programs 2 3.9 9.3 10.8"*
Commercial Programs 2 3.4 8.2 8.0**
Public TV Programs ~ .4 .7 .5
Aggressive Programs 2 .7 3.9 12.5* *

**p < .01

1Minutes/week
2Programs/week

Significant differences between the group's weekly viewing times were

obtained in all but the first week of the study, where the main effects for
conditions did not reach significance, F (1, 23) = 3.78. Reliability of mothers'
time estimates was examined by intercorrelating weekly time estimates, as well
as weekly with total estimates• Values ranged from r (1, 27) = .66 to r (1, 27) =
•84, and indicated moderate reliability of mothers' reporting as well as children's
viewing behavior•
Results indicated that high viewing amount was associated with increases
in commercial and aggressive content, but not with increased educational con-
tent. Of the five measures of viewing time, only one was not highly correlated
with the others. Correlations between total viewing, total programs, commercial
 EFFECTS OF RESTRICTING FIRST GRADERS 51

programs, and aggressive programs ranged from r (1, 27) = .90 to r (1, 27) =
.98. Noncommercial viewing (of educational channels) was uncorrelated with
the other viewing measures.
WPPSI Performance and Verbal Scale Scores were converted to IQs, with
the exception of three male subjects (two experimentals and one control) who
were too old for norm comparisons at posttesting. Means are illustrated in Table
2. Although subjects were originally matched for IQ, three controls dropped,

TABLE 2
Verbal and Performance IQ:
Pre- and Posttest Means 1

Group Sex V/Q 1 VIQ2 PIQ 1 PIQ2

Restricted F 105.7 115.3 107.3 114.0

"IV M 107.6 112.1 104.6 119.0
Unrestricted F 105.5 112.0 112.7 113.0
"IV M 105.0 115.6 11 i . 0 116.8

in = 24

thus causing Performance IQs between experimental and control groups to ap-
pear different. A series of two-way (experimental group by sex) analyses of
covariance were performed on pretest and posttest scores. Results indicate that
Performance IQ, but not Verbal IQ (F < 1.00) increased differentially for the
restricted TV group, F (1, 20) = 4 . 9 5 , p < .05 and for males, F (1, 20) = 6.10,
p < .051. The Picture Completion and Animal House Subscale Scores were the
only Performance Scale Scores indicating a significant difference between ex-
perimental groups. Using raw scores of all subjects, analysis of covariance F (1,
23) was 5.01, p < .05. Results indicated larger increases for the restricted
viewing group.
Kagan (1965) defined the impulsivity-reflectivitydimension on the Match-
ing Familiar Figures Test as a tendency for either short response latencies and
more errors or for long response latencies and increased accuracy. Thus a Multi-

qt should be noted that pretest PerformanceIQ scores, although not significantlydifferent

between restricted and unrestrictedgroups,F (1, 20) = .92, may have been sufficientlyhigh in the
unrestrictedgroupto limitsubsequentincreasesin PerformanceIQ. Thusresultsdo not unequivocally
confirm the predictionthat restricted viewingwould enhanceincreasesin PerformanceIQ. Another
liability with respect to PerformanceIQ scores was the change in examiners from pre- to posttest.
Examiners were changed in order to avoid the possibilitythat familiaritywith the examiner would
increase scores. Since examiners tested subjects in all cells, the primary effect of the change was
probably to increase error variance. However, there may be hidden systematicbias due to examiner
difference which affected results.
52 GADBERRY

variate Analysis of Variance Design, using both variables summarized in Table

3, was used. Prior to the M A N O V A analysis the latency data was transformed to
logarithms because the cell variances were not homogeneous, F max = 7.01, p
< .01. The analysis indicated that restricted viewers exceeded unrestricted view-
ers on the combined measures of latency and number of correct items, F (1, 22)
= 8.05, p < .01. Males also exceeded females in reflectivity, F (1, 22) = 6.44,
p < .05. The interaction term was not significant, F (1, 22) = 3.68.
The multiple analysis of variance results supported the hypothesis that the
restricted TV group exceeded the unrestricted TV group in reflectivity. Uni-
variate analyses indicated that group differences were significant for latency, F
(1, 23) = 7.54, p < .05 but not for accuracy, F (1, 23) = .35.

TABLE 3
Matching Familiar Figures Scores

Latency
Means (Seconds) Number
Group Sex All Items Correct

F 160.8 4.0
Unrestricted
M 115.3 5.2

F 194.5 4.5
Reslricted
M 283.1 7.2

Parents' pre- and post-experimental questionnaire estimates of leisure time

use were analyzed in order to discover which activities replaced television view-
ing. One category--watching others--was not analyzed because nearly all par-
ents estimated zero time use. Table 4 contains the means for pretest and posttest
time use for each group. Six two-way (conditions x sex) analyses of covariance
were conducted using posttest and pretest scores. There were significant dif-
ferences between the experimental and control groups for only one activity:
reading, F (1,23) = 8.18,p < .01. The TV-restricted group increased in reading
time and the control group decreased. Coloring time main effects were in the
same direction, but did not reach conventional significance levels, F (1, 23) =
3 . 5 1 , p < .10.
In order to determine whether experimental bias on the part of parents in
the TV-restricted group initiated more reading or exaggerated reading time esti-
mates, the dally parent-child contact time periods were examined. Parental de-
scriptions of contact time were categorized, by a rater blind to conditions, into
leisure time categories. A two-way A N O V A was performed on the number of
 EFFECTS OF RESTRICTING FIRST GRADERS 53

TABLE 4
Leisure time use: Mean hrs./day before and after experiment

Outdoors Fantasy Quiet Indoor

Structured Free
Group Sex Play Play Cars Dolls Read Color

Pre Post Pie Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post

Unrestricted F .8 .2 3.2 1.2 .5 .1 1.9 .8 1.2 .6 1.5 .9

TV M .8 .5 2.7 .9 1.3 1.0 1.0 .2 1.1 .6 1.2 .5
Restricted F .6 .2 3.0 .8 .4 .2 1.5 .6 1.0 1.2 1.0 .9
TV M .9 .7 4.1 1.7 1.2 .8 .5 .3 .6 1.0 .8 .8

contact periods during which parents read and/or colored with their children. The
main effects for conditions slightly favored the unrestricted TV group, but were
not significant, F (1, 23) = 1.10; there were no sex or interaction effects.
Reading was the most preferred contact activity for both groups (30.2%), then
outdoor play (11.8%), and talking (11.6%). The remainder of the contact periods
were spent in chores (9.6%), eating (5.1%), homework (4.6%), and car tips
(2.1%). There were no significant main or interaction effects for conditions or
sex in any category. The results do not support a "parent experimenter bias"
explanation for the enhanced reading time of the TV restricted group, since both
groups of parents reported equivalent contact time spent in reading.
Mothers' behavioral ratings would increase for the TV-restricted group if
hyperactivity and lack of impulse control were caused by viewing aggressive,
rapidly paced programs. On the other hand, if restricting viewing is a frustrating
experience, mothers' ratings would be in a negative direction compared to unre-
stricted viewers. Mothers' ratings were totaled for all activities each day; aver-
ages were obtained for each week, as well as for the entire six-week period. The
mean rating for the experimental period, 3.39, was slightly above the midpoint;
weekly ratings ranged from 2.88 to 4.44. There were virtually no differences
between cell means for mothers' ratings. Coefficients correlating the previous
week's viewing with subsequent behavior tended to be negative and nonsignifi-
cant for both groups. Increased television viewing time was slightly, but nonsig-
nificantly, correlated to lower concurrent behavioral ratings in the combined
groups.
Because Matching Familiar Figures scores were not obtained prior to the
experimental conditions, it is possible that experimental groups may have been
nonrandom with respect to those measures. An indirect examination of the prob-
54 GADBERRY

lem was conducted by inspecting the correlations between MFF latency and other
pre- and post-experimental measures. As Table 5 indicates, latency correlated
positively with Performance IQ. Since Performance IQ of the restricted television
group was initially slightly lower, and later increased to the level of the unre-
stricted group, it is more likely that restricted viewers were initially lower, rather
than higher, on Matching Familiar Figures scores. The correlations extend the
negative relationships between MFF latency and the independent variables of
TV-viewing time, particularly viewing of aggressive and commercial network
programs. They also illustrate positive correlations between noncommercial
TV-viewing and the post-experimental measures of reading and coloring time.

TABLE 5
Correlations Between Matching Familiar Figures Latency
and TV Viewing, IQ, and Leisure Time Use Scores

Pre- Post-
experimental df experimental df

TV Time -.20' (27) -.36 (27)

AggressivePrograms -- -.43" (27)
Commercial Programs -- -.47" (27)
Noncommercial Programs -- .39" (27)
Verbal IQ .22 (24) -.01 (24)
Performance tQ .41 * (24) .45* (24)
Reading .04 (27) .51"* (27)
Coloring --.03 (27) .42* (27)

* p < .05
**p < .01
'Hours of viewing estimated by mothers during pretest

DISCUSSION

The apparent success of mothers' experimental manipulations and behavioral

reporting supports the feasibility of future studies of home viewing effects. The
precautions of active control group instructions, optimal timing, intrinsic parent
motivation, and consistent supervision are recommended.
Results suggest the viability of the functional equivalence hypothesis,
which predicts that media activities will mutually displace each other. In the
present study, reading was chosen more often when viewing was externally
limited. Data are consistent with Robinson's (1972) surveys showing that reading
declined in homes where television was introduced. The fact that subjects in the
 EFFECTSOF RESTRICTINGFIRSTGRADERS 55

present study were from middle-class homes--highly motivated for intellectual

accomplishment--probably enhanced the choice of print by television restricted
subjects. In homes where reading materials are less available and less valued,
television restriction would increase other kinds of activities. Singer (1971)
suggested that for lower-class children television might actually prevent aggres-
sion by benevolently confining children to the home rather than allowing them to
wander in the street.
The above explanation assumes that group reading time differences were
not due to parental reporting bias. Some evidence from the study implies that it is
unlikely that the restricted-viewing group exaggerated reports. First, reading was
never emphasized by experimenters as an experimental or socially desirable
goal. Second, both groups were equally motivated to encourage reading, as
evidenced by the high and equivalent rates of reading time reported during
parent-initiated contact sessions. Third, if the experimental group were nonran-
domly selected, they would have reported more reading time in pretest as-
sessments. The unrestricted group, however, actually reported more reading
prior to the study. It appears that when school began, the unrestricted group
reduced reading rates from their vacation level and the rates of the restricted
group remained the same. It would be desirable in future studies to assess reading
time and viewing time directly in order to validate the assumption that parents'
reports were not systematically biased.
Viewing did not have large, nonspecific effects on IQ, although apparent,
but nonsignificant group differences in pretest Performance IQ scores cloud the
conclusiveness of results. Results tentatively imply that, whereas verbal IQ
scores were unrelated to TV restriction and reading rate increases, Performance
IQ tended to increase more in restricted subjects. Systematic search for visual
details (Zelnicker & Jeffrey, 1976) is one of the abilities examined on both the
Picture Completion scale of the WPPSI and the Matching Familiar Figures test.
In the present study, subjects' Performance IQ scores and MFF latency scores
were positively correlated. Taken as a whole, the results imply that a specific
ability within the constellation of skills comprising IQ was at least temporarily
increased by long-term substitution of one leisure time activity (reading) for
another (TV viewing).
It is possible that although print and television are similar in many respects,
certain processing styles are more compatible with each medium. A word de-
coder or picture scanner, presented with a stable stimulus for an unconstrained
period of time, is more likely to engage in systematic search for distinctive
features. Television viewing externally limits processing time by virtue of mo-
tion and typically rapid scene changes. One exception may be children's educa-
tional programs, which train viewers to carefully search for distinctive features in
pictures and letters. In the present study, viewing of such programs as Sesame
Street and Electric Company (noncommercial viewing) was positively related to
latency scores. Educational content may promote a reflective style, even when
56 GADBERRY

material is rapidly paced, as s h o w n by A n d e r s o n , L e v i n and Lorch (1977), w h o

found that S e s a m e S t r e e t p a c e changes did not significantly affect M a t c h i n g
F a m i l i a r Figures scores.
M o r e research is necessary to c o n f i r m the results o f the present study. The
relationship i m p l i e d in the present study b e t w e e n television restriction, increased
reading time, and visual processing style encourages further investigations o f the
functional e q u i v a l e n c e hypothesis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank M a r y Schneider, June L a M a r c a , T o n y M a r i a n o ,

Penny D ' A m e l i o , Janine M a r i n o , W a r r e n Siegel, and D e b r a Ridlon, w h o aided
in data collection, and Pat Carey for her secretarial assistance.

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