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Russia
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For other uses, see Russia (disambiguation).
Russian Federation
Российская Федерация
Flag of Russia
Flag
Coat of arms of Russia
Coat of arms
Anthem:
Государственный гимн Российской Федерации
Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii
"State Anthem of the Russian Federation"
1:22
Russia on the globe in dark green, with the disputed Kuril Islands and occupied and
claimed territory in Ukraine shown in light green.[a]
Russia on the globe in dark green, with the disputed Kuril Islands and occupied and
claimed territory in Ukraine shown in light green.[a]
Capital
and largest city
Moscow
55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E
Official
and national language Russian[3]
Recognised national languages See Languages of Russia
Ethnic groups (2010)[4]
80.9% Russian
3.9% Tatar
1.4% Ukrainian
1.1% Bashkir
1.0% Chuvash
1.0% Chechen
10.7% Others
Religion (2012)[5]
47.4% Christianity
—41% Russian Orthodoxy
—6.4% Other Christian
38.2% No religion
6.5% Islam[b]
2.4% Others
5.5% Unanswered
Demonym(s) Russian
Government Federal semi-presidential republic under an authoritarian
dictatorship[6][7][8]
• President
Vladimir Putin
• Prime Minister
Mikhail Mishustin
• Speaker of the
Federation Council
Valentina Matviyenko
• Speaker of the
State Duma
Vyacheslav Volodin
• Chief Justice
Vyacheslav Lebedev
Legislature Federal Assembly
• Upper house
Federation Council
• Lower house
State Duma
Formation
• Kievan Rus'
879
• Vladimir-Suzdal
1157
• Grand Duchy of
Moscow
1263
• Tsardom of Russia
16 January 1547
• Russian Empire
2 November 1721
• Monarchy abolished
15 March 1917
• Soviet Union
30 December 1922
• Declaration of State
Sovereignty
12 June 1990
• Russian Federation
12 December 1991
• Current constitution
12 December 1993
• Union State formed
8 December 1999
Area
• Total
17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)[9] 17,234,028 km2 (including Crimea and other
disputed territories) (1st)
• Water (%)
13[10] (including swamps)
Population
• 2022 estimate
Neutral increase 145,864,296 (Mid-2022)[11]
(including Crimea)[12]
Neutral decrease 143,054,637
(excluding Crimea)[12]
(9th)
• Density
8.4/km2 (21.8/sq mi) (181st)
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
• Total
Increase $4.650 trillion[13] (6th)
• Per capita
Increase $31,967[13] (59th)
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
• Total
Increase $2.133 trillion[13] (9th)
• Per capita
Increase $14,665[13] (65th)
Gini (2020) Positive decrease 36.0[14]
medium · 98th
HDI (2019) Increase 0.824[15]
very high · 52nd
Currency Russian ruble (₽) (RUB)
Time zone UTC+2 to +12
Driving side right
Calling code +7
ISO 3166 code RU
Internet TLD
.ru
.рф
Russia (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə]), or the Russian
Federation,[c] is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern
Asia. It is the largest country in the world, covering over 17,098,246 square
kilometres (6,601,670 sq mi), and encompassing one-eighth of Earth's inhabitable
landmass. Russia extends across eleven time zones sharing land boundaries with
fourteen countries,[16] more than any other country but China.[d] It is the ninth-
most populous country in the world and the most populous country in Europe, with a
population of 146 million. The country's capital and largest city is Moscow, the
largest city entirely within Europe. Saint Petersburg is Russia's cultural centre
and second-largest city. Other major urban areas include Novosibirsk,
Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan.

The East Slavs emerged as a recognisable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th
centuries CE. The medieval state of Kievan Rus' arose in the 9th century, and in
988 adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Rus' ultimately
disintegrated, with the Grand Duchy of Moscow growing to become the Tsardom of
Russia. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest,
annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, the third-largest empire
in history. The monarchy was abolished following the Russian Revolution in 1917,
and the Russian SFSR became the world's first constitutionally socialist state.
Following a civil war, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three
other republics, as its largest and the principal constituent. The country
underwent a period of rapid industrialisation at the expense of millions of lives.
The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II, and
was a superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era
saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century,
including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first
human into space.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the newly independent
Russian SFSR renamed itself the Russian Federation. In the aftermath of the
constitutional crisis of 1993, a new constitution was adopted, and Russia has since
been governed as a federal semi-presidential republic. Since his election in 2000,
Vladimir Putin has dominated Russia's political system and Russia has experienced
democratic backsliding, [17] shifting into an authoritarian state.[6] Russia ranks
high in international measurements of standard of living, household income and
education; having universal healthcare and a free university education. However,
Russia also ranks low in measurements of human rights, freedom of the press,
economic freedom, and has high levels of perceived corruption.

The Russian economy is the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP and the sixth-
largest by PPP. It has the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons, with the
fifth-highest military expenditure. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources
are the world's largest, and it is among the leading producers of oil and natural
gas globally. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a
member of the G20, the SCO, BRICS, the APEC, the OSCE and the WTO, as well as the
leading member of the CIS, the CSTO, and the EAEU. Russia is home to 30 UNESCO
World Heritage Sites.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Kievan Rus'
2.3 Grand Duchy of Moscow
2.4 Tsardom of Russia
2.5 Imperial Russia
2.6 Revolution and civil war
2.7 Soviet Union
2.7.1 World War II
2.7.2 Cold War
2.8 Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
4 Government and politics
4.1 Political divisions
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Military
4.4 Human rights and corruption
5 Economy
5.1 Transport and energy
5.2 Agriculture and fishery
5.3 Science and technology
5.3.1 Space exploration
5.4 Tourism
6 Demographics
6.1 Language
6.2 Religion
6.3 Education
6.4 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Holidays
7.2 Art and architecture
7.3 Music
7.4 Literature and philosophy
7.5 Cuisine
7.6 Mass media and cinema
7.7 Sports
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Sources
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology
Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia
The name Russia is derived from Rus', a medieval state populated primarily by the
East Slavs.[18] However, the proper name[which?] became more prominent in later
history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Rus land".[19]
This state is denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city by modern
historiography. The name Rus' itself comes from the early medieval Rus' people, a
group of Norse merchants and warriors who relocated from across the Baltic Sea and
founded a state centred on Novgorod that later became Kievan Rus'.[20]

A Medieval Latin version of the name Rus' was Ruthenia, which was used as one of
several designations for East Slavic and Eastern Orthodox regions, and commonly as
a designation for the lands of Rus'.[21] The current name of the country, Россия
(Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Rus', Ρωσσία Rossía –
spelled Ρωσία (Rosía pronounced [roˈsia]) in Modern Greek.[22] The standard way to
refer to the citizens of Russia is "Russians" in English.[23] There are two words
in Russian which are commonly translated into English as "Russians" – one is
"русские" (russkiye), which most often refers to ethnic Russians – and the other is
"россияне" (rossiyane), which refers to citizens of Russia, regardless of
ethnicity.[24]

History
Main article: History of Russia
Early history
Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion,
and Prehistory of Siberia
See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early
Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus
migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[25] Flint tools, some 1.5
million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus.[26] Radiocarbon
dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest
Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[27] Fossils of "Denny", an archaic
human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000
years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[28] Russia was home to some of
the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya
cave.[29]

The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in
western Siberia.[30] The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of
anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki
and Borshchyovo,[31] and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both,
respectively in western Russia.[32] Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000
years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.[33]

Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry.[34]

The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and
Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[35] Early Indo-European
migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European
languages across large parts of Eurasia.[36][37] Nomadic pastoralism developed in
the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.[38] Remnants of these
steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo,[38] Sintashta,[39]
Arkaim,[40] and Pazyryk,[41] which bear the earliest known traces of horses in
warfare.[39] The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in
northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500
years ago.[42] In classical antiquity, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe was known as
Scythia.[43] In late 8th century BCE, Ancient Greek traders brought classical
civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.[44]

In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern
Russia, which was later overrun by Huns.[45] Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE,
the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek
colonies,[46] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such
as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[47] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled
the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 10th
century.[48] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which
was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[49]

The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the
Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe ca.
1500 years ago.[50] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia in two waves:
one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk
towards Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs
constituted the bulk of the population in western Russia,[51] and slowly but
peacefully assimilated the native Finnic peoples.[45]

Kievan Rus'
Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; Kievan Rus'; and List of tribes and states in
Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

East Slavic state of Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with
the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending
from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.[52] According to the Primary
Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of
Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev,
which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[45] Rurik's son Igor and
Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan
rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[53] and launched several military expeditions
to Byzantium and Persia.[54][55]

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most
prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his
son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the
acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first
East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.[45] The age of feudalism and
decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the
Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the
benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north,
and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[45] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-
eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[56] Prince
Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[56] leading to
political power being shifted to the north-east.[45]

Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the
sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the
population.[45] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden
Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central
expanses of Russia for over two centuries.[57] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped
Mongol occupation after it agreed to pay tribute.[45]

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually absorbed by Lithuania and Poland,[45] while the

Novgorod Republic and Vladimir-Suzdal, two regions on the periphery of Kiev,
established the basis for the modern Russian nation.[45] Led by Prince Alexander
Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in
1240,[58] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242.[59]

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow

Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the
Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow,
initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.[60]: 
11–20  While still under the domain of the
Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in
the region in the early 14th century,[61] gradually becoming the leading force in
the "gathering of the Russian lands".[62] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the
Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[63]
Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre
and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[64]

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities
inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in
1380.[45] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding
principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[62]

Ivan III ("the Great") finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde and
consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first
Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the fall of
Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern
Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine
emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and
eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[62] Vasili III completed the task of uniting all
of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th
century.[65]

Tsardom of Russia
Main article: Tsardom of Russia
See also: Moscow, third Rome

Ivan IV was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then "Tsar of All the
Russias" until his death in 1584.
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand duke Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was
officially crowned the first tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new
code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal
representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence
of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[62] During his long reign, Ivan
nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar
khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,[66] and the Khanate of Sibir in
southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded
east of the Ural Mountains.[67] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and
unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the
Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.
[68] In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the
crucial Battle of Molodi.[69]

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and
in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the
rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the
early 17th century.[70] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage,
occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[71] In 1612, the Poles
were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin
and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[72] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613
by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery
from the crisis.[73]

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age
of the Cossacks.[74] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to
place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis; whose acceptance of
this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the
Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.
[75] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia
continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward
primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were
Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur
River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[74] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became
the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[76]
Imperial Russia
Main article: Russian Empire

Expansion and territorial evolution of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia
and Russian Empire between the 14th and 20th centuries.
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established
itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter
defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to
the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg
as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which
brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[77] The reign
of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the
Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East
Prussia, reaching Berlin.[78] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests
were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[79]

Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age
of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most
populous country in Europe.[80] In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish
Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black
Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.[81] As a result of
victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the
19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.[82] Catherine's successor, her
son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.[83] Following
his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825)
wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[84] and of Bessarabia from
the Ottomans in 1812.[85] In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans
to reach and colonise Alaska.[86] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation
was made.[87] In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.
[88]

During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers,
and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of
Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed miserably as the
obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a
disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter
destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the
Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the
Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[89] Alexander I controlled Russia's
delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic
Europe.[90]

Napoleon's retreat from Moscow by Albrecht Adam (1851).

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism
back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive
Decembrist revolt of 1825.[91] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I
(1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was
disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[92] Nicholas's successor Alexander II
(1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the
emancipation reform of 1861.[93] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and
modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from
Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[94] During most
of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan
and its neighboring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the
two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[95]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia.
Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[96] The reign of
his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[97] Under
last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered
by the failure of the humiliating Russo-Japanese War.[98] The uprising was put
down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution
of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of
political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.
[99]

Revolution and civil war

Main articles: Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War

Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks in
1918.
In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of
war on Russia's ally Serbia,[100] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated
from its Triple Entente allies.[101] In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the
Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.[102]
However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the
rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All
this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two
major acts.[103] In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his
family were imprisoned and later executed in Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil
War.[104] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that
declared itself the Provisional Government.[105] The Provisional Government
proclaimed the Russian Republic in September. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918,
the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic
(thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the
Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.
[103]

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding

power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called
Soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country
instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik
leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing
power to the Soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.
[103] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and
the new Soviet regime with its Red Army.[106] In the aftermath of signing the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World
War I; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted
34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and
roughly 90% of its coal mines.[107]

Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky during a 1920 speech in Moscow

The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of
anti-communist forces.[108] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement
carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known
respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[109] By the end of the violent
civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as
10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[110] Millions became White
émigrés,[111] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million
victims.[112]

Soviet Union
Main article: History of the Soviet Union
Location of the Russian SFSR (red) within the Soviet Union in 1936
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the
Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and
Ukrainian republics.[113] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during
World War II created a union of 15 republics; the largest in size and population
being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union for its entire history
politically, culturally, and economically.[114] Following Lenin's death in 1924, a
troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General
Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and
consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.[115]
Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet
Union in 1929,[116] and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the
official line.[117] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party
culminated in the Great Purge.[118]

Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy,

industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its
agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of
people were sent to penal labor camps, including many political convicts for their
suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule;[119] and millions were deported and
exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[120] The transitional disorganisation
of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,
led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed up to 8.7 million.[121] The
Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian
economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[122]

World War II
Main article: Soviet Union in World War II

The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of
warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army.
The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of
Poland,[123] in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop
Pact with Nazi Germany.[124] The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,[125] and
occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[126] as well as parts of Romania.[127]: 91–
95  On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,[128] opening the Eastern
Front, the largest theater of World War II.[129]: 7 

Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[130]: 272 
the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet
POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfill
Generalplan Ost.[131]: 
175–186  Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early
success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[132] Subsequently, the
Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of
1942–1943,[133] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[134] Another
German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on
land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation
and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[135] Soviet forces
steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in
May 1945.[136] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the
Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[137]

The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.
[138] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China
were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the
Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.
[139]: 
27  During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27
million,[140] accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.[141]: 295 
The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused
the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[142] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice,
the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[143]

Cold War

The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Winston Churchill,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin.
After World War II, parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and
eastern parts of Austria were occupied by Red Army according to the Potsdam
Conference.[144] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc
satellite states.[145] After becoming the world's second nuclear power,[146] the
Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[147] and entered into a struggle
for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivaling United States and
NATO.[148] After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the
new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-
Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labor camps.[149]
The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev
Thaw.[150] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals
clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and
Soviet missiles in Cuba.[151]

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik
1, thus starting the Space Age.[152] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the
first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April
1961.[153] Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of
collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the
1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965
Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy.[154] In
1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the
country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[155] In May 1988, the Soviets
started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent
anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[156]

Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with Ronald Reagan in the Reykjavík

Summit, 1986.
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact
liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost
(openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of
economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[157] This, however, led to
the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[158]
Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its
final years, it went into a crisis.[159]

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states
chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[160] On 17 March, a referendum was held, in
which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the
Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[161] In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the
first directly elected president in Russian history when he was elected president
of the Russian SFSR.[162] In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of
Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the
Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
[163] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along
with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[164]

Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)

Main article: History of Russia (1991–present)
Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and
Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev
Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his first inauguration,
with Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000.
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and
prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union,
wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation
were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy".[165]
The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to
individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of the
infamous Russian oligarchs.[166] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and
assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[167] The depression of
the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while
the death rate skyrocketed,[168][169] and millions plunged into poverty;[170] while
extreme corruption,[171] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose
significantly.[172]

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a
constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the
crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.
[173] In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new
constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[174] The 1990s were plagued by
armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist
Islamist insurrections.[175] From the time Chechen separatists declared
independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between
the rebel groups and Russian forces.[176] Terrorist attacks against civilians were
carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian
civilians.[e][177]

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for
settling the latter's external debts.[178] In 1992, most consumer price controls
were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the ruble.
[179] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to
pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a
further GDP decline.[180]

Map showing Russian political and military influence or interference in Post-Soviet

conflicts as of 2021
In 1999, president Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently
appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[181] Putin then
won the 2000 presidential election,[182] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the
Second Chechen War.[183] Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.[184] High
oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living
standards improve significantly.[185] Putin's rule increased stability, while
transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[186] In 2008, Putin took the post
of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected president for one term, to
hold onto power despite legal term limits;[187] this period has been described as a
"tandemocracy."[188]

Following a diplomatic crisis with neighboring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took
place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia imposing two unrecognised states
in the occupied territories of Georgia. It was the first European war of the 21st
century.[189] In 2014, following a revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and
annexed the neighboring country's Crimean peninsula,[190] and contributed to the
outbreak of war in eastern Ukraine with direct intervention by Russian troops.[191]
Russia steeply escalated the war by launching a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on
24 February 2022.[192] The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe
since World War II,[193] and was met with widespread international condemnation,
[194] as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.[195] As a result, Russia was
expelled from the Council of Europe in March,[196] and was suspended from the
United Nations Human Rights Council in April.[197] In September 2022, Putin
proclaimed the annexation of 15% of Ukraine's landmass in its Donetsk, Kherson,
Luhansk, and Zaporizhzhia regions, the largest seizure attempted in Europe since
World War II.[198] Despite the announcement, Russia does not fully control any of
the four annexed regions.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Russia

Topographic map of Russia

Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the
northernmost part of Asia.[199] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has
the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[f][201] Russia
lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending
some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi)
north to south.[202] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and
has the same surface area as Pluto.[203]

Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost
regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing
Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and
Europe);[7] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian
Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing
Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in
Eurasia).[204][205] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the
country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary
between Europe and Asia.[206] The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at
the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres
(95.1 ft) below sea level.[207]

Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans,[199] has
links with a great number of seas.[h][208] Its major islands and archipelagos
include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian
Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin.[209][210] The Diomede
Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi)
apart;[211] and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from
Hokkaido, Japan.[2]

Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[199] has one of the world's largest surface
water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's
liquid fresh water.[205] Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's
fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh
water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[212]
Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.
[199] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.[213] The
Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest
river in Europe; and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the
continent.[214] The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the
world's longest rivers.[215]

Climate
Main article: Climate of Russia

Köppen climate classification of Russia.

The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in
the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country,
except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and
east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while
the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the
Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[216] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a
subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast
Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record
low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[209] and more moderate winters elsewhere.
Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have
a polar climate.[216]

The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some
coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical
climate with mild and wet winters.[216] In many regions of East Siberia and the
Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the
country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in
most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of
Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North
Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[216] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian
Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid
climate.[217]

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and
summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely
low and extremely high temperatures.[216] The coldest month is January (February on
the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are
typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west
to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[218] Climate change in Russia
is causing more frequent wildfires,[219] and thawing the country's large expanse of
permafrost.[220]

Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Russia
See also: List of ecoregions in Russia

Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi Republic is the largest national park in Europe.
[206]
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar
deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe,
steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[221] About half of Russia's territory is
forested,[7] and it has the world's largest forest reserves,[222] which sequester
some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[223]

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of

bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and
20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of
mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of
amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500
species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–
150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[221][224] Approximately 1,100 rare and
endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[221]

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially

protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the
country's total area.[221] They include 45 biosphere reserves,[225] 64 national
parks, and 101 nature reserves.[226] Russia still has many ecosystems which are
still untouched by man; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic
tundra of Siberia.[citation needed] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index
mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked
major nation globally.[227]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Russia

Vladimir Putin
President

Mikhail Mishustin
Prime Minister

A chart of the Russian political system

Russia, by constitution, is an asymmetric federal republic,[228] with a semi-
presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,[229] and the prime
minister is the head of government.[7] It is structured as a multi-party
representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:
[230]

Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member

State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council,[230] adopts federal law, declares
war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of
the president.[231]
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and
appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and
enforce federal laws and policies.[229] The president may issue decrees of
unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.
[232]
Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose
judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the
president,[230] interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.
[233]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no
more than twice.[234][i] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier
and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by
the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment
of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the
dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the
"party of power".[236][237] Under the administrations of Vladimir Putin, Russia has
experienced democratic backsliding,[238] and has become an authoritarian state[8]
under a dictatorship,[6][239] with Putin's policies being referred to as Putinism.
[240]

Political divisions
Main article: Political divisions of Russia
According to the constitution, the Russian Federation is composed of 89 federal
subjects.[j] In 1993, when the new constitution was adopted, there were 89 federal
subjects listed, but some were later merged. The federal subjects have equal
representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the
Federal Assembly.[241] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they
enjoy.[242] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to
facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[243] Originally
seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy
appointed by the president.[244]

Map of federal subjects of Russia (2012).svg

Federal subjects Governance
46 oblasts
The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected
legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[245]
22 republics
Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own
constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal
government in international affairs.[246]
9 krais
For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title
"krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier)
position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to
frontiers.[247]
4 autonomous okrugs
Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and
"autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[248]
3 federal cities
Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and
Sevastopol).[249]
1 autonomous oblast
The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[250]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Russia

Putin with G20 counterparts in Osaka, 2019.

Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains
diplomatic relations with 190 United Nations member states, four partially-
recognised states, and three United Nations observer states; along with 144
embassies.[251] Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council. It has historically been a great power,[252] and a former
superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[143] Russia is a
member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC. Russia also takes a leading role in
organisations such as the CIS,[253] the EAEU,[254] the CSTO,[255] the SCO,[256] and
BRICS.[257]

Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the
Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[258] Serbia has been
a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual
cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[259] India is the largest customer of
Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and
diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[260] Russia wields enormous influence
across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two
regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".[261][262]

In the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly
strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared political interests.[263]
Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defense relationship.[264]
Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic
ally.[265] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the
Arctic,[266] Asia-Pacific,[267] Africa,[268] the Middle East,[269] and Latin
America.[270] In contrast, Russia's relations with neighboring Ukraine and the
Western world—especially the United States, the European Union, and NATO—have
collapsed; following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014 and the
consequent escalation in 2022.[271][272]

Military
Main article: Russian Armed Forces

Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation fighter of the Russian Air Force.[273]

The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the
Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic
Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.[7] As of 2021, the military have around a
million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20
million reserve personnel.[274][275] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–
27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[7]
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's
largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are
owned by Russia.[276] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic
missile submarines,[277] and is one of the only three countries operating strategic
bombers.[278] Russia maintains the world's fourth-highest military expenditure,
spending $61.7 billion in 2020.[279] In 2021 it was the world's second-largest arms
exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry, producing most
of its own military equipment.[280]

Human rights and corruption

Main articles: Human rights in Russia and Corruption in Russia

Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out
across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to
about 15,000 people being arrested.[281]
Human rights in Russia have been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and
human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil
liberties to its citizens.[282][283]

Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the
World survey.[284] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as
an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 124th out of 167
countries for 2021.[285] In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 155th out
of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2022.[286]
The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human
rights activists for unfair elections,[287] crackdowns on opposition political
parties and protests,[288][289] persecution of non-governmental organisations and
enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,[290][291][292] and
censorship of mass media and internet.[293]

Russia's autocratic[294] political system has been variously described as a

kleptocracy,[295] an oligarchy,[296] and a plutocracy.[297] It was the lowest rated
European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for
2021, ranking 136th out of 180 countries.[298] Russia has a long history of
corruption, which is seen as a significant problem.[299] It impacts various
sectors, including the economy,[300] business,[301] public administration,[302] law
enforcement,[303] healthcare,[304][305] education,[306] and the military.[307]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Russia
Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in
Russia

The Moscow International Business Centre in Moscow. The city has one of the world's
largest urban economies.[308]
Russia has a mixed economy,[309] with enormous natural resources, particularly oil
and natural gas.[310] It has the world's ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and
the sixth-largest by PPP. The large service sector accounts for 62% of total GDP,
followed by the industrial sector (32%), while the agricultural sector is the
smallest, making up only 5% of total GDP.[7] Russia has a low official unemployment
rate of 4.1%.[311] Its foreign exchange reserves are the world's fifth-largest,
worth $540 billion.[312] It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the
world's sixth-largest.[313]

Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest importer.

[314][315] It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export
tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January
2022,[316] and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.[317] In 2019, the Natural
Resources and Environment Ministry estimated the value of natural resources to be
60% of the country's GDP.[318] Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt
among major economies,[319] although its inequality of household income and wealth
is one of the highest among developed countries.[320] High regional disparity is
also an issue.[321][322]

After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil-prices
and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,[185] Russia's economy was
damaged following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War and the annexation of Crimea
in 2014, due to the first wave of Western sanctions being imposed.[323] In the
aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced
revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts,[324] becoming the most sanctioned
country in the world,[325] in a move described as an "all-out economic and
financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system.
[195] Due to the impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of
economic data since April 2022.[326] Economists suggest the sanctions will have a
long-term effect over the Russian economy.[327]

Transport and energy

Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia

The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting
Moscow to Vladivostok.[328]
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run Russian
Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-
longest, and exceeds 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[329] As of 2016, Russia has the world's
fifth-largest road network, with 1.5 million km of roads,[330] while its road
density is among the world's lowest.[331] Russia's inland waterways are the world's
longest, and total 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[332] Among Russia's 1,218 airports,[333]
the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port
is the Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.[334]

Russia has been widely described as an energy superpower.[335] It has the world's
largest proven gas reserves,[336] the second-largest coal reserves,[337] the
eighth-largest oil reserves,[338] and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.
[339] Russia is also the world's leading natural gas exporter,[340] the second-
largest natural gas producer,[341] and the second-largest oil producer and
exporter.[342][343] Russia's oil and gas production has led to deep economic
relationships with the European Union, China, and former Soviet and Eastern Bloc
states.[344][345] For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of supplies to
total European Union (including the United Kingdom) gas demand increased from 25%
in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February
2022.[345]

Russia is committed to the Paris Agreement, after joining the pact formally in
2019.[346] Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia are the world's fourth-largest.[347]
Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer,[348] and the ninth-
largest renewable energy producer in 2019.[349] It was also the world's first
country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's first
nuclear power plant.[350] Russia was also the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy
producer in 2019,[351] and was the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer in 2021.
[352]

Agriculture and fishery

Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia

Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia

Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP,
although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[353] It has
the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522
sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land
is agricultural,[7] and only 7.4% of its land is arable.[354] The country's
agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[355] More than
one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland
is devoted to industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[353] The main product of
Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies considerably more than half
of the cropland.[353] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[356][357]
the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize
and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.[358]

Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for

Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in
Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.
[359] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas,
Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5
million tons of fish in 2018.[360] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the
beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the
world's total fresh and frozen fish.[353]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Russia
See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of
Russian inventors

Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist

Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the
world's tenth-highest budget.[361] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of
scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[362] Since 1904,
Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry,
medicine, economy, literature and peace.[363] Russia ranked 45th in the Global
Innovation Index in 2021.[364]

Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions,

discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology.[365] Since the
times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty
Chebyshev, a prominent tutor; Russian mathematicians became among the world's most
influential.[366] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework
of modern chemistry.[367] Sofya Kovalevskaya was a pioneer among women in
mathematics in the 19th century.[368] Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have
been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever
Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture
in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[369]

Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[370] while Nikolai Basov and
Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[371] Zhores Alferov
contributed significantly to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and
electronics.[372] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of
semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[373] Vladimir
Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and
radiogeology.[374] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in
immunology.[375] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical
conditioning.[376] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of
theoretical physics.[377]

Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of
cultivated plants.[378] Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.[379] Many
famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation
pioneer.[380] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope
television systems.[381] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field
of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[382] George
Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[383] Many foreign
scientists lived and worked in Russia for a long period, such as Leonard Euler and
Alfred Nobel.[384][385]

Space exploration

Mir, Soviet and Russian space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to
2001.[386]
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the
field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired
leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and
many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early
stages of the Space Race and beyond.[387]: 
6–7, 
333 

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In

1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many
other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina
Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo
mission on Vostok 6.[388] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct
a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[389]

In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth,
aboard Sputnik 2.[390] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a
survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[391] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the
first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.
[392] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet,
Venus.[393] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[394]: 34–
60  During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,
[395] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[396] Russia had 172
active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[397]

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Russia

Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited
country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with
over 24.6 million visits.[398] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number
of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.
[399] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.
[398] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.
[400]

Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia,
a theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga,
hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,[401] and journeys on the
famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[402] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks
include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of
St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[403]

Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling

megacity. It retains its classical and Soviet-era architecture; while boasting high
art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[404] Saint Petersburg, the
Imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and
theatres, white nights, criss-crossing rivers and numerous canals.[405] Russia is
famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State
Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the
Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the
cultural landmarks of Russia.[406]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in
Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population
Ethnic groups across Russia

Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over 1 million according to the 2010
census.

Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2010 census.

Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated and urbanised countries,[7]
with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its western part.[407]
It had a population of 142.8 million according to the 2010 census,[408] which rose
to roughly 145.5 million as of 2022.[12] Russia is the most populous country in
Europe, and the world's ninth most populous country, with a population density of 9
inhabitants per square kilometre (23 per square mile).[409]

Since the 1990s, Russia's death rate has exceeded its birth rate, which some
analysts have called a demographic crisis.[410] In 2019, the total fertility rate
across Russia was estimated to be 1.5 children born per woman,[411] which is below
the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's lowest fertility rates.[412]
Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median
age of 40.3 years.[7] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first
time in fifteen years; and since the 2010s, Russia has seen increased population
growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates and increased
immigration.[413] However, since 2020, due to excessive deaths from the COVID-19
pandemic, Russia's population has undergone its largest peacetime decline in
history.[414] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic
crisis in the country has deepened,[415] as the country has faced a renewed brain
drain and human capital flight caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.[416]

Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with

different minorities.[417] There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010
census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19%
of the population were ethnic minorities;[418] while over four-fifths of Russia's
population was of European descent—of which the vast majority were Slavs,[419] with
a substantial minority of Finnic and Germanic peoples.[420][421] According to the
United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest,
numbering over 11.6 million;[422] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly
Ukrainians.[423]

vte
Largest cities or towns in Russia
2021 Census[424]
Rank Name Federal subject Pop. Rank Name Federal subject Pop.
Moscow
Moscow
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg 1 Moscow Moscow 13,010,112 11 Rostov-na-Donu
Rostov Oblast 1,142,162 Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg
2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 5,601,911 12 Omsk Omsk Oblast
1,125,695
3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Oblast 1,633,595 13 Krasnodar Krasnodar
Krai 1,099,344
4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk Oblast 1,544,376 14 Voronezh Voronezh
Oblast 1,057,681
5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,308,660 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,034,002
6 Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 1,228,199 16 Volgograd
Volgograd Oblast 1,028,036
7 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Oblast 1,189,525 17 Saratov Saratov
Oblast 901,361
8 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Krai 1,187,771 18 Tyumen Tyumen Oblast
847,488
9 Samara Samara Oblast 1,173,299 19 Tolyatti Samara Oblast
684,709
10 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,144,809 20 Barnaul Altai Krai 630,877
Language
Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia
Minority languages across Russia

Altaic and Uralic languages spoken across Russia

The North Caucasus is ethno-linguistically diverse.[425]

Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is
the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread
language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.
[426] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space
Station,[427] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
[426]

Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are

spoken across the country.[428][429] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5
million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million
spoke Ukrainian.[430] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the
right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as
guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create
conditions for its study and development.[431] However, various experts have
claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages
becoming endangered.[432][433]

Religion
Main article: Religion in Russia

Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of

Russia.
Russia is a secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is Eastern
Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church.[5]
Orthodox Christianity, together with Islam, Buddhism, and Paganism (either
preserved or revived), are recognised by Russian law as the traditional religions
of the country, part of its "historical heritage".[434][435] The amendments of 2020
to the constitution added, in the Article 67, the continuity of the Russian state
in history based on preserving "the memory of the ancestors" and general "ideals
and belief in God" which the ancestors conveyed.[436]

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was a renewal of religions in Russia,
with the revival of the traditional faiths and the emergence of new forms within
the traditional faiths as well as many new religious movements.[437][438] Islam is
the second-largest religion in Russia, and is the traditional religion among the
majority of the peoples of the North Caucasus, and among some Turkic peoples
scattered along the Volga-Ural region.[5] Large populations of Buddhists are found
in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the
population in Tuva.[5] Many Russians practise other religions, including Rodnovery
(Slavic Neopaganism),[439] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[440] other ethnic
Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,[441]
various movements of Hinduism,[442] Siberian shamanism[443] and Tengrism, various
Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other faiths.[444][445] Some
religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the
country;[446] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia,
facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and
"nontraditional" faith.[447]

In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of

Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in
detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-
sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared
themselves Christians — including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or
members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less
than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants — 25% were believers without
affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[b] 1.2%
were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery,
other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were
religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[5]

Education
Main article: Education in Russia

Moscow State University, the most prestigious educational institution in Russia.

[448]
Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[449] and has compulsory education for a
duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[450] It grants free
education to its citizens by constitution.[451] The Ministry of Education of Russia
is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational
education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for
science and higher education.[450] Regional authorities regulate education within
their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is
among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of
tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[452] It
spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.[453]

Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[454] some

four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary
school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a
basic general education certificate.[450] An additional two or three years of
schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths
of Russians continue their education past this level.[455]

Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:

[451] first-degree courses usually take five years.[455] The oldest and largest
universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State
University.[456] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the
country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international
students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[457]

Health
Main article: Healthcare in Russia

Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium in Sochi.[458]

Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian
citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[459] The Ministry of
Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and
the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their
own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private
health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[460]

Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[461] Its healthcare

expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[462] Russia has one of
the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[7] due
to its high male mortality rate.[463] In 2019, the overall life expectancy in
Russia at birth was 73.2 years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females),
[464] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).[465]

The principle cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[466] Obesity is

a prevalent health issue in Russia; 61.1% of Russian adults were overweight or
obese in 2016.[467] However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is
the biggest health issue in the country,[468] as it remains one of the world's
highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[469] Smoking is another
health issue in the country.[470] The country's high suicide rate, although on the
decline,[471] remains a significant social issue.[472]

Culture
Main article: Russian culture

The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night

Russian culture has been formed by the nation's history, its geographical location
and its vast expanse, religious and social traditions, and Western influence.[473]
Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development
of European literature and thought.[474][475] The Russians have also greatly
influenced classical music,[476] ballet,[477] sport,[478] painting,[479] and
cinema.[480] The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and
technology and space exploration.[481][482]

Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 19 out of which are cultural;
while 27 more sites lie on the tentative list.[483] The large global Russian
diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the
world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom
period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.[62] The Russian Bear and
Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.[484][485]
Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.[486]

Holidays
Main article: Public holidays in Russia

The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[487] The year
starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox
Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[488]
Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.
[489] International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the
Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among
Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than
other holidays.[490] Spring and Labor Day, originally a Soviet era holiday
dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[491]

Victory Day, which honors Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War
II in Europe, is celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[492]
and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[493] Other patriotic holidays
include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of
sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[494] and Unity Day on 4 November,
commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of
Moscow.[495]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14
January.[496] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[497]
Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[498]
Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[499]

Art and architecture

Main articles: Russian artists, Russian architecture, and List of Russian
architects

Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1833)

The Winter Palace served as the official residence of the Emperor of Russia
Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early
15th-century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most
treasured religious art.[500] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in
1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to
Russia.[77] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky,
Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[501] The early 19th century saw many
prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known
for Romantic historical canvases.[502][503] Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic
painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[504]

In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy,

Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided
aspects of social life in paintings.[505] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise
of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.[506][507] The
Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally
influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,[508] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia
Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[509]

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of

ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'.[510] Following the
Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced
predominantly by Byzantine architecture.[511] Aristotle Fioravanti and other
Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia.[512] The 16th-century
saw the development of the unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design,
which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[513] In the 17th-century,
the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually
paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[514]

After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by
Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the
splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential
Russian architects of the eighteenth century; Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and
Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and
established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[500] During the reign
of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of
Neoclassical architecture.[515] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto
architectural style.[516] The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the
Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.[517] In early 20th-century, Russian
neoclassical revival became a trend.[518] Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century
were Art Nouveau,[519] Constructivism,[520] and Socialist Classicism.[521]

Music
Main article: Music of Russia

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by Nikolai Dmitriyevich

Kuznetsov
Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk
songs and dances.[522] In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between
classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful,
who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,[523] and the Russian Musical
Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[524] The later tradition of
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was
continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great
representatives of Romanticism in Russian and European classical music. World-
renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander
Glazunov,[522] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later
Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[525] Georgy Sviridov,[526] and Alfred Schnittke.
[525]

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned

soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer,[527]
[528] cellist Mstislav Rostropovich,[529] pianists Vladimir Horowitz,[530]
Sviatoslav Richter,[531] and Emil Gilels,[532] and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.
[533]

During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures,
such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[525] and
performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[534] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet
authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical
forms.[525] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced
bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[535] DDT,[536] and Kino;[537] the latter's leader
Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[538] Pop music has continued to
flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[539]

Literature and philosophy

Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy

Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time,
with works such as War and Peace.[540]

Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose
masterpieces include Crime and Punishment.[541]
Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and
developed.[474] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in
Old East Slavic were composed.[542] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had
grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila
Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[543] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age
of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose
and drama.[544] Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily
Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[545] Following
Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail
Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and
Afanasy Fet.[543]

The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.[546] Then came Ivan Turgenev,
who mastered both short stories and novels.[547] Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy
soon became internationally renowned. Ivan Goncharov is remembered mainly for his
novel Oblomov.[548] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,[549] while
Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[550] In the second half
of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading
dramatist.[551] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist
Ivan Krylov,[552] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,[553]
and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.[554][555] The
beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era
had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Konstantin
Balmont,[556] Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Osip Mandelshtam. It also
produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr
Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry
Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.[543]

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and
white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in
Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.
[557] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[558]
Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most
successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir
Nabokov,[559] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science
fiction writers.[560] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel
Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag
camps.[561]

Russian philosophy has been greatly influential. Alexander Herzen is known as one
of the fathers of agrarian populism.[562] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the
father of anarchism.[563] Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of
anarcho-communism.[564] Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired
scholars.[565] Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading
theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society.[566] Vladimir
Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism.
[567] Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism.[568] Alexander Zinoviev
was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.[569] Aleksandr
Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".
[570]

Cuisine
See also: Russian cuisine

Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and
the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of
its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the
ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.
Bread, of many varieties,[571] is very popular across Russia.[572] Flavourful soups
and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy
sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[573][574] Pirozhki,
[575] blini,[576] and syrniki are native types of pancakes.[577] Beef Stroganoff,
[578]: 
266  Chicken Kiev,[578]: 
320  pelmeni,[579] and shashlyk are p in Russiapular
meat dishes.[580] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy)
usually filled with meat.[581] Salads include Olivier salad,[582] vinegret,[583]
and dressed herring.[584]

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[585] and the national alcoholic

drink is vodka; its creation in the nation dates back to the 14th century.[586] The
country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[587] while beer is the most
popular alcoholic beverage.[588] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in
the 21st century.[589] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[590]

Mass media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia

Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe.[591]

There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally
operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[592] Television is the most
popular medium in Russia.[593] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide,
notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and
Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty,
Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are
popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT
is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[593] Russia has the
largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.
[594]

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-
renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film
of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[595][596] Soviet-era filmmakers,
most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of
the world's most innovative and influential directors.[597][598] Eisenstein was a
student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of
film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of
Cinematography.[599] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the
development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[600] Many Soviet
socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes
Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[480]

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[480]
The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely
popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[601][602] In 1961–68
Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic
War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[480] In
1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in
a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip
into space.[603] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema
industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth
once again, and continues to expand.[604]

Sports
Main article: Sport in Russia

Maria Sharapova, former world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid
female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[605]
Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[606] The Soviet Union national
football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[607] and
reached the finals of Euro 1988.[608] Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint
Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[609][610] The Russian national
football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[611] Russia was the host nation
for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[612] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[613]
However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.
[614]

Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team
dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[478] Bandy is
Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country
in the sport.[615] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,
[616] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful
European basketball teams.[617] The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held
at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following
the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[618][619]

Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in
the Olympic Games.[478] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and
Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[620] Figure
skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice
dancing.[621] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[622] Chess is
also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess
players being Russian for decades.[623] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in
Moscow,[624] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were
hosted in Sochi.[625][626] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped
from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and
nearly a third of the global total.[627]

See also
flag Russia portal
Outline of Russia
Notes
Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as
a part of Ukraine.[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia, which were
annexed in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The
southernmost Kuril Islands are also the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan
since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]
The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects
of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and
Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the
proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[5]
Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə
fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
Russia shares land borders with fourteen sovereign states: Norway and Finland to
the northwest; Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as
Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia and Azerbaijan to the
southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the
southeast — as well as sharing maritime boundaries with Japan and the United
States. Russia also shares borders with the two partially recognised breakaway
states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia.
Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment
bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege.
Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which
is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a
sea or a lake.[200]
Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and
Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could
be roughly compared to that of South America.
Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to
its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea),
the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the
Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the
Sea of Japan.
In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president
to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for
current and previous presidents.[235]
Including the Republic of Crimea, and the federal city of Sevastopol, which are
disputed between Russia and Ukraine, since the internationally unrecognised
annexation of Crimea in 2014.[1]
Sources
Definition of Free Cultural Works logo notext.svg This article incorporates text
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Further reading
Main articles: Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus',
Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613), and Bibliography of Russian history
(1613–1917)
Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia (2005) online
Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus)
online
Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982)
online
Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016). The Social History of Post-
Communist Russia. Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-32846-9. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union
(1961).
Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) excerpt
Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous
Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) excerpt
Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) online
Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online
Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch; Bealby, John Thomas; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911).
"Russia" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–912.
Lowe, Norman. Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History (2002) excerpt
Millar, James R. ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol 2003). online
Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018)
9th edition 1993 online
Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020)
excerpt
Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First
Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt
Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary
Russian Culture (2014) excerpt; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film,
media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past
(2018, Oxford UP) excerpt
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