Russia - Wikipedia

1/20/23, 4:36 PM Russia - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 66°N 94°E
Contents
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1Etymology
2History
2.1Early history
2.2Kievan Rus'
2.3Grand Duchy of Moscow
2.4Tsardom of Russia
2.5Imperial Russia
2.6Revolution and civil war
2.7Soviet Union
2.7.1World War II
2.7.2Cold War
2.8Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)
3Geography
3.1Climate
3.2Biodiversity
4Government and politics
4.1Political divisions
4.2Foreign relations
4.3Military
4.4Human rights and corruption
5Economy
5.1Transport and energy
5.2Agriculture and fishery

5.3Science and technology
5.3.1Space exploration
5.4Tourism
6Demographics
6.1Language
6.2Religion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia 1/61
6.3Education
6.4Health
7Culture
7.1Holidays
7.2Art and architecture

7.3Music
7.4Literature and philosophy
7.5Cuisine
7.6Mass media and cinema
7.7Sports
8See also
9Notes
10Sources
11References
12Further reading
13External links
Russia
Russia (Russian: Россия, Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]), or the Russian

Federation,[c] is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Russian Federation
Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, Российская Федерация
with its internationally recognised territory covering 17,098,246
square kilometres (6,601,670 sq mi), and encompassing one-
eighth of Earth's inhabitable landmass. Russia extends across
eleven time zones and shares land boundaries with fourteen
countries.[16][d] It is the world's ninth-most populous country
and Europe's most populous country, with a population of 146
million people. The country's capital and largest city is Moscow. Flag
Coat of arms
Saint Petersburg is Russia's cultural centre and second-largest
city. Other major urban areas include Novosibirsk, Anthem:
Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, and Kazan. Государственный гимн Российской Федерации
Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii
"State Anthem of the Russian Federation"
The East Slavs emerged as a recognisable group in Europe
between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic 1:22
state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it
adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Rus'
ultimately disintegrated, with the Grand Duchy of Moscow
growing to become the Tsardom of Russia. By the early 18th
century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest,
annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing
into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest
empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in
1917, Russia's monarchic rule was abolished and replaced by the
Russian SFSR—the world's first constitutionally socialist state.
Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established
the Soviet Union (with three other Soviet republics), within
which it was the largest and principal constituent. At the
expense of millions of lives, the Soviet Union underwent rapid

industrialization in the 1930s, and later played a decisive role
for the Allies of World War II by leading large-scale efforts on
the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed
with the United States for global ideological influence; the
Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant
Russian technological achievements, including the first human-
made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the

Soviet Union as the independent Russian Federation. A new
constitution was adopted, and Russia has since been governed
as a federal semi-presidential republic. Since the turn of the
century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Russia on the globe, with claimed territory shown
Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced in light green[a]
democratic backsliding and a shift towards authoritarianism.
Capital Moscow
Russia has been involved militarily in a number of post-Soviet and largest city 55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E
conflicts, which has included the internationally unrecognised
annexations of Crimea in 2014 from neighbouring Ukraine and Official Russian[3]
four other regions in 2022 during an ongoing invasion. and national
language
International rankings of Russia place it low in measurements
of human rights and freedom of the press; the country also has Recognised See Languages of
high levels of perceived corruption. national languages Russia
Ethnic groups 80.9% Russian
Ranked worldwide, the Russian economy stands at the ninth-
(2010)[4] 3.9% Tatar
largest by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by GDP (PPP). Its
mineral and energy sources are the world's largest, and its 1.4% Ukrainian
figures for oil production and natural gas production rank high 1.1% Bashkir
globally. Russia possesses the largest stockpile of nuclear 1.0% Chuvash
weapons, and has the fifth-highest military expenditure. The 1.0% Chechen
country is a permanent member of the United Nations Security 10.7% Others
Council; a member state of the G20, the SCO, BRICS, the APEC,
the OSCE, and the WTO; and is the leading member state of the Religion (2012)[5] 47.4% Christianity
CIS, the CSTO, and the EAEU. Russia is home to 30 UNESCO 41% Russian
Orthodoxy
World Heritage Sites.
6.4% Other
Christian
Etymology 38.2% No religion
6.5% Islam[b]
The name Russia is derived from Rus', a medieval state 2.4% Others
populated primarily by the East Slavs.[17] However, the proper 5.5% Unanswered
name became more prominent in later history, and the country
Demonym(s) Russian
typically was called by its inhabitants "Rus land".[18] This state
is denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city by modern Government Federal semi-
historiography. The name Rus' itself comes from the early presidential republic
medieval Rus' people, who were a group of Norse merchants under an authoritarian
and warriors who relocated from across the Baltic Sea and dictatorship[6][7][8]
founded a state centred on Novgorod that later became Kievan • President Vladimir Putin
Rus'.[19] • Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin
• Speaker of the Valentina Matviyenko
A Medieval Latin version of the name Rus' was Ruthenia, which Federation Council
was used as one of several designations for East Slavic and • Speaker of the Vyacheslav Volodin
Eastern Orthodox regions, and commonly as a designation for State Duma
the lands of Rus'.[20] The current name of the country, Россия • Chief Justice Vyacheslav Lebedev
(Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Legislature Federal Assembly
Rus', Ρωσσία Rossía – spelled Ρωσία (Rosía pronounced [roˈsia]) • Upper house Federation Council
in Modern Greek.[21] The standard way to refer to the citizens of • Lower house State Duma
Russia is "Russians" in English.[22] There are two words in
Russian which are commonly translated into English as Formation
"Russians" – one is "русские" (russkiye), which most often • Kievan Rus' 879
refers to ethnic Russians – and the other is "россияне" • Vladimir-Suzdal 1157
(rossiyane), which refers to citizens of Russia, regardless of • Grand Duchy of 1263
ethnicity.[23] Moscow
• Tsardom of Russia 16 January 1547
• Russian Empire 2 November 1721
History • Monarchy abolished 15 March 1917
• Soviet Union 30 December 1922
• Declaration of State 12 June 1990
Early history Sovereignty
• Russian Federation 12 December 1991
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the • Current constitution 12 December 1993
Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million • Union State formed 8 December 1999
years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Area
Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[24] Flint tools, some 1.5 • Total 17,098,246 km2
million years old, have been discovered in the North (6,601,670 sq mi)[9]
Caucasus.[25] Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova (within internationally
Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan recognised borders)
specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[26] Fossils of Denny, an 17,234,028 km2
archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half (6,654,095 sq mi)
Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found (including claimed
territories) (1st)
within the latter cave.[27] Russia was home to some of the last
• Water (%) 13[10] (including
surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in swamps)
Mezmaiskaya cave.[28]
Population
The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back • 2022 estimate 147,182,123 (2021
to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia.[29] The discovery of high Census)[11]
concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern (including Crimea)[12]
humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at 144,699,673
Kostyonki–Borshchyovo,[30] and at Sungir, dating back to (excluding Crimea)[12]
34,600 years ago—both in western Russia.[31] Humans reached (9th)
Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya • Density 8.4/km2 (21.8/sq mi)
Kurya.[32] (181st)
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
• Total $4.650 trillion[13] (6th)
• Per capita $31,967[13] (59th)
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
• Total $2.133 trillion[13] (9th)
• Per capita $14,665[13] (65th)
Gini (2020) 36.0[14]
Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist
medium · 98th
ancestry.[33]
HDI (2019) 0.824[15]
very high · 52nd
The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of
southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto- Currency Russian rouble (₽)
[34] (RUB)
Indo-Europeans. Early Indo-European migrations from the
Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya Time zone UTC+2 to +12
ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of
Driving side right
Eurasia.[35][36] Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–
Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.[37] Remnants of Calling code +7
these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as ISO 3166 code RU
Ipatovo,[37] Sintashta,[38] Arkaim,[39] and Pazyryk,[40] which
bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare.[38] The Internet TLD .ru
genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in .рф
northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that
began at least 3,500 years ago.[41] In classical antiquity, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe was known as Scythia.[42] In
late 8th century BCE, Ancient Greek traders brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and
Phanagoria.[43]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun
by Huns.[44] Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that
succeeded the Greek colonies,[45] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the
Huns and Eurasian Avars.[46]

The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus
in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th
century.[47] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken
over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[48]
The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who
appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago.[49] The East Slavs gradually settled western
Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk
towards Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the
population in western Russia,[50] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finnic peoples.[44]
Kievan Rus'
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided
with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the
waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian
Seas.[51] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus'
people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his
successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been
previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[44] Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son
Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule,
destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[52] and launched several military
expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.[53][54]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and
most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–
1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age
of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, Kievan Rus' after the Council of
and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Liubech in 1097
Pravda. [44] The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by
constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled
Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the
Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[44] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its
pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[55] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky
sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[55] leading to political power being shifted to the north-
east.[44]
Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in
1240,[56] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.[57]
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other
cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[44] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the
state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged principalities of Rus' and ruled its southern and central expanses for
over two centuries.[58] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped Mongol occupation after it agreed to pay tribute in
1259.[44]
The inhabitants of Rus' regional centres would later evolve into modern nationalities: Belarusians in the
northwest, Russians in the north and northeast, and Ukrainians in the southeast and southwest.[44] Galicia-
Volhynia in the southwest would inherit the territory of Kiev and be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland in the
mid-fourteenth century, the Novgorod Republic prospered in the north, and on the northeastern periphery
Vladimir-Suzdal established traditions under Mongol vassalage that would form the autocratic Russian
state.[44]
Grand Duchy of Moscow
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-
Suzdal.[59]: 11–20 While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began
to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[60] gradually becoming the leading force in the
"gathering of the Russian lands".[61] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved
to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[62]

Moscow's last rival, the
Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the
easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[63]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian

principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle
of Kulikovo in 1380.[44] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and
surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and
Novgorod.[61]
Sergius of Radonezh blessing
Ivan III ("the Great") finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde and Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius
Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo,
consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was
depicted in a painting by Ernst
the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the fall
Lissner
of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the
Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of
the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-
headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[61] Vasili III completed the task of uniting all of
Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.[64]
Tsardom of Russia
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand duke Ivan IV ("the Terrible")
was officially crowned the first tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new
code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative
body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy,
and reorganised local government.[61] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled
the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan
and Astrakhan along the Volga,[65] and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern
Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural
Mountains.[66] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful
Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Ivan IV was the Grand
Prince of Moscow from
Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[67] In
1533 to 1547, then Tsar of
1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial
Russia until his death in
Battle of Molodi.[68]
1584
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and
in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule
of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[69] The Polish–
Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[70]
In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and
prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[71] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky
Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[72]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.[73] In 1654,
the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar,
Alexis; whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the
Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.[74] In the east, the rapid
Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian
explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were
Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the
Pacific Ocean.[73] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering
Strait.[75]
Imperial Russia
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European
great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721),
securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as
Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms

were made, which brought significant Western European
cultural influences to Russia.[76] The reign of Peter I's daughter
Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven
Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops
overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[77] However, upon
Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the
Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[78]
Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided

over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian
political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the
most populous country in Europe.[79] In the south, after the Expansion and territorial evolution of the Grand
successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia and Russian
Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by Empire between the 14th and 20th centuries.
dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.[80] As a
result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian
Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.[81] Catherine's successor, her
son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.[82] Following his short reign, Catherine's
strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in
1809,[83] and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[84] In North America, the Russians became the first
Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska.[85] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.[86] In
1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.[87]
During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France.
The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed
miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous
defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov
and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout
Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[88] Alexander I controlled Russia's
delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[89]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of
liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during
the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[90] At the end of the conservative
reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and
influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[91]
Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes
throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[92]
These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial
Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in
the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[93] During most of the Napoleon's retreat from Moscow by
19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan Albrecht Adam (1851).
and its neighboring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry
between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great
Game.[94]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in
1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[95] The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more
peaceful.[96] Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the
failure of the humiliating Russo-Japanese War.[97] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced
to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly,
the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.[98]
Revolution and civil war
In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally
Serbia,[99] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.[100] In 1916, the
Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.[101]
However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by

the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and
treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917,
carried out in two major acts.[102] In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to
abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed in
Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil War.[103] The monarchy was
replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the
Provisional Government.[104] The Provisional Government proclaimed the
Russian Republic in September. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the
Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic
(thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the
Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and
Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive
the Romanovs were executed by
Committee.[102]
the Bolsheviks in 1918.
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet,
wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and
peasants, called Soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of
resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the
Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first
socialist state.[102] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the new
Soviet regime with its Red Army.[105] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded
hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western
territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly
90% of its coal mines.[106]
The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support

of anti-communist forces.[107] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and
White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions
against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White
Terror.[108] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and
infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished
during the war, mostly civilians.[109] Millions became White émigrés,[110]
and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[111]
Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky
during a 1920 speech in Moscow
Soviet Union
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by
joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian,
Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[112] Eventually internal border
changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15
republics; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which
dominated the union for its entire history politically, culturally, and
economically.[113] Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated
Location of the Russian SFSR (red) to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the
within the Soviet Union in 1936 Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and
consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the
1930s.[114] Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled
from the Soviet Union in 1929,[115] and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.[116]
The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.[117]
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural
country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions
of people were sent to penal labor camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real
opposition to Stalin's rule;[118] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[119]
The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a
drought,[120] led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed up to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the
Russian SFSR.[121] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian
economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[122]
World War II
The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its
invasion of Poland,[123] in accordance with a secret protocol within the
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.[124] The Soviet Union later
invaded Finland,[125] and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[126] as
well as parts of Romania.[127]: 91–95 On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the
Soviet Union,[128] opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World
War II.[129]: 7
The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest
Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the and bloodiest battle in the history of
Nazis;[130]: 272 the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed warfare, ended in 1943 with a
3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger decisive Soviet victory against the
Plan" sought to fulfill Generalplan Ost.[131]: 175–186 Although the Wehrmacht German army.
had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of
Moscow.[132] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at
the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[133] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of
1943.[134] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land
between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths,
but never surrendered.[135] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and
captured Berlin in May 1945.[136] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese
from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[137]
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.[138] The Soviet Union,
along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in
World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security
Council.[139]: 27 During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,[140] accounting for
about half of all World War II casualties.[141]: 295 The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive
devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[142] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the
Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[143]
Cold War
After World War II, parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East
Germany and eastern parts of Austria were occupied by Red Army according
to the Potsdam Conference.[144] Dependent communist governments were
installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[145] After becoming the world's
second nuclear power,[146] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact
alliance,[147] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the
Cold War, with the rivaling United States and NATO.[148] After Stalin's
death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita
Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization,
releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labor camps.[149] The The "Big Three" at the Yalta
general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Conference in February 1945,
Khrushchev Thaw.[150] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its Winston Churchill, Franklin D.
peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin.
Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.[151]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space
Age.[152] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1
manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.[153] Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of
collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was
later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the
Soviet economy.[154] In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the
country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[155] In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from
Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by
Soviet citizens.[156]
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought
to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of
glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end
the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[157]
This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements
across the country.[158] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's
second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[159]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one
states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[160] On 17 March, a discussions with Ronald Reagan in
referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens the Reykjavík Summit, 1986.
voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[161]
In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected president in
Russian history when he was elected president of the Russian SFSR.[162] In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt
by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union,
instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[163] On 25 December 1991, following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states
emerged.[164]
Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a
deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the
Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and
trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the
lines of "shock therapy".[165] The privatisation largely shifted control of
enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the
government, which led to the rise of the infamous Russian oligarchs.[166]
Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the
country in an enormous capital flight.[167] The depression of the economy Vladimir Putin takes the oath of
led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the office as president on his first
death rate skyrocketed,[168][169] and millions plunged into poverty;[170] inauguration, with Boris Yeltsin
while extreme corruption,[171] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime looking over, 2000.
rose significantly.[172]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which
ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over
100 people were killed.[173] In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new
constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[174] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the
North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.[175] From the time Chechen
separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel
groups and Russian forces.[176] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists,
claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[e][177]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external
debts.[178] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly
devaluing the rouble.[179] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back
debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[180]
In 1999, president Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and
his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[181] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,[182] and defeated the
Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.[183] Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.[184] High
oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve
significantly.[185] Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[186] In
2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected president for one term, to hold
onto power despite legal term limits;[187] this period has been described as a "tandemocracy."[188]
Following a diplomatic crisis with neighboring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August
2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupies in Georgia.[189] It
was the first European war of the 21st century.[190]
In 2014, following a revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and

annexed the neighboring country's Crimean peninsula,[191] and
contributed to the outbreak of war in eastern Ukraine with direct
intervention by Russian troops.[192] Russia steeply escalated the war
by launching a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.[193]
The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe since
World War II,[194] and was met with widespread international
condemnation,[195] as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.[196]
As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in
March,[197] and was suspended from the United Nations Human
Rights Council in April.[198] In September 2022, Putin proclaimed the
annexation of 15% of Ukraine's landmass in its Donetsk, Kherson,
Luhansk, and Zaporizhzhia regions, the largest seizure attempted in
Europe since World War II.[199] Putin and Russian-installed leaders Map showing Russian political and military
signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognized and widely influence or interference in Post-Soviet
denounced as illegal, despite the fact that Russian forces have been conflicts as of 2021
unable to fully occupy any of the four regions.[199]
The European Parliament designated Russia as a state sponsor of terrorism and as a state that "uses means of
terrorism" in November 2022, citing attacks against civilians, war crimes, and atrocities.[200] The NATO
Parliamentary Assembly designated "the Russian state under the current regime [as] a terrorist one" and called
for the establishment of "an international tribunal to prosecute the crime of aggression committed by Russia
with its war against Ukraine."[201] The European Commission announced its support for the efforts to create an
international criminal tribunal to prosecute Russia's crimes in the same month and permanently seize all assets
held by Russia and its oligarchs to compensate Ukraine.[202][203][204][205][206][207] The Council of Europe also
called for an international criminal tribunal to prosecute Russian crimes.[208]
Geography
Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of
Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[209] It spans the
northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest
coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[f][211] Russia lies
between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W,
extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to
4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[212] Russia, by
landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and has the same
surface area as Pluto.[213]
Topographic map of Russia
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along
the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the
Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and
Europe);[7] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka
Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest
active volcano in Eurasia).[214][215] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are
rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.[216] The lowest point in
Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29
metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[217]
Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans,[209] has links with a great number of
seas.[h][218] Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya,
the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and
Sakhalin.[219][220] The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi)
apart;[221] and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.[2]
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[209] has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes
containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water.[215] Lake Baikal, the largest and most
prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh
water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[222] Ladoga and Onega in northwestern
Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.[209] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water
resources.[223]The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest river in
Europe; and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent.[224] The Siberian rivers of Ob,
Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.[225]
Climate
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from
the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate
throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the
extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east
obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific
oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north
opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[226]
Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate,
with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast
Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is
located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or
−96.2 °F),[219] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's
vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic Köppen climate classification of Russia.
islands have a polar climate.[226]
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of
the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[226] In many regions of
East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country
experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually
falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and
the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[226] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as
well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[227]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and
autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures.[226] The
coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature
are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be
quite hot, even in Siberia.[228] Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,[229] and thawing the
country's large expanse of permafrost.[230]
Biodiversity
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar
deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest
steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[231] About half of Russia's
territory is forested,[7] and it has the world's largest area of forest,[232] which
sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[232][233]
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200

species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species
Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi
of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of
Republic is the largest national park
320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles,
in Europe.[216]
about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high
endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of
cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[231][234] Approximately 1,100
rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[231]
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of
various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[231] They include 45 biosphere
reserves,[235] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[236] Although in decline, the country still has many
ecosystems which are still onsidered intact forest; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra
of Siberia.[237] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of
172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.[238]
Government and politics

Russia, by constitution, is an asymmetric federal republic,[239]
with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head
of state,[240] and the prime minister is the head of government.[7]
It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with
the federal government composed of three branches:[241]
Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made

up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member
Federation Council,[241] adopts federal law, declares war,
approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of
impeachment of the president.[242]
Vladimir Putin Mikhail Mishustin
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the
President Prime Minister
Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia
(Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce
federal laws and policies.[240] The president may issue
decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not
contradict the constitution or federal law.[243]
Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and
lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the
Federation Council on the recommendation of the
president,[241] interpret laws and can overturn laws they
deem unconstitutional.[244]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and

may be elected no more than twice.[245][i] Ministries of the
government are composed of the premier and his deputies,
ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by A chart of the Russian political system
the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
(whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of
the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent"
and the "party of power".[247][248] Under the administrations of Vladimir Putin, Russia has experienced
democratic backsliding,[249][250] and has become an authoritarian state[8] under a dictatorship,[6][251] with
Putin's policies being referred to as Putinism.[252]
Political divisions
According to the constitution, the Russian Federation is composed of 89 federal subjects.[j] In 1993, when the
new constitution was adopted, there were 89 federal subjects listed, but some were later merged. The federal
subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the
Federal Assembly.[253] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[254] The federal districts
of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[255]
Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the
president.[256]
Federal
Governance
subjects
The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after
46 oblasts
their administrative centres.[257]
Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and
22 republics legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[258]
For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is
9 krais historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to
frontiers.[259]
Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a
4 autonomous substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[260]
okrugs
3 federal Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-
cities occupied Ukraine).[261]
1 autonomous The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[262]

oblast
Foreign relations
Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains

diplomatic relations with 190 United Nations member states, four partially-
recognised states, and three United Nations observer states; along with 144
embassies.[263] Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council. It has historically been a great power,[264] and a
former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet
Union.[143] Russia is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC. Russia
also takes a leading role in organisations such as the CIS,[265] the Putin with G20 counterparts in
EAEU,[266] the CSTO,[267] the SCO,[268] and BRICS.[269] Osaka, 2019.
Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part

of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[270] Serbia has been a historically close ally
of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[271] India is the largest
customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic
relationship since the Soviet era.[272] Russia wields influence across the geopolitically important South
Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".[273][274]
In the 21st century Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and
international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the
post-soviet states include a war with Georgia in 2008, and the invasion and destablisation of Ukraine beginning
in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the Middle East, most significantly through military
intervention in the Syrian civil war. Cyberwarfare and airspace violations, along with electoral interference,
have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power.[275] Russia's relations with neighboring Ukraine and
the Western world—especially the United States, the European Union, and NATO—have collapsed; especially
following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014 and the consequent escalation in 2022.[276][277]
Relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared
political interests.[278] Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defense relationship.[279]
Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[280] Russia has also
increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[281] Asia-Pacific,[282] Africa,[283] the Middle
East,[284] and Latin America.[285]
Military
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy,
and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of
service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.[7] As of 2021,
the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the
world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel.[287][288] It
is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of
service in the Armed Forces.[7]
Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's
fighter of the Russian Air Force.[286]
largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear
weapons are owned by Russia.[289] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet
of ballistic missile submarines,[290] and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.[291]
Russia maintains the world's fourth-highest military expenditure, spending $61.7 billion in 2020.[292] In 2021 it
was the world's second-largest arms exporter, and had a large and entirely indigenous defence industry,
producing most of its own military equipment.[293]
Human rights and corruption
Human rights in Russia have been increasingly criticised by leading

democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International
and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few
political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[295][296]
Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom
in the World survey.[297] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has
ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking
Following the Russian invasion of
it 124th out of 167 countries for 2021.[298] In regards to media freedom,
Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests
Russia was ranked 155th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders'
broke out across Russia. The
Press Freedom Index for 2022.[299] The Russian government has been protests have been met with
widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair widespread repression, leading to
elections,[300] crackdowns on opposition political parties and about 15,000 people being
protests,[301][302] persecution of non-governmental organisations and arrested.[294]
enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,[303][304][305]
and censorship of mass media and internet.[306]
Russia's autocratic[307] political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,[308] an oligarchy,[309]
and a plutocracy.[310] It was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption
Perceptions Index for 2021, ranking 136th out of 180 countries.[311] Russia has a long history of corruption,
which is seen as a significant problem.[312] It impacts various sectors, including the economy,[313] business,[314]
public administration,[315] law enforcement,[316] healthcare,[317][318] education,[319] and the military.[320]
Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.[321][322] To quash the insurgency in the North
Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[323] arrests, forced disappearances,
and torture of civilians.[324][325] In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on
their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[326][327] Chechens and
Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[328] During the 2022 invasion
of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent
to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[329][330]
Economy
Russia has a mixed economy,[332] with enormous natural resources,
particularly oil and natural gas.[333] It has the world's ninth-largest economy
by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by PPP. The large service sector
accounts for 62% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (32%), while
the agricultural sector is the smallest, making up only 5% of total GDP.[7]
Russia has a low official unemployment rate of 4.1%.[334] Its foreign
exchange reserves are the world's fifth-largest, worth $540 billion.[335] It
has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's sixth-
The Moscow International Business
largest.[336] Centre in Moscow. The city has one
of the world's largest urban
Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest
economies.[331]
importer.[337][338] It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related
taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget
revenues in January 2022,[339] and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.[340] In
2019, the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry estimated the value of natural resources to be 60% of
the country's GDP.[341] Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt among major economies,[342]
although its inequality of household income and wealth is one of the highest among developed countries.[343]
High regional disparity is also an issue.[344][345]
After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil-prices and a surge in foreign
exchange reserves and investment,[185] Russia's economy was damaged following the start of the Russo-
Ukrainian War and the annexation of Crimea in 2014, due to the first wave of Western sanctions being
imposed.[346] In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced revamped
sanctions and corporate boycotts,[347] becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,[348] in a move
described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial
system.[196] Due to the impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since
April 2022.[349] Economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect over the Russian economy.[350]
Transport and energy
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run

Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the
world's third-longest, and exceeds 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[352] As of 2016,
Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with 1.5 million km of
roads,[353] while its road density is among the world's lowest.[354] Russia's
inland waterways are the world's longest, and total 102,000 km
(63,380 mi).[355] Among Russia's 1,218 airports,[356] the busiest is
Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the
Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.[357] The Trans-Siberian Railway is the
longest railway line in the world,
Russia has been widely described as an energy superpower.[358] It has the connecting Moscow to
world's largest proven gas reserves,[359] the second-largest coal Vladivostok.[351]
reserves,[360] the eighth-largest oil reserves,[361] and the largest oil shale
reserves in Europe.[362] Russia is also the world's leading natural gas
exporter,[363] the second-largest natural gas producer,[364] and the second-largest oil producer and
exporter.[365][366] Russia's oil and gas production has led to deep economic relationships with the European
Union, China, and former Soviet and Eastern Bloc states.[367][368] For example, over the last decade, Russia's
share of supplies to total European Union (including the United Kingdom) gas demand increased from 25% in
2009 to 32% in the weeks before the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.[368]
Russia is committed to the Paris Agreement, after joining the pact formally in 2019.[369] Greenhouse gas
emissions by Russia are the world's fourth-largest.[370] Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity
producer,[371] and the ninth-largest renewable energy producer in 2019.[372] It was also the world's first country
to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's first nuclear power plant.[373] Russia was also the
world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer in 2019,[374] and was the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer in
2021.[375]
Agriculture and fishery
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP,

although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[376]
It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square
kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its
environment, about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[7] and only 7.4% of its
land is arable.[377] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the
"breadbasket" of Europe.[378] More than one-third of the sown area is
devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to industrial
Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia crops, vegetables, and fruits.[376] The main product of Russian farming has
always been grain, which occupies considerably more than half of the
cropland.[376] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[379][380] the
largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the
leading producer of fertilizer.[381]
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest
of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to
the region.[382] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the
world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[383] It is home to the
world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the
world's total fresh and frozen fish.[376]
Science and technology
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the
world's tenth-highest budget.[384] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of
scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[385] Since 1904,
Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry,
medicine, economy, literature and peace.[386] Russia ranked 45th in the Global
Innovation Index in 2021.[387]
Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions,

discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology.[388] Since the
times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and
Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor; Russian mathematicians became among the
world's most influential.[389] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–
main framework of modern chemistry.[390] Sofya Kovalevskaya was a pioneer 1765), polymath scientist,
among women in mathematics in the 19th century.[391] Nine Soviet and Russian inventor, poet and artist
mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was
offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of
the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[392]
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[393] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-
inventors of laser and maser.[394] Zhores Alferov contributed significantly to the creation of modern
heterostructure physics and electronics.[395] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of
semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[396] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of
the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[397] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his
groundbreaking research in immunology.[398] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical
conditioning.[399] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[400]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants.[401] Trofim
Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.[402] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés.
Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[403] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope
television systems.[404] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his
work in shaping the modern synthesis.[405]

George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang
theory.[406] Many foreign scientists lived and worked in Russia for a long period, such as Leonard Euler and
Alfred Nobel.[407][408]
Space exploration
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in

the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works
had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov,
Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the
Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and
beyond.[410]: 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched.

In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri
Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued.
In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in
space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[411] In 1965, Alexei Leonov Mir, Soviet and Russian space
became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule station that operated in low Earth
during Voskhod 2.[412] orbit from 1986 to 2001.[409]
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth,
aboard Sputnik 2.[413] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial
body, the Moon.[414] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to
circumnavigate the Moon.[415] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet,
Venus.[416] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[417]: 34–60 During the same period,
Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[418] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space
station.[419] Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[420]
Tourism
According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-

most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in
Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.[421] According to Federal
Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to
Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[422] Russia's international tourism
receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.[421] In 2019, travel and tourism
accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[423]
Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg,
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such
as the Volga, hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus
Mountains,[424] and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[425] Russia's most visited and popular
landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and
Lake Baikal.[426]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling megacity. It retains its classical and
Soviet-era architecture; while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[427] Saint
Petersburg, the Imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres,
white nights, criss-crossing rivers and numerous canals.[428] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums,
such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi
and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of
Russia.[429]
Demographics
Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated and urbanised Ethnic groups across Russia
countries,[7] with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its
western part.[430] It had a population of 142.8 million according to the 2010
census,[431] which rose to roughly 145.5 million as of 2022.[12] Russia is the
most populous country in Europe, and the world's ninth most populous
country, with a population density of 9 inhabitants per square kilometre (23
per square mile).[432]
Ethnic groups in Russia with a
Since the 1990s, Russia's death rate has exceeded its birth rate, which some
population of over 1 million
analysts have called a demographic crisis.[433] In 2019, the total fertility rate according to the 2010 census.
across Russia was estimated to be 1.5 children born per woman,[434] which is
below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's lowest fertility
rates.[435] Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations,
with a median age of 40.3 years.[7] In 2009, it recorded annual population
growth for the first time in fifteen years; and since the 2010s, Russia has seen
increased population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates
and increased immigration.[436] However, since 2020, due to excessive deaths
Percentage of ethnic Russians
from the COVID-19 pandemic, Russia's population has undergone its largest
by region according to the 2010
peacetime decline in history.[437] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in
census.
2022, the demographic crisis in the country has deepened,[438] as the country
has faced a renewed brain drain and human capital flight caused by Western
mass-sanctions and boycotts.[439]
Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[440] There
are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians,
and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;[441] while over four-fifths of Russia's
population was of European descent—of which the vast majority were Slavs,[442] with a substantial minority of
Finnic and Germanic peoples.[443][444] According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the
world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;[445] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly
Ukrainians.[446]
Largest cities or towns in Russia

2021 Census[447]
Federal Federal
Rank Name Pop. Rank Name Pop.
subject subject
Rostov- Rostov
1 Moscow Moscow 13,010,112 11 1,142,162
na-Donu Oblast
Saint Saint Omsk
2 5,601,911 12 Omsk 1,125,695
PetersburgPetersburg Oblast
Novosibirsk Krasnodar
3 Novosibirsk 1,633,595 13 Krasnodar 1,099,344
Oblast Krai
Sverdlovsk Voronezh
4 Yekaterinburg 1,544,376 14 Voronezh 1,057,681
Oblast Oblast
Moscow 5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,308,660 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,034,002 Novosibirsk
Nizhny
Nizhny Volgograd
6 Novgorod 1,228,199 16 Volgograd 1,028,036
Novgorod Oblast
Oblast
Chelyabinsk Saratov
7 Chelyabinsk 1,189,525 17 Saratov 901,361
Oblast Oblast
Saint Petersburg Yekaterinburg
Krasnoyarsk Tyumen
8 Krasnoyarsk 1,187,771 18 Tyumen 847,488
Krai Oblast
Samara Samara
9 Samara 1,173,299 19 Tolyatti 684,709
Oblast Oblast
10 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,144,809 20 Barnaul Altai Krai 630,877
Language
Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is the most spoken native
language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely
spoken Slavic language.[449] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space
Station,[450]
as well as one of the six official languages of Minority languages across Russia
the United Nations.[449]
Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150

minority languages are spoken across the country.[451][452]
According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million
across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar,
and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[453] The constitution gives
the country's individual republics the right to establish
Altaic and Uralic languages spoken The North
their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as across Russia Caucasus is ethno-
guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native linguistically
language and to create conditions for its study and diverse.[448]
development.[454] However, various experts have claimed
Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to
many languages becoming endangered.[455][456]
Religion
Russia is a secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is Eastern

Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox
Church.[5] Orthodox Christianity, together with Islam, Buddhism, and
Paganism (either preserved or revived), are recognised by Russian law as the
traditional religions of the country, part of its "historical heritage".[457][458]
The amendments of 2020 to the constitution added, in the Article 67, the
continuity of the Russian state in history based on preserving "the memory
of the ancestors" and general "ideals and belief in God" which the ancestors
conveyed.[459]
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was a renewal of religions in
Russia, with the revival of the traditional faiths and the emergence of new Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is
forms within the traditional faiths as well as many new religious the most iconic religious architecture
movements.[460][461] Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia, and is of Russia.
the traditional religion among the majority of the peoples of the North
Caucasus, and among some Turkic peoples scattered along the Volga-Ural
region.[5] Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the
vast majority of the population in Tuva.[5] Many Russians practise other religions, including Rodnovery (Slavic
Neopaganism),[462] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[463] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan
movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,[464] various movements of Hinduism,[465] Siberian
shamanism[466] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other
faiths.[467][468] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the
country;[469] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since,
after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[470]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas,
an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based
on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves
Christians — including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox
churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants — 25% were
believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[b] 1.2% were
followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian
shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[5]
Education
Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[472] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years,
exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[473] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[474] The
Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational
education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher
education.[473] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing
framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated

countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in
terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[475] It spent roughly 4.7% of its
GDP on education in 2018.[476]
Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[477]

some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or
kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from
age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[473] An Moscow State University, the most
additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary- prestigious educational institution in
level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their Russia.[471]
education past this level.[478]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[474] first-degree courses
usually take five years.[478] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint
Petersburg State University.[479] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia
was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[480]
Health
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian
citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[482] The
Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public
healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people.
Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local
administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access
private healthcare in Russia.[483]
Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[484] Its healthcare
in Sochi.[481]
expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[485] Russia has
one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every
female,[7] due to its high male mortality rate.[486] In 2019, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 73.2
years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females),[487] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per
1,000 live births).[488]
The principle cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[489] Obesity is a prevalent health issue in
Russia; 61.1% of Russian adults were overweight or obese in 2016.[490] However, Russia's historically high
alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,[491] as it remains one of the world's highest,
despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[492] Smoking is another health issue in the country.[493] The
country's high suicide rate, although on the decline,[494] remains a significant social issue.[495]
Culture
Russian culture has been formed by the nation's history, its geographical
location and its vast expanse, religious and social traditions, and Western
influence.[496] Russian writers and philosophers have played an important
role in the development of European literature and thought.[497][498] The
Russians have also greatly influenced classical music,[499] ballet,[500]
sport,[501] painting,[502] and cinema.[503] The nation has also made
pioneering contributions to science and technology and space
exploration.[504][505]
Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 19 out of which are

The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at
cultural; while 27 more sites lie on the tentative list.[506] The large global
night
Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture
throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle,
dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.[61] The Russian Bear and
Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.[507][508] Matryoshka dolls are
considered a cultural icon of Russia.[509]
Holidays
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[510] The

year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian
Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular
holidays.[511] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is
celebrated on 23 February.[512] International Women's Day on 8 March,
gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration
of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that
The Scarlet Sails being celebrated Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other
along the Neva in Saint Petersburg holidays.[513] Spring and Labor Day, originally a Soviet era holiday
dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[514]
Victory Day, which honors Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is
celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[515] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment
civil event.[516] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's
declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[517] and Unity Day on 4 November,
commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.[518]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[519] Maslenitsa is an
ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[520] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human
trip into space.[521] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[522]
Art and architecture
Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the

early 15th-century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of
Russia's most treasured religious art.[523] The Russian Academy of Arts,
which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western
techniques of secular painting to Russia.[76] In the 18th century,
academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky
became influential.[524] The early 19th century saw many prominent
paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known
Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of
for Romantic historical canvases.[525][526] Ivan Aivazovsky, another
Pompeii (1833)
Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine
art.[527]
In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan

Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and
portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[528] The turn of
the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel
and Nicholas Roerich.[529][530] The Russian avant-garde flourished from
approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era The Winter Palace served as the
were El Lissitzky,[531] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily official residence of the Emperor of
Russia
Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[532]
The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of

ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'.[533] Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for
several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture.[534] Aristotle Fioravanti and other
Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia.[535] The 16th-century saw the development of the
unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian
architecture.[536] In the 17th-century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl,
gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[537]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The
18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers.
The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century; Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan
Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more
Russian forms that followed.[523] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed
into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.[538] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto
architectural style.[539]
The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian
Revival style.[540] In early 20th-century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[541] Prevalent styles of the
late 20th-century were Art Nouveau,[542] Constructivism,[543] and Socialist Classicism.[544]
Music
Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk
songs and dances.[545] In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between
classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty
Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,[546] and the Russian
Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[547] The later
tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the
Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of
the last great representatives of Romanticism in Russian and European classical
music. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin,
Alexander Glazunov,[545] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri
Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[548] Georgy
Sviridov,[549] and Alfred Schnittke.[548] Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
(1840–1893), in a 1893
Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned painting by Nikolai
soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov
Kremer,[550][551] cellist Mstislav Rostropovich,[552] pianists Vladimir Horowitz,[553]
Sviatoslav Richter,[554] and Emil Gilels,[555] and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.[556]
During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—
Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[548] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[557] Jazz, even with
sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical
forms.[548] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria,
Aquarium,[558] DDT,[559] and Kino;[560] the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[561]
Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[562]
Literature and philosophy
Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most

influential and developed.[497] It can be traced to the Middle Ages,
when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[565]
By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance,
with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila
Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[566] From the early 1830s,
during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an
astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[567]
Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily
Leo Tolstoy (1828– Fyodor Dostoevsky Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the
1910), is regarded as (1821–1881), one of the fore.[568] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets
one of the greatest great novelists of all were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov,
authors of all time, time, whose Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy
with works such as masterpieces include Fet.[566]
War and Peace.[563] Crime and
Punishment.[564] The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.[569] Then came
Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.[570]
Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally
renowned. Ivan Goncharov is remembered mainly for his novel Oblomov.[571] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin
wrote prose satire,[572] while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[573] In the second half of
the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[574] Other important 19th-
century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,[575] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion
Belinsky,[576] and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.[577][578] The beginning
of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna
Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Konstantin Balmont,[579] Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Osip
Mandelshtam. It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin,
Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei
Bely.[566]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s,
Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the
foundations of this style.[580] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[581] Nikolay
Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian
literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,[582] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one
of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[583] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel
Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[584]
Russian philosophy has been greatly influential. Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian
populism.[585] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism.[586] Peter Kropotkin was the most
important theorist of anarcho-communism.[587] Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired
scholars.[588] Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-
founded the Theosophical Society.[589] Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of
communism known as Leninism.[590] Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism.[591] Alexander
Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.[592] Aleksandr Dugin, known for
his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".[593]
Cuisine
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious

traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities
with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley,
and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals,
as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,[594] is very popular
across Russia.[595] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha,
solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are
often added to soups and salads.[596][597] Pirozhki,[598] blini,[599] and
syrniki are native types of pancakes.[600] Beef Stroganoff,[601]: 266 Chicken Kvass is an ancient and traditional
Kiev,[601]: 320 pelmeni,[602] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[603] Russian beverage.
Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with
meat.[604] Salads include Olivier salad,[605] vinegret,[606] and dressed
herring.[607]
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[608] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its creation in the
nation dates back to the 14th century.[609] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[610] while
beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[611] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st
century.[612] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[613]
Mass media and cinema
There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA
Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[615] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[616] Among the 3,000
licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak,
and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda,
Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1
are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[616] Russia
has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[617]
Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The
Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[618][619]
Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of
the world's most innovative and influential directors.[620][621] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who
developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-
Union Institute of Cinematography.[622] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the
development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[623] Many Soviet socialist realism films were
artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a
Soldier.[503]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[503]
The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely
popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[624][625] In 1961–68
Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic
War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[503]
In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film
in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip
into space.[626] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema
industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth
once again, and continues to expand.[627]
Ostankino Tower in
Moscow, the tallest Sports
freestanding structure in
Europe.[614] Football is the most popular sport in
Russia.[629] The Soviet Union national football
team became the first European champions by
winning Euro 1960,[630] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[631] Russian
clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005
and 2008.[632][633] The Russian national football team reached the semi-
finals of Euro 2008.[634] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA
Confederations Cup,[635] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[636] However,
Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA Maria Sharapova, former world No.
competitions.[637] 1 tennis player, was the world's
highest-paid female athlete for 11
Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team consecutive years.[628]
dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence. [501] Bandy is
Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving
country in the sport.[638] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,[639] and the Russian
basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[640] The annual
Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its
termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[641][642]
Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.[501]
Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be
the world's best.[643] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice
dancing.[644] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[645] Chess is also a widely popular
pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[646] The 1980
Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[647] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter
Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[648][649] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its
athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[650]
See also
Russia portal
Outline of Russia
Notes
a. Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[1]
Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed in 2022, also remain
internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands are also the subject of a
territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]
b. The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the
majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of
nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[5]
c. Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
d. Russia shares land borders with fourteen sovereign states: Norway and Finland to the northwest; Estonia,
Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia
and Azerbaijan to the southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the
southeast — as well as sharing maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares
borders with the two partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia that it occupies
in Georgia.
e. Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow
theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege.
f. Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest
inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[210]
g. Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a
large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
h. Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea,
to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East
Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of
Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.
i. In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather
than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[246]
j. Including the Republic of Crimea, and the federal city of Sevastopol, which are disputed between Russia
and Ukraine, since the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014.[1]
Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license
statement/permission (https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/af2ef37e-cbf5-49ce-b05a-ecb5725f9769/Listo
rdescriptionofCC-licensedContent_20220406.pdf)). Text taken from Frequently Asked Questions on Energy
Security (https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security), International Energy
Agency, the International Energy Agency.
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1/20/23, 4:36 PM Russia - Wikipedia

Coordinates: 66°N 94°E

2.3Grand Duchy of Moscow

2.8Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)

4Government and politics

5.1Transport and energy

5.2Agriculture and fishery

7.2Art and architecture

7.4Literature and philosophy

Russia (Russian: Россия, Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]), or the Russian

expense of millions of lives, the Soviet Union underwent rapid

In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the

Huns and Eurasian Avars.[46]

Grand Duchy of Moscow

to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[62]

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian

Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms

Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided

Revolution and civil war

However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by

The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support

Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)

In 2014, following a revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200

Government and politics

Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and

1 autonomous The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[262]

Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains

Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part

Human rights and corruption

Human rights in Russia have been increasingly criticised by leading

Transport and energy

Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run

Agriculture and fishery

Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP,

Science and technology

Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions,

work in shaping the modern synthesis.[405]

Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched.

According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-

Largest cities or towns in Russia

Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150

Russia is a secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is Eastern

framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated

Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[477]

Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 19 out of which are

Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[510] The

Art and architecture

Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the

In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of

Literature and philosophy

Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious

Mass media and cinema

5. "Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей" (https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%

221. "Diomede Islands – Russia" (https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands). Atlas Obscura.

256. Russell, Martin (October 2015). "Russia's constitutional structure" (https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegDat

333. Glenn E. Curtis, ed. (1998). "Russia – Natural Resources" (http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm).

607. "Global Snack: Herring under a fur coat" (https://www.dw.com/en/global-snack-herring-under-a-fur-coat/av-5

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