fmoraater 8), Mechanical Engineering “py, c oe ZS iT but i i ay a =1013 308S- Elements of Mechanical Engineering For Il Semester B.E., as per new VTU syllabus 2018 (Choice Based Credit System Scheme) (Effective from the Academic Year 2018 — 2019) Kestoor Praveen ics Formerly @ Sri Krishna Institute of Technology Bangalore - 560 090 Dr. M R Ramesh wet, pi. 11%) Associate Professor National Institute of Technology, Surathkal, Mangalore >) SU Publishing . igniting the mine. REFERENCE BOOKElements of Mechanical Engineering As per new VTU syllabus (CBCS) 2018 By Kestoor Praveen M R Ramesh © Publisher All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted or zeroxed or utilized or stored in any form or by any means like digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher and author. Pages : viii + 240 First Edition 2018 Published by: SUGGi Publishing tgniting the mind #521, 1" Main Road Chamundeshwari Layout, Vidyaranyapura Main Road Bengaluru - 560 097, Karnataka India. ‘Mob : 988 699 2908 / 725 958 1427 E-mail: suggipublishing@gmail.com kvo@suggipublishing.com www.suggipublishing.com Illustrations by : replica”CONTENTS - for quick reference Module - 1 Sources of energy 2 - 13 Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics 14 - 21 Steam Formation & Properties 22 - 44 Module - 2 Boilers 46 - 53 Hydraulic Turbines 54 - 60 Hydraulic Pumps 67 - 66 Module - 3 Internal Combustion Engines 68 - 114 Refrigeration & Air Conditioning ~ 115 - 130 Module - 4 Engineering Materials 132 - 146 Joining Processes 147 - 166 Belt Dri 167 - 193 Gear Drives 194 - 208 Module - 5 Lathe 210 - 217 Milling Machines 218 - 227 Advanced Manufacturing Systems 228 - 238 ‘Tips for Answering EME Question Paper 239 - 240 oeSYLLABUS I8EME 15/25 ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (As per Choice Based Credit System Scheme) (Effective from the Academic Year 2018-2019) 00 Internal Test Marks : 40 Exam Hours : 3 Exam Marks : Module — 1 Sourees of Energy : Introduction and application of energy sources like fossil fuels, dydel, solar, wind, nuclear fuels and bio-fuels; environmental issues like global warming and ozone depletion Basic concepts of Thermodynamics : Introduction, states, concept of work, heat,” temperature; Zeroth, 1%, 2" and 3" laws of thermodynamics. Concept of internal energy, enthalpy and entropy (simple numericals). Formation of steam and thermodynamic properties of steam (simple numericals) Steam : Module ~ 2 Boilers : Introduction to boilers, classification, Lancashire boiler, Babeock and Wilcox boiler. Introduction to boiler mountings and accessories (no sketches). ‘Turbines : Hydraulic Turbines - Classification and specification, Principles and operation of Pelton wheel turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine (elementary treatment only) Hydraulic Pumps : Introduction, classification and specification of pumps, reciprocating pump anc centrifugal pump, concept of cavitation and priming, Module ~ 3 Internal Combustion Engines : Classification, LC. Engines parts, 2 and 4-stroke petrol and 4-stroke diesel engines. P-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel cycles. Simple problems on indicated power, brake power, indicated thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency and specific fuel consumption Refrigeration and Air conditioning : Refrigeration - Definitions - Refrigerating effect, Ton of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity, COP, relative COP, Unit of Refrigeration. Refrigerants, Properties of reftigerants, List of commonly used refrigerants. Principle and working of vapor compression refrigeration and vapor absorption refrigeration. Domestic refrigerator, Principles and applications of air conditioners, window and split air conditioners Module — 4 Properties, Composition and Industrial Applications of engineering materials : Metals- Ferrous: cast iron, tool steels and stainless steels and nonferrous: aluminum, brass, bronze.Polymers - Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Ceramics - Glass, optical fiber glass, cermets. Composites - Fiber reinforced composites, Metal Matrix Composites Smart materials - Piezoelectric materials, shape memory alloys, semiconductors and insulators. Joining Processes : Soldering, Brazing and Welding : Definitions. Classification and methods of soldering, brazing and welding. Brief description of arc welding, oxy-acetylene welding, TIG welding, and MIG welding. Belt Drives : Open & crossed belt drives, Definitions - slip, creep, velocity ratio, derivations for length of belt in open and crossed belt drive, ratio of tension in flat belt drives, advantages and disadvantages of V belts and timing belts, simple numerical problems. Gear drives : Types-spur, helical, bevel, worm and rack and pinion. Velocity ratio, advantages and disadvantages over belt drives, simple numerical problems on velocity ratio. Module — 5 Lathe : Principle of working of a center lathe. Parts of a lathe. Operations on lathe - Turning, Facing, Knurling, Thread Cutting, Drilling, Taper turning by Tailstock offset method and Compound slide swiveling method, Specification of Lathe. ing Machine : Principle of milling, types of milling machines. Working of horizontal and vertical milling machines. Milling processes - plane milling, end milling, slot milling, angular milling, form milling, straddle milling, and gang milling. (Layout sketches of the above machines need not be dealt. Sketches need to be used only for explanining the operations performed on the machines) Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems Computer Numerical Control (CNC) : Introduction, components of CNC, open loop and closed loop systems, advantages of CNC, CNC Machining centers and Turning centers. Robots : Robot anatomy, joints and links, common robot configurations. Applications of Robots in material handling, processing and assembly and inspection. Scheme of examination +The question paper will be set for 100 marks and the marks scored will be proportionately reduced to 60 marks. The exam duration is 3 hours. + The question paper will have 10 questions; each full question carrying 20 marks + There will be 2 questions (with sub questions) in each module. Students have to answer 5 full questions choosing 1 full question from each module.MOopDULE « Sources of Energy « Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics # Steam Formation & PropertiesSources OF ENERGY 1.1. ENERGY RESOURCES Energy is defined as the ability, or the capacity to do work. It is the primary requirement for the day-to-day activities of human beings. Energy produces electricity from which we can cook food, light our homes, make computers, televisions, and machines work. Energy moves cars, buses, motor cycles, trains, trucks and planes. In simple words, we use energy to do work and make all movements. Most of the energy that we have been using now comes from natural sources like coal, oil, natural gas and water that are being used from a very long time. However, coal and oil are used in large quantities compared to other sources. The problem here is that, coal and oil are available in nature in limited quantities. Hence, the ever increasing energy demand due to population rise and change in modern lifestyle are threatening to exhaust these sources very soon. This creates a necessity to find and develop alternative energy resources that can meet the energy demands. Some of the alternative energy sources include solar radiation, fuel cells, wind energy, geothermal energy, ocean thermal energy, tidal energy, biomass, etc. It is necessary for every individual to have a basic knowledge of the various energy resources and its utilization*, which in turn helps for better consumption of energy and also benefit the future generation. 1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES The various energy resources available in nature can be classified into two types: Renewable energy resources and Non-renewable energy resources a) Renewable energy sources Energy resources that are produced continuously in nature and that will not get exhausted eventually in future are called renewable energy sources. For example, wind energy is renewable; it is continuously restored by nature after utilization. Renewable energy resources include @ Solar energy ~ It is the heat energy radiated from the sun. « Hydel energy — Energy obtained from water. © Wind energy ~ Energy from the flow of wind. Geothermal energy — It is the heat energy stored deep inside the earth. * Utilization refers 10 the conversion of one form of energy into another, so as to utilize it for various applicationsModule - 1 3 « Tidal energy ~ It is the energy obtained from the tides in oceans, + Ocean thermal energy ~ It is the heat energy obtained from the surface of water in oceans * Biomass energy ~ Energy obtained from the organic matter of plants and animals, (b) Non-renewable energy resources ‘The energy resources that get exhausted eventually in future are classified as non-renewable energy resources, Non-renewable energy resources include: * Fossil fuels. Example Coal, petroleum, coal gas and natural gas. * Nuclear fuels. Example Uranium. 1.2.1 Renewable versus Non-renewable energy Resources Table 1.1 shows the brief comparison between renewable and non-renewable Energy resources SL Ka Renewable energy resources Non -renewable energy resources 1. | Thése are inexhaustible. These are exhaustible. Example coal, Example solar energy, wind energy ete. _| petroleum, natural gas etc. 2, | Freely available in nature and environment | Not freely available, and also not friendly (except biomass). environment friendly. 3,_| They are continuously restored by nature |'These sources once used cannot be after utilization, recovered any more | Initial cost for utilization of energy sources | Both initial and maintenance costs are is high, but maintenance cost is low high. 5. | Availability of energy is intermittent, and | Continuous supply of energy is hence continuous supply of energy is not | possible with non-renewable energy possible, sources. Table 1.1 Renewable versus Non-renewable 1.3 FOSSIL FUELS Fossil fuels are so called because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the earth’s core, and pressure from the rock and soil on the remains (fossils) of dead plants and animals including micro-organisms. ‘The three primary types of fossil fuels are briefed as follows: viz., coal, oil, and natural gas 1) Coal Coal is a solid type of fossil fuel, a highly carbonaceous matter, dug (or mined) from the underground. It is the most abundant fossil fuel on earth. Coal has been formed from prehistoric vegetable deposits, which have been decomposed and solidified under combined effect of great pressure and bacteria. ‘The various forms of coal are briefed as follows.4 Elements of Mechanical Engineering # Lignite or Sub-bituminous coal is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content and ash, and low calorific value. It is used for domestic purposes and also for the generation of electricity, In India, lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamilnadu, Assam, Kashmir, and Rajasthan, © Bituminous coal consists of nearly 75 to 90 % carbon and is a major fuel in most of the countries for industrial applications which include firing in furnaces, boilers, and thermal power plants, In India, bituminous deposits are found in Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa. « Anthracite coal is the highest class of coal containing about 92 to 98% of carbon and therefore burns slowly with great heat and releases much less smoke than the bituminous type. Although very expensive per kg of fuel, anthracite is usually very economical in use. It is used as a boiler fuel, metallurgical furnaces for smelting iron, etc. In India, Anthracite coal is found in Kashmir and Eastern Himalayas. It is important to note that coal of all types contain sulphur to some degree, which is the worst of the pollutants to cause damage to human health and vegetation. In spite of its dis-advantages, coal remains essential for the industrial sector like iron and steel making, conerete and paper industries, etc.; driving locomotives, and for power generation. 2) Oil (Liquid fuel) Crude oil, also called Petroleum* was formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust. Scientists and engineers explore certain locations of oil reservoirs and drill deep holes through which the oil is pumped out. At oil refineries, the crude oil is heated and split into various types of products like Petrol, Diesel fuel, Kerosene, Aviation fuel, Lubricating oils, etc., and transported in huge pipelines and tanker ships to places where it is required. Two important types of oil are briefed as follows: a) Petrol Petrol ot Gasoline’ is a type of liquid fuel derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum (or crude oil). Its the lightest fuel with specific gravity ranging from 0.71 to 0.76, and the most volatile liquid fuel that vaporizes casily at room temperature. Petrol is mainly used as a fuel for the spark ignited automotive vehicles as well in some small airplanes. b) Diesel Diesel oil is a type of liquid fuel obtained after the fractional distillation of petrol and kerosene. Its specific gravity ranges from 0.82 to 0.96, and is more dense than petrol, thereby providing * Peirolewn should not be confused with Petrol fuel. Petroleum is unrefined crude oil found beneath the earths surface, while Petrol is a refined product of Petroleum, produced by distillation. © Some countries use the term petrol and their dispensing facilities referred to as petrol stations, while in Canada and the United States, the word gasoline is commonly used instead of petrol and sometimes itis often shortened to simply gas although it is a liquid rather than a gas. In fact, gasoline dispensing facilities are referred to as gas stations.Module - 1 5 a comparatively more energy per unit volume of fuel consumed. However, the calorific value of Diesel is lower than that of petrol. It is used as a fuel in compression ignition automotive vehicles, such as busses, trucks, and also in airplanes 3) Natural gas Natural gas is usually found underground near an oil source. It is composed primarily of methane and other light hydrocarbons like ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and compounds like carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, etc. Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel. When it is bumed, it gives off less carbon dioxide than oil or coal, virtually no sulphur dioxide, and only small amounts of nitrous oxides. It is an excellent domestic fuel used for heating and cooking. Natural gas is also used to produce steel, glass, paper,. Clothing, brick, electricity and as an essential raw material for many common products like paints, fertilizer, plastics, dyes, photographic film, medicines and explosives. 1.4 SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy, also called solar radiation is the heat energy radiated (or emitted) by the sun. lar energy is very large, inexhaustible and a renewable source of energy on Farth. The heat energy radiated from the sun is captured, stored & utilized for various applications. A few common applications are briefed as follows: 1.4.1 Solar Energy Utilization Using Flat Plate Collector ‘A flat plate collector is the simplest and the most common type of solar collector used to capture solar rays. This type of collector is preferable for low temperature applications such as water heating, cooking, drying food grains and vegetables, heating and cooling buildings, ete. Liquid Flat Plate Collector For Water Heating Figure 1.1 shows the details of a flat plate collector used for heating cold water. ‘The collector consists of the following components: * Absorber plate is usually made of copper, and is coated with black* so as to absorb the solar rays falling on it, * Water tubes are metallic tubes through which water circulates. The tubes are attached to the absorber plate. « Transparent cover is made of a toughened glass, usually 4 mm thick, which helps in reflecting the incident solar energy back to the absorber plate. The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for incoming short wavelengths, but is largely opaque to the longer infrared radiation reflected from the absorber. As a result, heat remains trapped in the airspace between the absorber plate and the glass cover. # Insulation by means of resin bonded rock wool is provided below the absorber plate so as to prevent heat losses by conduction * Black body absorbs more radiation.6 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Overhead tank Air vent Solar tank Hot water| for use Cold water trom\| solar tank ‘Transparent Fiat plate collector: cover (a) Pictorial view of solar flat plate collector (Figure not to be drawn in examination) Transparent glass cover Solar radiation Air tight enclosure Re-reflected C S aes wave Insulation ‘Absorber — ‘Water tubes plate (b) Sectional view A - A Figure 1.1 Flat plate collector for water heating In operation, cold water from the overhead tank is made to flow through the water tubes of the solar heater. When the sun rises to a certain level, it’s energy passes through the transparent cover and falls on the absorber plate. The heat energy absorbed by the absorber plate is transferred to the cold water flowing through the tubes. The heated water being lighter than the cold water, rises and flows into the top of the solar water tank. The heated water can be used for various purposes. ‘The cold water from the overhead tank enters the water tubes & the process repeats 1.4.2 Solar Energy Utilization Using Focusing Collector Focusing collector as shown in figure 1.2 is a parabolic trough, or may be in the form of long rectangular U-shaped surface designed to reflect and concentrate the sun’s energy to a focalModule - 1 line where the absorber or receiver tube will be located. The absorbed heat energy raises the temperature ofa special type of fluid, which is then collected at a central location to get converted into high-pressure superheated steam, The steam is utilized for generating power (electricity) in steam turbines. The so called solar thermal power plant consists of many such parallel rows of solar parabolic trough collectors to maximize solar energy utilization. Note ‘The largest 2000 MW solar park is set up at Pavagada in Kamataka’s Tumkuru District. o~ Water heati a absorber tubing 7 Hot water Sun rays Reflecting Mirror Cold a water in Figure 1.2. Parabolic trough collector 1.4.3. Solar Energy Utilization Using Photovoltaic Cell A photovoltaic* cell, also called solar cell, is a device that directly converts the sun’s radiation into electrical energy. ‘The working principle of a photovoltaic cell is illustrated in figure 1.3. A photovoltaic cell is made up of at least two layers of semiconductor® material like silicon, doped with impurities in order to increase the conductivity of the material. The first layer has a positive charge (p-type silicon), while the next layer a negative charge (n-type silicon). As known, sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy. When sunlight strikes the photovoltaic cell, the semiconductor material absorbs photons from the light. When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the semiconductor material, electrons are dislodged from the material, which then move towards the positive layer. ‘This flow of clectrons constitutes an electric current, which can be captured in a circuit connecting the two layers of the semiconductor material. ‘The electricity generated by the photovoltaic cell can be used directly, or stored in batteries. The power output can be increased by connecting a number of photovoltaic cells together in a sealed package called a module. * The word photovoltaic comes from photo meaning light and voltaic referring to producing electricity * A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass. To increase its conductivity, semiconductors are doped with impurities like boron, the resulting which is called p-type semiconductors, and semiconductors doped with impurities like phosphorous are called n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the negative charge of the electron, while p-type’ refers to positive charge,8 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Photovoltaic cells can be used for a number of applications. A few of them include: domestic lighting, street lighting, village electrification, water pumping, desalination’ of salt water, railway signals, powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations, etc. n-type silicon Junction p-type silicon Figure 1.3 Photovoltaic cell 1.4.4 Solar Pond A solar pond is a pool of salt water, which collects and stores solar thermal energy; this heat energy in turn can be utilized for various applications like process heating, desalination, refrigeration, drying, and solar power generation. Principle of Solar Pond In a natural pond, nearly about 30% solar radiation reaches to a depth of about 2 meters. The solar radiation (heat energy) is absorbed by the water at the bottom of the pond. The warm water due to its low density rises to the surface and loses its heat to the atmosphere without serving any purpose or beneficial effects. However, if this warm water is allowed to remain at the bottom of the pond by some mechanism, it can be piped to a boiler where it is heated further to produce steam that can drive a turbo-generator to produce electricity, or the hot water can be used for various practical applications. A simple mechanism to achieve this concept is by artificially creating a pond over large area and adding salt, either sodium chloride or magnesium chloride at the bottom of the pond. The salt dissolves in water making the water too heavy to rise to the surface of the pond. Higher salt contents (salinity) in water will increase the density of the water allowing it to stay at the bottom of the pond. The hot water can thus be used for various applications. Working of solar pond Figure 1.4 shows the schematic of a solar pond that is constructed below the ground level. There are three distinct zones in a solar pond, with salt content increasing from top surface of the pond to its bottom. * Desalination is used in areas where fresh, drinkable water is scarce. Solar energy evaporates brine (salt water) leaving the salt crystals in the bottom of the basin. The water in turn condenses back in another basin where it is now drinkable.Module - Sun rays wont NWN IL A i level” Intermediate or gradient zone (Increasing salt water) Storage zone (Saturated salt water) Cold =—— Hot water out water in Plastic lining Figure 1.4 Solar pond The lower zone of water, called storage zone is rich in salt content and it is the area where solar radiation is absorbed and stored. The upper zone of water, called surface zone is cold and has very low salt content. The intermediate zone separates the upper zone of cold water and the lower zone of the hot water and forms an important area in the solar pond. As solar radiation is absorbed, the hot water in the storage zone cannot rise due to high salt content in it and being comparatively heavier, while the cold water at the surface of the pond having less salt content cannot sink, because the water below it (intermediate zone) has a higher salt content and is ‘comparatively denser, The hot water thus remains in the bottom layer of the pond from which useful heat may be withdrawn and used for various purposes. Note The first solar pond in India was built in Bhuj (Gujrath) in a 6000 sq. m area. The solar pond supplied totally about 15,000 m of hot water to the Kutch dairy. It was estimated that the beneficiary of the project, Kutch Dairy can save over 935 Mega Ton of lignite coal per year if solar pond is utilized to its full capacity. 1.5 WIND ENERGY Wind energy is the kinetic energy of large masses of air moving over the earth’s surface. The kinetic energy of wind can be converted into mechanical work (in the form of rotation of shaft) by a wind mill or wind turbine. The mechanical power thus obtained can be used for specific tasks such as grinding food grains, pumping underground water, generate electricity, etc. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic of a wind turbine for generating electricity, A wind turbine consists of specially designed blades that are connected to a low speed shaft. The shaft in turn is connected to a small generator fixed in the axis of the wind mill as shown in the figure. Most turbines have either two to three blades, and are designed large enough to extract energy from the largest possible volume of air. Since wind speed increases with height, the blades are mounted high above the ground level by means of a tower. This enables the blades to capture more energy and hence generate more electricity.10 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Wind Cut portion wing a is sass Wind S - Shaft = . GB - Gear box a a C- Coupling G - Generator Figure 1.5 Wind turbine In operation, the kinetic energy of the flow of wind causes the blades to rotate at slow speeds. ‘The gear box comprising of many gears is used to increase the rotational speed of the shaft to that range required to produce electricity. The high speed of the shaft thus drives the generator to produce electricity. The power produced by the generator is transferred down the tower to the power grid system and then through the transmission lines, Wind turbines work best on a large scale (wind farm) in large open areas, where one can install more wind turbines with towers tall enough to capture the full brunt of the wind energy available. Coastal areas and areas near large bodies of water are often best suited for wind power. In India, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka and coastal areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra have found to be suitable for generating power using wind energy. 1.6 HYDRO ENERGY Hydro power or water power is the energy obtained from the flowing water. The energy obtained can be utilized to drive machines or generate electricity by means of a turbine. Figure 1.6 shows the layout of a hydroelectric power plant. ‘A dam is built to collect the rain water in a reservoir, Gravitational potential energy is stored in the water. The water from the reservoir is then allowed to flow through penstock (large pipe) and enter the nozzle, or through specially designed blade passages, wherein the potential energyModule - 1 : 1 is converted to kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of water causes the turbine runner to rotate, which in turn drives the generator to produce electricity. The electricity is then transmitted to a sub-station where transformers increase the voltage to that level required for residential and ‘commercial applications. Power Transmission Tower DAM Reservoir Power house Generator Tailrace Figure 1.6 Hydro electric power plant 1.7. NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear power is generated utilizing the energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. As we know, atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together. However, the energy can be released if the atoms are split apart; the process of splitting atoms is called nuclear fission and takes place in a specially designed nuclear reactor. The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission to take place is Uranium (U-235). In nuclear fission as shown in figure 1.7, a small particle called neutron hits (bombards) the uranium atom and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy in the form of heat and light, Also, more neutrons are released due to bombardment, These neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms and the process repeats over and over again resulting in a chain reaction, ‘The chain reaction gives off enormous heat energy, which is used to boil water to form super-heated steam. ‘The steam thus formed is used to drive the turbine, which in tum drives the generator to produce electricity. Nuclear technology produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel. One ton of uranium produces more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal, or several million barrels of oil. However, nuclear waste products emit dangerous radiation. It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away. Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety. If it does go wrong, a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.12 Elements of Mechanical Engineering The ie © Lighter element ° _— O Neutron —~ O Neutron U.236.etom ee © + Energy Neutron, Lighter element Figure 1.7 Nuclear Fission Note Enormous amount of energy can also be released by a process opposite to that of nuclear fission, i.e., instead of splitting atoms, two lighter nuclei can be combined to form a single heavy nucleus; the process is called nuclear fusion. However in nuclear fusion, in order to cause nuclei to fuse and release their stored energy, they must either be heated to very very high temperatures, or caused to move fast enough to simulate a correspondingly high temperature. Scientists have been trying to figure out how to achieve this task; the technology may become viable in future. 1.8 BIO-FUELS Bio-fuels are liquid fuels produced from biological materials or biomass, such as sugarcane fiber, com, cellulose or vegetable oils, agricultural residues, sewage and other wastes. It is a renewable source of energy, emitting less than fossil fuels and as such considered as an alternative to the constantly and rapidly diminishing fossil fuels. ‘The following are the different types of bio-fuels used in various engineering applications. ‘ Fuel pellets, made from wood chips, sawdust or agricultural wastes are a few solid form of biofuels, but are not so popular in view of their higher environment pollution potential. They are used for co-combustion in coal fired power plants. * Biodiesel, a form of liquid biofuel is produced from non-edible oil seeds. The oils obtained from seeds of several plants and trees like Pongamia (honge), Neem (bevu), Hippe, Simarouba, Red physic nut (kaduharalu), can be used as an alternative fuel for Diesel, or blended with Diesel to power automotive vehicles like bus, lorry, tractor, etc., and also generators & industrial machines that run on Diesel engine. Bio-diesel is also used as a heating fuel in commercial boilers. * Bioethanol or simply ethanol, is a form of biofuel, produced from com, wheat, sugarcane, or cellulosic material, and is used as an alternative fuel for petrol (or gasoline), or blended with petrol in order to reduce the vehicle emissions and fuel consumption in Petrol engines. ‘The positive influence of wide use of biofuels in terms of environment protection and fossil fuel consumption is considered to be a better option as alternative energy resource, However, the feedstocks or sources for producing biofuels in large quantities is a major problem encountered in this regard.Module - 1 13 1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Environmental issues refer to the harmful effects created by human beings on the living environment. The issues mainly relate to the climatic changes taking place in the living atmosphere. Increased human activity, urbanization, and industrialization have led to rapid deterioration of the environment. Two important global environmental issues, viz., Ozone depletion and Global warming have been discussed herein 1.9.1 Ozone Layer Depletion Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, caused by the release of chemical compounds containing gascous chlorine or bromine from industries and other emissions from human activities. The ozone layer is a deep layer in the stratosphere*, encircling the earth, that has large amounts of ozone in it, The ozone layer shields the entire earth from the harmful ultra-violet (UV) radiation of the sun thereby protecting the living beings on the earth. In the 1970's it was discovered that man-made chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) that were released into the atmosphere gradually decompose, releasing chlorine atoms that destroy the ozone in the ozone layer. Fach chlorine atom has the ability to destroy tens of thousands of ozone molecules. The depletion of ozone layer thus leads to its inability to shield the UV radiation reaching the earth’s surface thereby increasing the radiation effects like skin cancer, eye cataracts and damage to immune system. It is for this reason the Freon group of reftigerants (based on chlorofluorocarbons) used in domestic refrigerators and air conditioners was banned in many countries from the year 1996, In India, the ban came into effect from the year 2010. 1.9.2 Global Warming Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the Earth's climate. ‘The climatic change is due to the increased volumes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (Toxic gases) released by the burning of fossil fuels, land clearing, agriculture, and other emissions created by human activities that have occurred over the past 50 years. ‘The gases form a layer in the atmosphere and trap the sun’s radiation which in tur makes the planet warmer. The changes resulting from global warming may inchide rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps, as well as an increase in occurrence and severity of storms, droughts, and other severe weather events. * Stratosphere is the region in the atmosphere, around 20 t0 30 kilometers above the earth's surfaceBasic Concepts OF THERMODYNAMICS 241. INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS The word thermodynamics coined by William Thompson (Lord Kelvin) comes from two Greek words: thermo meaning heat, and dynamics meaning power, literally meaning the motive power of heat, or in simple words, the capacity of hot bodies to produce work. Today the scope of thermodynamics is larger, dealing generally with energy (heat & work) and relationships among the properties of matter. Thermodynamics can thus be considered as a branch of science that deals with the study of energy, energy transformations, and its relationship with the properties of matter. Thermodynamics provides important relationships among heat transfer, work interactions, kinetic and potential energy, and properties that describe the condition of any substance. The various applications of thermodynamics include turbines, pumps, engines, compressors, air conditioners, solar collectors, rocket engines, fuel cells, wind and wave energy systems, and all systems that transform energy from one form to another. The present chapter deals with the basic concepts involved in the study of thermodynamics. 2.2 BASIC CONCEPTS ‘A few terms involved in the study of thermodynamics are briefed as follows 1) System A system, or a thermodynamic system as shown in figure 2.1 is defined as a specific quantity of matter or region in space on which our attention is focussed for thermodynamic analysis. 2) Boundary The boundary, as shown in figure 2.1 is defined as the real or imaginary surface enclosing the system through which energy and mass may enter or leave the system. ‘The boundary of the system may be fixed of movable, i Boundar Surroundings wundary —_— ——— Mass/energy in out Figure 2.1. Thermodynamic systemModule - 1 15 3) Surroundings Surroundings, as shown in figure 2.1 is defined as the three-dimensional space outside (external) the thermodynamic system that has a direct relationship on the behaviour of the system. 4) State of system a The state ofa system (when the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium) is the condition of the system at any specific time, which can be identified by values of a suitable set of parameters like pressure, volume, temperature, mass, etc. 5) Cyele A thermodynamic eycle is defined as a linked sequence of processes in which the working substance undergoes a series of state changes accompanying with heat and work transfer and finally returning to its initial state 6) Internal Energy Internal energy is the energy possessed by a body or a system due to its molecular arrangement and motion of the molecules. In simple words, it is the sum of potential energy (PE) and kinetic energy (KE)of the particles that form the system. It is denoted by U or E and expressed in Joule (J) or kilo Joules (kd). Since this molecular motion is primarily a function of temperature, the internal energy is sometimes called shermal energy. 7) Entropy Entropy is the measure of.a system’s thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing usefill work. It is the amount of energy that is lost to surrounding at a specific temperature, Since work is obtained from ordered molecular motion of the molecules in a system, the amount of entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder, or randomness* of the system. Alternately, entropy can be defined as a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that heat into work. Entropy is denoted by Sand expressed in Joule/Kelvin (J/K) or kilo Joule/Kelvin (ki/K). The change in entropy is given by the equation: d as has ad Mpicrents Change ie hdc nT, the emigrate Characteristics of entropy 1) Entropy increases when heat is supplied to a system irrespective of the fact whether temperature changes or not. when heat is removed from a system irrespective of the fact whether 2) Entropy deere temperature changes or not. 3) Entropy remains unchanged for adiabatic or isentropic ({rictionless) processes. * Randomness implies the disordered molecular movement of particles in a system. The more the molecular movement, the more will be the collisions between them and hence more heat is expelled, which iv of no use. The entropy increases.16 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Note The following general relations can be used for solving numericals. Pye at a >, In ( Jec, nf ie } in terms of pressure and volume 4 L, 2 dS=C, In ()- R uf 2) in terms of zemperature and pressure ; } in terms of pressure and volume 8) Enthalpy Enthalpy (#2) refers to the total heat content of a system. It is defined as the sum of internal energy (U) of a system and the product of the pressure (P) and volume (V) of the system. ic, H = U + BV where enthalpy (#1) is expressed in WAg 2.3. TEMPERATURE Temperature is a thermodynamic property which determines the degree of hotness or the level of heat intensity of a body. It distinguishes a hot body from a cold body. The temperature of a body is measured using a glass thermometer on Celsius (Centigrade) scale, or Fahrenheit scale. r ic 32 The relationship between the two scales is given by: “= where C represents Centigrade scale and F, the Fahrenheit scale. Note Theoretically it is found that a gas will not occupy any volume at a certain temperature. The molecules stop moving or vibrating at all. ‘This temperature is known as absolute zero temperature. In the analysis of theoretical equations relating to fundamental laws, the value of temperature having reference point as absolute zero is considered. Absolute zero in degree entigrade is taken as -273 °C, and in Kelvin scale 0K, The relationship between centigrade =°C +273 is used in theoretical calculations. and Kelvin scale given as, 2.4 HEAT & WORK In thermodynamic analysis, the energy transfer taking place between a system and its surroundings are classified as: heat transfer and work transfer. ‘The same are briefed as follows: 1) Heat Heat is defined as the transfer of energy, without the transfer of mass, taking place across the boundary of a system, or between two different bodies due to the temperature difference between them. It is important to note that heat is transferred naturally from a body of higher temperature to a body of lower temperature. Heat is denoted by Q and expressed in kJ.Module - 1 7 Sign convention If heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system as shown in figure 2(a), it is considered as positive, and if heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings as shown in figure 2.2(b), it is considered negative. ‘As shown in figure 2.2(a), heat is added by burning fuel to water in a boiler so as to convert the water into steam. Heat is transferred into the system (boiler) from the external surrounding. Hence heat transfer is positive. While the condenser of the refrigerator shown in figure 2.2(b), gives away the heat of the vapour refrigerant to the atmospheric air surrounding the condenser. Heat is transferred from the system (condenser) to the external surrounding. Hence heat transfer is negative Flow of Heat out —"Q atmospheric air Surroundings Surroundings Low temperature High temperature liquid refriferant vapour refrigerant Condenser Heat in +"Q (a) Heat added to convert water into steam (b} Heat rejected to atmosphere by the refrigerant Figure 2.2. Flow of Heat 2) Work In thermodynamics, work refers to the energy transfer between the system and its surroundings, whose sole effect on the things external to the system can be converted into raising a weight. The weight may not be actually raised, but the net effect extemal to the system should be similar to the raising of a weight. In simple words, work is the energy transfer, associated with a force acting through a distance. It is denoted by W and expressed in kJ. Sign convention If work is by the system as shown in figure 2.3(a), it is considered as positive, and if work is done on the system as shown in figure 2.3(b), it is considered negative, Piston Force | Boundary min Initial Cylinder boundary Boundary after Cylinder compression Heat (a) Heat supplied to system —{b) Work done by the system —_(c) Work done on the system Figure 2.3. Work ‘As shown in figure 2.3(a) and (b), when the gas in the cylinder is heated from an external source, the gas expands due to increase in its temperature and performs work by moving the piston and hence the weight placed on it. As the piston moves up, the boundary of the system expands. Work is done by the system and hence is considered positive.18 Elements of Mechanical Engineering On the other hand, when a force is applied to the piston as shown in figure 2.3(c), it moves downwards compressing the gas inside the cylinder, The boundary of the system contracts. Work is done on the system and hence is considered negative Note ‘The displacement work from system state 1 t0 2 is given by the equation: W = fear 1 where P is the pressure exerted on the system and 1’is the volume of the system. 2.5 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS The fundamental principles of thermodynamics are expressed by certain laws, however from the syllabus point of view, only three laws of thermodynamics are discussed as follow: 1) Zeroth law of thermodynamics Zeroth law states that when two systems are cach in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems arealso in thermal equilibrium with each other. . 2) First law of thermodynamics ‘The first law states that, when a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer (Q) is equal to the net work transfer (17). ie, f50 = faw where § stands for cyclic integral “The first law is also known as law of conservation of energy, which states that Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant, merely changing from one form to another. ‘According to the law of conservation of energy, we can write, total energy AE = O~ W” 3) Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics can be defined in two different ways according to Kelvin- Planck and Clausius as follows: Kelvin-Planck statement According to Kelvin-Planck, itis impossible to construct an engine working in a cyclic process; whose sole purpose is to convert heat energy from a single thermal reservoir into an equivalent amount of work. In simple words, there cannot be an engine that can work in a cyclic process converting all the heat supplied to it, into mechanical work. ‘There is always a degradation or oss of energy in the process of producing mechanical work from the heat supplied: Clausius statement ‘According to Clausius, itis impossible for a self-acting machine working in a eyelic process to transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the aid of an external agency. In simple words, heat cannot flow naturally from a cold body to a hot body without the help of work input.Module - 1 19 4) Third law of thermodynamics The Third law of thermodynamics states that, the entropy of a pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero (Kelvin). Mathematically, Lim S =0 where S= entropy (//K) and 7'= absolute temperature (K) ro Conversely, the law can be stated as, the temperature (Kelvin) of any pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium approaches zero when the entropy approaches zero In practice, absolute zero is an ideal temperature that is unattainable, The concept of absolute zero can however be applied by considering a perfect single crystal, But even a perfect crystal is an ideal crystal that cannot be developed. Hence the third law is a mathematical limit of the universe. For this reason, the third law is sometimes stated as follows: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as its temperature approaches absolute zero (Kelvin). Note Most of the direct use of the Third Law of Thermodynamics oceurs in ultra-low temperature chemistry and physics. The applications of this law have been used to predict the response of various materials to temperature changes. These relationships have become core to many science disciplines, even though the Third Law of Thermodynamics is not used directly, compared to the other three major thermodynamic laws. However, together, these laws help form the foundations of modem science. 2.6 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1 In an internal combustion engine, the heat rejected to cooling water during compression stroke is 50 A//Ay and the work input is 100 kJ/Ag. Calculate the change in internal energy of the working fluid stating whether it is a gain or loss. Solution : Heat rejected = Q =~ 50 kulkg (sign indicates heat is rejected from the system to the surroundings) Work input = W = — 100 ki/ke (-* sign indicates work is done on the system) change in internal energy = AE = Q— W=~$0—(- 100) = 50 = +50 ku/kg (+*° sign indicates increase (gain) in internal energy of the system) Problem 2 A closed system undergoes a change in process in which 5 A/ of heat energy is supplied to the system. Determine the change in internal energy under the following conditions. (i) 1 KJ of work is done on the system (ii) 1.25 £/ of work is done by the system. Solution : Heat supplied O = 5 hI Case 1 To find AE for W=—L ki W=—1 kJ (sign indicates work is done on the system ) From I law of Thermodynamics, Change in energy AE=Q~W =5—(-1)=6k/ AE = 6 kJ20 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Case 2 To find AE for W= 1.25 ki w.k.t. change in energy AE = Q- W =5~( 1.25 )=3.75 “ AE 3.75 kJ Problem 3 A stationary mass of gas at its initial state 0.4 me and 0.105 MPa was compressed at constant pressure to final state of 0.2 m? and 0.105 MPa. The heat transfer from the gas during the process was 42.5 k/. Calculate the change in internal energy of the gas. Solution ; Initial condition of gas (state 1) : Volume of gas = V, = 0.4 m Pressure = P, = 0.105 MPa = 0.105 * 10° Mim? (-: mega= 10° and Pa = Nim?) Final condition (state 2): Volume V,=0.2m' Pressure = P, = 0.105 MPa=0.105 x 10° Nim? Note that since P, = P,, the compression process takes place at constant pressure, * Heat transfer from the gas = Q =~ 42.5 ki (-** sign indicates heat is rejected from the system) wk.t. change in intemal energy = AZ = Q- W — (1) But work W =? w.k.t. displacement work = 1 = JPpdv= PN) 1 N W = (0.105 * 10) (0.2 — 0.4) =~ 21 * 10° em =-21* 10° Nm Work =—21 kJ (+ kilo= 10 and Am = Jonle) Now equation (1) becomes, AE =~ 42.5 - (— 21) =~ 21.5 Change in internal energy = AE = ~ 21.5 kJ (* sign indicates decrease in internal energy of the system) Problem 4 A gas occupies a volume of 0.1 m? at a temperature of 20 °C and a pressure of 1.5 har. Find the final temperature of the gas, ifit is compressed to a pressure of 7.5 bar and occupies avolume of 0.04 m°. Solution : Initial volume V,=0.1 m> Initial temperature 7, = 20°C = 20 + 273 = 293 K 1 Initial pressure P, = 1.5 bar = 1.5 10? kN/m? Final pressure P, = 7.5 bar = 7.5 * 10? N/m? Final volume V, = 0.04 m? To find final temperature ( 7; ) BY, _ PB qT L es For a perfect gas, at condition 1 and 2, we have (15x10*)(01) (75x 10° )0.04 “293 ~ gModule - 1 21 30 0.0511 t Problem § 0.05 nr} of air at a pressure of 8 bar and temperature 280°C expands to eight times its original volume and the final temperature after expansion is 25°C. Calculate the change in entropy of air during the process. Assume specific heat at constant pressure as 1.005 kJ/kg K and specific heat at constant volume as 0.712 Kikg K. Solution : Initial condition of air (before expansion) : Volume V7, = 0.05 m Pressure P, = 8 Bar = 8 x 10° Nim? (-: 1 Bar= 10° Nim?) ‘Temperature 7, = 280°C = 280 + 273=553 K Final conditions of air (after expansion) : Volume V, = 8 V, =8 (0.05) = 0.4 mn 25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K 005 Kikg K = and = C,= 0.712 kitkg K ‘Temperature ef To find change in entropy (dS) w.k.t. change in entropy = dS = C, In (2): R n( 2) ty i 1 where R ie, R as constant = C, — C, .005 — 0.712 = 0.293 kivkg K 298 04 Ne ti 1) be es, dS = 0.712 In| —— |+ 0.293 In} —— jow equation (1) becomes n (2) n( 2.) ic, dS = 0.169 ki/kg K calculated for | kg of air To find mass of air (m) perfect gas equation PV = m RT where P is in kPa using relation P, V, = m RT, --@) P, = 8% 10° Nim? =8 » 10? kN/m? = 8 * 10? kPa x. equation (2) becomes, (8 * 102) (0.05) =m (0.293) (553) 0.246 ke 246 (0.169) = 0.0415 dS = 0.0415 KJIK mass ™ Now change in entropySTEAM FORMATION & PROPERTIES 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO STEAM All substances under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure can exist in one of the three states, viz., solid, liquid or gas. But water is one of the pure substances* that exists in all the three phases namely, in the solid phase as ice, liquid phase as water, and gaseous phase as vapour (steam) Most of the practical problems in thermal engincering are concerned with liquid and gaseous phase rather than the solid phase. Water, which is liquid at normal temperature begins to boil to form steam when heated sufficiently. The steam thus formed can be used as a working fluid in the operation of steam turbines to generate clectricity. In practice, steam is generated in steam generators or popularly known as Boilers, The details regarding the generation of steam, and its various properties required for engineering calculations are discussed herein. 3.2. FORMATION of STEAM at CONSTANT PRESSURE Steam exists in three different states (or conditions) viz., wet steam, dry steam and superheated steam. It is important to know the various properties of steam such as pressure, temperature, enthalpy, specific volume, internal energy, and entropy for different conditions of steam. The values of these properties are determined by a steam generation experiment, briefed as follows. Consider | kg. of water at 0°C taken in a cylinder, fitted with a freely moving piston. A weight Wis placed over the piston as shown in figure 3.1(a). ‘The weight of the piston and the weight 1” placed over the piston exerts a constant pressure P on the water. Let V be the volume occupied by the water in the cylinder. The condition of water at 0°C is represented by a point 4 on the temperature enthalpy (T-H) diagram as shown in figure 3.2. When water is heated at constant pressure, it is converted to steam. The various stages involved in the process are discussed below. 1) On heating, the temperature of the water rises and at a certain temperature water begins to boil (evaporate). The temperature at which water starts boiling is known as saturation temperature and is denoted by t,. The heating of water from 0°C to the saturation temperature (t,) is shown by the line AB on T-H diagram. At this temperature, there is a slight increase in the volume of water (V7) as shown in figure 3.1(b). * A pure substance is a homogenous material that retains its chemical composition even though it underaoes a chanae in phase during a thermodynamic process.Module - 1 23 Note The saturation temperature depends on the pressure, ic., for each pressure, there is a different boiling point, If the pressure is increased, the saturation temperature also increases. At atmospheric pressure (1.01325 Bar), its value is 100°C. 2) When water is heated beyond the saturation temperature, there will be no rise in temperature, but evaporation of water takes place. In other words, water starts converting into steam. At this stage, water exists as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid and water vapour occupying volume Vg, as shown in figure 3.1(c). The steam in this condition is called wet steam. Evaporation of water continues at the same saturation temperature until the whole of the water is completely converted into steam, This process is shown by the line BC on T-H diagram. 3) At point C, the steam formed does not contain water vapour (water particles in suspension) and hence the steam in this state is called dry steam or dry saturated steam. The volume occupied by the dry steam is shown in figure 3.1(d). 4) If heating is further continued at point C, the temperature of the steam increases above the saturation temperature and this temperature is called superheat temperature denoted by 4. The steam in this condition is called superheated steam. The process of heating the dry steam is called superheatiag, shown by the line CD on T-H diagram. The volume occupied by superheated steam is shown in figure 3.1(e) Water at boiling Saturated liquid + Water vapour temp. 1,°C at 1,2C Cylinder ote Piston Water i lta vapour Water wei A Saturated Mt liquid 1 fricat 1 feat L foes (a) (oy (e) Dry steam at 1,°C Superheated steam at /,,°C = _ Vapour Yo {peat Lea (d) fe) Figure 3.1 Formation of steam at constant pressure24 Elements of Mechanical Engineering A, = sensible heat i,,= latent heat h,, = superheat 1, or ,,= saturation temp. superheat temp. = specific heat Vapourizing Temperature Enthalpy (H) Figure 3,2 ‘Temperature-enthalpy (TH) diagram 3.3. TYPES OF STEAM / CONDITION OF STEAM The steam generated by heating water exists in three different states namely wet steam, dry steam (dry saturated steam) and superheated steam. a) Wet steam Wet steam is defined as a two-phase mixture containing saturated liquid and vapour (steam) formed at the saturation temperature and at a given pressure. The wet steam formed contains small water particles held in suspension that has not yet absorbed the latent heat and evaporated. b) Dry saturated steam (Dry steam) Dry steam is a pure steam that does not contain water particles in suspension. It is defined as the steam that exists completely in pure vapour form at the saturation temperature and at a given pressure, c) Superheated steam It is defined as the steam that is heated beyond its dry saturated state to a temperature higher than its saturation temperature and at a given pressure. The temperature at which the superheated steam is formed is called the superheat temperature, and is denoted by fo Advantages of superheated steam Superheated steam is extensively used in process industries and steam power plants due to its superior properties. The following are some of the advantages of superheated steam. 1. The heat content of superheated steam is high and hence its capacity to do work is greater. This makes it to use for power generation. 2. Due to high temperature, superheated steam gives higher thermal efficiency and minimizes the specific consumption of steam when used in turbines.Module - 7 25 3. As there is no moisture content in superheated steam, erosion/corrosion of turbine blades are minimized. 4. Superheating is done in a superheater, that obtains heat from waste burnt gases. This improves efficiency of the boiler*. 3.4 STEAM PROPERTIES ‘The various properties of'steam are briefed as follows. Students are advised to refer temperature- enthalpy (T-H) diagram shown in figure 3.2 for clear understanding of the following definitions a) Dryness fraction It is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam present in a known quantity of wet steam to the total mass of wet steam. The dryness fraction refers to the quality of steam, or an indication of the extent of dryness of steam. It is denoted by x. mass of dry steam present in wet steam My fraction (x) = SY Sn ooo Dryn ie mass of wet steam m, +m, where m1, = mass of dry steam and_m,= mass of suspended water particles. For example, if 1 kg. of wet steam contains 0.9 kg. of dry vapour, then dryness fraction x= 0.9, For wet steam, the dryness fraction ranges from 0 <.x< 1, and for dry steam x= 1 b) Sensible heat (Total heat of water or ¢1 thalpy of saturated water) It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of | kg. of water from 0°C to saturation temperature (¢,) at a given pressure. It is denoted by /ty ¢) Latent heat of evaporation (Enthalpy of evaporation) Itis the amount of heat required to convert | Ag. of water at the saturation temperature (‘,) to 1 kg. of dry saturated steam at the same temperature (/,) and at a given pressure. d) Superheat It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of dry saturated steam above its saturation temperature and at a given pressure. ‘The process is known as superheating. ©) Degree of superheat It is defined as the difference between the supetheat temperature (¢,,,) and the saturation temperature (¢,), ie., Degree of superheat = /,,, ~ f, f) Enthalpy of steam Enthalpy (or total heat) of steam is the amount of heat energy contained in a unit mass of steam. * A boiler is a closed metalic vessel in which steam at the desired pressure and temperature can be generated from water by.the application of heat26 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy (U) and the product of pressure (P) and volume (V). It is denoted by /r and expressed in Ki/kg. Enthalpy fh = U + PV + Enthalpy of wet steam halpy of wet steam is defined as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to convert 1 Ag. of water at 0°C to 1 Ag. of wet steam at a given dryness fraction. It is denoted by #,, and is given by 1, = hy + Xie ki/kg. where i, = sensible heat, x= dryness fraction. /r,, = latent heat or latent heat of evaporation + Enthalpy of dry saturated steam It is defined as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to convert | ke. of water at 0°C to | Ag. of dry saturated steam at the saturation temperature. It is denoted by /,, and is given by fy = hi + Rye Note We know that h,, =, + xh... Dry steam exists completely in pure vapour form. Hence, dryness fraction x= 1. Therefore, h, = hy + Ig + Enthalpy of superheated steam It is defined as the amount of heat required at a given pressure to convert | kg. of water at 0°C to | kg. of superheated steam at the given superheat temperature. It is denoted by Aggy and is given by the equation h,,, = h, + Cy, lay — 4) where fj, = enthalpy of dry steam 1,,, = superheat temperature, 1, = saturation temperature, & C,,, = Specific heat* of superheated steam 2) Specific volume of steam Specific volume of steam is defined as the volume oecupied by a unit mass of steam at a given temperature and pressure. It is expressed in m*/Ag. ted water + Specific volume of satu It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of water at the saturation temperature and at a given pressure. It is denoted by V. + Specific volume of wet steam Wet steam contains a two-phase mixture of saturated water and vapour (steam). Hence specitic volume of wet steam is defined as the volume occupied by the saturated water and vapour at a given pressure. It is denoted by V, and is given by : V,, =x. Ve where x= dryness fraction of steam Viz = specific volume of dry steam * Specific heat of a substance is defined as the antount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of substance through one degree. It is different for different substances.Module - 1 27 + Specific volume of dry saturated steam It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of dry saturated steam at the saturation temperature and at a given pressure. It is denoted by My. + Specific volume of superheated steam It is defined as the volume occupied by 1 kg. of superheated steam at the superheat temperature ((,,) and at a given pressure. It is denoted by V.,. Superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas. Therefore, according to Charles law, we a where f,,, and f, are in Kelvin, h) Density of steam It is the mass of steam per unit volume of steam at the given pressure and temperature, It is the reciprocal of specific volume. 1 1 «. Density of wet steam = p,, = Ww and for dry steam =p, = (7 x= 1 for dry stream). i) External work of evaporation When water at the saturation temperature is heated at constant pressure, it gets converted into steam by absorbing the latent heat. A part of this latent heat is used to move the piston due to the increase in volume of steam during evaporation, Refer Figure 1.7. The work done, due to change in volume of steam from Vto Vg is called external work of evaporation. External work of evaporation = 17= 100.P (V,,—¥,) where P= pressure in bar. At low pressure, V, is very smalll and hence can be neglected. Hence W'= 100.P.¥, + For wer steam of dryness fraction x, Wy = 100.Px.V,, + For dry steam Wz= 100.2% + For superheated steam, Way = 100.P Vy Note The remaining patt of the latent heat is used to overcome the internal resistance of water molecules fo the change of phase of substance. It is called the internal latent heat and may be obtained by subtracting the external work of evaporation from the latent heat. Therefore internal latent heat = xh ~100.Px.V, kifkg i) Internal energy Every substance has definite amount of heat energy stored in it. The actual heat energy stored in the steam is known as internal energy of steam, and can be obtained by subtracting the external work of evaporation from enthalpy of steam.28 Elements of Mechanical Engineering For example, enthalpy of dry steam is equal to the sum of sensible heat, internal latent heat and extemal work of evaporation. But work of evaporation is not stored in the steam, as it is utilized in doing external work, say movement of piston, Hence, internal energy of steam is found by subtracting external work of evaporation from enthalpy of dry steam Internal energy (U) = Enthalpy of steam ~ external work of evaporation + For wet steam, internal energy U,, = hy + x.Mg~100..PxVe ki/kg. + For dry steam Ug = he ~100.PV_ kihkg: + For superheated steam, Usyy = Itay ~ 100-P Voy = [ht Cos (lop ~ 4] ~ 10O0.P Fy, kK. 3.5 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1 Determine the dryness fraction of steam, which has 1.5 kg of water in suspension with 50 kg of steam, Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of water particles m= 1.5 kg Mass of dry steam m, = 50 kg Step 2 To find dryness fraction x a = 0.97 my+m, 15450 w.k.t. dryness fraction = <. dryness fraction = x = 0.97 Problem 2 8 kg of wet steam contains 1.56 kg of water particles in suspension. What is the dryness fraction of steam. Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of wet steam = 8 kg Mass of water particles my= 1.56 kg ©. Mass of dry steam present m, = 8 ~ 1.56 = 6.44 kg Step 2 To find dryness fraction x m, ruta OMB a nis my +m, 1.564644 | w.k.t. dryness fraction = s. dryness fraction = 0.805 Problem 3. Calculate the enthalpy of steam at a pressure of 30 bar if its dryness fraction is 0.75. MOP (2002 scheme) - 05 m_ Module - 1 29 Solution = Step 1. Data Pressure p = 30 bar Dryness fraction x= 0.75, Step 2 To find enthalpy of steam (1) Since x = 0.75 is less than 1, the given steam is wet. wk.t, enthalpy of wet steam (y Note Since pressure (P) is given in the problem, the properties (Ay & hg) from steam tables has to read on pressure basis From steam tables for pressure, = 30 bar, we have, fy = 1008.3 ki/kg and fy, = 1794 ki/kg + equation (1) reduces to, f,, = 1008.3 + [0.75 x 1794] = 2353.8 :. enthalpy of wet steam fh, = 2353.8 kJ/kg diy = hy +x iy : Problem 4 Find the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 12 bar when steam is (i) dry saturated (ii) 22% wet, and (iii) superheated to 250°C. Assume specific heat of the superheated steam as 2.25 kivkg K. July 2003 - 08m & Jan 2010 Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of steam =m=1kg Pressure P= 12 bar From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 12 bar, we have beet = to =188°C, y= 798.4 kik, hgg = 1984.3 ki/kg, and hy = 2782.7 Ki/kg, Step 2. To find enthalpy of dry saturated steam (Ii) w.k.t. for dry saturated steam, enthalpy = hy ~ hiy+ dye = 798.4 + 1984.3 = 2782.7 hg = 2782.7 kS/kg of steam Step 3 To find enthalpy (h) when steam is 22% wet, wk. enthalpy of wet steam = fy = hip+ x yy ----[] but x=? If steam is 22% wet, then it is 100 ~ 22 = 78% dry. ie, x =0.78 *. equation (1) reduces to, y= 798.4 + [0.78 x 1984.3] = 2346.15 Iy = 2346.15. ki/kg, Step 4 To find enthalpy when steam is superheated to 250°C. wks, enthalpy of superheated steam = ayy = hy + Cys (Cayp ~ fot) where Gy, = 2.25 kW/kg K, and tuyp = 250°C figyy ~ 2782.7 + 2.25 (250 — 188) = 2922.2 Iggy = 2922.2 kSikg of steam Problem 5 Find the enthalpy of 0.5 kg of steam at a pressure of 10 bar absolute for the following,30 Elements of Mechanical Engineering conditions. (i) itis 1.5% wel, ii) it is dry saturated, (ii) itis at a temperature of 200°C. Assume specific heat as 2.3 kkg K. Jan 2007 - 06 m Solution = Step 1 Data Ma From steam tables, corresponding to P= 10 bar, we have 179.9°C, hy~ 762.6 ki/kg, hy = 2013.6 ki/kg and hy = 2776.2 kik of steam m = 0.5kg Pressure P= 10 bar boat = Step 2. To find enthalpy when steam is 1.5% wet. wk.t, for wet steam, fy, = lip +x hy eT) but x =? If steam is 1.5% wet, then it will be 100 ~ 1.5 = 98.5% dry o. dryness fraction = x= 0.985 equation (1) reduces 10, hy = 762.6 + (0.985 * 2013.6) = 2746 kifke +. for 0.5 kg of steam hy = 0.5 * 2746 Iny = 1373 kd Step 3 To find enthalpy of dry steam wk. for dry saturated steam, enthalpy fig = lip hye = 762.6 + 2013.6 = 2776.2 hig = 2776.2 ki/kg of steam 0.5 x 2776.2 = 1388.1 hh, = 1388.1 Step 4 To find enthalpy of superheated steam at 200°C wk. for superheated steam, Hayy = y+ Cys Cloyy~ frat) WHETE fap Aug = 2776.2 + 2.3 (200 — 179.9) = 2822.43 i/kg of steam “1 for 0.5 kg of steam, ay, = 0-5 * 2822.43 = 1411.21 Iigyp = TAM KS «for 0.5 kg of steam, f Problem 6 What is the enthalpy of 5 kg steam under the following condition : (i) 0.8 bar absolute and 90% dry, and (ii) 20 bar absolute and at 300°C. Specific heat of superheated steam is 2.25 ki/kg K. Feb, 04 - 04 m Solution Step 1 Data Mass of steam m = 5 kg Cyn = 2.25 kirk K Step 2. To find enthalpy when P= 0.8 bar and 90% dry Steam is 90% dry, ie.,x = 0.9 dryness fraction of steam Since x < 1, the steam is in wet condition +, enthalpy of wet steam = fy = hiy+x hye itModule - 1 ot From steam tables, at P = 0.8 bar, we have, hy = 391.7 ki/kg 8 Iyg = 2274.1 kirkg ++ equation (1) reduces to, fy = 391.7 + (0.9 * 2274.1) = 2438.4 ki/kg of steam «. For 5 kg of steam, enthalpy = hy = 2438.4 * 5 Ih, = 12192 kd Step 3. To find enthalpy / when P~ 20 bar & temperature 300°C From steam tables, at = 20 bar, we have, fy = 212.4°C, and hig = 2797.2 ki/kg Since the temperature 300°C is greater than f,.; = 212.4°C, the given steam is in superheated state. wk. for superheated steam, dtyyp = lig + Gps Cap ~ at) s-s2,61] - Nauy = 2797.2 + 2.25 (300 ~ 212.4) = 2994.3 kI/kg for 5 kg of steam, hiyyy = 2994.35 = 14971.5 Itayy = VAYTLS: kd sup Problem 7 By actual measurement, the enthalpy of saturated steam at 190'C is 2500 ki/kg, What is the quality of steam. Solution : Step I: Data Saturation temperature fy, = 190°C Enthalpy of saturated steam = hy = 2500 ki/kg Since saturation temperature (f,,) is given in the problem, the properties of steam from steam tables hand book has to be read on temperature basis. Note that in previous problems, the properties of steam was recorded on pressure basis. From steam tables, corresponding to f,,,~ 190°C, we have, P= 12.551 bar, hy= 807.5 kidkg, hg = 1976.8 kI/kg & hy = 2784.3 kik wékt. enthalpy of steam= ht = fip+ x Nyy 2500 = 807.5 +.x(1976.8) x = 0.8561 *. Quality of steam= 0.8561 « 100 = 85.61% the steam is 85.61% dry and 14.39 % wet. Problem 8 A mixture of wet steam at a pressure of 10 bar is found to have a quality of 85%, Determine its enthalpy, internal energy, specific volume and density. Solution : Step 1 Data State of steam = WET, Pressure= P= 10 bar Quality of steam = 85% ~. Dryness fraction =x = 0.85 From steam tables, corresponding to P = 10 bar, we have, tue = 179.9°C, hy = 762.6 kivkg, hy, = 2013.6 ki/kg , hy = 2776.2 kikg, & V,= 0.1943032 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Step 2 To find enthalpy of wet steam wk.t. for wet steam, hy = hy-+ x hy = 762.6 + (0.85 * 2013.6) Enthalpy = hy = 2474.16 kJ/kg Step 3. To find internal energy U, wek.t. Internal energy for wet steam = Uy = [he+x hg] - 100 Px Vy ki/kg. Ux = (2474.16) ~ [100 10 « 0.85 * 0.19430] Internal energy of wet steam = U,,= 2309 kJ/kg Step 4 To find specific volume of wet steam ¥,, =? w.t. specific volume of wet steam = V,=xV, akg V,, =0.85 «0.19430 Vp = 0.1651 m/kg Step 5 Density of wet steam = p, =? 1 1 Vy * (0.85% 0.19430) w.k.t. density of wet steam = py = 6.057 Pw = 6.057 kg/m Problem 9 Steam at a pressure of 8 bar has temperature of 200°C. What is the specific enthalpy? What is its specific volume. Assume specific heat of steam to be 2.25 ki/ke K July 2006 - 08 m P (bar) | 1 (C) | V, mvkg | Vz mivkg | hy ki/kg | hg kikg | hy ki/kg: ll fi 8.0 | 170.4 | o.0011s | 0.24026 | 7209 | 20465 | 27674 Solution : Step 1: Data P= 8 bar C= 2.25 ki/ke K Since the saturation temperature f,., ~ 170.4°C is less than the given temperature of steam (200°C), the steam is in superheated state. +. fyyy = 200°C Step 2. To find specific volume of superheated steam (V,,p) Pressure = w.k.t, Specific volume of superheated steam = V,,,, =~" XV, where tyyp & faqs must be in Kelvin. ( 200 +27 170442 } = Do = 4.065 , (0.9x0.273341) Pw = 4.065 kg/m? Step 3 When steam is dry wks. Specific volume of wet steam = V,= x Ve. But, for dry steam x= 1 . Specific volume of dry steam = V, = 0.273341 m/kg_ (from extract of steam tables) density of dry steam = py = ~~ s = 3.658 1 0.273341 Pe = 3.658 kg/m? Step 4 When steam is superheated to 250°C 228) x 0.273341 1 Density of superheated steam = Pay = > — = Prup = 3.063 kg/m? Problem 12 Determine the condition of steam in the following cases (a) at a pressure of 5 Bar, the total heat is 2654 ki/kg (b) at a pressure of 10 bar, the total heat is 2832 ki/kg (c) at a pressure of 20 bar and temperature 222’C. (d) at a pressure of 10 bar & specific volume 0.23 mi/kg, Solution : Step | When P= 5 bar. Total heat or enthalpy =/ = 2654 ki/kg From steam tables, at P = 5 bar, we have, hy = 2747.5 kak (enthalpy of dry steam)Module - 1 35 Since the given total heat or enthalpy of steam (h) is less than the enthalpy of dry steam (h,), the steam is in WET condition. Step 2 When P= 10 bar Total heat or enthalpy =/t = 2832 ki/kg. From steam tables, at P = 10 bar, we have, hy = 2776.2 ki/kg, Since the given total heat #+ > h,, the steam is in superheated state. Step 3. When P = 20 bar and temperature = 222°C From steam tables, at P = 20 bar, we have, ty) 212.4°C Since the temperature of the given steam (222°C) is greater than the saturation temperature (212.4°C), the steam is in the superheated state, Step 4. When P= 10 bar & specific volume 0.23 mi/kg, From steam table, at P = 10 bar, specific volume of dry steam = /, = 0.19430 m/kg Since the specific volume of the given steam (’ = 0.23 m'/kg) is greater than the specific volume of dry steam (V, = 0.19430 m*/kg), the steam is in the superheated state. Problem 13. By actual measurement, the enthalpy of saturated steam at 190°C is 2500 ki/kg, What is the quality of steam. If 500 kJ of heat is added at constant pressure, what is the final state of steam, Also determine its final temperature. Aug 2001 Solution : Step 1 To determine quality of steam Saturation temperature = thy, = 190°C Enthalpy= h = 2500 ki/kg m steam tables, corresponding to f,q = 190°C, we have, hy = 2784.3 kI/kg Since the enthalpy of given steam h < /t,, the steam is in WET condition, WET, for wet steam hy = hip + x Ig ----[) From tables, at toy = 190°C, hy = 807.5 ki/kg & by = 1976.8 ki/kg +. equation (1) becomes, 2500 = 807.5 +(x 1976.8) or x= 0.856 <. Quality of steam = 85.6% Step 2 Heat addition process 1f.500 kJ of heat is added, then total enthalpy = 2500 + 500 = 3000 ki/kg Since 3000 ki/kg is greater than i, (2784.3 kJ/kg), the steam after heat addition becomes SUPERHEATED. To find temperature of superheated steam (4) w.k.t, for superheated steam, Agy= My + Cys (ap ~ faa) Assume C,, = 2.25 ki/kg k #3000 = 2784.3 + 2.25 (ty — 190) buy = 285.86°C 236 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Problem 14 A steam initially will be at 9 bar and dryness fraction 0.98, Find the final quality and temperature of the steam at each of the following operations. (a) when steam loses 50 ki/kg at constant pressure (b) when steam receives 150 kW/kg at constant pressure Jan 2000 & July 05 Solution : Step 1 Data Pressure = P = 9 bar, Dryness fraction 0.98 From steam tables, at P = 9 bar, we have, ha = 1TS.A'C, hy = 742.6 U/kg, hye = 2029.5 ki/ky and hy = 2772.1 Kilkee Step 2. To find the enthalpy of given steam Since x = 0.98 is less than 1, the given steam is WET wks, for wet steam, enthalpy = Ayy= i+ x hy = 742.6 + (0.98 * 2029.5) Ing = 2TBASL KS/kg Step 3 When steam loses 50 ki/kg of heat Let ht; be the enthalpy in this condition When steam loses 50 kJ of heat, the total enthalpy is /t) = hy — 50 hy = 2731,51-50=2681.51 o. hy = 28LS1 ki/kg Since hy hg, the steam is superheated To find tay =? Wkt Magy = hg + Cox Coup ~ toad ----(] Assume Cp: = 2.25 kik K Aigyp = hy = 2881.51 kI/kg + equation (1) becomes, 2881.51 = 2772.1 +2.25 (toy) 175.4) tay = 224°C W Problem 15. 2 kg of wet steam is heated at a constant pressure of 2 bar until its temperature increases to 150°C, The heat transferred is 2100 kJ. Find the initial dryness fraction of steam.zz ~D Module - 1 37 Assume Cyean = 2.1 ki/kg K. If required use the extract of the steam table provided below. Jan 2006 - 08 m P(bar) | ¢ CC) | ¥% (mi/kg) | Ve (meykg) | hig (ki/ke) | ity (ki/ke) 2.0 | 12023 | 0.001061 | 0.8857 504.5 27065 Solution : In the present problem, the enthalpy of wet steam has to be calculated, which in turn helps us to obtain the dryness fraction of steam. Step 1 Data Mass of wet steam = 2 kg fy = 150°C (*." given temperature > yy, 120.23°C) Pressure = P =2 bar Heat transfered = enthalpy= 2100 kJ for 2 kg of steam 2100 ~. for | kg of steam = a 1050 kJ/kg, Cyeam = Cys = 2.1 ki/kg K Step 2 To find initial dryness fraction of steam WKst, Paap = Mtg + Cys Coup ~ feat) = 2706.5 + 2.1 (150 — 120.23) Igy = 2769.01 kik Heat supplied for 1 kg of wet steam = 1050 kJ z+ Heat initially present in wet steam = 2769.01 — 1050 = 1719.01 ki/kg i.e., enthalpy of wet steam = hy = 1719.01 ki/kg wk.t. hy Note Value of hy, is not provided using jg = hig —Iiy Co hig = hiy* hy) ive, Aj = 2706.5 ~ 504.5 = 2202 kI/kc equation (1) becomes, 1719.01 = 504.5 + (x x 2202) x =0.55 -+ initial dryness fraction of steam was x = 0.55 hig x hg ---- [1] the extract of steam tables. However /y, can be obtained by Problem 16 3 kg of steam is generated at 5 bar from water at 34°C. Determine the quantity of heat required when, (a) steam is wet, having dryness fraction 0.8, (b) steam is dry saturated, and (©) steam is superheated to 240°C. Assume Cy, ~ 2.25 kI/kg K and Cyy = 4.187 ki/kg K Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of steam =3 kg, Pressure = P= 5 bar Initial temperature of water = 34°C Cyw = 2.25 kivkg K, Cy = Specific heat of water = 4.187 ki/kg K38 Elements of Mechanical Engineering From steam tables, at P = 5 bar, we have bat = 151.8°C, hy= 640.1 kI/kg. hye = 2107.4 kI/kg and hy = 2747.5 ki/kg, Note In all the previous problems, the properties of steam were determined for water at 0°C. However, in the present problem, the initial temperature of water is 34°C, which means that there is some amount of heat already present in water. The problem can be best understood by plotting the T-H diagram as shown in figure. P.16 below. ‘Temperature (T) Enthalpy (H) Figure P16 T-H diagram “. Heat already in water (portion AA') = m C, AT (m = Mass of water = | kg) AT = change in temperature= 34°C — 0°C = 34°C + Heat already in water = 1 * 4,187 x 34= 142.35 ki/ke Step 2. When steam is wet with x = 0.8 Let h,, = heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into wet steam w.k.t. enthalpy of wet steam (between points A & B) = fy, = hy+ x hy = 640.1+ (0.8*2107.4) Ay, = 2326.02 kI/kg Let hy = actual quantity of heat supplied to produce | kg of wet steam from water whose initial temperature is 34°C co hy = hy ~ heat already in water = 2326.02 — 142.35 hy = 2183.67 ki/kg of steamModule - 1 39 J. to produce 3 kg of steam, heat required = fy = 3*2183.67 hy = 6551.01 kJ for 3 kg of steam ‘Thus 6551.01 kJ of heat is required to produce 3 kg wet steam from water at 34°C. Step 3 When steam is dry saturated Let fy = heat required to convert I kg of water at 0°C into dry steam Let fio~ actual heat required to produce | kg of dry steam from water at 34°C + hy = hy ~ heat already in water =2747.5— 142.35 hy = 2605.15 kivkg of steam +. To produce 3 kg of steam, heat required = 3*2605.15 hy = 7815.45 kJ for 3 kg of steam Thus 7815.45 kJ of heat is required to produce 3 kg of dry steam from water at 34°C. Step 4 When steam is superheated to 240°C. Let hyyp= heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C to superheated steam Wt ayy = hy + Cos Coup ~ tsar) = 2747.5 + 2.25(240 ~ 151.8) Jiggy = 2945.95 ki/kg of steam Let fy ~ actual heat required to produce | kg of superheated steam from water at 34°C. 2 hy = Foy ~ heat already in water = 2945.95 ~ 142.35 hy = 2803.6 kivkg of steam +. To produce 3 kg of steam, heat required ~ 3 * 2803.6 = 8410.8 kJ ‘Thus 8410.8 kJ of heat is required to produce 3 kg of superheated steam from water at 34°C. hy = 8410.8 kJ Problem 17 How much heat energy is required to generate 2 kg of dry saturated steam at 7 bar from feed water at 25°C. Jan 07 - 05 m Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of dry steam = m = 2 kg, Pressure~ 7 bar Initial temperature of water = 25°C. From steam tables, at P= 7 bar, we have, fay = 165°C, hy = 697.1 U/kg, hye = 2064.9 kikg & hy = 2762 kiVkg The details are plotted on the T-H1 diagram as shown in figure P.17 Step 2 To find hy Heat initially present in water (AA') =m C,, AT’ (m= 1 kg of water & C,= 4.18 ki/kg K) = 1x 4.18 x (25-0) = 104.5 ki/kg.40 Elements of Mechanical Engineering ‘Temperature (T) Enthalpy (11) host in Figure P17 T-H diagram Let h, = heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into dry saturated steam, wk.t. enthalpy of dry steam = hy = hy+ hg From steam tables, at P = 7 bar, we have, hy ~ 2762 ki/kg. Let fy = actual heat required to produce | kg of dry steam from water at 25°C cs Iiy ~ hy — heat already in water = 2762 ~ 104.5 hy = 2657.5 ki/kg of steam ‘sto generate 2 kg of dry steam, heat required, hy = 2 x 2657.5 = 5315 hy = 5315 kJ for 2 kg of dry steam Problem 18 What amount of heat would be required to produce 4 kg of steam at a pressure of 6 bar and temperature of 250°C from water at 30°C. Take Cyy = 2. 2 ki/kg K, specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K. At 6 bar y= 670.4 ki/kg, Igy = 2085, kJ/kg, T, = 158.8°C. Jan 2009 - 06 m Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of steam = m 4 kg, Pressure = 6 bar Since 250°C > Ty, (158.8°C), the steam is in the superheated state by = 250°C Temperature of water =30°C ye = Cus = 2:2 kei K,, y= 670.4 KIM, Ig = 2085 KIMK, tay = 158.8°C, & Coy = 4.18 kirk K ‘The details are plotted on the TH diagram as shown in figure.P.18. Step 2 To find h; Heat already present in water (AA') =m Cy AT) = 1% 4.18 x (30-0) (m= 1 kg of water) = 125.4 ki/kg Let gue heat required to convert I kg of water at 0°C into superheated steamModule - 1 41 Temperature (T) Enthalpy (H) ure PAS T-H diagram vwek.t. for superheated steam= Muy = fg + Cys (sup ~ sat) ig = hy + hyg = 670.4 + 2085 (from data) = 2755.4 kkg + ayy ~ 2755.4 + 2.2 (250 — 158.8) = 2956.04 ki/kg of steam Let ty = actual heat required to produce 1 kg of superheated steam from water at 30°C. chy = Rap ~ heat already in water = 2956.04 — 125.4 hy = 2830.64 ki/kg of steam +. to generate 4 kg of steam, heat required = hy = 4*2830.64 hy = 1132.56 kJ for 4 kg of steam Problem 19 Find the internal energy of 2.5 kg of steam at 20 bar, when (i) it is wet, its dryness fraction being 0.9, (ii) it is superheated, its temperature being 350°C. (take the specific heat of steam as 2.3 ki/kg K). Feb 2005 - 06 m Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of steam = m = 2.5 kg, Pressure — 20 bar From steam tables, at P = 20 bar, we have, fay = 212.4°C, hy = 908.5 kiVkg, fgg = 1888.7 kI/kg, hy = 2797.2 kikg, & V_= 0.09955 mivkg Step 2. To find internal energy of wet steam (U,.). Given, dryness fraction = x = 0.9 w.k.t, for wet steam, internal energy, Uy = fy ~ 100 Px.V, ki/kg o--=[1] but Ay, for wet steam hy, = hy+ x hy = 908.5 + (0.9% 1888.7) = 2608.33 + equation (1) becomes, U,, = 2608.33 — (100*20%0.9*0,09955) = 2429.14 ki/kg of steam2 Elements of Mechanical Engineering 2. for 2.5 kg of steam, Uy= 2.5 * 2429.14 = 6072.85 c. Uy = 607285 kJ for 2.5 kg of steam Step 3. Internal energy of superheated steam = Usp w.k.t. for superheated steam, internal energy = Usp = Hay ~ (100.2 Fay) Ki/Kg but diay = 2 = Vay wht. Igy = hg + Cpe (tap ~ Lau) = 2797.2 + 2.3 (350 ~ 212.4) Iigyp =3113.68 kik, Veyp = 0.1277 mi/kg of steam +. equation (2) becomes, Uny= 3113.68 ~ (10020*0.1277) = 2858.28 kI/kg of steam ©. for 2.5 kg of steam, Uyy= 2858.28 * 2.5 = 7145.7 kJ for 2.5 kg of steam Usup Problem 20 Determine the density of 1 kg of steam initially at a pressure of 10 bar absolute, having a dryness fraction of 0.78. If 500 kJ of heat is added at constant pressure, determine the condition and internal energy for the final state of steam. Take specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 ki/kg K. Jan 2003 ~ 10m Solution : Step 1 Data Mass of steam = m = 1 kg, Pressure = 10 bar, Dryness fraction = Heat added to steam = $00 KJ, Cy, = 2.1 ki/kg K From steam tables, at P = 10 bar, we have, teas = 179.9°C, hy = 762.6 kikg, gg = 2013.6 ki/kg, h Step 2. To find density of steam Since x < 1, the steam is WET 776.2 ki/kg, & V,, = 0.19430 m/kg, ¥, ~ @.78x0.19430) ~ 0598 wk.t. for wet steam, density = py = Approximately p,, = 6.6 kg/m® Step 3 Condition of steam on heat addition By data, 500 ki of heat was added to wet steam wk.t, Enthalpy of wet steam = dy = hy +x hy = 762.6 + (0.78 x 2013.6) = 2333.2 ki/kg Let fy be the enthalpy after heat addition 2 hy = 500+ 2333.2 hy = 2833.2 kikgModule - 1 43 Since hy > hy (2776.2 kJ/kg), the steam is supetheated afier heat addition Ay = Igy = 2833.2 kItkg To find internal energy of superheated steam Wht Usp = hay — 100 PK ----[2] but Vays wht. Pay Z ---- [2] But ty =? using May = hy + Cov (loup ~ bears WE have, 2833.2 =2776.2+2.1 (tap — 179.9) fay = 207.04°C , — (207044273 * equation (2) becomes, Vg = [ TT Vou = 0.2059 mi/kg Substituting My, in equation (1) we have, Usp = 2833.2 ~ (100*10%0,2059) Usup = 2627.3. klkg ) * 0.19430 Problem 21 A mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a temperature of 250°C is contained in a closed vessel of 0.1 m° capacity. If the mass of saturated water is 2 kg, find the mass of steam in the vessel. Also find the pressure, specific volume, dryness fraction and the enthalpy of the mixture, Use the properties of the steam given the table below. July 08-10 m uration Saturation | Specific Specifi Specific Specific temperature | pressure | enthalpy of | enthalpy of | volume of | volume of c bar saturated | saturated | saturated Liquid Vapour Liquid ki/kg, kifkg, mike 250 39.77 1085.8 28004 | 0.0012513 Solution = Step I Data collection 250°C Volume of vessel = 0.1 m Saturation temperature = Mass of saturated water = 2 kg Step 2 To The vessel contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam (dry steam). mass of steam in the vessel44 Elements of Mechanical Engineering ~) 2. Total volume = my vy + my Ve saturated waer Saturated vapour where my = mass of saturated water = 2 kg vy = volume of saturated water = 0.0012513 m/kg (by data) m, = mass of saturated steam = ? V,, = volume of saturated steam = 0.05004 m'/kg (by data) «. equation (1) becomes, 0.1 =(2%0,0012513) + (m, x 0.05004) mass of saturated steam in the vessel m, = 1.948 kg <. Total mass of mixture = my+m, = 2+1,948 mass of mixture = 3.948 kg Step 3. To find pressure P From the extract of steam tables provided in the problem, we have, at fap = 250°C, pressure = P= 39.77 bar Step 4 To find specific volume of mixture Specific volume of the mxiture is the volume of unit mass of mixture at the given temperature and pressure : . ol v Specific volume of mixture= 5943 = 0.02532 Specific volume of mixture = 0.02532 m'/kg Step 5 To find dryness fraction of the mixture m, 1,948 my+m, 2+1.948 = 0.4934 wkt dryness fraction =. dryness fraction of mixture = x = 0.4934 Step 6 Enthalpy of mixture enthalpy of mixture = enthalpy of saturated water + enthalpy of saturated steam = meh; + mg hy = (2x 1085.8) + (1.948%2800.4) enthalpy of mixture = 7626.78 kJ =MobuLE * Boilers Hydraulic Turbines + Hydraulic PumpsBoILers 4.1 STEAM BOILERS A boiler is a closed metalic vessel in which steam at the desired pressure and temperature can be generated from water by the application of heat. The steam thus generated can be used in steam turbines to generate electricity, or can be used for other industrial purposes like Sugar factories, Breweries, etc. Boilers are also called steam generators. 4.2. CLASSIFICATION of BOILERS Boilers are classified as follows. a) According to the circulation of water and hot gases - Fire Tube boiler, wherein the hot flue gases produced by the combustion of fuel pass through the tubes which are surrounded by water. Example Cochran boiler, Comish boiler, Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Scotch marine boiler, etc. = Water tube boiler, wherein water circulates inside the tubes, while the hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel pass around the tubes. Example of water tube boilers include: Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, Yarrow boiler, etc b) According to the location of furnace = Internally fired boiler, wherein the furnace is situated inside the boiler shell. Most of the fire tube boilers are internally fired. - Externally fired boiler, wherein the furnace is situated outside the boiler shell. Water tube boilers are always externally fired. c) According to the circulation of water - Natural circulation boiler, wherein water is circulated by natural convection currents that are set up due to the temperature difference. Most of the boilers of low capacity fall under this category. ~ Forced circulation boiler, wherein water is circulated with the help ofa pump driven by a motor. Forced circulation is used only in high pressure and high capacity boilers viz., La Mont boiler, Benson boiler, etModule - 2 47 d) According to the axis of the sh - Vertical boilers, with axis of the boiler shell being vertical. Example Cochran Boiler. ~ Horizontal boilers, with axis of the boiler shell being horizontal. Example Babcock & Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler, ete ©) According to their uses = Stationary boiler - Locomotive boiler, - Marine boiler, etc. 4.3 BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER Babcock and Wilcox boiler is a horizontal, externally fired, stationary, natural circulation water tube boiler. The boiler can generate steam with steam pressure ranging from 11,5 to 17.5 bar. ‘The evaporative capacity ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 kg/hour. The boiler is best suited for generating steam in thermal power plants. Figure 4.1 shows Babcock & Wilcox boiler. Construction The boiler consists of mainly the following parts: a) Water and steam drum The water and steam drum spended from iron girders and is independent of the brick work set-up. The brickwork surrounds the boiler so as to form an enclosure to the furnace and hot gases. Water enters into the drum through the feed valve and the water level is kept upto the middle of the drum. The remaining space in the drum will be occupied by the steam generated. b) Water tubes A number of water tubes inclined horizontally are connected to the end boxes called uptake headers and downtake headers. Each vertical row consists of about 4 to 5 tubes. A number of such vertical tubes are placed one behind the other and in each vertical row, the water tubes will be connected to separate uptake and downtake headers. Fach set of headers are connected to the boiler drum through one set of tube called upper water tube and lower water tbe as shown in the figure. A mud box is provided below the downtake header to collect any sediments present in the water. ©) Baffle plates Baffle plates are placed across the water tubes as shown in the figure. The baffle plates deflect the hot gases coming out from the furnace and allow the hot gases to pass around the water tubes at least three times before leaving the boiler 4) Superheater The superheater consists of a number of U-fubes placed in the combustion chamber and just below the boiler drum. The superheater tubes are connected to a T-tube placed inside the boiler drum as shown in the figure. ¢) Boiler mountings and accessories ‘The boiler is fitted with suitable mountings and accessories such as steam stop valve, safety48 Elements of Mechanical Engineering valve, pressure gauge, etc., at appropriate places as shown in the figure. The boiler mountings and accessories are used for efficient working, easy maintenance, safety, and to improve the efficiency of the boiler. Dead weight Steam stop safety valve valve Water level Iron girder Pressure gauge Indicator see Steam and water drum Steam space Man hole door Feed valve Lower water tube Fusible plug ‘Superheated steam is passed to the steam stop valve through this pipe Upper water tue Uptake header Brick work Downtake header ee Wy {f Mud box hi set grate \ To chimnoy Ash pit Baffle plate Blow-off pipe Figure 4.1 Babcock and Wilcox water tube boiler Operation Water enters the boiler drum through the feed valve. The water level in the boiler is kept upto the middle of the drum. Water descends from the boiler drum through the lower water tube, then to the downtake header, and passes up through the inclined water tubes, then into the uptake header and into the tubes connecting the uptake header and the drum, thereby establishing a closed circuit The fuel (coal) is charged into the furnace and as combustion takes place, the hot gas rises up and pass around a portion of the water tubes. The hot gases gets deflected by the baffle plates and moves downwards between the water tubes and once again rises up and finally escapes to the chimney through the smoke chamber. As the hot gases pass around the tubes, the water in the water tubes gets evaporated. The mixture of water and steam (vapour) from the water tubes pass through the uptake headers and enters the boiler drum.Module - 2 49 ‘The steam being lighter than water, rises upwards and gets separated from the surface of the water inside the boiler drum. The steam trom the steam space passes into the T-twbe and then enters the U-tube of the superheater. As the superheater is placed in the combustion chamber, itis exposed directly to the hot gases coming from the furnace. Hence the steam in the U-tubes will be superheated. The superheated steam from the superheater tubes passes into the steam stop valve through the lower connecting pipe as shown in the figure. Steam from the steam stop valve is passed directly to the prime mover for power generation or for other applications. 4.4 LANCASHIRE BOILER Lancashire boiler is a stationary, internally fired, horizontal and natural circulation fire tube boiler It is used where the working pressure and power required are moderate and are commonly employed in sugar mills and textile industries. Steam up to a pressure 14 bar can be generated with evaporative capacity of 9000 ke/hour. Figure 4.2 shows the three principal views (front, top and side views) of the boiler. Construction The boiler consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell placed on a brick work set-up. Two flue tubes having diameter of about 0.4 times that of the boiler shell are placed inside the boiler shell and in each of these flue tubes, two furnace grates are provided as shown in the figure. The flue tubes run along the entire length of the boiler shell. At the rear end of the boiler shell, the flue tubes are enclosed by brick work. The brick work is, designed in such a way that some narrow space is left underneath the surface of the boiler shell. Refer front view. This space called the Bottom channel in tun is connected to two side channels, namely, side channel-I and side channel-2. Refer top view. The two side channels further lead to the chimney as shown in the figure. Working The boiler shell is filled with water upto 3/4" of its volume so that the flue tubes get fully submerged in it, Coal is charged into the grate through the furnace door. The hot gases produced by the combustion of fuel pass through the flue tubes from the front end to the rear end of the boiler shell. As a result, the water surrounding the flue tubes gets heated. The hot gases coming out at the rear end of the flue tubes get deviated and pass through the bottom channel. As a result, the water at the bottom portion of the boiler shell gets heated up. ‘Thereafter, the hot gases deviate and enters into the side channel-I and side channel-2. The water in the side portions of the boiler shell also gets heated up. From the side channels, the hot gases pass to the rear end of the boiler shell and pass out through the chimney. The steam thus formed gets separated from the surface of the water and collects in the steam space. The steam from the steam space is taken out through the steam stop valve and then used for various applications. The boiler is mounted with various mountings shown in the figure. and accessories50 Elements of Mechanical Engineering Dead weight Steam stop valve safaty valve <7" Man hole Boller drum. Boiler drum, Water Furnace, door Furnar ide —t Side inti f channel-1 chane grate thannel hannel-2 Bottom channel Blow-off valve Bottom Flue tube (fire tube) Flue tubes channel Front view Side view Side channel-1 Brick work Rear end of boiler shell Boiler ‘drum Side channel-2 Bottom channel ‘To chimney Top view ly mentioned, students are advised to draw any two views in le view, or front and top view. Note — If not specific: ation, either front and exam Figure 4.2 Lancashire boiler 4.5 BOILER MOUNTINGS & ACCESSORIES Boiler mountings are devices, mounted (fitted) over the boiler shell in order to ensure safe operation, efficient working, control steam generation and easy maintenance of the boiler. Various boiler mountings include Water level indicators. Pressure gauge, Safety valves, Feed valve, Blow- off cock and Fusible plug. While, Boiler accessories are auxiliary parts required for smooth functioning and to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Boiler accessories include Economizer, Air-preheater, Superheater, Steam separator, Steam trap and Feed pump. 4.5.1 Boiler Mountings (Boiler Fittings) The various boiler mountings used and their functions are briefed as follows. a) Water level indicator ‘The function of water level indicator is to indicate the level of water inside the water drum. ThisModule - 2 enables the operator to control the flow of water into the level indicators (one serves as a stand-by) are fitted at the they are clearly visible to the operator. the boiler drum so that b) Pressure gauge It indicates the pressure of the steam developed inside the boiler. The readings shown by the pressure gauge may be in kef/em? or kKN/m? gauge pressure. The pressure gauge is usually mounted in the front end, at the top of the boiler shell. ©) Safety valve A safety valve is used to maintain a constant safe pressure inside the boiler. All boilers are designed to withstand upto a certain pressure called the design pressure. When the pressure of the steam exceeds the design pressure, the safety valve automatically opens and discharges the excess steam to the atmosphere, thus maintaining the safety of the boiler. Safety valves are placed directly on the top of the boiler shell. The commonly used safety valves are, spring loaded safely valve, lever safety valve, and dead weight safety valve. d) Steam stop valve / Junction valve The function of this device is to control the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipes, or from one steam pipe to the other pipe. When the valve is placed directly over the boiler, it is called junction valve. This valve is connected to a steam pipe for the flow of steam from the boiler to the engine. When the valve is placed in between two steam pipes, it is called stop valve. ©) Feed check valve or feed valve The function of the feed check valve is to control the supply of water into the boiler and also to prevent any water escaping back from the boiler in the event of failure of feed pump. It is fitted over the shell below the normal water level of the boiler. 1) Blow-off cock The funetion of the blow-off cock valve + To empty the boiler (remove water completely), when the boiler has to be cleaned or inspected. + To remove periodically the sediments (mud, scales or other impurities) collected at the bottom of the boiler during operation, g) Fusible plug ‘The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the furnace when the water level falls much below the normal level. It is fitted over the combustion chamber at appropriate place. Fusible plug consists ofa gun metal body with a core made of some fusible alloy that melts at low temperatures. At normal conditions, the plug is covered with water, which keeps the temperature of the plug below its melting point. But when the water level falls below the lower limit, the boiler shell will be overheated. In such conditions, the high temperature of the shell52 Elements of Mechanical Engineering melts the fusible plug and forms an opening. When the plug drops down, the high pressure steam pushes the water through this hole on to the grate causing the fire to be extinguished. 4.5.2 Boiler Accessories The various boiler accessories used and their functions are briefed as follows. a) Economizer An economizer is a device used to heat the feed water (water that enters the water drum) by extracting the heat from the gases that are passing out of the chimney. The economizer is placed in between the boiler exit and the chimney entrance. b) Air-preheater The function of the air-preheater is to extract the heat from the gases that are passing out of the chimney. The heat extracted is utilized for heating the air that is supplied for the combustion of fuel in the furnace. The air-preheater is placed between the economizer and the chimney entrance. c) Superheater The function of the superheater is to increase the temperature of steam above its saturation temperature. The dry steam produced is made to pass through the U-tubes of the superheater. The superheater which is placed in the combustion chamber (below the boiler drum) is exposed directly to the hot gases coming from the furnace, and as a result the temperature of the dry steam increases above the saturation temperature resulting in superheated steam. d) Steam separator A steam separator is a device, which is used to separate the water particles in suspension, present in the steam before it enters the turbine or engines. The steam separator is always placed closer to the engines or turbin ¢) Steam trap A steam trap is. type of automatic valve, used to drain off the condensed water accumulated in the steam pipes and steam separator without allowing the escape of high pressure steam from it. 1) Feed pump ‘The function of the feed pump is to pump the water at high pressure into the boiler drum. The commonly used feed pumps are reciprocating pump and centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pump is commonly preferred due to their large discharge flow rates, while steam-driven reprocating pump is used where small amounts of feed water need to be pumped. 4.6 WATER TUBE BOILERS v/s FIRE TUBE BOILERS. The differences between water tube boilers and fire tube boilers are briefly discussed in table 4.1.Module - 2 SL No. Water Tube Boilers Fire Tube Boilers In water tube boilers, water circulates inside the tubes and the hot gases surround the water tubes In fire tube boilers, hot gases pass inside the tubes and water surrounds the tubes. Furnace is situated outside the boiler shell. Fumace is situated inside the boiler shell, Water circulates between the drum and the tubes maintaining a closed circuit. Water circulates within the boiler drum only. power plants (for generating power) as high-pressure steam can be generated at a very fast rate. 4. Since the combustion space is | Combustion efficiency is low. as large, complete combustion of fuel | combustion takes place in a small space is possible. within the boiler shell. 5. _| Steam generation rate is fast. Slow. 6. | Evaporating capacity is high. Rate of evaporation is low. Thermal efficiency is high. Low. 8. | All parts of water tube boilers are | Cleaning, inspection and repairing is easily accessible for cleaning, | difficult duc to inaccessible parts, inspection and repair. 9. | High cost Low cost 10. Water tube boilers are used in| As the steam generation rate is slow and also the pressure developed being less, fire tube boilers are not used in power plants. They are mostly used in process industries or industrial plants. Table 4.1 Difference between Water Tube and Fire Tube BoilersHyprauLic TURBINES 5.1 INTRODUCTION A hydraulic turbine or water turbine is a hydraulic prime mover that converts the energy of falling water into mechanical energy in the form of rotation of shaft. The mechanical energy in ical energy by means of an electric generator, turn is converted into el Different types of water turbines have been developed with the increasing need for power. ‘The principle of working of the three major types of water turbines viz., Pelton wheel, Francis turbine, and Kaplan turbine have been dealt clearly herein 5.1.1 Classification of Water Turbines Water turbines are classified based on the following factors 1) ‘Type of energy available at the inlet of the turbine (a) Impulse turbine The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. Example Pelton wheel, Girad turbine, Banki turbine, ete. (b) Reaction turbine Both pressure energy and kinetic energy is available at the inlet of the turbine. Example Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Thomson turbine, etc. 2) Head* at the inlet of the turbine (a) High head turbine Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges from several hundred meters to a few thousand meters. Example Pelton wheel (b) Medium head turbine Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges from 50 m to.400 m. Example Francis turbine. (©) Low head turbine Head of water at the inlet will be less than 50 m, Example Kaplan Turbine 3) Based on the direction of flow of water through the runner’ I flow turbine Water flows along the tangent to the runner. Example Pelton (a) Tangenti wheel. (b) Axial flow turbine Water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner. Example Kaplan turbine. * Head is a term that relates the energy in an incompressible fluid to the height of an equivatent static column of that fluid A runner (or rotor) is a circular wheel with a series of evenly spaced blades fixed around its periphery: