00CHAPTER NO.

BLOOD AND BLOODSTAINS

The significance of blood and bloodstains as evidence in crimes of violence is very obvious such
that we need not place emphasis on this. The tests for the identification of blood are employed as an
important part of the routine investigation in many case of violent death. The specimen usually submitted
fresh blood or fluid blood, dried blood and clotted blood. Very often it is brought to the laboratory in the
form of dried red or brown stains on weapons, clothing or other objects.

BLOOD – has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to us highly complex mixtures
of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is
opaque. On treatment with ether, water or other reagents becomes transparent and assumes lake color. It
is faintly alkaline. Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

1. 45 % Formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.

a. Red Blood Cells or ERYTHROCYTES – contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to

various cells in the body. Circular, biconcave discs of rounded edges.

b. White Blood Cells or LEUKOCYTES – are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It defends

the body from invading microorganisms. Help fight infection.

c. Blood Platelets or THROMBOCYTES – Cells that are produced by the bone marrow and
are necessary for proper clotting of blood. Normally responsible for the retraction of
blood clot.

2. 55 % Plasma – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally
composed of:

a. Water (90 %)

b. solid (10%) – largely protein in nature and consists of albumin, several globulins and
fibrinogen

Albumin- the most abundant protein in the blood. It binds with many drugs.
Globulins- Have an important role in the immune mechanism of the body. The globulins carry drugs as
well as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.
Fibrinogen- the soluble precursor of fibrin which forms blood clot.

PLASMA – the yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A straw-
Yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is
allowed to stand.

SERUM – A straw-yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime and the
 blood contracts.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or ion favor of the perpetrator.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived
the attack

4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant.
5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of the blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime has committed.

PROBLEM IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

WHERE BLOOD HAS TO BE SEARCHED FOR
1. In the collection of bloodstains, usually attention is directed to clothing and weapons. We should
and look for bloodstains under the fingernails, linings of the pockets, seams and the folds of the
garments of the suspect, under the edges of the table, etc.

2. COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKING AND TRANSPORTATION OF SPECIMEN

SUSPECTED TO CONTAIN BLOOD.
Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid change in its character with
the passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on exposure
to air. Sodium Fluoride may be added to blood to preserve it for a week at room temperature or
indefinitely in a refrigerator. Between 4.0 – 5.0 degrees centigrade is the ideal preserving
temperature for blood and other perishable specimens. Collection of bloodstains should be done
as soon as possible. Mere washing of garment/clothing removes the blood.

3. DOES THE STAINS CONTAIN BLOOD OR ANOTHER SUBSTANCE?

The examination of the specimen should determine if the stain is blood, if it is animal or human
blood, what blood groups are present.

THE FOUR TESTS FOR BLOOD

1. PRELIMINARY TEST – Determines whether the stain contains blood or another substance. It is
used to demonstrate the presence of blood. It determines whether visible stains do or do not
contain blood.

2. CONFIRMATORY – test that possibly identify blood. Determines whether bloodstain really
contains blood.

3. PRECIPITIN TEST – Determines whether the stain is of human or animal origin. Determines
whether blood is of human or non-human origin, and if non-human, the specific animal family
which it originated.

4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST – determines the blood group if human blood.

PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD

1. BENZIDINE TEST
2. PHENOLPHTALEIN TESTS also known as KASTLE-MEYER TEST.
3. GUAIACUM TEST also known as VAN DEEN TEST, DAY’s or SCHONBEIN’S TEST
 4. LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
5. LUMINOL TEST

THE BENZIDINE TEST

Extremely sensitive tests that can be apply to minute stain. For many years the most commonly
used preliminary test for blood. Its use has generally been discontinued as it is known carcinogen. A very
delicate test and will detect blood when present in dilution of 1:300,000 parts. The benzidine test never
fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination is examined.
This test is more sensitive than Guaiacum test and is valuable as a negative result. If the stain react
negatively it is not blood. The positive result is only indicative that blood may be present.

REAGENT: a. Benzidine solution (small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid)
b. 3 % solution of hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a drop of
benzidine solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULT: Intense blue color produced immediately.

LIMITATION OF THE TEST: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive result may be
obtained from the substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gum. The
reaction is weaker and produced faint coloration.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST

An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000 parts. A positive
result with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative is therefore valuable and is conclusive as to
the absence of blood.

REAGENT:
A. Phenolphthalein solution(1 to 2 g. of Phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% potassium hydroxide
in water added with 1 g of Zn powder heated until colorless.)

B. 3 % solution of hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained materials on a filter paper. Add a drop of
phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULT: rose color develops/deep pink/permanganate color

LIMITATION OF THE TEST: The test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

THE GUAIACUM TEST

A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilutions. It
may not react to very old stain.
REAGENT:
a. Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter).
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide solution or dew drops of turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on a porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of
guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULT: beautiful blue color that appears immediately.
LIMITATIONS OF THE TEST: The test also react with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron, salt, cheese,
gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.
 THE LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
This test is not as sensitive as the benzidine test.
REAGENT:
a. Leucomalachite green solution (1 gram leucolamachite green dissolved in 48 ml
glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250 ml water.
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of leucolamachite
green solution and after a few seconds add a drop of hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULT: malachite green or bluish green.

THE LUMINOL TEST

An important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of luminal with blood results
in the production of light rather than color. By spraying luminal reagent unto a suspected item, large area
can be quickly screened for the presence of blood stains. The sprayed object must be located in a
darkened area while being viewed for the emissions of light. Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is
capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000 times. Luminol is known to destroy many important
blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to
seeking out blood invisible to the naked eye.

POSITIVE RESULT FOR THE TEST: Luminescence or emission of light.

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE PRELIMINARY

COLOR TEST FOR BLOOD
The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to
the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucolamachite) and
produces the characteristics colored compounds by oxidation.

PEROXIDASE – is an enzymes that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by
peroxide.

THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

The actual proof that a stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the characteristics
blood pigment hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. HEMOGLOBIN is the red coloring matter of the red
blood cells of the blood.

THE THREE CONFIRMATORY TESTS FOR BLOOD

The three confirmatory tests for blood that whether stain is really blood are:

1. Microscopic test
2. Microchemical test or Microcrysttaline test
3. Spectroscopic test

THE MICROSCOPIC TEST FOR BLOOD

Microscopic test is useful for demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the
distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of menstrual,
lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

METHOD OF MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION:

1. Take two small fragments of the dried blood.
 2. Place each fragment on separate slides with a drop of 0.9% salt solution.
3. The slides are put in a covered dish to prevent evaporation and the preparation allowed to stand
for 1-2 hours
4. One of the slides is examined as wet preparation.
5. the other preparation is spread evenly over the slide, allowed to dry and stained by:
a. Fix preparation in absolute methyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Stain in a 0.5% aqueous
solution of eosin for 1-3 minutes. Loffer’s methylene blue is added for 1-3 minutes.
Eosin stains the red blood cells, while methylene blue stains the nuclei.
b. Fix smear with methyl or ethyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Pour off alcohol and flood smear
with Giemsa’s stain. Stain for 15 minutes, cover to prevent evaporation, wash in water
and dry.
c. Wright’s stain- The smear is flooded with the stain and allowed to stand for a minute.
Distilled water is added until a metallic scum forms on the surface. Let stand for 3
minutes, wash with water and dry.

VISIBLE RESULT:
1. Mammalian red blood cells- circular, biconcave discs with nucleus. Appear as characteristic non-
nucleated disc. Exception is camel and closely related animal as llama whose red blood cells are
oval but also without nucleus.
2. birds, fish, and reptile red blood cells- larger, oval and nucleated
3. amphibians red blood cells – are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated
4. lamprey eel red blood cells – circular and nucleated

THE MICROCHEMICAL OR MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST

FOR BLOOD
The identification of blood can be made more specific if microchemical or microcrystalline test is applied
or performed. Takayama test and Teichmann test are the most popular ones.

THE THREE MICROCHEMICAL OR MICROCRYSTALLINE TESTS FOR BLOOD

1. Teichmann Haemin Reaction or Teichmann test or haemin crystals test
2. Acetone Haemin test
3. Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama test

THE TEICHMANN TEST

The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystals
with hemoglobin will be formed.

REAGENT: Sodium chloride, glacial acetic acid

PROCEDURE: Place minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide. Add a small crystal of sodium
chloride and 2 to 3 drops of acetic acid. Place cover slip and heat gently over a small flame to
evaporate the acid. Cool. Examine under the high power objective.
POSITIVE RESULT: Dark brown rhombic crystals of haemin or harmatin chloride arranged singly or in
Cluster.
LIMITATION OF THE TEST: The test is also given by indigo-dyed fabrics. If the stain is old or washed
Or is changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed. The addition of too much salt or
Presence of moisture in the acid or over-heating of the slide may result in failure.

THE ACETONE-HAEMIN TEST

 The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystals
with hemoglobin will be formed.

REAGENT: acetone, dilute acetic acid or oxalic acid

PROCEDURE: Place dried stain on a glass slide and cover with cover slip with a needle interposed to
prevent direct contact of the cover slip with the slide. Add a drop of acetone then a drop of acetic acid.
POSITIVE RESULT: small dark, diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin.

THE HAEMOCHROMOGEM CRYSTAL TEST OR

THE TAKAYAMA TEST

A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin. The test depends on the addition of specific
chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystals of hemoglobin derivatives will be formed.

REAGENT: Takayama reagent (3 cc of 10% sodium hydroxide, 33 cc of pyridine, 3 cc of saturated

glucose solution and diluted with 7ml water)
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add a drop of Takayama
reagent. Cover with glass slip.
POSITIVE RESULT: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in cluster, sheaves and
other forms that appear within 1 to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objective. To hasten
result heat may be applied.

THE SPECTROSCOPIC TEST FOR BLOOD

The most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old and
recent stains. This test is performed by means of an optical instrument known as SPECTROSCOPE, an
optical instrument for forming and examining spectra.

PROCEDURE: Dissolve bloodstain in water or saline solution. Place in a small chamber (glass) with
parallel sides so arranged that the rays of light will pass directly through it. The chamber is placed in the
spectroscope and the instrument is so adjusted that the spectrum is clearly visible.

POSITIVE RESULT: Upon absorbing some of the rays from the spectrum, it produced characteristic dark
colored bands which vary with the type of blood pigment. Example: oxyhemoglobin is marked by two
bands, hemoglobin-broad band; carboxyhemoglobin its spectrum similar tooxyhemoglobin.

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE SPECTROSCOPIC TEST: The absorption properties of translucent

colored fluids can be observed on the solar spectrum.

THE PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD

The precipitin test is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or
animal origin. The precipitin test is very sensitive and requires only a small amount of blood for testing.
Human bloodstain dried for as long as 10 to 15 years and longer may still give a positive precipitin
reaction. Even extracts of tissues from mummies four to five hundred years old have given positive
reaction with the test. Experience has shown that human bloodstains diluted by washing in water and left
with only a faint color may still yield a positive precipitin reaction.

REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off bloodstain if on hard material. Powder the scraping and extract with saline
solution. If the stain is on cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube
and add extract with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the solution.
Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in
a capillary tube.

POSITIVE RESULT:

1. Development of a white cloudy line at the contact point of the fluids that appears
immediately or within one or two minutes.
2. Human blood, or for that matter, any protein of human origin in the exact will react
specifically with anti-bodies present in the serum as shown by the formation of cloudy
ring or band at the interface of the two liquids.

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE PRECIPITIN TEST:

When a rabbit is injected with human blood serum or whole human blood, the precipitin which
develops in its serum will react with the protein of human blood serum, other human body fluids and
human tissue extracts. The reaction is a specific one and if positive, will identify blood proteins or any
other protein as human origin.

LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST:

The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those in
saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids. For this reason the test does not identify specifically human
blood but only a protein material from the specific animal type. In order that a conclusion of human blood
is arrived the precipitin test must be corroborated by supplementary chemical, microscopic or
spectroscopic tests.
The specificity and delicacy of the precipitin reaction is great, but the reaction may be inhibited
or even destroy by a number of factors. Chemicals like acid, alkalis, alcohols, cresols, formaldehyde,
corrosive sublimate or other germicide may alter blood to such an extent that the reaction cannot be
performed. Heat has the same effect. Fluid blood loses its power of reacting with antiserum if it is heated
from 60-90 degrees centigrade, while dried blood may stand 150 degrees. Rust and postmortem
decomposition may change blood so that the antiserum may react with it poorly. Old stains may be
identified after a long period of time.

THE BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD

If the specimen is human blood the next question is did it come from the victim, the accused or
from other persons? So the origin of blood or bloodstains will be determined by the identification of the
blood groups to which it belongs, in short to what blood group does it belong? This identification is
carried out on both fresh blood and bloodstains. Human blood of all races can be divided into definite
groups.

In the blood grouping of fresh blood A-B-O System is used. It was Landsteiner who discovered
the four blood groups namely Group O, Group A, Group B, and Group AB. He named the four groups on
the basis of the agglutinogen or antigen content of the red blood cells. Antigens are characteristic
chemical structures or “principles” that are found on the surface of each red blood cell which stimulates
the production of agglutinins. There are two different agglutinogens classified as agglutinogen A and
agglutinogen B. On the other hand serum contains proteins or “principles” known as antibodies or
agglutinins which cause agglutination or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxin
substance within the body which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system.
There are two different agglutinins classified as anti-A and anti-B in the serum. Agglutinogen A and B are
present at birth while agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants. If an individual
belongs to group A this indicates that his red blood cells has antigen A located on its surface. Similarly all
group B persons have antigen B, all group AB persons have antigen A and Antigen B and all group O
persons have neither antigen A nor antigen B.

When the serum of group A blood was examined, anti-B was found present and no anti-A. Similarly
Group B blood contains only anti-A, Group O has both anti-A and Anti-B and Group AB blood contains
neither Anti-A nor Anti B.

BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINOGEN ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTININ

ON THE RBC IN SERUM
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A and B Neither Anti-A nor Anti-B
O Neither A nor B (none) Anti-A and Anti-B

IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD GROUP WITH KNOWN

ANTI SERUM

ANTI-A SERUM ANTI-B SERUM ANTIGEN BLOOD GROUP

+ + PRESENT
WHOLE BLOOD WHOLE BLOOD
+ - A A
- + B B
+ + A and B AB
- - Neither A nor B O
(+) Shows agglutination (-) Shows absence of agglutination

HEREDITY OF THE BLOOD GROUPS

(INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS)

Knowledge of the laws of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of human blood groups is predetermined by the presence or
absence in the chromosomes of two factors or genes called gene A and gene B. Since each body cell has a
pair of chromosomes, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these factors, an individual’s genetic
constitution may be represented by AB, AA, AO, BB, BO, or OO where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B factor. In the joining of the ovum and spermatozoon during
fertilization, a new pair of genes is formed corresponding to the gene found in the chromosomes of the
parents called zygote. If the genes are homozygous or pure i.e. they are alike and they are the same in
both the father and mother, the characters are transmitted unchanged from generation to generation. If the
two genes are not the same which is called heterozygous or hybrid a new combination will arise in the
next generation.

BEINSTEIN’S THEORY OF BLOOD GROUP INHERITANCE

Beinstein’s theory postulates the presence of three allelic genes A, B, and O. According to him
the blood group of any individual is determined by combination of A, B, and O in a particular pair of
chromosomes. One gene is derived from the father and the other gene from the mother. Genes A and B
are dominant over gene O. Gene A and B determine the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens,
while O determines their absence. The possible combination of these three genes arranged in pairs gives
rise to six different genotypes corresponding to the four phenotypes or the blood groups. There are ten
different matings possible between the four blood groups.

THE TEN DIFFERENT MATINGS POSSIBLE BETWEEN

THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS

PARENTS GROUP OF CHILDREN

POSSIBLE NOT POSSIBLE
1. O X O O A, B, AB
2. A X O A, O B, AB
3. A X A A, O B, AB
4. B X O B, O A, AB
5. B X B B, O A, AB
6. A X B O, A, B, AB None
7. AB X O A, B O, AB
8. AB X A A, B, AB O
9. AB X B A, B, AB O
10. AB X AB A, B, AB O

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. GENE- any of the complex chemical units in chromosomes by which hereditary characters are
transmitted. Occurs in pair. A factor occurring singly in a gamete. There are two genes or factor
called gene A and gene B. These are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair,
each of which carries or fails to carry one of these genes and an individual’s genetic constitution
may be reprersented by AA, AB, BB, BO, AO, OO which are called genotypes, where O
represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or B gene. Gene is responsible for the
transmission of hereditary characteristics.
2. CHROMOSOMES- any of the microscopic rod-shaped bodies bearing genes responsible for the
transmission of hereditary characteristics. They are observed to occur in pairs.
3. PHENOTYPES- term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as found in
the individual. Actually the blood groups.
4. GENOTYPES- are paired genes. It is either homozygous or heterozygous.
5. HOMOZYGOUS GENOTYPE OR PURE GENOTYPE- paired genes are similar
6. HETEROZYGOUS GENOTYPE OR HYBRID- paired genes are dissimilar or not alike.
7. GAMETE- sexual cells; reproductive cells that unites with one another to form cell that develops
into a new individual.
8. SPERM CELL OR MICROGAMETE- male sexual cell
9. EGG CELL OR MACROGAMETE- female sexual cell.
10. ZYGOTE- pair of genes occurring in a gamete produced during fertilization. Cell formed by the
union of an ovum and a sperm.
11. ALLELES- pairs of contrasting genes which determines the expression of the inherited
characteristics of an individual.
 THE M-N SYSTEM OF BLOOD GROUP

In 1927 Landsteiner and Levine discovered two new agglutinogens in human red blood cells
which define three types of blood, namely type M, type N, type MN. These are independent of the
agglutinogens A and B. The human sera however do not contain natural agglutinins for N, and rarely
agglutinins for M. The agglutinins can be demonstrated only by heter-agglutination reaction with
appropriate immune rabbit sera. So anti-M and anti-N were produced by heter-agglutination reaction and
just like Anti-A and Anti-B it determines the presence of agglutinogen M and N in the red blood cells.

IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD TYPE WITH KNOWN

ANTI-M AND ANTI-N

ANTI-M + WHOLE ANTI-N + WHOLE ANTIGEN TYPE

BLOOD BLOOD PRESENT
+ - M M
- + N N
+ + M&N MN
(+) Shows agglutination (-) Shows absence of agglutination

INHERITANCE OF THE THREE M-N TYPES

Six different mating are possible between the three blood types. Types MN is always heterozygous.
The heredity of agglutinogens M and N according to Landsteiner and Levine depends upon a single pair
of allelic genes M and N which give rise to the three genotypes MN, MM, and NN corresponding to the
three phenotypes MN, M, and N respectively.

THE SIX DIFFERENT MATINGS POSSIBLE

BETWEEN THE THREE BLOOD TYPES

TYPE OF TYPE OF CHILDREN

PARENT
POSSIBLE IMPOSSIBLE
1. M X M M N,MN
2. M X MN M, MN N
3. M X N MN M, N
4. N X N N M, MN
5. N X MN N, MN M
6. MN X MN M, N, MN None

GROUPING OF DRIED BLOODSTAINS

Absorption technique or absorption-elution technique is an indirect grouping technique of bloodstains

and it depends on the detection of agglutination in the dried blood.
In dried blood grouping one cannot use the direct method as used in grouping of fresh blood because
in direct grouping the identification of A and B antigens is accomplished by directly reacting the blood
with anti-A and anti-B serum. In dried blood, the red blood cells are already ruptured due to drying,
leaving no cells in the stain to be agglutinated. However, although the cells may have disintegrated, the
antigens present on their surface remain intact and are still identifiable by indirect means.
 IDENTIFICATION OF BLOODSTAIN WITH KNOWN CELLS
(ABSORPTION TECHNIQUE)

A CELLS + ANTIGEN A B CELLS + ANTIGEN B ANTIBODY BLOOD

+ BLOODSTAIN + BLOODSTAIN PRESENT GROUP
+ - ANTI-A B
- + ANTI-B A
+ + ANTI-A & B O
- - Neither ANTI-A AB
Or ANTI-B

IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD GROUP DATA

Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in many cases may be solved by means of the blood
groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.

1. Determination of whether accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or could not be its parents.

2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been fathered by
her legal spouse.

3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the case of
accidental interchange of infants in hospital.

4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval could or
could not belong to a given set of parents.