it is important to obtain the required permits, as described in the data sheet on Surveys, designs and permits for

water projects, before starting any construction of water supply systems. Structures built without these legal
requirements are illegal and might have to be destroyed without any compensation.
In Kenya, the Water Services Boards (WSBs) are forming their policy on construction of small water projects
for individuals and community groups. Abstraction of shallow and deep ground water by means of hand-dug
wells and boreholes, as well as abstracting water from streams, must be approved by the WSBs and an annual
fee paid for the extraction permit.
 
The Water Resource Management Authority published a document on 25/02/09 entitled "Guidelines for
Determination of Permit Classification for Water Storage Structures" which :says: "First, small pans, where the
water is held below ground level, do not require a permit provided the capacity is less than 10,000 m 3. If the
capacity will be greater than this the community, or the farmer should apply to the Regional office of the
Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA) for permission to construct."

Seasonal Work Plan

The construction work of such structures should take place in the beginning of the short dry season or in the
middle of the long dry season when there is no risk of an unexpected thunder shower that can flood the
construction site. Excavation of trenches for pipes, and the laying of pipes, should also take place in the dry
season when the fields have been harvested to avoid spoiling crops in the field. Other activities that demand
much manual labor should also be implemented when the farmers are less busy in the dry seasons. 

Another big advantage of constructing water projects during dry seasons is that the provision of water is
usually the biggest issue during those periods. It is therefore fairly easy to mobilize and organize people to
carry out manual work. 

Financial capacity
Preferably, all the money required for the construction work should be available if the structure is expected to
be completed within a short period. Alternatively, the structure can be built in stages according to the
availability of funds. 
A good example is where small earth dams are built in stages and financed by giving two jerry-cans of water to
each person who has excavated 2 cubic meter of soil or where water is sold for cash which is used to pay for
laborer doing the excavation works.

For further information on seeking funds for water projects click here.

See also datasheet on water as a business.

 
2. Evaluating builders' qualifications
When interviewing artisans and contractors for their ability to construct a certain type of water project or any
other type of construction works, it is very rare to hear any doubts from the builders. Most builders are very
convinced that they are the best ones who can be hired for that job, although they have no proof of having
passed a trade test or having any Letters of Recommendation from former clients. Rather unfortunately, their
last successful construction works were built so far away that a client would not like to spend a couple of days
travelling there to see for himself. Some builders may be smart enough to give a mobile number of a very
satisfied client who may, in fact, be the builder's friend doing him a favor in exchange for a few beers in the
evening.

 
One of the best methods to sort out doubtful builders is to ask them technical questions, e.g.:
1. What is the correct mixture and thickness of cement to sand and ballast for concreting the foundation and
floor of water tanks?  

 The answer is 15 cm of 1:3:4 followed by a 2 cm coat of 1:3 mortar onto which NIL (cement
slurry) is applied the same day for water proofing. 

 
2. Which type sand should be used for concrete? 

 The answer is coarse textured river sand

 
3. Which type of sand can be used for final plastering?  

 The answer is fine textured river sand, not sand collected from dirt roads.

 
4. What happens if cement is mixed with sand and water that is not applied within one hour?  

 The answer is that the strength of cement will be reduced to half.

 
5. For how long should concrete and plaster work be cured, that is to be keep moist under shade? 

 The answer is 28 days. If cured less, the cement loses its strength. 

 
6. What does this technical design drawing show?
Where many structures are going to be built, e.g. for a community water programmed, it is a good investment
to train some 20 engineers and 40 builders while they construct the first structures. For more information
on training of project staff click here.

 
Preparation of construction site
While it is advisable to have an experienced builder from the community on the construction site to check
whether the cement is fresh and the sand is coarse and clean from a riverbed when the suppliers bring in their
materials, the hired artisan or contractor should not waste his time being on the site before all materials are
stored there.
 
A community water project may often have hundreds of community members who should be managed to carry
out useful work on constructing their water projects as part of their cost-sharing. This is achieved by the
members electing practical persons among themselves to form a Project Committee responsible for the
successful completion of the construction works. They learn the techniques and methods for this work during
their First Community Training.
The committee will enter their members' names in a Muster Roll and group them into work gangs according to
their ages and capacities as follows:
1. Elderly men will clear the access road and construction site of trees, bushes and stumps. 
2. Elderly women will collect hardcore stones and crush some of them into ballast as well as cook food and
nurse babies.
3. Middle aged men and women will bring river sand, hardcore stones and ballast to the construction site by
means of tractor trailers, ox- and donkey carts, wheelbarrows, bicycles or sacks.
4. Young men and women will be trained as artisans while assisting the artisans and contractors constructing
the water project. Those trainees who may wish, and who are capable, are sent to take trade tests where the
successful ones will obtain certificates as artisans. 
5. Young women having completed their education at Secondary Schools will be trained as store-keepers and
office staff while doing the actual job under the supervision of experienced trainers, preferably from the
community itself.
 
The work discipline is maintained by means of the muster rolls. Failures, due to coming late to work or being
absent, are recorded and fines may be imposed according to the by-laws. The fines are kept by the Treasurer of
the committee and usually spent on buying sodas and biscuits for important visitors.
 
Community members who have not worked on construction of a water project have to pay a considerable cash
payment to the committee for being allowed to be a member and to draw water from the project. 

Problem in constructing water works

Groundwater is found beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and rock formation
fractures. The flow of groundwater below the surface is a fundamental property that controls
the strength and compressibility of soil impacting soil's ability hold up on structural loads.
When soil is saturated, the soil media takes on very specific physical characteristic due to the
relative incompressibility of water. These characteristics come into effect below the
groundwater surface or table.
Groundwater tables can fluctuate with time. Changes in groundwater surfaces can be slow as
they can change seasons, or they can be relatively rapid such as in tidal basins or storm water
detention basins. Groundwater pressure heads can exceed elevation heads and, in those cases,
result in water flowing out on the ground surface as artesian flows or springs or swampy
wetlands.
Whenever construction must take place below the water table or soil is used to retain water,
groundwater affects the project by impacting the function and design of the facility, and the
cost of its construction. Groundwater is a frequent cause of disputes between owners and
contractors in construction projects.
Common ground water issues during construction:

 Unstable subgrade
 Unstable excavation and water seepage
 Construction delays and cost overrun

Common ground water problems after construction:

 Water leaks, wet basements, and mold growth 

 Cracked and uneven floors
 Cracked and uneven walls
 Unstable slopes and retaining walls
 Delayed movements of foundations

How is groundwater identified and evaluated during planning and construction?

Reconnaissance: Using imagery interpretation and site visits to identify an overview of water
table conditions, but often requires subsurface investigations.
Subsurface Investigation: Test borings and/or test pits to depths below the anticipated
excavation will be required to define the ground water depth and conditions including static,
perched, and artesian conditions. Groundwater conditions can typically be visually observed in
cohesionless soils (sands, gravels, and silty sands) because water can flow more readily through
these types of soils. Groundwater conditions in cohesive soils (clay and silty clay) cannot be
visually observed for water flow and often need to be tested in the lab. Flow velocities in clays
can be less than 1 foot/year.
Due to the slow rate of flow in cohesive soils and wells, piezometers and other subsurface
instruments may take days to months to record groundwater changes and pressure. When
these changes are paramount to a design process, ground water reading may require a "zero"
volume change device such as a diaphragm transducer to read changes in groundwater head in
a real time environment.
The engineering team responsible for all the phases of a project, from initial planning and
budgeting through final construction, need to be aware of the potential impact of groundwater
during design, construction and after construction so their decisions will be effective.
Groundwater is found beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and rock formation
fractures. The flow of groundwater below the surface is a fundamental property that controls
the strength and compressibility of soil impacting soil's ability hold up on structural loads.
When soil is saturated, the soil media takes on very specific physical characteristic due to the
relative incompressibility of water. These characteristics come into effect below the
groundwater surface or table.
Groundwater tables can fluctuate with time. Changes in groundwater surfaces can be slow as
they can change seasons, or they can be relatively rapid such as in tidal basins or storm water
detention basins. Groundwater pressure heads can exceed elevation heads and, in those cases,
result in water flowing out on the ground surface as artesian flows or springs or swampy
wetlands.
Whenever construction must take place below the water table or soil is used to retain water,
groundwater affects the project by impacting the function and design of the facility, and the
cost of its construction. Groundwater is a frequent cause of disputes between owners and
contractors in construction projects.
Common ground water issues during construction:

 Unstable subgrade
 Unstable excavation and water seepage
 Construction delays and cost overrun

Common ground water problems after construction:

 Water leaks, wet basements, and mold growth 

 Cracked and uneven floors
 Cracked and uneven walls
 Unstable slopes and retaining walls
 Delayed movements of foundations

How is groundwater identified and evaluated during planning and construction?

Reconnaissance: Using imagery interpretation and site visits to identify an overview of water
table conditions, but often requires subsurface investigations.
Subsurface Investigation: Test borings and/or test pits to depths below the anticipated
excavation will be required to define the ground water depth and conditions including static,
perched, and artesian conditions. Groundwater conditions can typically be visually observed in
cohesionless soils (sands, gravels, and silty sands) because water can flow more readily through
these types of soils. Groundwater conditions in cohesive soils (clay and silty clay) cannot be
visually observed for water flow and often need to be tested in the lab. Flow velocities in clays
can be less than 1 foot/year.
Due to the slow rate of flow in cohesive soils and wells, piezometers and other subsurface
instruments may take days to months to record groundwater changes and pressure. When
these changes are paramount to a design process, ground water reading may require a "zero"
volume change device such as a diaphragm transducer to read changes in groundwater head in
a real time environment.
The engineering team responsible for all the phases of a project, from initial planning and
budgeting through final construction, need to be aware of the potential impact of groundwater
during design, construction and after construction so their decisions will be effective.
Solution in constructing waterworks

Inflow and Infiltration

The first priority for MDC customers is limiting

stormwater entering the system. It begins with what is called “inflow,” which refers to
stormwater coming from customers’ homes and entering the sanitary sewer pipe.
Stormwater from down spouts, foundation drains, driveway drains and sump pumps
overload the main sewer during periods of rain, causing a mixture of sewage and
stormwater to overflow into the street, basements and local waterways.
“Infiltration” refers to all of the water leaking into the sewers from cracked or broken pipes
and laterals, faulty pipe connections, or deteriorated manholes. As part of Phase I, the MDC
has been busy making improvements in your neighborhoods incorporating a process called
“pipe lining”, a process where resin-coated felt tubing is pulled into the existing pipe. Steam
is then circulated throughout the tubing, curing the resin and forming a tight-fitting,
corrosion-resistant “pipe-within-a-pipe”. This non-invasive method of sealing the sewer
pipes is less disruptive to neighborhoods and businesses, highly cost effective, and extends
the life of the pipe for up to 50 years.
The MDC  encourages homeowner participation through distribution of rain barrels, and
education on disconnecting sump pumps and down spouts from the sewer system; 

 Holding  discussions with towns about additional strategies and solutions to reduce
stormwater connections to the sewer system; and
 Working with member towns to redirect clean water away from the sanitary sewer
system by improving local drainage systems.
Sewer Separation

The second component is aimed at separating the old

combined sewer system. The sewage traveling from the suburbs must flow through parts of
the sewer system that were built in the 1840's for a population of 30,000--- not the 400,000
people in the eight member towns the MDC serves today.  Several sections of the system
were later upgraded with a pipe technology widely used in the 1930s, called a “combined
sewer system." 

Many urban areas, including Hartford, utilize this system. One pipe in the street carries both
sewage and stormwater. But when the system's volume is increased by stormwater, it easily
overflows into our streets and homes.

In a typical sewer separation project, a second pipe is added in the street. In this example,
the new pipe will serve as a sanitary sewer for household waste, and the existing combined
sewer will remain in place as a dedicated storm pipe. Once construction of the sewer
separation project in the street is complete, a new second pipe, or lateral, must be
connected to each and every home and business.
 

Storage Tunnels
The construction of two storage tunnels is the largest construction component of the Clean
Water Project. The South Hartford Conveyance and Storage Tunnel is 18-feet in diameter
and four miles long. It will be able to store over 40 million gallons of sewage until such time
as this stored sewage can be treated at the Hartford Treatment Plant. This will prevent raw
sewage from overwhelming the plant and spilling, untreated, into the Connecticut River and
its tributaries. The South Storage Tunnel will handle sewage from West Hartford,
Newington, and Hartford.   
Interceptor Pipes

When the sewage and stormwater flowing from District

towns is combined, it exceeds the capacity of the existing sewer pipes. Large “interceptor
pipes” must be installed to increase capacity and convey the flow to the treatment plant.

The largest project in Phase I was the installation of a mile long, five-foot diameter
interceptor pipe on Homestead Avenue, a project that has won the National 2011 Public
Works Project of the Year for the first-time use of curved micro-tunneling technology in the
United States.

Another major initiative is increasing the capacity of two of the treatment plants in the sewer
system—critical upgrades that will provide the largest environmental benefit. The Hartford
Plant treats sewage from Bloomfield, West Hartford, Newington, Hartford and portions of
Wethersfield and Windsor. The smaller Rocky Hill plant treats sewage from Rocky Hill and
Wethersfield. These improvements will allow the facilities to be able to treat more flows
coming from the sewer systems and also reduce the amount of nitrogen discharged into the
Connecticut River and ultimately Long Island Sound. Additional improvements will use
excess heat from the treatment process to generate nearly 40% of the Hartford Treatment
plant’s total electricity needs, reducing costs and carbon footprint. 
Construction at the Hartford Treatment Plant includes the following projects:

 Wet Weather Expansion

 Biological and Nutrient Removal Phase II (complete)
 Ultraviolet light disinfection project (complete)
 Heat Recovery (complete)
 Aeration and Final Settling Tank Upgrades (complete)
The material use in constructing water works

 Concrete Mixer It is a machine that is use for mixing water, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate and cement to arrive at a perfect mixed result.
 Digging Bar This is a solid metal rod usually with a pin shape bottom. Where there’s a
need to dig the hard ground surfaces, digging bar is used.
 Brick Hammer Used for cutting bricks during construction work and it’s often used to
push the bricks back into their spot when they’re out of the course line
 . Safety Helmet Since any structure or material may fall subconsciously from a far height
during civil construction work, there’s a need for a safety helmet too.So, to protect the
head from injury or any fatal accident, this safety helmet should be used.
 Drill Machine This is used to making and drilling holes in the slabs, walls, doors, and into
the window frames.
 End Frames End frames is a construction equipment that its use is similar to that of line
and pins