CHAPTER – VII

RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

System of Supply
• Water may be supplied to the consumers by the following two
systems:
• i. Continuous System
• ii. Intermittent System
Continuous System
• This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours.
• This system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water
for supply.
• In this system sample of water is always available for fire fighting
and due to continuous circulation water always remains fresh.
• In this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of
pipes will be less. Losses will be more if there are leakages in the
system.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Continuous System
• It is the best system and has following advantages and
disadvantages:
Advantages:
1. Water is available whenever needed; hence, there is no need of
private storage tank.
2. No stagnant in the pipe at any instant; hence, fresh water is
always available.
3. Adequate quantity of water is available at any time for fire
fighting.
Disadvantages:
4. More wastage of water if the people do not possess any civic
sense and do not understand the importance of water.
5. If there is leakage in the system, large volume of water is
wasted because of long duration of flow.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Intermittent system
• If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is
divided into zones and each zone is supplied with water
for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days.
• As the water is supplied after intervals, it is called
intermittent system.
Advantages:
1. Useful when either sufficient pressure or quantity of
water is not available at the source to meet the demand.
2. At various distribution zones of the city, water can be
supplied by turn.
3. Repairing works can be done in non-supply hours.
4. Leakage in the system causes less wastage of water
because of small durations of flow.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Intermittent system
Disadvantages:
1. Inconvenience to customers because they have to remain alert to
collect the water during supply periods.
2. Requires domestic storage in small tanks in each house to use water for
non-supply period. Consumers may not have sufficient storage, which
may cause insanitary condition.
3. No water is available for fire fighting in non-supply hours and before
the system is on, fire may cause huge damage.
4. During the non-supply time, taps left open unknowingly or due to
negligence, which leads to more wastage of water.
5. Greater diameter of pipes is required because full day supply should be
done in a short period.
6. During non-supply time, pressure in the line may fall below
atmospheric pressure, which may induce suction of external maters
and soil through leak joints.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Clear water reservoirs
• According to use, reservoirs may be classified into clear
water reservoirs and service reservoirs or distribution
reservoirs.
• Clear water reservoir is used to store the filtered water
until it is pumped or conveyed into the service reservoirs
for distribution. The minimum capacity must be 14 to 16
hours average daily flow and it should be divided into two
or more compartments to enable repairing or cleaning.
• The reservoirs are generally built under ground or half
below ground level and half above the ground level
depending on site conditions and constructed with
masonry or RCC. Hence, construction is similar to
masonry or RCC reservoir.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Service Reservoirs
• It is used to store the filtered water from clear water reservoir
and constructed before distribution system. It is constructed
with masonry and RCC. Elevated types are also popular. These
service reservoirs should be designed for balancing storage,
breakdown storage and fire storage.
Purpose:
i. To absorb the hourly variations in demand.
ii. To maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains.
iii. Water stored can be supplied during emergencies.
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs:
• Should be located as close as possible to the centre of demand.
• Water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient elevation to
permit gravity flow at an adequate pressure.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Types of Reservoirs:
i. Surface reservoirs
ii. Elevated reservoirs
iii. Standpipes
Surface reservoirs
• These are circular or rectangular in shape
• These reservoirs are constructed at ground level or
below the ground level and hence these are also called
ground reservoirs or non-elevated reservoirs from which
it is supplied to the consumers.
• However, surface reservoirs are located at high points in
the distribution system then water may be supplied to
the consumers directly from these reservoirs by gravity.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Surface reservoirs
• It is usual practice to construct a surface reservoir in
two compartments, so that one can be used while
the other is being cleaned or repaired.
• The two compartments are connected with each
other by control valves.
• Overflow pipes are provided at fully supply level so as
to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir.
• Ventilator are provided in the roof slab
• Outlet pipes are placed at a slightly higher level ( 10
cm above wash pipes)
• Also washout pipes are provided at the bottom of
reservoir.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Surface reservoirs
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Elevated reservoirs
• They are also known as overhead tanks. They
are rectangular, elliptical or circular in shape.
• They consist of the inlet for entry, the outlet
for the exit, ventilation for aeration and
overflow pipe at full supply level to maintain a
constant level. It consists of the ladder to reach
the top of the reservoir and manhole for
regular inspection.
• Water is pumped to elevated reservoirs from
surface reservoirs and then supplied to the
consumers
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Elevated reservoirs
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Standpipes
• A standpipes is a vertical cylindrical tank resting just above
the ground.
• The diameter of standpipes varied from 10 to 15 m and its
height varies from 15 to 30 m.
• Standpipe are made of steel or RCC, mostly commonly RCC.
• Alike elevated reservoirs standpipes are also provided with
inlet pipe, outlet pipe, overflow pipe, washout pipe and
various other accessories for their efficient working
inspection and maintenance.
• The volume of water stored in the tank above entrance of
the outlet pipe can only be used and only serves as support
for the useful storage and terms as supporting storage.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Standpipes
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Storage Capacity of Distribution Reservoirs
• The storage capacity of distribution/service reservoir
is based on various requirements as follows :
1. Balancing reservoirs :
• The quantity of water required to be stored in the
reservoir for equalising or balancing fluctuating
demand against constant supply is known as the
balancing storage (or equalising or operating
storage).
• Balancing storage or reserve and can be determined
by two methods.
1. Hydrograph
2. Mass curve method
RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
2. Breakdown storage or emergency storage :
• The breakdown storage or often called
emergency storage is the storage preserved in
order to tide over the emergencies posed by
the failure of pumps, electricity, or any other
mechanism driving the pumps.
• A value of about 25% of the total storage
capacity of reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the
average hourly supply, may be considered as
enough provision for accounting this storage.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
3. Fire Storage:
The third component of the total reservoir
storage is the fire storage.
This provision takes care of the requirements of
water for extinguishing fires. A provision of 1 to 4
per person per day is sufficient to meet the
requirement.
The total reservoir storage can finally be
worked out by adding all the three storages.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Case one: supply and demand both continuous.
Q 1. For a city with population one millions have
demanded 120 lpcd water supply. The variation
in the consumption of water as follows.
Duration 12 PM-5AM 5AM–11AM 11AM–3PM 3PM-9PM 9PM-12AM
Consumption 9 45 24 36 6
l/capita

Determine the capacity of the balancing

reservoir by analytical method if supply and
demand both continuous.
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Case two: when pumping( inflow) is continuous and
supply(demand) in intermittent
Q 2. Pumping continuous and supply intermittent ( 1st
shift 5AM to 7AM & 2nd shift 4 PM to 6 PM.
Case Three: When pumping (inflow) is intermittent
and supply (demand) is continuous
Q 3. The water supply of a town with daily
requirement of 250 ML, it is proposed to construct a
distribution reservoir. Calculate the capacity of
balancing reservoir for the consumption pattern as
below if inflow is meet through pumping 4 to 10
hours
Time
in the
5-7
morning
7-11
and 17 to16-19
11-16
21 hours
19-5
evening only
Water 15 35 20 25 5
consumption
ae
%
 RESERVOIRS AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Case Four: when pumping( inflow) and supply(demand)
both intermittent
Q 4. In above question no 3, if water is supplied to the
consumers from the reservoir by intermittent system
supplying water from 5 to 7 hours in the morning and
16 to 18 hours in the evening. Calculate the capacity of
balancing reservoir.
Extra question:
A village has a design year population of 1500 and per
capita water demand of 45 lpcd. The safe yield of a
spring source is 0.9 lps. The system is continuous system
and the consumption pattern is as follows. Calculate the
R.C.
Time 5-7 7-12 12-17 17-19 19-5
Table
Consumption 20 35 20 20 5
%
a
 Pipe hydraulics
Hydraulic design of pipes is required to
determine the size of the pipes between inlet
and exit just to carry sufficient amount of water.
For design of pipes, the following two basic
equations of hydraulics are used:
• a. Continuity Equation
• b. Bernoulli’s Equation
Continuity equation :
• With equation proves the law of conservation
of mass in fluid dynamics. Also, if the fluid is
incompressible, the density will remain
constant for steady flow.
• R = A v = constant
 Pipe hydraulics
Bernoulli's concept
• It states that in a steady, irrotational flow of an
incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point
is constant.
• The above statement is based on the assumption
that there are no losses due to friction in pipe.
 Pipe hydraulics
Head losses in pipes
• When the water is flowing in a pipe, it
experiences some resistance to its motion. This
reduces the velocity and ultimately the head of
water available.
• The major loss is due to frictional resistance of
the pipe only.
• Manning’s Formula, Hazen William Formula and
Darcy’s formula are used to calculate the loss of
head in pipes due to friction; neglecting minor
losses
 Pipe hydraulics
Major
•   head loss
1. Hazen William's equation:
• Velocity(V) = k C (D/4)0.63 S0.54  
where, S = hf / L  and Q = V π D2 / 4
• value of C; new CI=130 , GI=70, HDPE=140, Old
CI= 100.
• head loss =
 Pipe hydraulics
Major head loss
2. Darcy weisbach equation:
• Darcy’s formula is used to calculate the loss of
head in pipes due to friction.
 Pipe hydraulics
Major head loss
3. Mannings equation
 Pipe hydraulics
Minor head loss
• Due to sudden enlargement, sudden contraction,
at the entrance, at the exit, due to gradual
enlargement or gradual contraction, at the bend,
due to various pipe fittings
Discharge:
• Discharge should be sufficient to meet the future
demand. Pipelines are designed for 2.5 to 3 times
the average demand. Generally peak factor is
taken as 3 to 4 in Nepal.
 Design criteria of distribution system
Pressure:
• Pipelines are designed for sufficient residual pressure so that it
reaches to the desired height.
For system with
1. private connection, minimum pressure = 15 m
2. Without private connection minimum pressure = 5 m
3. Public stand post, desirable pressure = 15 m (min.5m)
4. Public stand post maximum pressure = 55 m
Size of pipe
• Pipe size should be adopted as commercially available size
• Minimum size considered in pipe is 20 mm.
• Commercially available size are; 15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65, 80, 100,
125, 150, 175, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900,
1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2400, 2600, 2800, 3000
mm. It is recommended adopting on higher side of calculated size
 Design criteria of distribution system
Velocity:
• If velocity is low, larger diameter pipes are required and problem of
silting may occur.
• If velocity is high, cost becomes high in pumping and cost of pipes
and fittings will increase to bear extra pressure.
• On the other hand, higher the velocity, smaller the diameter which
leads to loss of energy. Hence, it shouldn’t be too low and not too
high.
Minimum velocity = 0.3 m/s
Maximum velocity = 3 m/s
Gradient:
• No need of gradient in pressure flow pipes but pipes should be laid
below the HGL. The gradient of HGL shows the residual head
available at any selected point hence high slop of HGL means head
loss is high.
 Design step involved in water supply distribution system

1. Survey and preparation of contour maps and plans

• Land between treatment plant and distribution area is surveyed and contour
maps and plans showing the position of the roads, streets, lawns, parks,
position of underground service lines are prepared and then studied.
2. Tentative layout
• The tentative layout of various zones are marked (includes tentative mains,
sub mains, branches, valves, service reservoirs, etc.).
3. Calculation of discharge
• Based on population and type of distribution zone and fire demand.
4. Computation of pipe diameters
• Hazen-Williams Formula is common.
• Pipelines are designed for discharge of 2.25 to 3 times the average rate of
demand.
5. Computation of available residual pressure head
• If the available residual head is lesser or too high, pipe size should be revised.
 Design of pipe networks
1. Branched system
2. Looped system
Branched system
(theory from book)
Looped system
a. Equivalent pipe method
b. Hardy crossed method
 Design of pipe networks
1. Branched system
Q 1. Design pipes RA and AB for the water distribution network shown below:

Take per capita demand of water as 112 lpcd. Assume peak factor = 3 and
hazen willian's constant C = 100. the residual head at any point in the
distribution system should not be less than 15 m. check velocity in the pipe
also.
 Design of pipe networks
•  
Soln:
For Pipe RA:
Avg. quantity of flow = (4600 + 5400) x 112 = 1120000 liters.
Design discharge , Q = peak factor x avg. flow
= 3 x 1120000 = 0.0389 m3/s
maximum allowable head loss
= 940 – (890+15) = 35 m
Length, L = 250 m
Using Hazen William's head loss equation,
=
35 = , d = 0.122 m
adopt, commercial pipe size = 150 mm
 Design of pipe networks
•Velocity,
  V = = = 2.2 m/s
(Range: 0.3 – 3 m/s ) OK
Actual head loss in pipe, RA
= = = 13.29 m

Residual head available at A = 940 – (890+13.29) = 36.71 m

which is grater than 15 m OK
Now HGL at point A = 940 – 13.29 = 926.71 m
For Pipe AB:
Avg. quantity of flow = 5400 x 112 = 604800 l/d
Design discharge (Q) = peak factor x average flow = 3 x
604800 l/d
 Design of Pipe Networks
•  
Design discharge, Q = Peak factor X Average discharge flow
= 3 X 604800 l/d
= 0.021 m3/s
Max. allowable head loss, = 926.71–(840+15) = 71.23 m
=
71 = , d = 0.095 m

Adopting commercially available pipe size 100 mm actual

head loss in pipe AB
= = = 55.021 m
 Design of pipe networks
•  
Residual at point B
= 926.23 – (55.021+840) = 31.209 > 15 m ok
Check for velocity
Velocity, u = = = 2.67 m/s
Range: (0.3 m/s to 3 m/s)
 Design of Pipe Networks
Q 2. Design pipelines PR, RS and PQ for the following
pipe network. A minimum pressure of 1kg/cm2 is
required at the tap. Take Hazen William constant C = 110.
 Design of Pipe Networks
Looped System
1. Equivalent Pipe Method
This method is based on the principle that loops are replaced
by single equivalent pipe
It is based on following assumptions,
1. Head loss through pipes in series are additive
2. Head loss through parallel pipes are equal
 Design of Pipe Networks
•Looped
  System
1. Equivalent Pipe Method
In series:
= +
= +
= +
=[ +]
Generalized for pipes in series
= [ + + ………]
 Design of Pipe Networks
•Looped
  System
1. Equivalent Pipe Method
In Parallel:
= + = +
+= +
+ = +
+]=[ + ]
 Design of Pipe Networks
•  
Looped System
1. Equivalent Pipe Method
In Parallel:

Therefore = where, K = Q1/Q2

Again , Q = + = (K+1)
If the length and diameter of equivalent pipe causing equal head
loss between A and C are and
= +
Using Hazen William's equation
 Design of Pipe Networks
•Using
  Hazen William's equation
= +
= +
= +
=[ + ]/
 Design of Pipe Networks
Calculate the discharge and velocity in each pipe in
the network given below. Assume C = 100
 Design of Pipe Networks
Design the pipes AB, BC & AC for the water distribution
network given below. Take Hazen William's Co-efficient as
110 for all the pipes and assume suitable data. As required

Consider RL of point A, B & C are same. The pressure

available at A is 15 kg/cm2 & the minimum pressure
required at B and C is 1.5 kg/cm2
 Design of Pipe Networks
•2.  Hardy Cross method
It is the trial and error method based on the
following three laws:
i. In each separate pipe there is a relation
between head loss and discharge ( i.e. = r)
ii. At each junction the algebraic sum of the
discharge entering and leaving is zero.
iii. In any close circuit of pipes the algebraic sum of
head loss (clockwise and anticlock wise) in the
individual pipe is zero
 Design of Pipe Networks
Calculate the discharge on each pipe given below
using Hardy cross method
Design of Pipe Networks
 Design of Pipe Networks
•   hardy cross
From
=r
Using Hazen William's
=
r = , n = 1.852

Pipe Dia. , m Length, m C r Assumed, Q

m3/s
AB 0.4 1830 100 334.96 0.055
BC 0.15 900 100 19554.62 0.006
CD 0.4 1800 100 329.47 0.01
AD 0.25 200 100 361.10 0.03

Nhbk
 Design of Pipe Networks
Trail 1
Pipe r Q, m3/s (m) /Q

AB 334.96 0.055 1.56 28.36

BC 19554.62 0.006 1.50 250 0.0055
CD 329.47 -0.01 -0.065 6.5
AD 361.10 -0.03 -0.071 2.37
Trail
Total 2 2.924 287.23

Pipe r Q, m3/s (m) /Q

AB
AB 334.96
334.96 0.0495
0.0495
BC
BC 19554.62
19554.62 0.005
0.005
CD
CD 329.47
329.47 -0.0155
-0.0155
AD
AD 361.10
361.10 -0.0355
-0.0355