CONVEYANCE OF WATER

Dr. Shilpa Dongre

A modern water supply system may include facilities for
collection and storage, transportation, pumping, treatment
and distribution.
Water is conveyed from the source to the consumers through
various types of conduits.
The various types of conduits are:
• Open channels,
• Tunnels, and
• Pipelines
Open channels are usually used to transport raw water from
the source to the water treatment plant.
Distribution of water:
The distribution system consists of a network of pipes,
distribution and equalizing reservoirs, valves, fire
hydrants and other appurtenances.
Water distribution systems are designed to supply
required quantities of water of acceptable quality with
adequate pressure heads to the consumers to satisfy
domestic, commercial, industrial and fire fighting
purpose.
A good distribution system should satisfy the following
requirements,
• The system should be capable of supplying water at
consumer’s tap at reasonable pressure head.
• It should be capable of meeting the fire demand
simultaneously
• It should maintain the degree of purity.
• It should be easy to operate and maintain
• Water should be available even during breakdown
period.
• It should be so laid that during repairs, it does not
cause obstruction to traffic.
• The initial cost of the distribution should be al low as
possible.
Methods of distribution:
The method of distribution depends upon the
topography of the area.
There are 3 main methods of distribution
1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system, and
3. Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity system
• In this system, the gravity force is used in distribution
water from high level source to low level zone
consumers.
• The method is economical reliable and required less
maintenance.
• For proper working of the system the difference of
head available between Service reservoir and low
level zone should be sufficient to develop enough
pressure at consumers tap.
• The method also minimises wastage and leakages.
Advantages
• Simple and economical.
• Less maintenance.
• Less leakage and wastage.
• Reduction in pipe sizes.
Disadvantages
• Not suitable if source is not at sufficient elevation to
cause flow under gravity.
• Cannot provide high pressure for fire demand.
Pumping system
• The treated water is directly pumped into distribution
mains without storing in high level reservoirs. High lift
pump are provided for forcing water into mains.
• Since the water consumption keeps fluctuating, the
pumps have to operate at various rate during the whole
day.
• A continuous attendance is required at the pumping
station to regulate the flow by running only the required
number of pump out of total number of pump install.
• During failure of pump and electric supply the water
supply to the town may be interrupted.
• Pumping system can supply the required quantity of
water for firefighting by running all pumps including
standby.
• The system is costly and its use should be discourage
as far as possible.
Advantages
• Large quantity of water available in case of fire.
• Suitable for any type of topography.
Disadvantages
• Sufficient water required.
• Not economical.
• More losses and wastage.
Combined gravity and pumping system
In this system the water after treatment is pumped and
stored in the elevated services reservoir (ESR) and then
according to the supply hours, the stored water is
supplied to the public by gravity.
Advantages
• The system is economical, efficient and reliable and
adopted practically everywhere.
• Pumping at constant rate increases efficiency.
• Special supervision is not required.
• Fire demand efficiently met with.
• Water is available even during failure of pump and
power.
SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY:
Water may be supplied to the consumers by two
systems,
1. Continuous system
2. Intermittent system
Continuous system supplies the water to the consumers
for all the 24 hours of a day while in intermittent
system, water is supplied for fixed hours of a day.
Intermittent system:
It is the most common system of supply adopted in
India.
It is adopted when either sufficient pressure is not
available or when sufficient quantity is not available.
Some of the drawbacks of the system are,
• Non-availability of water for Fire demand
• Domestic storage is needed in individual houses
• Contamination chances are more
• Sizes of pipes are usually more
• Huge wastage of water from open taps
• More manpower is required
Water distribution networks:
In general, there are 4 types of distribution network
systems. They are:
a. Dead End or Tree system
b. Gridiron System
c. Circular or Ring System
d. Radial System
Dead End or Tree System  
This system is also referred to as a branched system. It
consists of one main pipe from which a number of sub-
mains bifurcate and from each sub-main several branch
pipes separate out which are called laterals.
From laterals; connections are given to different houses.
Branched system
Advantages of Dead-end Distribution System
• The design of pipe laying is simple and easy.
• A less number of cut-off valves are required and
the operation and maintenance cost is low.
• Pipe laying is simple and no skilled labour is required.
Disadvantages of Dead-end Distribution System
• The system is less successful in maintaining satisfactory 
pressure in high-rise buildings and is therefore not
  favoured in modern waterworks practice.
• Only one pipe provides the water to the entire building which is
quite risky.
• The head loss is relatively high, requiring a larger
pipe diameter and need pumping units.
• The discharge available during fire-fighting is limited
due to high head loss in the piping system.
• The water pressure available is also lower which
requires a pumping system.
2. Gridiron Distribution System/Looped
system
A looped network consists of loops. It has one or
more source nodes and number of demand
nodes.
For a particular demand pattern, the direction of
flow in a link is fixed, however it may change
for another demand pattern.
Looped system
Advantages of Gridiron Distribution System
• This system enables the free circulation of water,
without any stagnation or sediment deposit.
• Because of the fewer interconnections water is
available at every point with minimum loss of head.
• Adequate water is available with pressure
for firefighting requirements from the various branch
lines.
• During repair, only a few houses are affected.
Disadvantages of Gridiron Distribution System
• In this system, more cut-off valves are required.
• This system requires longer pipe lengths with larger
diameters.
• The analysis of discharge, pressure, and velocity in
the pipes is difficult and cumbersome.
• As more pipes are required, ultimately increases the
cost of the distribution system.
3. Circular or Ring Distribution System
• In this types of water distribution system, the supply
mains forms a ring around the area. The branch pipes
are connected cross-wise to the mains and also to
each other.
• This system is most reliable for the areas having well
planned roads and streets.
Ring system
Advantages of Circular or Ring Distribution System
• The number of interconnection is less with minimum loss of head.
• The discharge is also higher when compared to other methods of
distribution.
• Fewer consumers are affected at the time of repairs as separate
main lines available for each household.

Disadvantages of Circular or Ring Distribution System

• The length of pipe laying is more which ultimately leads to higher
cost.
• Several valves are required to control the flow and discharge of
water.
4. Radial Distribution System:
• In this types of water distribution system, the whole
buildings are divided into several distribution areas.
• Each building has a centrally located elevated
reservoir from where distribution pipes run radially
towards the periphery of the distribution areas.
• This system gives swift service, without much loss of
head.
• The design of the pipe laying system is much simpler.
Advantages of Radial Distribution System:
• Generally, in high-rise buildings, a radial system is used for
the water distribution system.
• In this system, water is available with higher discharge and
with minimum head loss.
• Fewer numbers of the consumer are affected while repairing.
Disadvantages of Radial Distribution System:
• The design of the pipe laying system is complicated.
• More length of pipe is required as the connection is more in
this system.
Different components of distribution system:
1. Storage and distribution reservoirs
2. Pipes
3. Water meters
4. Valves
5. Pumps, etc.
Storage and distribution reservoirs:
Clear water storage reservoirs are required for storage of
filtered water until it is pumped into the service reservoirs or
distribution reservoirs. Clear water reservoirs should have a
capacity to store filtered water corresponding to 14 to 16
hours average daily flow of storage when pumps are idle.
Distribution reservoirs are service reservoirs to meet the
fluctuating demands often imposed on a distribution system,
to provide storage for fire fighting and emergencies and to
equalize operating pressures.
Distribution reservoirs:
The purpose of such reservoirs are,
1. To absorb the hourly variations in demand,
2. To run the pumps at uniform rate
3. It results in overall reduction in the sizes of pumps,
pipes and treatment units.
4. Provides storage for emergencies like fire outbreak,
pump failure, bursting of mains etc.
5. To maintain the desired pressure in the mains
constantly.
Storage and distribution reservoirs may be constructed as,
• Surface reservoirs
• Elevated reservoirs,
• Stand pipes.
Surface reservoirs are constructed on the ground or
sometimes underground.
Elevated reservoirs are overhead tanks constructed above
the ground at higher altitude.
Standpipe is a tall cylindrical tank.
Location of distribution reservoirs:
1. It as should be centrally located or as near to the
distribution area.
2. In large cities, a number of distribution reservoirs
may be located at key points.
3. They shall be located at sufficient elevation to
maintain adequate pressure.
Capacity of distribution reservoir:
The storage capacity of distribution reservoirs is based
on the following requirements.
1. Balancing or equalizing reserve (from mass curve),
2. Breakdown reserve (about 25% of the total storage),
and
3. Fire reserve (10 hours in large communities, and 8
to 4 hrs. in small communities)
B] PIPES
Pipes are the components which carry water from one place to
the other. When water flows through the pipes, head loss takes
place.
Total head loss comprises of,
a) Head loss due to friction, and
b) Head loss due to bends, joints etc.
The frictional loss is major loss while the loss due to bends,
joints etc. is a minor loss.
 fLv 2 fLQ 2
hf  
2 gD 12.1D 5

The frictional head loss in pipes can be estimated using one of

the two most common formulae.
• Darcy- Weisbach Formula
According to Darcy-Weisbach formula, the head loss is given by,

Or
in which, f = coefficient of friction; L = Length of pipe (m) ; V =
velocity of flow (m/s) ; D = internal pipe diameter (m); g=
acceleration due to gravity (=9.81 m/s2) and Q = pipe discharge
(m3/s) .
The friction factor f generally varies from 0.02 (for new smooth
pipes) to 0.075 (for old rough pipes
• Hazen Williams formula
The head loss is given by

where V= mean velocity of flow (m/sec)

R= hydraulic radius (mean depth) in m (A/P)
S = hydraulic gradient
C = coefficient of roughness of pipe
In terms of Diameter, the formula reduces to

OR
• Manning’s formula

For circular pipes, R=D/4,

where, D is in m

In terms of head loss, the formula reduces to

• Minor loss
It includes
i) Entry and exit loss
ii) Velocity head loss
iii) Head loss due to valves, pie line transition, bends, etc.

Or
Where V is in m/s and g is in m/sec2
Pipe materials:
There are different pipes used for the water supply,
1. Metallic pipes (CI, DI, MS, GI)
 Unlined metallic pipes
 Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy lining
2. Non-metallic pipes
 Reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, asbestos
cement
 Plastic pipes: PVC, Polyethylene, glass reinforced plastic
etc.
The choice of the pipe material depends on several technical factors, including
internal pressures, coefficient of roughness, hydraulic and operating conditions,
max. permissible diameter, internal and external corrosion problems, laying and
jointing, type of soil etc.

Following factors shall be considered.

1. Initial carrying capacity of pipe and its reduction with age
2. Strength of the pipe
3. Life and durability of pipe
4. Ease of handling, transportation, laying and jointing
5. Economy and availability of commercial sizes
6. Availability of skilled workmanship for construction and commissioning of
pipeline
7. Ease of O & M.
Cast Iron pipes:
CI pipes are used in majority in WDNs, as they are resistant to
corrosion and also are durable.
Applications:
1. In corrosive soils, and
2. Water of slightly aggressive characteristics
3. Well suited for pressure mains and laterals

They are manufactured by either sand moulding process or

centrifugal process.
Disadvantages:
1.Sand casted pipes are heavier and hence uneconomical for
diameters more than 1200 mm
2. They cannot be used for pressures greater than 7kg/cm2.
3. They are fragile.
Wrought Iron and Galvanised Iron pipes
WI pipes are manufactured by rolling the WI flat plates to proper
diameter. They are much lighter than CI.
• Wrought iron pipes are made from 12 mm(0.5 inches) to 15
cm (6 inches) in diameter.
• However, get corrode quickly and thus principally used for
installation within the buildings.
• The pipes are protected by coating them with a thin film of
molten zinc, which are called GI pipes.
Steel pipes
Small diameter pipes are made from solid bar sections while
large diameter pipes are made by welding together the edges of
suitably curved steel plates.
• On account of high tensile strength, it is possible to make steel
pipes of lower wall thickness and lower weights.
• They cannot resist high pressure. Mainly used as big mains
laid above the ground.
• The life of steel pipe mostly depends upon the quality of
protective coating, provided on both, the external as well as
internal surface.
Ductile iron (DI) pipes
DI is made by a metallurgical process involving addition of
magnesium into molten iron of low sulphur content. The
magnesium causes the graphite in the iron to precipitate in the
form of microscopic spheres.
It possesses the properties of high mechanical strength, high
impact resistance, and good casting qualities, high wear and tear
resistance, ductility and corrosion resistance.
These pipes are approx. 30% lighter than the CI pipes.
Cement concrete pipes
Cement concrete pipes may be plain or reinforced. The plain CC pipes
are used for heads up to 7m while RCC pipes can be used up to 60 m
head.
RCC pipes are suitable for large water supply lines, but they are not
suitable for distribution systems.
Advantages:
• They are more suitable to resist the external loads and loads due to
backfilling.
• Maintenance cost is low.
• The inside surface of the pipes can be made smooth, reducing the
frictional losses.
• No problem of corrosion.
• Pipes can also be casted at site, reducing the transportation
problems.
• Expansion joints are normally not required.
Disadvantages:
• Unreinforced pipes are liable to tensile cracks, and cannot
sustain high pressure.
• Identification of leakages is difficult due to its porosity and
shrinkage cracks.
• Difficult to repair.
• Precast pipes are heavy and thus difficult to transport.
Plastic pipes
They are made of synthetic resins of high molecular weight, polymerized
from simple compounds by heat, pressure and catalyst.
Plastic pipes and tubes are manufactured from polythene, polypropylene,
polyvinyl chloride etc. these are available in 6m length.
Advantages:
1. Free from corrosion.
2. Free from damage due to freezing and thawing of water in closed pipe.
3. They are cheaper.
4. They are highly resistant to acidic water.
5. Tough and rigid
5. They are light in weight, and easy to handle and transport.
6. They are smooth and possess low hydraulic resistance.
7. They are good electric insulators.
8. Their jointing, bending and installation is easy.
9. They have adequate strength, and are resistant to shock.
10. They are durable, and are unaffected by age, sunlight or
weather.
Disadvantages:
1. Low resistance to heat.
2. The coefficient of expansion is high.
3. Some plastics may impart taste to water.
TYPES OF VALVES
• Gate valve/Sluice valve/Stop valve ( to stop the supply)
• Check valve (CV)/or Non-Return valve (NRV)
• Pressure reducing valve (PRV)
• Flow control valve (FCV)
• Scour valve/Blow-off valve
• Air valve
• Butterfly valve
Water meters
• Water meters measure the volume of water used by
residential and commercial building units that are supplied
with water by a public water supply system.
• Modern meters typically can display rate-of-flow in addition
to total volume.
• Several types of water meters are in common use, and may be
characterized by the flow measurement method, the type of
end-user, the required flow rates, and accuracy requirements.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. It should accurately measure and register both, small
and large flows.
2. It should be easy to maintain and repair.
3. It should have good capacity with reasonable headloss.
4. It should be capable of working at all pressures
efficiently.
5. It should be durable.
6. It should prevent back flow passing through it and
should not be liable to clogging.
7. It should be economical.
They are of 2 types
1. Displacement type
2. Velocity type
• Displacement method relies on the water to physically
displace the moving measuring element in direct proportion to
the amount of water that passes through the meter.
PD meters are generally very accurate at the low-to-moderate
flow rates typical of residential and small commercial users and
commonly range in size from 5/8" to 2".
• A velocity-type meter measures the velocity of flow through a
meter of known internal capacity. The speed of the flow can
then be converted into a volume of flow to determine the
usage. 
• Pumps:
Pumps may be needed
i) To lift the water from source to the treatment plant
ii) To supply water directly into the mains, or to the overhead
tanks
iii) To increase the pressure in the supply lines
iv) To supply water under pressure for fire hydrants, etc.
Mainly there are two types of pumps, i.e.
1. Displacement type pumps, and
2. Centrifugal pumps