Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering

PBW 4510
Environmental & Sanitary Engineering I

Lecture 11 &12
Water Distribution Works
Network Planning and Design
 Water Distribution System (WDS) inside cities
Distribution system is used to describe collectively the
facilities used to supply water from its source to the
point of usage.

The distribution system includes:

• A complete network of pipes
• Pumping stations and boosters for water transmission
• Reservoirs (Elevated tank and Ground reservoir)
• Valves and Fittings
• Fire hydrants
• Service pipelines
• Water meters

2
 Read Only
Examples of Water Distribution Systems
Example (1):
• 300,000 inhabitants
• pipe diameters,
D =100-600 mm
• supply of 27,000 m3/d
Water Transport & Distribution
Main Objectives

• Supply of adequate quantities

• Supply of non-degraded quality

• Maintaining pressures and velocities

• Good planning, design, construction,

operation and maintenance

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A good Water Distribution System(WDS)
Other objectives
• Capable of supplying the required amount of water
during fire fighting.
• The layout should be such that minimum number of
consumers would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
• All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one
metre away or above the sewer lines.
• It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to
leakage to the minimum.

5
WDS consists of:
• Main feeder or Trunk main
It carries the total demands of the water from the treatment works to the
pipe network.
• Primary and secondary mains or feeders
They are located in the main roads.
Primary feeders carry large amounts of water from main feeder to the
various parts of the city.
Secondary feeders carry water from the primary feeders to the different
areas for normal supply and fire fighting.
• Laterals or distributors or distribution mains
They form a grid over the area to be served and supply water to service
lines and fire hydrants.
• Service Pipes( House Pipelines)
They extending from laterals to the consumers meters.

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 Water Transport Systems

Transport of bulk flows

• large pipes
• long distances
• minor flow variations
• service connections are rare
• Main Feeder
• connection between treatment
plant and distribution area
• large diameters (250-1500
mm)
Construction of water transport system
Water Distribution Systems

• Distribution to consumers
• pipe networks
• medium and small diameters
• significant flow variations
• numerous service connections
• numerous appurtenances

Laying distribution pipes

Water Distribution Systems
• Primary and Secondary feeders
• skeleton of distribution system
• Big and medium diameters (200 - 700 mm)
Water Distribution Systems
• Laterals or distributors
• distribute water to the consumers
• small diameters (100-200 mm)

Junction of distribution pipes connected

with block of section valves
Distribution pipes coupled with bend
Water Distribution Systems
• Service pipes
• connect distribution pipe and
consumer.
• short, flexible pipes (25-50 mm)

Saddle used for

service connection
to DI pipes
Service connection to PVC pipe
Utilities under Roads

12
Utilities under Roads

13
To design a water distribution network:

• Planning the network which includes the choice of a

suitable scheme and configuration of network, and
ensure that all the service area is served by the
network.

• Design the network, i.e. calculate the diameters of

pipes and the head loss in order to calculate the
pressure at each point of the network.

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Supply Schemes
Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area
and other local conditions the water may be forced into
distribution system by following ways -

1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Combined gravity and pumping system

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Supply Schemes
Gravity

This method is much suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or reservoir is at a
sufficiently higher level than the city.
The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces.
As no pumping is required therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water.
The water head available at the consumer is just the minimum required.
The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.
Supply Schemes
Gravity

• Advantages
• no energy costs
• simple operation and low maintenance costs
• slower pressure changes
• Disadvantages
• limited to topography
• less flexible for extensions
• larger diameters needed to reduce pressure
losses
Supply Schemes
Direct Pumping
 Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main
without storing.
 Rate of flow cannot be varied easily according to demand unless
a number of pumps are operated in addition to stand by ones.
 Supply can be effected during power failure and breakdown of
pumps. Hence diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps
as stand by to be maintained. During fires, the water can be
pumped in required quantity by the stand by units.

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Supply Schemes
Direct Pumping

Pressure

Water Mains

• Water is directly pumped in the mains

• Pressure maintained in the pipe line is by pump
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Supply Schemes
Direct Pumping

• Advantages • Disadvantages
• flexibility in operation – more sophisticated operation
• pressure/demand – reliable energy source is
management required
• lower investment and – higher operational costs
maintenance costs of ETs – higher maintenance costs
• easier for extension – no buffer capacity in case of
pump failure
Supply Schemes
Combined (Gravity and Pumping)

Pump is connected to the main pipes as well as to the

elevated tank.
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 Supply Schemes
Combined (Gravity and Pumping)

 Most common system.

 Economical, efficient and reliable system.
 Treated water is pumped in the main pipes.
 The excess water during low demand periods get stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir and get supplied during high demand period to consumer
by action of gravity..
 With increase in water demand – water comes from both pumping station as
well as Elevated tank
 During power failure and fire fighting water stored in reservoir can be used.

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Planning
Configurations of Distribution Networks
 The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road
pavements, and as such their layouts generally follow the
layouts of roads.

 There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks; any

one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a
particular place.

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Main WDS Configurations are:

Dead End System (or Tree system or Branched

system)
Grid Iron System
Ring System
Radial System

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Network Configurations
Dead End system
Used in the following cases
It is suitable for old towns, villages and cities having no
definite pattern of roads, Strip areas, coastal cities or zones.

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 Network Configurations
Dead End Configurations
• Advantages
• Simple layout
• Simple hydraulics
• Lower investment
• Easy to design
Network Configurations
Dead End Configurations

• Disadvantages
1. No circulation in the system.
2. Stagnation of water at the dead ends will cause taste and
odors due to bacterial growth.
3. In case of broken pipe, the area served by this pipe will be
running out of water till the pipe is repaired (which
reduces the system reliability).
4. Additional pressure due to water hammer which cause
fatigue and pipe failure.
 Read Only
Example of Branched Configuration

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 Network Configurations
Looped or Grid Configuration
In this system pipes are interconnected in the forms
of loops
 Network Configurations
Looped or Grid Configuration with looped feeder

The use of an extra loop for a certain portion of the city such as central
area (industrial, business , and commercial areas) to improve the water
pressure in such areas . 30
 Network Configurations
Looped or Grid Configuration
• Advantages
More reliable.
Consumers less affected by maintenance.
Easier for extension.
Lower risk of water quality problems.
No dead ends and permits circulation of the water so there is
no odor, taste , deposits or bacterial growth.
The effect of water hammer is eliminated.
 Network Configurations
Looped or Grid Configuration

• Disadvantages
 complex layout
 complex hydraulics
 complex design
 complex operation
 more expensive in operation and maintenance

Sometimes, we get very low velocities in the laterals as the

minimum diameter that can be used is 100 mm, and deposits can
be formed.
Combined Network
loops and branches
Configurations

Computer model of a network combined of loops and branches

Network Configurations
Circular or Ring System

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 Network Configurations
Circular or Ring System

In this system a single main feeder is surrounding the city

or the area to be supplied with water.
Advantages
• It has the same advantages as the grid-Iron system.
• Smaller diameter pipes are needed.
• The ring feeder can be used to feed another adjacent
area.

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 Network Configurations
Radial system

This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from
the reservoirs it flows by gravity to the system of pipes.
The pressure calculations are easy in this system. Layout of roads need to be
radial to eliminate loss of head in bends. It can be economical especially if
combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted. 36
 Network Configurations
Radial system
It is the reverse of the ring system. The city is divided into
areas, at the center of each area a storage tank is located for
the distribution of water as shown in the figure.
Advantages
 The water flow and pressure are maintained at high values
because the friction head loss is small.
 In case one of the tanks is out f service, another tank can be
used for supply as bypass pipes are constructed to ensure
this.
 Better storage capacity as the tanks keeps the water supply
even if the main feeder is out of service.
Disadvantages
high capital cost due to the tanks. 37
 Design Period
Technical lifetime
The period during which the system component
operates satisfactorily in a technical sense.

Economical lifetime
The period of time in which the component can operate
before it becomes more costly than its replacement.

Technical lifetime > Economical lifetime

Design Period
Technical Lifetime
Component Period
(years)
Transmission mains 30 – 60
Distribution mains 30 – 80
Reservoirs 20 – 80
Pumping station - facilities 20 – 80
Pumping station - equipment 15 – 40

Design period = Economical lifetime

Uniform for all system components = 20 – 25 years
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 Design Criteria
Design criteria serve to control the energy consumption
(operational costs) in the system.
Criteria includes:
• Hydraulic Gradients
• Velocities
• Diameters
• Maximum and minimum pressure.

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Friction Losses
Hazen-Williams
1.85
 Q  L
H f  10.68  4.86
 Chw  D

L = Pipe length (m)

Chw = Hazen-Williams factor (-)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
Q = Pipe flow (m3/s)

Empirical formula, especially applicable for smooth

pipes (not attacked by corrosion) of medium and
large diameters.
Friction Losses
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
fL 2 8 fL
Hf  v OR H f  2 5 Q 2

2 gD  gD

f = Friction factor (-)

L = Pipe length (m)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
v = Pipe velocity (m/s)
Q = Pipe flow (m3/s)

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Design Criteria
1. Hydraulic Gradients

 Depend on distance over which the water needs to be

transported, size of the network, including possible future
extensions.
 Economical head loss (hf) = 2-6 m/km
 4-6 m/km, for small diameter pipes,
 2-4 m/km, for mid-range diameter pipes,
 1-2 m/km, for large transportation pipes.

(hf = headloss for each km of the pipe = Hf/L, L in km)

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 Design Criteria
2. Velocities
Q
Continuity equation v 
D 2
4
 Low velocities, impact the residence times and water
quality.
 High velocities increase the hydraulic losses and amplify
the impact of water hammer.
 In distribution systems,(0.4 to 1.5 m/s), optimum 1 m/sec
 In transportation pipes, ±1.5 m/s,
 Velocities above 2 m/sec should be avoided.
 Max allowable velocity = 3 m/sec (in case of emergency).
 Pipe diameter can be chosen using head losses and velocity
using charts or equations.

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 Read Only
The Most Economic Diameter

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The Most Economic Diameter

The selection of pipes is an economic tradeoff between

large diameter which will give high capital cost and low
friction losses and low pumping costs (if there is pumping)

OR small diameter, which will involve low capital cost,

more head losses and more pumping cost.

Energy cost is a function of head losses while pipe cost is

a function of diameter.

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 Design Criteria
3. Diameters
laterals and distributors (100 – 200 mm):
Minimum diameters is 4”, because minimum
diameter for installation of fire hydrants is 4”.
In areas with multi-story buildings, schools,
hospitals and commercial areas, bigger distributors
of at least 6” or 8 ” should be used.
 In big networks, small pipe diameters can be neglected in
hydraulic analysis if located in the vicinity of large diameters.

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 Design Criteria
4. Pressure
Minimum Pressures
 Usually formulated as the minimum pressure required, or
allowed, at the most critical (= most faraway from the source
and/or the highest elevated) point of the system.
 Minimum pressure is calculated based on the minimum (of 5-
10 mwc) remaining above the highest tap of a standard high
building in the area; for three floors, this usually leads to a
minimum pressure of 20-30 mwc above the street level.
 For higher buildings, an internal boosting system is normally
provided.
 Important reason for keeping the pressure above a certain
minimum can be fire fighting.
mwc :meter water column 48
 Design Criteria
Minimum Pressures
In Egypt
 In cities, minimum pressure of 20 mwc (2 bar) is required during
maximum hourly water consumption.

 Minimum pressure of 14 mwc during fire fighting.

 In small villages, pressures of 15 m can be accepted.

 For vital commercial and industrial areas (3 – 4) bars is preferred.

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 Design Criteria
Maximum Pressures

 Maximum pressure limitations are required to reduce

additional cost of pipe strengthening.
 There is a direct relation between (high) pressure and
demand and leakages in the system.
 Pressures above 60 mwc should not be accepted, in
general.
 High pressures requires expensive pipes with higher
PN grades (Pressure Nominal).

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Pressure Zoning In case of a large difference in
ground elevation(60-80 m ), the
distribution system is divided
into zones (trying to use pumps
with head around 60m).

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Design Criteria
Pressure Fluctuations

• Besides maintaining the optimum range, pressure

fluctuations are also an important parameter to be
taken into consideration.
• Frequent variations of pressure during day and night
can create operational problems, resulting in
increased leakage and malfunctioning of water
appliances.
• Reducing the pressure fluctuations in the system is
therefore desirable.

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 Basic Design Principles
In theory:
• Water flows to any discharge point choosing the easiest path:
either the shortest one or the one with the lowest resistance.
• Optimal design from the hydraulic perspective results in a
system that demands the least energy input for water
conveyance.

In practice, this means:

• maximum utilization of the existing topography (gravity),
• use of pipe diameters that generate low friction losses,
• as little pumping as necessary to guarantee the design
pressures,

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 Hydraulic Design
1. Water tends to flow to the areas of higher demand.
2. Reservoir at higher elevation gives more water to the
system from the reservoir located at lower elevation.
3. Pump can deliver more water but at lower pressure
(and efficiency).
4. Consumer located closer to one of the sources will
receive more water from that source.

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 Summary
Source: Egyptian code, 2010
Design flow according to Egyptian Code

Transmission lines and Main feeders

In case of storage existence inside network
Maximum daily water consumption + Fire demand
No storage inside network
Maximum hourly water consumption

Source: Egyptian code, 2010

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Design flow according to Egyptian Code

Primary and secondary feeders

Maximum of:
Scenario 1
Maximum daily water consumption + Fire demand
Scenario 2
Maximum hourly water consumption

Laterals and distributors

 Fire demand
Source: Egyptian code, 2010

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58
Read Only

60
Fire Hydrants
Ground

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Fire Hydrants
Underground

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Fire Fighting
 The flow of a fire hydrant is about 1 m3/min ~ 17 l/s.
 So, fire hydrant is placed on 100, 150, 200 mm pipes.
 The outlet opening for a fire hydrants is 63 mm (2.5 inch).
 The actual distance between hydrants is dependent on the
amount of hose the local fire department normally carries.
 The standard lengths for a fire hose is 15 & 20 m.
 Fire hoses can be connected in series to get lengths up to
120 m.
 So, fire hydrants should be placed maximum every 150 –
300 m.
 In areas with multi-story buildings, city centers, and
commercial areas, fire hydrants should be spaced at lower
spaces between 60 – 80 m.
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Network Design
Branched Systems
Supply at One Point
 Branched Systems
Supply at One Point
• Pipe Flows
– For known nodal demands, the rates can be easily determined.
– Flow directions are known based on the pipes’ connectivity.
• Velocities
– For known flow rates and pipe diameters can be easily determined(the
Continuity Equation).
– The velocity directions are known.
• Pressures
– If there is at least one point of reference (fixed) piezometric head, the
pressures can be easily determined from known nodal elevations.
– The fixed piezometric head should be specified either at the source or a node
where certain (minimum) pressure is to be maintained
• Hydraulic calculation
– It follows the principles of single pipe calculation for pipe pressures and
optimal diameters (at fixed hydraulic gradient).
Looped Networks
 Looped Networks
• Pipe Flows
– Flow rates and directions are unknown.
• Velocities
– The velocities and their directions are known only after the flows have
been calculated.
• Pressures
– Conditions are the same as in case of branched networks once the
flows and hydraulic losses have been calculated for each pipe.
• Hydraulic calculation
– The equations used for single pipe calculation are not sufficient.
– Additional conditions have to be introduced.
– Iterative calculation process is needed.
Equivalent Pipes

An equivalent pipe is an imaginary pipe in which the head

loss and discharge are equivalent to the head loss and
discharge for the real pipe system.
Equivalent Pipe : Pipes in Series

The general approach is to compute the equivalent

length of a single diameter pipe

1. For pipes in series, know that:

 Q1=Q2=…=Qn
 HF=HF1+HF2+…+HFn
2. Knowing Q, we can compute individual losses in each reach.
3. By calculating the summation of head loss from each pipe, we can
assume Deq to get Leq (or assume Leq, to get Deq).

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How to find the equivalent pipe for pipes in series

• For each pipe :Calculate HF knowing Q (given or

assumed), D (given), C or f (given or assumed) using
Hazen Williams or Darcy Eq, Get HF .
• Calculate HF Total (sum of HF for all the pipes) which is
HF for the equivalent pipe.
• For the equivalent pipe: Assume Deq and get Leq (or
Assume Leq and get Deq)

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 Equivalent Pipe : Pipes in Parallel
1

HF
1. For pipes in parallel, know that:
• HF=HF1=HF2=…=HFn
• Q=Q1+Q2+…+Qn But we don’t know how the flow is divided between
pipes!!
2. If we assume a value of Hf, we can compute individual discharges (Qi) for
each pipe.
3. After knowing the actual discharge, we can calculate the actual headloss in
one pipe only, and the we can solve for equivalent length (Leq) or equivalent 71
Diameter (Deq)
How to find the equivalent pipe for Pipes in parallel

we don’t know how the flow is divided between pipes.

1. Assume Q1= 50 l/sec (first branch).
2. For this branch: Calculate HF knowing Q1(50 L/sec), D1( given), C or f
(given or assumed) using Hazen Williams or Darcy Eq. Get HF . As those
pipes are in parallel, HF is the same for the rest of the branches.
3. For the rest of the branches, knowing HF, using Hazen Williams or
Darcy Eq, get Q for each branch.
4. Get the actual Q in the branches knowing the ratio of flow
distribution.
5. Get actual headloss (Hfactual) in any of the branches using actual Q of
the branch.
6. Knowing Q, HFactual, assume Deq get Leq (or assume Leq, get Deq).
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 Example
In the following Figure:
a) Compute the rate of flow in lines BCD & BED.
b) What is the head loss between A & F? (Take Hazen William Coefficient C=
100)
c) If you replace loop BCDE by an equivalent pipe of L=1000 m, find its
diameter.

C 8”
2500 m

Q=100 L/sec A 14” B D 14” F

1500 m 1000 m
E 12”

2500 m

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a) let Qbcd= 0.05 m3/ sec

1.85
 0.05   2500 
h f  10.68     4.87 
 100   0.2 
= 52.9 m

hf BED = hf BCD ( parallel pipes )

1.85
 Q   2500 
52.9  10.68     4.87 
 100   0.3 
Then Q = 0.145 m3 / sec

QT =0.145 + 0.05 = 0.195 m3/sec

QBCD = 0.1*0.05 /0.195 = 0.026 m3/ sec

QBED = 0.1*0.145 /0.195 = 0.074 m3 /sec
Qtotal=0.1m3/sec
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 b) hf AF = hf AB + hf BCD + hf DF
1.85
 0. 1   2500 
= 10 .68     4.87 
 100   0.3556 
1.85
 0.026   2500 
+ 10 .68     4.87 
 100   0.2 
= 11.57 + 15.78 = 27.35 m

 Leq 
1.85
Q
c) h f  10.68   C    4.87 

  D 

1.85
 0.1   1000 
15.78  10.68      4.87 
 100  D 
Then D = 0.276 m let D=300 mm
D=0.276 m
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Water Demand Analysis using Hardy Cross Method

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 Hardy Cross Method (Cross, 1936)
• The Hardy Cross method is also known as the single
path adjustment method.

• The flow rate in each pipe is adjusted iteratively until

all equations are satisfied.

• The method is based on Kirchoff’s Laws:

• Mass balance ΣQin=ΣQout at any node
• Energy Balance Σ HL in any closed loop= 0

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Redefine HF based on flow rate and K
• Write head loss condition for each pipe in the form:
HF = K Qn
n=2.0 for Darcy Weisbach losses
n=1.85 for Hazen Williams losses

• Darcy Weisbach HF= KQ2

Where K=Pipe resistance coefficient 8fL/gπ2D5

• Hazen Williams HF= KQ1.85

Where K= 10.68L/C1.85D4.86

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Hardy Cross Method (Cross, 1936)
• Step 1: Build up system configuration and make
the first guess of flow distribution in the pipe
network
• Step 2: Calculate head loss of each pipe section
• Step 3: Compute the algebraic sum of the head
losses around each elementary loop.
• Step 4: Complete the mass and energy balance by
an iterative procedure.
• Step 5: Compute the pressure distribution in the
network and check on the pressure requirement.

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 Hardy Cross Methods: Step 1

• By careful inspection
we may assume the
most reasonable
distribution of flows
in the pipe network
and make the first
guess of the flow
pattern.

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Sign Convention in Pipe Network: Step 1

• Enter flows at nodes as positive for inflows and

negative for outflows.
• Inflows plus outflows must sum to 0.
• You do not need to use all the pipes or nodes.

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Hardy Cross Method: Step 2
• Write head loss condition for each pipe in the form:
Hi (or HF) = K Qn

• n=2.0 for Darcy Weisbach losses

• n=1.85 for Hazen Williams losses.

82
Hardy Cross Methods: Step 3

• Compute the algebraic sum of the head losses

around each elementary loop,
ΣHi (or Σ HF,i) = Σ Ki Qin
• Consider losses from clockwise flows as positive,
counterclockwise negative.
• Be careful about the common pipe sections shared
by two adjacent loops.

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Hardy Cross Method: Step 4

• Adjust the flow in each loop by a correction ΔQ to

balance the head in that loop and give
Σ HF = Σ K Qn= 0
• The heart of this method lies in the following
determination of ΔQ .
For any pipe, we may write:
Q=Q0+ ΔQ
Where Q0 is the assumed discharge and Q is the
corrected discharge.

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Hardy Cross Method: Step 4

• Binomial series gives:

n 1
H L  KQ n
 K (Q 0   Q )n  K (Q 0
n
 nQ 0  Q  .....)

• If ΔQ is small compared with Q0, we may neglect the terms

of the binomial series after the second one:

n 1
H L  K Q 0n   Q K n Q 0

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 Hardy Cross Method: Step 4

• For a loop, ΣHi (or ΣhL, i) = ΣKi Qin =0:

 HL   K Q 0n    Q K n Q 0n  1  0

• We may solve this equation for ΔQ of each loop:

Q  
 K Q 0n

 KQ Q 0
n 1
0

 K nQ n 1
0 n KQ n 1
0

# Sum the numerator algebraically (using sign) with due account

of each sign
# Sum the denominator arithmetically (no signs)

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Iteration

• After we have given each loop a first correction, the

losses will still not balance, we need to repeat the
procedure, arriving at a second correction, and so on,
until the corrections become negligible.

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Step 5: Pressure Computation

• After computing flow rate Q in each pipe and loss H in

each pipe and using the input node elevations Z and
known pressure at one node, pressure P at each node
is computed around the network:
• Pj = ρ(Zi - Zj - Hpipe) + Pi
• node j is down-gradient from node i.
• ρ = fluid density [F/L3].

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Example
Apply Hardy Cross Method (n=2):

89
1. Make the first guess of flow
Example - continued Q  
 0
KQ n


 0 0
KQ Q n 1

 KnQ n 1
0 n  KQ 0n 1
Right Loop
Left Loop

KQon N lKQon-1l KQon N lKQon-1l

1 x 602= +3600 2 x 1 x60 120 4 x 502= +10,000 2x4 x50 400
4 x 102= +400 2x 4x10 80 2 x 252= +1250 2 x 2 x25 100
3x 402= -4800 2x 3x40 240 4x 102= -400 2 x 4 x10 80
5x 252= -3125 2 x 5 x25 250
∑ -800 ∑ 440
∑ +7725 ∑ 830

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 Example - continued

Left Loop Right Loop

KQon n lKQon-1l KQon n lKQon-1l

1 x 622= +3844 1 x 2 x62= 124 4 x 412= +6724 4 x 2 x41= 328
4 x 212= +1764 4 x 2x21= 168 2 x 162= +512 2 x 2 x16= 64
3x 382= -4332 3x 2x38= 228 4x 212= -1764 4 x 2 x21= 168
5x 342= -5780 5 x 2 x34= 340
∑ +1276 ∑ 520
∑ -308 ∑ 900

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Limitations of Hardy Cross Method (HCM)
• You need first to guess the initial flow in all pipes and
the initial pipe flow should satisfy the continuity
equations at each node;
• It could take long period to converge especially for big
systems;
• Some times it fails to converge;
• Original method was restricted to closed looped
systems;

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 Method of Sections
• It is a method used to check the design of the pipe network.
• A section is taken perpendicular to the flow direction ( or its
resultant).
• Qsupply is calculated by calculating the sum of flow that can be
supplied by the pipes cut by the section within economical limits
(i.e. head loss 2 m/km unless stated differently) (neglect pipes
of diameter less than 6” in the cities)
• Qdemand is calculated by calculating the demand downstream the
section( population demand + fire demand).
• If Qsupply> Qdemand( 5-10%) OK
• If Qsupply> Qdemand >10 %pipes’ diameters should be reduced
• If Qsupply <Qdemand pipes’ diameters should be increased.

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QDemand
Domestic demand = bigger of {Q max hourly & Q max daily + fire
demand}

Qmax hourly = 2.5 * qavg * population│downstream section

Qmax daily+fire demand = 1.8 * qavg*population│downstream a-a+fire demand

Fire Demand According to population

Qsupply
Using Hazen Williams get Q for each pipe knowing its
diameter using hL = 2m/Km ( i.e. Hf= 2m, L = 1000 m)
and C=100 unless otherwise stated. (or Darcy
Equation)

D” Q l/sec
Notes
To calculate Pipe class for DI (ductile Iron) pipes
• Hclass=( Hm +Hwater Hammer )*1.3
• Hm = Hstatic +HF +hsec+Hr
Where Hs = difference in elevation
• HF= calculated using Hazen Williams
• hsec= secondary losses( 10% of HL if not given)
• Hr = residual pressure( 15-20m if not given)
If Hclass is > 120 m , use pre-stressed concrete
Class Hclass
B 60m
C 90m
D 120m
Read Only
Computer Modelling Software
Main Features
1. PC based applications.
2. Allow extended period hydraulic simulations.
3. Posses integrated module for water quality simulations.
4. Can handle virtually unlimited size of network.
5. Have excellent graphical interface for presentation of
results.
6. Have link/interface with GIS.
7. Have integrated modules that allow on-line operational
decisions
8. Have built-in optimization algorithms.
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Read Only
Computer Modelling Software

1. EPANET 2 (US Environmental Protection Agency)

2. WaterCAD© (Bentley, USA)
3. WaterGEMS© (Bentley, USA)
4. InfoWorks WS© (Wallingford Software, UK)
5. SynerGEE Water© (Advantica Stoner, USA)

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PLUMBING
Is the art and technique of installing pipes, fixtures & other
apparatuses in buildings for bringing the water supply, liquids,
and removing them;

From the Latin plumbum for lead as pipes were once made from
lead.

Refers to a system of pipes and fixtures installed in a building

for the distribution of potable water and the removal of
waterborne wastes.
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Plumbing System inside houses

System includes all potable water supply and distribution

pipes, all plumbing fixtures and traps;
All sanitary and storm drainage systems; e.g. roof drains and
down spouts
and all building drains and sewers, including the joints and
connections
Also fuel gas piping; water heaters and vents.

SUPPLY PIPE FIXTURE DRAINAGE PIPE

102
Read Only

103
Read Only

Indoor Installations
High Buildings

High buildings are supplied from

the distribution system only
partially, at lower floors.

Internal booster installation is to be

provided to lift the water to the
higher floors.

A cistern can be installed on the roof

for supply of the top floors and also
for fire fighting purposes.

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Summary
• Water Distribution system components.
• Types of supply schemes with their advantages and disadvantages.
• Types of network configuration with their advantages and
disadvantages.
• Main design criteria (hydraulic gradient, max and minimum velocities,
max and minimum pressure, minimum diameter)
• Equivalent pipe.
• Hardy Cross method.

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Questions?

106