21/10/2022

MRI of a Human Brain shoing the connection between

The Endocrine the hypothalamus (orange) and the Pituitary gland (red)

system – Part 2
Dr Rebekah Lucas – contact through
canvas or (LucasRAI@adf.bham.ac.uk)

Lecture Aims
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
Describe the relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Describe the control systems and function of key hormones from the
anterior pituitary
Thyroid hormones
Cortisol
Growth hormones
Sex hormones

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The
hypothalamus
and the
pituitary gland

The posterior pituitary gland

The posterior pituitary is really a neural extension of the hypothalamus
Hormones are synthesized in the
hypothalamus, axons pass down the
infundibulum, terminate in the
posterior pituitary and release
hormones
E.g., oxytocin and vasopressin

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The anterior pituitary gland

The anterior pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
prolactin, and two gonadotropic hormones—follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

The anterior pituitary gland &

the hypothalamus
Secretion of the anterior pituitary
gland hormones is controlled mainly
by hypophysiotropic hormones from
the hypothalamus via the portal
vessels connecting the hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary gland.

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The anterior pituitary gland &

the hypothalamus
Typical sequence by which a hypophysiotropic
hormone (hormone 1 from the hypothalamus)
controls the secretion of an anterior pituitary
gland hormone (hormone 2), which in turn
controls the secretion of a hormone by a third
endocrine gland (hormone 3)

The anterior pituitary gland &

the hypothalamus

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Hormonal feedback control

Negative feedback inhibits the hormonal
response.

The thyroid gland

Thyroid hormones has diverse and
widespread effects throughout the body.
E.g. protein synthesis in follicular epithelial cells,
increases DNA replication and cell division

The thyroid gland sits within the neck in front of the trachea

The thyroid gland produces thyroxine (called T4 because it contains four

iodines) and triiodothyronine (T3, three iodines)
Most T4 converted to T3 in target tissues via enzymes, therefore T3 considered major thyroid
hormone

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Control of thyroid function

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Control of thyroid function

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) production is
controlled by the negative feedback action
of T3 and T4 on the anterior pituitary gland and, to a
lesser extent, the hypothalamus

Note: TSH causes growth

(hypertrophy) of thyroid tissue.
Excessive exposure of the thyroid
gland to TSH can cause goiter.

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Actions of thyroid hormones

Increase T3 & T4 levels associated with ↑ oxida ve
substrate metabolism & ↑ mitochondrial enzyme
activity
↑ carbohydrate and lipid metabolism

Thus, T3 & T4 = high metabolic rate

T3 required for normal production of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary
gland.
T3 is a very important developmental hormone for the nervous system.

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Cortisol
Cortisol secretion during stress is mediated by the
hypothalamus–anterior pituitary gland system

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Physiological functions of cortisol

During non-stressful situations
Cortisol affects the responsiveness of smooth muscle cells to epinephrine
and norepinephrine.
Thus, helps maintain normal blood pressure
Cortisol required to maintain the certain enzymes conc. involved in
metabolic homeostasis.
Thus, prevents plasma glucose concentration dropping too far below normal
Has anti-inflammatory and anti-immune functions

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Cortisol over 24 hours

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Physiological functions of cortisol

In stressful situations
Effects on metabolism
1. Stimulation of protein catabolism in bone, lymph, muscle, and elsewhere
2. Stimulation of liver uptake of amino acids and their conversion to glucose
(gluconeogenesis)
3. Maintenance of plasma glucose concentrations
4. Stimulation of triglyceride catabolism in adipose tissue,
with release of glycerol and fatty acids into the blood
Enhanced vascular reactivity, improving cardiovascular
performance
Unidentified protective effects against the damaging
influences of stress
Inhibition of inflammation and specific immune responses
Inhibition of nonessential functions (e.g., reproduction &
growth)

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Cortisol & exercise

Farrell et al. (1983) examined circulated
levels of cortisol in the blood pre and
immediately post 20-min running at 3
different exercise intensities
6 participants
3 males and 3 women, VO2max: 54 ±4 and
42 ±4 ml.kg.min-1, respectively.

Farrell et al. Journal of Applied Physiology, 55(5), pg 1441-1444.

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Note: Stress response = example of the endocrine

and nervous system working synchronously
When the stress response is triggered, the Sympathetic Nervous System is
activated, triggering the release of epinephrine
At the same time, the endocrine system releases cortisol from the adrenal gland
Cortisol has a synergistic effect on epinephrine
Fight or flight
Net result: response
Faster breakdown of fuel stores
Larger increase in cardiac function
Bigger increase in ventilation

FYI: Other hormones also released during

the stress response

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Hormonal Influences on Growth

The hormones most important to human growth are:
Growth hormone,
insulin-like growth factors 1 and 2
T3 (essential for growth during childhood and adolescents)
Insulin (mainly during fetal life)
Testosterone & estradiol
All these hormones have widespread effects

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Growth hormone
Growth hormone secretion is stimulated by growth
hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and inhibited by
somatostatin (SST)

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Growth Hormone
Growth hormone is the major stimulus of postnatal growth.
It stimulates the release of IGF-1 from the liver and many other cells
IGF-1 then acts locally (and also as a circulating hormone) to stimulate cell
division.
Growth hormone also acts directly on cells to stimulate protein synthesis.
Growth hormone secretion is highest during adolescence.

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hypothalamic-pituitarygonadal axis
Testosterone
Main source
in Males
Produced by the testes

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Testosterone
Main source
in Males
Produced by the testes
Also produced in smaller
quantities in the ovaries and
Source in
Females the adrenal cortex
Peripheral conversion of
androgens

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Testosterone
Promotes: muscle growth & development of male sex characteristics

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hypothalamic-pituitarygonadal axis
Oestrogen & Progestogen
Main source
in Females
Produced by the ovaries

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hypothalamic-pituitarygonadal axis
Oestrogen & Progestogen
Main source
in Females
Produced by the ovaries

Oestrogen and progesterone levels over the course of

the menstrual cycle (28 days)
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Oestrogen & Progestogen

Main source
in Females
Produced by the ovaries
Some oestrogens also
produced in smaller
Impt source amounts by other tissues
in post-
menopausal (e.g., liver, pancreas, bone,
Females adrenal glands, skin, brain,
adipose tissue and breasts)

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hypothalamic-pituitarygonadal axis
Oestrogen & Progestogen
Main source
in Females
Produced by the ovaries
Some oestrogens also
produced in smaller
Impt source amounts by other tissues
in post-
menopausal (e.g., liver, pancreas, bone,
Females adrenal glands, skin, brain,
adipose tissue and breasts)

In Males Estrogen produce when FSH

binds to FSH receptors

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Oestrogen & Progestogen

Promotes: development of female sex characteristics, regulates
menstrual cycle and adipose tissue growth

Oestrogens also promotes endothelia function

⇓
Protective effects

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Oestrogen’s protective effects

Moreau et al. (2012). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &

Metabolism, 97(12), 4692-4700.

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Oestrogen’s protective effects

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Sex hormone responses to exercise

Female students, n=8

Exercise session = 40-min @ 60% VO2max

(Dehydroepiandrosterone)
(Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate)

This ↑ in sex hormone levels helps

builds muscle and reduce body fat

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Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
DHEA, and its sulfate (DHEAS) are hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
DHEAS are precursors for sex hormones such as testosterone and estradiol
DHEA/S affect various systems of the body ⇒ Purported to be anti-ageing
DHEA and DHEA-S production peaks at age 20-30 and then declines progressively
with age

Orentreich et al. (1992) The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &

Metabolism, 75(4), 1002-1004.

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DHEA, DHEAS, age and exercise

DHEA/S increases following low and moderate intensity exercise in you but not older adults

Aldred et al. (2009). Journal of aging and physical activity, 17(1), 77-88.

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Summary
Hypothalamic hormones (i.e., hypophysiotropic hormones) stimulate or inhibit
the release of pituitary hormones
The posterior pituitary gland secretes oxytocin and vasopressin hormones
The anterior pituitary gland secretes GH, TSH, SCTH, prolactin, FSH and LH
hormones
Thyroid hormones: affect metabolism, important in the development of the
nervous system
Cortisol: affects vascular responsiveness, involved in metabolic processes, has
anti-inflammatory and anti-immune functions, is also an important
developmental hormone during fetal and neonatal life
Growth hormone: major stimulus of postnatal growth

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Summary
Sex hormones (testosterone, estradiol and progestogen) are present in
both males & females, albeit at different levels.
Testosterone promotes development of male sex characteristics &
muscle growth.
Estradiols and progestogen promotes female sex characteristics,
regulates menstrual cycle and endothelial function.
Androgens and testosterone increase post exercise
This helps promote anabolic processes

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References
Aldred, S., Rohalu, M., Edwards, K., & Burns, V. (2009). Altered DHEA and DHEAS response to exercise
in healthy older adults. Journal of aging and physical activity, 17(1), 77-88.
Moreau, K. L., Hildreth, K. L., Meditz, A. L., Deane, K. D., & Kohrt, W. M. (2012). Endothelial function is
impaired across the stages of the menopause transition in healthy women. The Journal of Clinical
Endocrinology & Metabolism, 97(12), 4692-4700.
Nieschlag, E., & Nieschlag, S. (2019). ENDOCRINE HISTORY: The history of discovery, synthesis and
development of testosterone for clinical use. European journal of endocrinology, 180(6), R201-R212.
Orentreich, N. O. R. M. A. N., Brind, J. L., Vogelman, J. H., Andres, R., & Baldwin, H. O. W. A. R. D.
(1992). Long-term longitudinal measurements of plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in normal
men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 75(4), 1002-1004.
Vingren, J. L., Kraemer, W. J., Ratamess, N. A., Anderson, J. M., Volek, J. S., & Maresh, C. M. (2010).
Testosterone physiology in resistance exercise and training. Sports medicine, 40(12), 1037-1053.

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