Anatomy and Physiology Systems 1

1016MSC T1 2023

Module 5 Endocrine System

Tutorial Worksheets

Module 5: Endocrine system: Topics 5.1, 5.2

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Module 5: Endocrine system

5.1: Hypothalamus and pituitary gland

End ocr ine Stimuli

 Stimuli trigger
endocrine glands to
manufacture and
secrete hormones
 humoral
 neural
 hormonal
 Which one is which?

Questions.
1. The chemical structure of a hormone determines how it acts.
Name the two general structures of hormones and give an example of a hormone for each
type of structure.
a) Water soluble e.g., amino acids
b) Lipid Soluble e.g., steroids
2. Name the 2 methods that a hormone may use to communicate with its target cell.
a) Water soluble: Act on receptors in plasma membrane. It is also coupled with
regulatory G-proteins to one or more intracellular 2nd messengers.
b) lipid Soluble: Act on receptors inside the cell and directly activates genes.

3. What are the 3 types of stimuli for releasing hormones?

a) Humoral: trigger hormone release cause by altered levels of certain critical ions.
b) Neural: Hormone released caused by neural input.
c) hormonal: hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone).

4. What is the difference between an exocrine and an endocrine gland?

- The exocrine is a ducted system and it carries non-hormonal substances such as sweat and
saliva to membrane surface. Whereas the endocrine system is ductless system, and it delivers

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substances into surrounding tissue fluid near rich vascular and lymphatic damage for
distribution.

Posterior pituitary

Questions.
1. List the hormones produced in the posterior pituitary.
- None
2. List the hormones released from the posterior pituitary.
a) Oxytocin
b) Antidiuretic hormone

3. Where do they act.

a. Stimulates smooth muscle in myometrium in uterus and myoepithelial cells of
breast.
b. Stimulates renal tubule cells in the kidney to reabsorb water from urine.
c. What are their functions?

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a) Assists in delivery of baby during childbirth and let down during breastfeeding. It
is stimulated by the onset of labour and baby suckling the breast.
b) Influences our water balance and osmolarity of blood fluids. It is stimulated by the
low blood pressure or high plasma osmolarity.

d. Describe the connection between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary.
Include the name, type of tissue and structures involved.
- Hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

- Neural outgrowth of the hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary

Questions.
1. What type of connection does the hypothalamus have with the anterior pituitary?

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ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone.

TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone.
LH: Luteinising hormone.
FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone.
GH: Growth Hormone. Prolactin

2. Name this connection.

- Vascular: hypophyseal.

3. What is unique about a portal system?

- Two capillaries connected by veins.
- Unusual arrangement of blood vessels.
- Only small amounts of hormones are required to have a big effect.
- Hormones are delivered directly to the target.

4. Where do the anterior pituitary hormones enter the systemic circulation?

- Secondary capillary plexus: network of sinusoidal capillaried that provide blood.

5. Discuss the difference between tropic and non-tropic hormones. Give an example of
each in your answer.
- Tropic is a turn on or change. It is indirectly controlling development,
maintenance, and secretion from a variety of glands in the body. It stimulates the
release of glandular hormones downstream. Example of this would be TSH,
ACTH, FSH, and LH.
- Non-tropic is directly affecting non-endocrine target tissues. An example would
be when prolactin is directly targeting breast and promoting lactation.

6. What is the cause of the condition Acromegaly?

- Hypersecretion of growth hormone during adulthood.

7. How is this different from Gigantism?

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- Acromegaly (disproportionate growth): Growth of the hands and feet and face
bones continues to occur, however, the long bones of the arms and legs do not, sd
epiphyseal growth plates have closed.
- Gigantism (proportionate growth): hyper section of growth hormone in children.
All bones grow include long bone in length.

Hyp othalamic - ante r ior p ituitary re lationship

Hypothalamus
PIH TRH CRH GHRH GHIH GnRH
Anterior pituitary
Prolactin TSH ACTH GH FSH LH

Endocrine target and

hormones released
Thyroid gland Adrenal cortex Liver Gonads
Thyroid hormones Cortisol Somatomedins Androgens/Oestrogens

Non-endocrine target
Breast Many body tissues Germ cells of the gonads
Endocrine system 5.1c

List the tropic hormones in the table above. No abbreviations. –

- TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

List the non-tropic hormones in the table.

- Prolactin

Which hormone exhibits both tropic and non-tropic actions? Somatotropin

True/False Questions.

1. Oxytocin is produced in the posterior lobe of the pituitary. False

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2. Growth hormone-releasing hormone travels via axonal transport down the

hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to the anterior pituitary. False
3. Luteinising hormone is a tropic hormone. True
4. Pituitary dwarfism results from a deficiency in thyroid-stimulating hormone. False
5. Excess alcohol intake increases the release of ADH. False
6. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone is released from the hypothalamus. True.
7. Prolactin stimulates the ‘let-down’ reflex. False
8. Excess production of growth hormone can result in either Gigantism or Acromegaly.
True
9. Oxytocin release is regulated via a negative feedback cycle. False
10. High blood pressure stimulates the release of ADH. False

Positive fe e d b ack – oxytocin re g ulation

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Ne g ative fe e d b ack – hormone re g ulation

Hormone 1
 Negative feedback
can affect either
 hypothalamus
Hormone 2
 anterior pituitary

Target gland

Hormone 3

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5.2: Thyroid and parathyroid glands

Thyroid and p arathyroid g land s

Thyroid surgeons must take great care to identify the

parathyroid glands and leave them intact

Endocrine System Tutorial 2

Review Questions.
1. What is the major effect of
a. thyroid hormone? Metabolism
b. parathyroid hormone? Regulation of blood Calcium.
c. calcitonin? Lowers blood calcium level.
2. Name the specific cells and gland that release each of these hormones.
a) Follicle cells
b) Chief cells
c) Parafollicular cells

3. What is the difference between T3 and T4?

- T3 denotes the active thyroid hormone whereas the T4 denotes the precursor of
the thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland. Thus, T3 and T4 are the two
forms of thyroid hormone that controls the metabolism. T4 is 2 tyrosine molecules
+ 4 bound iodine atoms. T3 is two tyrosine + 3 iodine atoms.

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4. Which thyroid hormone is also named ‘thyroxine’? T4

5. Where is thyroid hormone synthesised?

- Follicular cells in thyroid gland.
6. What name is given to infants with a thyroid hormone deficiency?
- Cretins

7. Describe 3 features of someone with the condition myxoedema.

a) Puffy skin, coarse hair
b) Easily fatigued, lethargic.
c) Decreased metabolic rate (weight gain)

8. What is a goitre?
- Enlarged thyroid gland.

9. What is the most common cause of a goitre?

- Iodine deficiency (hypothyroidism)

10. The most common cause of hyperthyroidism is grave’s disease which is caused by
autoimmune antibodies (immunoglobulins) that mimic TSH.

11. If PTH is chronically elevated, describe the possible structural changes to bones.
- Decreased bone mass.
- Softened and deformed bones
- Fibrous tissue replaces mineral salts

Question.

Complete the following diagram as it relates to the regulation of the secretion of thyroid
hormone. Include all components of the HPA axis and the hormones released at each
location. Additionally, include the specific sites of secretion and action of thyroid hormone.
This is an example of hormonal regulation by ___________________ feedback.

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T3 and T4
Hypothalamus

TRH

Anterior Pituitary

TSH

Thyroid Gland Thyroid Follicular cells site of secretion

T3 T3 and T4 hormone

site of action Metabolic activity heat production

Module 5: Endocrine system: Topics 5.3, 5.4

5.3: Adrenal hormones

Ad re nal g land

Hint: ‘ad’-renal =
add to renal, or
on top of kidneys

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Ad re nal corte x
 Mineralocorticoids
 Aldosterone - the most potent mineralocorticoid
 regulates electrolytes in extracellular fluids (esp Na+ and K+)
 stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the kidney; water follows by osmosis
 stimulates urinary K+ excretion

 Glucocorticoids
 Cortisol - helps the body to resist stress
 gluconeogenesis (formation of new glucose in the liver)
 glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen in liver to form glucose)
 protein catabolism → amino acids (can generate new glucose)
 lipolysis (breakdown of adipose tissue)

 Gonadocorticoids
 Androgens – weak male sex hormones
 onset of puberty, growth spurt in males
 appearance of secondary sex characteristics, incl. body hair
 female sex drive

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Disord e rs of the Ad re nal corte x

Conn’s synd rome
 Primary aldosteronism
 Hypersecretion of aldosterone
 caused by tumour - adrenal aldosteronoma
 salt and water retention
 hypertension and oedema
 increased potassium excretion
 unresponsive neurones and muscle weakness due to low K +
 experience weakness and fatigue, paraesthesia, transient paralysis

Disord e rs of the Ad re nal corte x

Cushing ’s synd rome
 Hypersecretion of Cortisol
 ‘moon face’
 salt and water retention
 hypertension
 poor wound healing
 elevated blood glucose
 central obesity and thin limbs
 loss of muscle and bone protein
 buffalo hump Caused by:
 easy bruising  Therapeutic corticosteroids
 Adrenal cortex tumour
 Anterior pituitary tumour

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Disord e rs of the Ad re nal corte x

Ad d ison’s d ise ase
 deficits in mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids
 ‘adrenal insufficiency’
 low plasma sodium, high plasma potassium
 salt craving, weight loss,
 severe dehydration and hypotension
 low blood glucose
 weakness, fatigue

Disord e rs of the Ad re nal corte x

And rog e nital synd rome
 hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids
 excess testosterone
 masculinisation of females
 hirsutism - females develop facial hair
 male scalp hair pattern
 voice deepens
 clitoris can grow to mimic the shape of a male penis
 male-type muscle development

https://jeffreysterlingmd.com/2016/02/24/straight-no-chaser-hirsutism-abnormal-female-hair-growth-2/ Tanaka Y O et al. Radiographics 2004;24:S147-S166

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Ad re nal Me d ulla
 Modified sympathetic neurones synthesise catecholamines
 Secretion Adrenaline and Noradrenaline strongly stimulated by
sympathetic nerves to the adrenal medulla
 Adrenaline
 80% stored, ready for use when needed, esp for flight and fight
mode
 ↑ blood flow to heart and skeletal muscle
 bronchodilation
 metabolic activities (release of glucose from glycogen stores;
gluconeogenesis)
 Noradrenaline
 20% stored
 ↑ peripheral vasoconstriction and ↑ blood pressure

Disord e rs of the Ad re nal Me d ulla

Phae ochromocytoma
 hypersecretion of catecholamines due to tumour of adrenal medulla
 uncontrolled catecholamine release
 symptoms of sympathetic nervous system over-activity
 hyperglycaemia
 increased metabolic rate
 cardiac arrhythmias
 hypertension
 headaches
 tremor
 serious → high blood pressure → stroke
 treatment → surgical removal of tumour

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Review Question.

Complete the following diagram as it relates to the regulation of the secretion of cortisol.
Include all components of the HPA axis and the hormones released at each location.
Additionally, include the specific sites of secretion and action of cortisol.
This is an example of hormonal regulation by __________________________ feedback.

stress
circadian rhythm

site of secretion

hormone

site of action

Review Questions.

1. Name the 3 layers of cells in the Adrenal Cortex.

- Zona glomerulosa: outermost.

- Zona fasciculata: deep.

- Zona reticularis: innermost.

2. Where is Aldosterone secreted from?

- Secreted in mineralocorticoids.

3. What is the prime function of a mineralocorticoid?

- Regulates electrolyte concentration in ECF.

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4. Which organ secretes Renin?

- Kidney
5. Where is ANP secreted from?
- Heart

6. What does RAAS stand for?

- Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system

7. Name the glucocorticoid involved in the chronic stress response.

- Cortisol

8. What hormones are deficient in Addison’s disease?

- Adrenal insufficient.

9. Cushing’s syndrome occurs due to arising from excess of glucocorticoid cortisol.

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Challenge Question.
Use the image above to form a concise paragraph describing the differences between short-
term stress and long-term stress responses. Include the hormones involved, their origin and
the type of stimulus, the target cells and the physiological responses expected.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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5.4: Other selected endocrine glands

Pancre as
Exocrine function:
Acinar cells produce enzyme-rich
pancreatic juice for digestion
Endocrine function:
The pancreatic islets contain two
major cell types:
Alpha (α) cells – secrete glucagon
increases blood glucose
Beta (β) cells – secrete insulin
decreases blood glucose

Blood g lucose
home ostasis Fed state

1. Insulin is the major

________________ hormone.
2. It counterbalances the many
________________ hormones
eg: glucagon, ____________, Hungry state
___________ hormone.

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Diab e te s me llitus (DM)

 Type 1 - hyposecretion of insulin, damaged beta cells in pancreas
 Type 2 - hypoactivity of insulin, increased insulin resistance
 blood glucose levels remain high after eating as glucose can’t
enter cells
 hyperglycaemia – nauseated – fright and flight response
 precipitates inappropriate response of more glucose
availability – high blood glucose levels!
 glycosuria (sugar in urine)
 cardinal signs of Diabetes Mellitus
 Polyuria - excessive volumes urine
 Polydipsia - excess thirst
 Polyphagia - excess hunger

http://www.medfriendly.com/diabetes-mellitus.html http://qsota.com/diabetes-mellitus-type-1/

Review Questions.
1. Which hormone does the heart produce and what is its function?
a) ANP: regulates sodium water balance and blood pressure by promoting renal sodium
and water excretion and stimulating vasodilation.
b) BNP: Regulating circulation and acts on the blood vessels, causing them to dilate or
widen.

2. Which hormone is produced by fat tissue and what is its function?

a) Leptin: acts as appetite suppressant and stimulated energy expenditure.
b)

3. Which major endocrine gland secretes the same steroidal hormones released from the
ovaries and testes? _____________________________________________________
4. Which hormone influences daily rhythms and induces sleep?
- Melatonin

5. Name the hormones released by the endocrine portion of the pancreas and the specific
cell type that secretes each of these hormones.
a) Alphas cells: secrete glucagon which increase blood sugar levels.
b) Beta cells: secrete insulin which decrease blood sugar levels.

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1. Explain the mechanisms underlying Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

- Type 1 is the absence of insulin, b-cells of the pancreas are usually damaged and
unable to produce insulin which cause high glucose levels. Type 2 diabetes is
when insulin is produced but the tissue cells are resistant to its function and blood
glucose levels remains high and it long term effects meaning it cannot be cured.

2. List 3 cardinal signs of Diabetes Mellitus

- Polyuria: excessive volume of urine.
- Polydipsia: excess thirst.
- Polyphagia: excess hunger.

3. What is the recommended treatment for Type 2 Diabetes?

- Lifestyle changes
- Change of diet
- Weight loss to reduce blood sugar levels in a healthy range.

1016MSC T1 2023 Module 5 Tutorial Worksheets