IATSSR-00274; No of Pages 8

IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

IATSS Research

Research Article

The effect of situation awareness on driving performance in young

sleep-deprived drivers
Titis Wijayanto a,⁎, Syam Rachma Marcillia b, Galang Lufityanto c, Bonifatius Bramantya Wisnugraha a,
Tasya Ghonia Alma a, Rayanda Utomo Abdianto a
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
b
Department of Architecture and Planning, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
c
The Mind, Brain, & Behaviour Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study aims to investigate how situation awareness (SA) when driving in sleep-deprived condition mediates
Received 7 January 2020 the effect of sleep deprivation and driving performance in young drivers. Fifteen male students (mean age 21.1 ±
Received in revised form 29 September 2020 0.8 years) underwent two 45-min driving simulation sessions in random counterbalanced order: one in the
Accepted 12 October 2020
morning after approximately seven hours sleep (normal-sleep condition) and another one in the morning
Available online xxxx
after 24 h sleep deprivation (sleep-deprived condition). SA was measured using quantitative analysis of situation
Keywords:
awareness (QASA). Driving performance was measured in terms of the number of collisions. Here we find that SA
Sleep deprivation and driving performance decrement when driving in sleep-deprived condition. Compared to normal-sleep con-
Situation awareness dition, driving in sleep-deprived condition impaired SA (p = 0.024) and driving performance (p = 0.006). The
Driving performance mediation analysis shows that the decrement of driving performance is predicted by sleep deprivation (p =
Mediation analysis 0.021) and SA (p = 0.041). These results indicate that SA partially mediates the effect of sleep deprivation on
driving performance. SA decrement in sleep-deprived condition impairs driving performance that can pose a
danger to safety-critical action during driving in young drivers.
© 2020 International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction 100,000 population in Indonesia as a result of RTA. This figure is higher

The World Health Organization (WHO) 2018 report shows that the
number of global deaths per annum due to road traffic accidents
(RTA) has reached 1.35 million [1]. The report also estimates that
RTAs have become the ninth leading cause of death in all age groups.
There is also a consistently rising number of traffic accidents at a
young age. WHO reported that RTAs have become the leading cause of
death of children and young adults aged 5–29 years.
Recently, RTA and death are increasingly concentrated in developing
countries. The WHO report indicates that more than 90% of the deaths
from RTA occur in developing countries [1]. In developing countries,
the risk of death from RTA is threefold higher than in developed coun-
tries. The region with the second highest traffic accident rate in the
world after Africa is Southeast Asia, with a death rate of 20.7 per 100
population. Indonesia is one of the countries in Southeast Asia where
this phenomenon can be seen. WHO estimates a death rate of 12.2 per
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl Grafika no 2, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
E-mail address: twijaya@ugm.ac.id (T. Wijayanto).
Peer review under responsibility of International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences.
than other countries, such as Singapore (2.8 deaths per 100,000 popula-
tion) and Australia (5.2 deaths per 100,000 population). Soehodho [2]
also noted that the young drivers between the ages of 20–30 in
Indonesia often experience a higher fatality rate. Since the young age
group corresponds to the most productive segment of the population,
the impacts of the accidents are much more significant in
middle-income countries, e.g., Indonesia [2]. Therefore, it is essential
to investigate the factors that contribute to a traffic accident in develop-
ing countries such as Indonesia.
Several studies have explored multiple human-related factors con-
tributing to traffic accidents. Sleepiness has been cited as one of the per-
vasive hazards, especially in RTA in the world [3,4]. Many study results
have revealed that sleepiness leads to an increased risk for getting in-
volved in traffic accidents and subsequent injuries and death [5–8].
Driving when drowsy has been reported as the cause of traffic accidents
in many countries. Some reports indicate that drowsy driving results in
an estimated 21% of fatalities and 13% of accidents causing severe inju-
ries in the US [10], 20% to 25% of highway, or motorway, accidents in the
UK [11], 10% in France and 33% in Australia [12]. In a study among Thai
commercial bus/truck drivers, there was a strong relationship between
sleepiness and accidents. 23% of crashes were reported where sleepi-
ness due to sleep deprivation was the primary cause [13]. In

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2020.10.002
0386-1112/© 2020 International Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto, et al., The effect of situation awareness on driving performance in young sleep-
deprived drivers, IATSS Research, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2020.10.002
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al.
Indonesia, Jasa Marga, a highway operator company, recorded that ap-
proximately 21% of highway accidents were due to sleepiness [14]. Fur-
thermore, it was also reported that sleepiness has been suspected as the
leading cause of 140 traffic accidents in the longest toll road in
Indonesia. These accidents occurred between midnight and morning.
Preliminary analysis by Symon et al. [15] indicated that young peo-
ple had been over-represented in road deaths. From the human factors
perspective, in particular, young ages are recognized as a vulnerable cat-
egory for RTA due to their inexperience and unsafe driving practices
[16]. A review by Horne and Reyner [11] showed that young drivers
under 30 are the most prevalent road users in morning sleep-related ac-
cidents. This trend can be attributed to a higher risk of sleep deprivation
in young drivers and a tendency for them to ignore drowsiness and to
continue driving regardless.
Specifically, sleepiness and fatigue can be induced by partial or
total sleep deprivation, sleep disruption, and also prolonged periods
of nighttime wakefulness. Several studies have reported that sleep-
related accident typically occur in the morning after one-night's
sleep deprivation. It is found not only in professional drivers but also
those drivers following the night shift [17–19]. A review by Costa
[20] suggests that daytime sleepiness due to night shift work makes
drivers susceptible to traffic accidents. The leading cause of sleepiness
on the night shift is the amount of wakefulness during the circadian
nadir, which increases the sleep demand after working [21]. Night
workers have a higher level of sleepiness before commuting after
work in the morning, which makes them particularly vulnerable to
sleep-related crashes [20,22]. Increased subjective sleepiness and
lane drift, decreased time to first accident and driving performance
decrements after one night shift are also evident during a simulated
driving study [17]. Increased driving accident risk in a sleep-
deprived condition often holds for an excessively long periods of
night shift work and driving after night shifts [19].
Driving is a dynamic and complex task that requires a variety of cog-
nitive functions. For safe driving, the driver ought to correctly perceive
and understand the elements in the driving environment, such as traffic
conditions. Moreover, a driver should predict possible consequences of
these elements on safe and efficient driving. This process refers to the
concept of situation awareness (SA), developed by Endsley [23]. Accord-
ing to the concept, an individual SA involves identifying and perceiving
information and elements in the situation (Level 1), comprehending the
meaning of the perceived elements (Level 2), and anticipating the fu-
ture state of the elements (Level 3) [23]. SA is essential to decision mak-
ing and the performance of any complex and dynamic task, including
driving.
Fig. 1 shows the simplified Endsley's concept of SA in a driving task
context. As depicted in Fig. 1, SA may influence a driver's decision
Fig. 1. The modified Endsley's concept of situation awareness in the driving context.
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IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx
making and may affect his or her performance. Several studies have
tried to engage the SA model. They have revealed a shred of empirical
evidence that the SA model is relevant in driving context that influences
driving performance [24,25]. A driver who has a degraded SA, for exam-
ple, fails to perceive information or elements in the driving environ-
ment. Failure to comprehend this information may result in an
inability to project the future state of the driving situation, thereby in-
creasing the likelihood of accidents in the future [24].
Returning to the detrimental effects of sleep deprivation, several
studies have shown that sleep deprivation leads to reduced alertness
level [26], concentration, visual perceptions, distracting thoughts,
psychomotor vigilance [27], vigilant or sustained attention [28], long-
term memory, and decision-making [29,30]. Some of the aforemen-
tioned cognitive functions, such as visual attention, working memory,
long-term memory, and decision making, are essential for achieving a
better SA [23,31,32]. Cognitive processes involving attention, working
memory, and long-term memory are necessary to receive and perceive
information and to process the information in order to build a mental
model for achieving SA [23,32]. Decreases in cognitive functions related
to SA during sleep deprivation may alter driving performance. However,
studies that explore the association between sleep deprivation, SA, and
driving performance are relatively few. Given that sleep deprivation de-
grades cognitive abilities necessary to develop an enhanced SA, the
causes underlying traffic accidents in sleep-deprived condition are not
fully understood.
According to Endsley's concept of SA (Fig. 1), there are two factors—
task/system factors and individual factors—influencing SA decision-
making and performance. Task/system factors in this context include
workload, stress, and fatigue. Endsley cites fatigue as one of the task fac-
tors influencing individual ability to achieve SA. The terms fatigue is
similar to sleepiness; these terms are often used interchangeably [33].
There are various causes of fatigue, including sleep deprivation. In this
study, we posit that sleep deprivation may be considered as one of the
determinant factors of task/system factors that likely influence SA. We
extend the framework of Endsley's concept of SA to develop a proposed
model for investigating the potential connection between sleep depri-
vation, SA and driving performance, as shown in Fig. 2. This proposed
model sets the sleep deprivation as the determinant under the sys-
tem/task factors influencing SA and driving performance, with driving
as the outcome, and SA as the mediating variable. Using this model,
we first investigate the effects of sleep deprivation on SA and driving
performance. We hypothesize that sleep deprivation will have signifi-
cant effects on SA and driving performance. Secondly, we determine
whether SA mediates the effect of sleep deprivation on driving perfor-
mance. We hypothesize that together with sleep deprivation, SA will
predict driving performance.
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al.
Fig. 2. The proposed theoretical model of sleep deprivation, situation awareness and
driving performance. b shows the direct effect of sleep deprivation on driving
performance; a shows the effect of sleep deprivation on situation awareness; b’
indicates the indirect effect of sleep deprivation on driving performance; c shows the
effect of situation awareness on driving performance.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Fifteen male university students with an average age of 21.1 ±
0.8 years participated in this study. They had held their driving licenses
for an average 2.7 ± 0.6 years and drove an average of 15.0 ± 7.1 h per
week. We recruited students as participants by considering that young
drivers are more susceptible to traffic accidents than older drivers
[34,35]. They were examined by age, “morning–evening type” based
on the Horne–Östberg questionnaire [36], driving experience, availabil-
ity of their cars, and their daily habits, including sleep behaviors as se-
lection criteria for the definition of the final sample. Participants had
normal eyes or normal correction of the eye. They did not have any
sleep problems and denied use of medication. They were also free of
simulator sickness, verified after a 15-min simulator familiarization ses-
sion using a simulator sickness questionnaire [37]. Of the 15 partici-
pants, four were moderate morning types, four were moderate
evening types, and the rest were intermediate types. In order to control
the diurnal variation influence on their morning driving performance,
whether or not in sleep-deprived condition, potential participants
who were definite morning or evening types were excluded from par-
ticipation in the study.
The experimental procedures used for this study followed the Hel-
sinki guidelines, ethical principles for medical research with human
subjects, and the local ethics committee approved them. When partici-
pants reached the experimentation chamber, they received an explana-
tion of the experimental procedures. They all provided written consent
to participate. All were reimbursed approximately USD 10 per experi-
mental condition for their participation.
2.2. Experimental procedures
The participants underwent driving simulator familiarization with
an urban setting after they provided their consent. The familiarization
session lasted at least 30 min or until the participants were capable of
operating the simulator. They then continued to participate in the
main experiment session only if they had passed these criteria, specifi-
cally, maintaining a driving speed within 60 kph, obeyed the traffic
rules, and had no collisions with other objects during the practice
session.
Participants wore smartwatch (Samsung Gear 2, Samsung, Korea) as
sleep tracker to monitor their rest-activity rhythm 48 h before the ex-
periment. They were told to undertake normal activity the day before
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IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx
the experiment session and sleep a fixed amount of time that night
without deprivation. Participants were also requested to refrain from
consumption of caffeinated beverages for at least two days before par-
ticipation in the main experiment. No nap was permitted on the day be-
fore the experiment.
Each participant took part in two morning driving simulation ses-
sions. One experiment condition (normal-sleep condition) was admin-
istered after they experienced normal sleep at home. They then arrived
at the laboratory in the morning to perform the driving simulation task.
They were instructed to go to bed around 9:00 p.m. and to wake up
around 5.00 a.m., simulating the normal daily sleep habit of
Indonesians, where most Indonesians go to bed early at night and
wake up before sunrise. Participants were picked up by the experi-
menter around 6.00 a.m. and arrived at the laboratory around 6:30 a.
m. The sleep trackers confirmed that the average sleep length was
6.8 h ± 20 min. The second experiment day was administered after par-
ticipants had experienced one night of sleep deprivation in the labora-
tory. For the sleep-deprived condition, participants arrived at the
laboratory around 8:00 p.m. and stayed awake during the night. During
this waking period, they could play games, watch movies, read or talked
to the experimenters, but exercise was prohibited. To randomize and
counterbalance the order of the experiment, participants were ran-
domly assigned into two groups. The first eight participants performed
in normal sleep followed by sleep-deprived condition the following day,
while the remaining seven participants completed the conditions in re-
verse order. Light breakfast was then served in the morning before their
driving simulation sessions for both experimental conditions. The driv-
ing simulation task was started at approximately 7:00 a.m. for both con-
ditions. After the experiment in normal-sleep condition, participants
could leave the laboratory. For the sleep-deprived condition, partici-
pants could stay at the laboratory to take a rest for recovery sleep or
be driven home.
2.3. Driving simulation task
The main component of the driving environment used in this study
was a PC-based driving simulator software (City Car Driving v 1.5.6, For-
ward Development, Russia) projected on a large 49-in., curved, high-
definition screen (Samsung HD Curve TV, Samsung, Korea). The driving
simulator was equipped with a set of manual transmission gears, pedals
and steering wheels (G27, Logitech, China) installed in an adjustable
gaming seat (Playseat Evolution, Logitech, China). For the driving task,
a 2-lane urban driving scenario was employed, depicting with several
intersections, road signs and traffic lights, and other road users (cars,
buses, and trucks).
The scenario's vehicle traffic density was set at a level of 50% with a
mild aggressiveness and a limited number of pedestrians. The scene
allowed participants to encounter traffic congestion, other vehicles,
and some pedestrians. They might experience other's illegal driving be-
havior and several hazardous events that interrupted and impeded their
journeys to complete the tasks. The scenarios might also allow the par-
ticipants to collide with other objects in the driving environment. How-
ever, they were able to continue the simulation as long as they did not
experience serious accidents causing vehicular damage. Otherwise,
they needed to restart the simulation. In the end, none restarted the
simulation due to serious accident. The experimental setting and the
snapshot of the virtual driving environment during the driving task is
depicted in Fig. 3.
This scenario was selected to mimic rush hour period in some urban
cities in Indonesia that occurs around 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. For both
driving simulation conditions, the routes, the starting points, and the
destinations were similar. Because of the driving simulator's dynamic
nature, participants might experience different driving conditions dur-
ing the routes. Some participants had to stop at red lights while others
would encounter green lights at the same point. Participants were re-
quired to drive the simulated car for 45 min for each simulation. They
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al.
Fig. 3. Driving simulator setting and a snapshot of the virtual driving environment from the participants' perspective.
were asked to drive at a maximum speed of 60 km/h, with no minimum
speed. Throughout the driving simulator course, they were instructed to
follow the traffic rules. However, on certain occasions, they could pass
other vehicles traveling in the same direction, as long as they did not
break the traffic rules. They were also asked to observe all road signs
and situations during the simulation session.
2.4. Subjective sleepiness measures
Subjective alertness or sleepiness levels was assessed using the
Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) [38] before starting the driving simu-
lation session. The KSS is a single-item scale that queries participants to
rate their current sleepiness on a 9-point scale (1 = extremely alert,
9 = extremely sleepy, sleep-fighting). The KSS adopted in this study
was previously translated to Indonesian from the previous studies
[39,40] to avoid bias during the assessment.
2.5. Situation awareness measures
Participant SA was assessed throughout the experiment using quan-
titative analysis of situation awareness (QASA) [41]. The SA probes were
administered using a freeze probing technique. The driving simulation
activity was randomly frozen five times during the experiment to ad-
minister the SA probes. Some participants might experience the freez-
ing before or after having a collision. Freezing the simulation to
administer the SA probes might influence the task [42]. However, ac-
cording to Endsley [43], freezing a situation to administer SA probes
did not significantly affect performance. Also, based on our observation,
the freezing in this study did not cause collisions right after the SA probe
administration. During the freezing period, the simulation was paused,
and the monitor screen was turned off. The participants were then
given a set of SA true/false probes and a pencil. For each set of probes,
six probes from a pool of 30 probes targeting all SA levels were pro-
vided. Participants were asked to identify, for example, the current ve-
locity of their car (1st level SA) and to assess whether their current
speed was faster or slower than that of the leading vehicle (2nd level
SA). Finally, they might be asked to estimate how many seconds it
would take to reach the lead car at the current driving speed (3rd
stage of SA). These queries were presented in the form of true/false
statements. After responding to each probe, participants were asked to
rate how confident their responses were correct, ranging from 1 (very
low) to 5 (very high). After responding to all probes, the display screen
was powered on, and the participants continued the experiment where
they had left off.
QASA used in this study provided two measures: the actual SA and
perceived SA. The actual SA was compared to the “ground truth” of
the simulation recorded by the simulator software. The perceived SA
measured how confident the participants were that their responses to
the given probes were correct. The true/false responses of QASA probes
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IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx
were then analyzed using the signal detection theory approach to calcu-
late actual SA using a formula in Edgar et al. [41]. The confidence ratings
of all responses were then averaged to calculate perceived SA. Both ac-
tual SA and perceived SA scores were then rescaled from −10 to +10
for ease of analysis.
2.6. Driving performance measures
Driving performance measure in the study is the number of colli-
sions recorded automatically by the simulation software. The simulator
software recorded the collisions as any type of event in which the par-
ticipants contacted other vehicles or objects during driving simulation
tasks. Due to the driving simulation setting, there was a possibility
that the simulator also recorded an event when the participant's vehicle
was struck by another vehicle due to sudden braking to avoid collision,
or to hindrance from other vehicles in front of them. These events were
excluded from the number of collisions recorded by the simulator. The
corrected number of collisions was then set as the driving performance
measure. A higher driving performance score indicated poor driving
performance.
2.7. Statistical data analysis
Values are shown as mean and standard deviation. The data col-
lected were checked for normal distribution using the Kolmogorov–
Smirnov test. Except for driving performance, all data were normally
distributed. Repeated measure analysis of variance (RM ANOVA) was
used to assess the effect of sleep deprivation on KSS, actual SA, perceived
SA, and driving performance. Due to the violation of the parametric as-
sumption, driving performance data were treated using the Friedman
test. A mediation test was performed using a bias-corrected bootstrap
protocol (Hayes's Model 4, [44]) to test the model shown in Fig. 2.
Sleep deprivation (normal sleep = 0, sleep deprivation = 1) was set
as the predictor (X), driving performance in terms of the number of col-
lisions was set as the outcome (Y), and SA parameters (actual SA and
perceived SA) were set as the mediation variables (M). The conven-
tional approach to mediation analysis in this study consisted of three re-
gression analysis steps. The first was to find the effect of X on Y (referred
to as b). Next step was to obtain the effect of X on M (referred to as a).
Finally, the last step was to simultaneously test the effect of X-
adjusted M on Y (referred to as b’) and the effect of M on Y (referred
to as c). The effect of mediation was determined if the following condi-
tions were satisfied: the effect of X on Y (b) is significant, the effect of X
on M (a) is also significant, and the effect of M on Y (c) is significant.
While the effect of X-adjusted M on Y (b’) is still significant, the result
of mediation analysis is interpreted as “partially mediated,” and if not
significant, it is interpreted as “completely mediated.” [45] A separate
covariance analysis (ANCOVA) was conducted to observe a statistically
significant effect of sleep deprivation on situational awareness
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al. IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx

measures (actual SA and perceived SA), with driving performance con-

trolling for participants' characteristics, e.g., morning–evening type
(1 = moderate morning type, 2 = intermediate type, 3 = moderate
evening type) and driving hours per week. Statistical significance has
been established for P < 0.05. Statistical analysis was conducted using
the JASP v 0.11. G-power 3.1 software [46] was used to verify whether
the sample size used in the study was adequate to give sufficient
power. The calculated statistical power analysis result showed that a
sample of 15 participants yielded a statistical power (1-β) of 0.88,
which was higher than the suggested minimum statistical power of
0.8 [47,48].

3. Results
Fig. 4. The mediation of situation awareness on the relationship between sleep
3.1. Subjective sleepiness deprivation and driving performance. b shows the direct effect of sleep deprivation on
driving performance; a shows the effect of sleep deprivation on situation awareness; b’
indicates the indirect effect of sleep deprivation on driving performance; c shows the
Statistical analysis showed significant effect of sleep deprivation on effect of situation awareness on driving performance.
subjective sleepiness level, as assessed by the KSS (F(1,14) = 26.36,
p < 0.01). Participants reported higher subjective sleepiness scores in
sleep-deprived condition (KSS score = 6.0 ± 0.6) than in normal-
SA level of participants. Since both sleep deprivation and actual SA sig-
sleep condition (KSS score = 3.0 ± 0.4).
nificantly predict the number of collisions, these findings showed that
actual SA partially mediated the effect of sleep deprivation on the colli-
3.2. Situation awareness
sion number. Meanwhile, the perceived SA did not mediate the relation-
ship between sleep deprivation and driving performance.
Table 1 depicts actual SA, perceived SA, and overconfidence bias
scores in normal sleep and sleep-deprived condition. This table reveals
3.5. Other factors influencing SA and driving performance
that the actual SA in the normal sleep is higher than during a
sleep-deprived condition. Statistical analysis showed a significant
The results of ANCOVA showed that the covariate morning–evening
sleep deprivation effect on actual SA (F(1,14) = 6.40, p = 0.024). There
type of the participants was not related to the actual SA (F(1,13) = 0.021,
was no significant difference between the two conditions for perceived
p = 0.89), perceived SA (F(1,13) = 0.274, p = 0.61), or driving perfor-
SA (F(1,14) = 2.02, p = 0.18).
mance (F(1,14) = 0.051, p = 0.83). Similar findings were found for the
driving hours. The ANCOVA results showed no significant relationship
3.3. Driving performance
with the perceived SA (F(1,13) = 0.026, p = 0.876) or driving perfor-
mance (F(1,13) = 1.19, p = 0.29). Driving hours seemed to relate to
Statistical analysis showed a significant effect of sleep deprivation on
the actual SA. However, the statistical analysis result was not significant
driving performance, in terms of the number of collisions (χ2(1) = 11,
(F(1,13) = 3.298, p = 0.092).
p = 0.006). The number of collisions in sleep-deprived condition
(7 ± 1 events) was higher than in the normal-sleep condition (2 ± 1
events). These indicate reduced driving performance when driving in 4. Discussion
a sleep-deprived condition.
Driving in a sleep-deprived condition is often associated with poor
driving performance, e.g., higher risk of collision. Nevertheless, SA un-
3.4. Mediation analysis
derlying this impairment is not well understood. In this study, we
attempted to examine the effects of SA on driving performance in
The results of the mediation analysis to test the hypothesis that SA
young sleep-deprived drivers through a driving simulator study.
mediates the effects of sleep deprivation on driving performance is
We confirmed the hypothesis that sleep deprivation is negatively as-
shown in Fig. 4. First, the results of mediation analysis revealed a signif-
sociated with SA and driving performance. In this study, sleep depriva-
icant relationship between sleep deprivation and driving performance,
tion negatively affected participants' driving performance, meaning that
in terms of the number of collisions (b = 0.524, t = 3.258, p =
participants had more collisions in sleep-deprived condition than in
0.003), indicating that sleep-deprived condition is associated with a
normal sleep condition. Sleep deprivation has already been identified
greater number of collisions. Second, a significant inverse relationship
with a higher risk of accident and impaired driving performance,
was revealed between sleep deprivation and the actual SA (a =
especially in young drivers. In this study, we found that the number of
−0.41, t = −2.23, p = 0.03), indicating that driving in sleep-deprived
collisions was higher during morning driving simulation task with a
condition decreases actual SA. Finally, the number of collisions was pre-
sleep-deprived condition. These results match very well with previous
dicted by the actual SA (c = −0.349, t = −2.149, p = 0.041). At the
studies reporting detrimental effects of sleep deprivation on driving
same time, it was predicted by a sleep deprivation condition (b’ =
performance [49]. Impaired driving performance in sleep-deprived con-
0.399, t = 2.455, p = 0.021). These results indicate that the number of
dition, in this case represented by a higher collision number, might be
collisions was predicted by the driving condition as well as the actual
due to increased sleepiness, reduced subjective alertness level [26],
and/or impaired cognitive functions such as psychomotor vigilance, vig-
ilant attention [27,28], working memory, and/or decision-making
Table 1
SA parameters in normal sleep and sleep-deprived condition. [29,30]. In sleep-deprived condition, participants might not be able to
maintain their alertness level during the driving task, indicated by an in-
SA Parameters Normal sleep Sleep-deprived
creased subjective sleepiness level. Decreased alertness level adversely
Actual SA 7.94 ± 0.29a 7.08 ± 0.28 affects the capacity to attend to external stimuli for a prolonged period
Perceived SA 7.47 ± 0.35 6.82 ± 0.59 of vigilance or sustained attention. This condition might cause inatten-
a
Shows a significant difference between the two conditions. tion to available information. Given the experimental scenario

5
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al.
mimicking morning rush hour condition, participants with limited cog-
nitive capacity due to sleep deprivation might fail to perceive some
events in the virtual driving environment, e.g., a sudden appearance of
a vehicle in an intersection. Failure to comprehend these events may re-
sult in an inability to project the future state of the driving environment.
This will negatively impact their responses to events related to the driv-
ing task. Thus, the probability of having a collision with other vehicles or
objects during the driving task is increased in sleep-deprived condition.
In addition to performance decrement, we observed that SA de-
creased when driving in a sleep-deprived condition. Mainly, when the
participant drove in sleep-deprived condition, they might not be able
to maintain the same level of SA as in normal sleep condition. SA is chal-
lenged by the capacity of human information processing, including vi-
sual attention, perception, and working memory. Previous studies
have shown that visual attention and working memory diminished in
sleep-deprived condition [29,30]. Chaparro et al. [32] suggest that visual
attention is correlated with SA. An individual with poor visual attention
ability will not be able to thoroughly absorb information regarding the
driving environment. A decrease in visual attention may result in in-
complete and inaccurate knowledge of the driving states, which led to
an adverse effect on SA. In sleep-deprived condition, sleepiness can de-
mand a portion of a driver's limited attentional capacity. We speculated
that participants in this condition might tend to narrow their field of at-
tention. This might be due to degradation of binocular coordination sta-
bility in the horizontal direction [50] and the deterioration of the useful
visual field [51]. Further, this condition might impair participant ability
to respond to relevant driving cues, such as other vehicles, pedestrians,
speed limits, and traffic signs. Thus, it would likely decrease SA.
Another cognitive factor that is reportedly associated with SA is
working memory. Kaber et al. [52] state that working memory plays
an essential role in perceiving and storing information on the driving
environment and understanding the elements and situation related to
the driving task. Working memory is also essential for constructing a
good mental model regarding a situation [23]. The main bottleneck of
SA may be the heavy load on memory storage and processing. Studies
have found that temporal memory and retrieval deteriorates with
sleep deprivation [5,53]. Decrement of working memory during driving
in a sleep-deprived condition, and its enormous role in SA, might be one
of the reasons for SA decrement found in this study.
The results of the mediation analysis of the study confirm its hypoth-
eses. We found that SA decrement significantly correlated with driving
performance errors. Gugerty [24] states that decreased SA is a common
cause of failure in driving performance, and this decrement can be at-
tributed to more accidents. In the field of aviation, it has been reported
that decreased SA is said to be one of the contributing factors in acci-
dents attributed to human error [54,55]. Mediation analysis also dem-
onstrates a partial mediation effect of SA for sleep deprivation and
collision, confirming the third hypothesis. While sleep deprivation pro-
vides a direct explanation of increased numbers of collisions, it is also at-
tributed to the mediating effect of SA. Several studies have reported that
SA mediates the effect of task-related factors on task performance and
unsafe behavior [56,57]. Berggren et al. [57] report that SA mediates
the effect of workload on task performance. Sneddon et al. [56] report
that SA mediates the effect of stress on unsafe behavior. In this study,
SA partially mediates the effect of system/task-related factors (driving
in sleep-deprived condition) on driving performance. This finding
means that driving performance deterioration is not only affected by
sleep deprivation alone but also by decrement of situation awareness.
Drivers in sleep-deprived condition may not be able to integrate multi-
ple information resources from the driving environment into a more
precise and accurate representation than they might during normal-
sleep condition. Therefore, their SA decreased when driving in sleep-
deprived condition. This decrement may result in poor driving
performance.
It should be noted that the result of the mediation analysis showed
that SA partially mediated the effect of sleep deprivation on driving
6
IATSS Research xxx (2020) xxx
performance. One reason is that sleep deprivation affects not only SA
and driving performance, it also affects the driver's state, especially fa-
tigue. As previously discussed, fatigue induced by sleep deprivation
can influence a driver's attentional capacity. Further, the deterioration
of attentional capacity influences the decrement in SA and driving per-
formance. Other factors may also contribute to driving performance de-
terioration in the sleep-deprived condition, including the cognitive
decrement associated with sleep deprivation, the monotony of driving
task, time of the day, driver age, and driving experience. Here we
found that the number of driving hours per week moderately related
to the participants' SA due to sleep deprivation. However, the relation-
ship was not statistically significant. It means that, together with a
lack of SA, the driving hours per week may also influence driving perfor-
mance in sleep-deprived condition. In this case, participants with longer
driving hours per week tended to perform better than those with fewer
driving hours. We consider that more driving hours per week indicates
greater driving experience. Earlier studies show that experienced
drivers have more attentional resources and a better ability to detect
hazards than novices [58]. They are more situationally aware of driving
situation than their novice counterparts [59]. Therefore, we consider
that participants' driving experience may contribute to SA and driving
performance changes in the sleep-deprived condition. However, it
should be considered that the participants in this study were all young
drivers with less variation in driving hours per week. Ages have been
cited for influencing driving behavior in sleep-deprived condition
[60,61]. For that reason, the driving behaviors of participants in this
study might also be similar. Further studies considering these aspects
would be necessary to uniquely identify the relationship between SA
and driving performance in sleep-deprived condition.
Considering that decreases in SA negatively influence driving perfor-
mance in sleep-deprived condition, countermeasures to avoid fatigue
and particularly traffic accidents during drowsy driving should be con-
sidered to help drivers maintain their SA. A survey by Anund et al.
[62] identified four behaviors—alertness-enhancing activity while driv-
ing, stopping the car, taking a nap, and ingesting coffee or caffeine—as
commonly used countermeasures to overcome sleepiness at the
wheel. Earlier studies have suggested that among those behaviors, tak-
ing naps and consuming coffee have been reported as effective counter-
measures for drowsy driving [63–65]. Studies by Philip et al. [63] and de
Valck [64,66] have reported that taking naps and drinking coffee re-
duced driving impairment in drowsy conditions. However, some cir-
cumstances might not allow for taking naps. For example, before
driving in the morning after one night's sleep deprivation may induce
sleep inertia [67]. Reyner and Horne [68] also reported that drinking a
cup of coffee may be beneficial for those who have been awakened for
one night and have to drive in the morning. It effectively reduces sleep-
iness for about 30 min following sleep deprivation. The other counter-
measure, engaging in a conversation with a passenger, has been
reported as another common resource in a survey by Anund et al.
[62]. However, little is known about whether having a conversation
with the passenger is actually an effective countermeasure for drowsy
drivers. Chandrasekaran et al. [69] report that conversing with a passen-
ger has been reported to improve driver's SA. The reason is that there is
a possibility that both passenger and drivers can modulate their conver-
sation to meet the specific driving situation [70]. Passenger interaction
has also been reported to help the driver with navigational tasks and
positively impact shared SA in improving driver performance [70]. Fur-
ther investigation is necessary to investigate how such countermea-
sures can overcome driver sleepiness, improve SA, and reduce driving
errors in sleep-deprived condition.
Arguably, several limitations should be considered when
interpreting this study's findings. First, measuring SA as the only con-
cept tested in this study is one of its limitations. Other cognitive func-
tions affected by sleep loss have been cited for impairing driver
performance. A future study could investigate the relationship between
cognitive functions related to SA and driving performance impairment
T. Wijayanto, S.R. Marcillia, G. Lufityanto et al.
in sleep-deprived condition to obtain a more comprehensive predictive
model for sleep-related accidents. Second, although driving simulators
have many advantages, this study is limited in its extrapolation to real
driving situations. Driving tasks using driving simulators have been re-
ported to produce higher sleepiness levels [71,72]. It is more tedious
and more demanding for the participant to stay alert [73] than during
actual on-road studies. Therefore, high sleepiness levels reported by
our participants might not only be due to the modulation of circadian
rhythms but also because they might be fully aware that they followed
sleep deprivation protocol. We predict that it may influence their as-
sessment of subjective sleepiness levels reported in a driving simulator
study. Finally, the last limitation of this study was the protocol of normal
sleep that resulted in inefficient sleep, as the participants slept less than
seven hours while spending eight hours in bed. The study was reliant on
self-reported normal sleep and wearable sleep trackers, as the partici-
pants followed normal sleep protocols at their homes, but not in the su-
pervisory environment or sleep chambers. This meant that some
participants might have more sleep than others in normal sleeps. Fur-
ther study should consider this issue to address this limitation.
In summary, this study confirmed the notion that driving perfor-
mance is significantly impaired when driving in the morning after one
night's sleep deprivation. One contributing factor to the poor driving
performance observed in the present study was of reduced SA in
sleep-deprived condition. We observed that the SA partially mediates
the effect of sleep deprivation on driving performance. This finding indi-
cates that other contributing factors may also influence the decrement
of driving performance in sleep-deprived condition.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by PDUPT UGM research grant (Grant
number 2647/UN1/DITLIT/DIT-LIT/LT/2019) from the Ministry of Re-
search, Technology, and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia
and Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia.
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