Module 1: Soil Formation
It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics
Introduction
To the agriculturist, soil is the top thin layer of earth within which organic
forces are predominant and which is responsible for the support of plant
life.
To the geologist, soil is the material in the top thin zone within which
roots occur.
From the point of view of an engineer, soil includes all earth materials,
organic and inorganic, occurring in the zone overlying the rock crust.
The behavior of a structure depends upon the properties of the soil
materials on which the structure rests. The properties of the soil materials
depend upon the properties of the rocks from which they are derived. A
brief discussion of the parent rock is, therefore, quite essential in order to
understand the properties of soil materials.
Topic Outcomes
Define soil mechanics and its importance to Civil Engineering
Identify the different processes involved in rock cycle and understand the
origin of soils
INTRODUCTION
• soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles.
• Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering
projects, and it supports structural foundations.
• Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of
the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses
subjected to various types of forces.
• Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil
mechanics to practical problems.
• Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering
that involves natural materials found close to the surface of the
earth.
and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining
structures, and earth structures.
A BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Many structures that were built centuries ago are monuments of curiosity
even today. Egyptian temples built three or four thousand years ago still
exist though the design of the foundations were not based on any presently
known principles. Romans built notable engineering structures such as
harbors, breakwaters, aqueducts, bridges, large public buildings and a vast
network of durable and excellent roads . The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy
completed during the 14th century is still a center of tourist attraction.
Many bridges were also built during the 15th to 17th centuries. Timber piles
were used for many of the foundations.
Another marvel of engineering achievement is the construction o f the
famed mausoleum Taj Mahal outside the city of Agra. This was constructed
in the 17th century by the Mogul Emperor of Delhi, Shahjahan, to
commemorate his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal. The mausoleum is built on
the bank of the river Jamuna. The proximity of the river required special
attention in the building of the foundations. I t is reported that masonry
cylindrical wells have been used for the foundations. It goes to the credit of
the engineers who designed and constructed this grand structure which is
still quite sound even after a lapse of about three centuries.
The first rational approach for the computation of earth pressures on
retaining walls was formulated by Coulomb (1776), a famous French
scientist. He proposed a theory in 1776 called the "Classical Earth Pressure
Theory". Poncelet (1840 ) extended Coulomb' s theory by giving an elegant
graphical method for finding the magnitude of earth pressure on walls.
Later, Culmann (1875) gave the Coulomb-Poncelet theory a geometrical
formulation, thus supplying the method with a broad scientific basis.
Rankine (1857) a Professor of Civil Engineering in the University of Glasgow,
proposed a new earth pressure theory, which is also called a Classical Earth
Pressure Theory.
Darcy (1856), on the basis of his experiments on filter sands, proposed a law
for the flow of water in permeable materials and in the same year Stokes
(1856) gave an equation for determining the terminal velocity of solid
particles falling in liquids. The rupture theory of Mohr (1900) Stress Circles
are extensively used in the study of shear strength o f soils. One of the most
important contributions to engineering science was made by Boussinesq
(1885) who proposed a theory for determining stress distribution under
loaded areas in a semi-infinite , elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic
medium .
Atterberg (1911), a Swedish scientist, proposed simple tests for determining
the consistency limits o f cohesive soils . Fellenius (1927 ) headed a Swedish
Geotechnical Commission for determining the causes of failure of many
railway and canal embankments. The so-called Swedish Circle method or
otherwise termed as the Slip Circle method was the outcome of his
investigation which was published in 1927 .
The development of the science of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering from the year 1925 onwards was phenomenal. Terzaghi laid
down definite procedures in his book published in 1925 for determining
properties and the strength characteristics of soils . The modern soil
mechanics was born i n 1925 . The present stage o f knowledge in Soil
Mechanics and the design procedures of foundations are mostly due to the
work s of Terzaghi and his band of devoted collaborators.
Karl Terzaghi
Karl Terzaghi writing in 1951 on “The Influence of Modern Soil Studies on
The Design and Construction Foundations” commented on as follows:
Foundations can appropriately be described as a necessary evil. If a building
is to be constructed on an outcrop of sound rock, no foundation is required.
Hence, in contrast to the building itself which satisfies specific needs,
appeals to the aesthetic sense, and fills its matters with pride, the
foundations merely serve as a remedy for the deficiencies of whatever
whimsical nature has provided for the support of the structure at the site
which has been selected. On account of the fact that there is no glory
attached to the foundations, and that the sources of success or failures are
hidden deep in the ground, building foundations have always been treated
as step children; and their acts of revenge for the lack of attention can be
very embarrassing.
The comments made by Terzaghi are very significant and should b e taken
note of by all practicing Architects and Engineers. Architects or Engineers
who do not wish to make use of the growing knowledge of foundation
design are not rendering true service to their profession. Since
substructures are as important as superstructures, persons who are well
qualified in the design of
substructures should always be consulted and the old proverb that a 'stitch
in time saves nine ' should always be kept in mind.
The design of foundations is a branch of Civil Engineering. Experience has
shown that most of these branches have passed i n succession through two
stages, the empirical and the scientific, before they reached the present one
which may be called the stage of maturity.
The stage of scientific reasoning in the design of foundations started with
the publication of the book Erdbaumechanik (means Soil Mechanics) by Karl
Terzaghi in 1925. This book represents the first attempt to treat Soil
Mechanics on the basis of the physical properties of soils.
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering is so vast that he may truly be
called the Father o f Soil Mechanics, His activity extended over a period o f
about 50 years starting from the year 1913 . He was born on October 2,
1883 in Prague and died on October 25, 1963 in Winchester, Massachusetts,
USA. His amazing career is well documented i n the book 'From Theory to
Practice in Soil Mechanics'.
Many investigators in the field of Soil Mechanics were inspired by Terzaghi.
Some of the notable personalities who followed his footsteps are Ralph B .
Peck , Arthur Casagrande , A. W. Skempton, etc. Because of the unceasing
efforts of these and other innumerable investigators, Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering has come to stay as a very important part of the
Civil Engineering profession.
The transition o f foundation engineering from the empirical stage to that of
the scientific stage started almost at the commencement of the 20th
century . The design of foundations during the empirical stage was based
mostly on intuition and experience. There used to be many failures since the
procedure of design was only by trial and error.
However, in the present scientific age, the design of foundations based on
scientific analysis has received much impetus. Theories have been
developed based on fundamental properties of soils. Still one can witness
unsatisfactory performance of structures constructed even on scientific
principles. The reasons for such poor performance are many. The soil mass
on which a structure is to be built is heterogeneous in character and no
theory can simulate field conditions . The fundamental properties o f soil
which we determine i n laboratories may not truly reflect the properties of
the soil in-situ. A judicial combination o f theory and experience i s essential
for successful performance o f any structure built on earth. Another method
that is gaining popularity is the observational approach. This procedure
consist s in making appropriate observations soon enough during
construction to detect signs of departure of the real conditions from those
assumed by the designer and in modifying either the design or the method
of construction in accordance with the findings.
Terzaghi defined Soil Mechanics as follows:
Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by
the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether
or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.
The term Soil Mechanics is now accepted quite generally to designate that
discipline of engineering science which deals with the properties and
behavior of soil as a structural material.
All structures have to be built on soils. Our main objective in the study of
soil mechanics is to lay down certain principles, theories and procedures for
the design of a safe and sound structure. The subject of Foundation
Engineering deals with the design of various types of substructures under
different soil and environmental conditions.
During the design, the designer has to make use of the properties of soils ,
the theories pertaining to the design and his own practical experience to
adjust the design to suit field conditions. He has to deal with natural soil
deposits which perform the engineering function of supporting the
foundation and the superstructure above it . Soil deposits in nature exist in
an extremely erratic manner producing thereby an infinite variety of
possible combinations which would affect the choice and design of
foundations. The foundation engineer must have the ability to interpret the
principles of soil mechanics to suit the field conditions. The success or
failure of his design depends upon how much in tune he is with Nature.
Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil
In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties
of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles
and, hence, the rock from which it is derived.
The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the
product of rock weathering. The size of the individual grains varies over a
wide range. Many of the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size,
shape, and chemical composition of the grains. To better understand these
factors must be familiar with the basic types of rock that form the earth’s
crust, the rock-forming minerals, and the weathering process. On the basis of
their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the formation
cycle of different types of rock and the processes associated with them. This
is called the rock cycle.
Figure 1. Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected
from deep within the earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure
eruption or volcanic eruption, some of the molten magma cools on the
surface of the earth. Sometimes magma ceases its mobility below the Chemical weathering is the process of chemical decomposition of the
earth’s surface and cools to form intrusive igneous rocks that are called original rock. In the case of mechanical weathering, the rock breaks into
plutons. Intrusive rocks formed in the past may be exposed at the surface as smaller pieces without a change in its chemical composition. However, in
a result of the continuous process of erosion of the materials that once chemical weathering, the original material may be changed to something
covered them. entirely different. For example, the chemical weathering of feldspar can
produce clay minerals. Most rock weathering is a combination of
Table 1. Composition of Some Igneous Rocks mechanical and chemical weathering.
Name of Mode of Texture Abundant Minerals Less Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be transported by physical
Rock Occurrence abundant processes to other places. The resulting soil deposits are called transported
minerals soils. In contrast, some soils stay where they were formed and cover the
Granite Intrusive Coarse Quartz, Sodium Biotite, rock surface from which they derive. These soils are referred to as residual
Rhyolite Extrusive Fine Feldspar, Potassium Muscovite, soils.
Feldspar Hornblende
Gabbro Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Pyroxines, Hornblende, Residual Soil
Basalt Extrusive Fine Olivine Biotite, Residual soils are found in areas where the rate of weathering is more than
Magnetite the rate at which the weathered materials are carried away by transporting
Diorite Intrusive Coarse Plagioclase, Biotite, agents. The rate of weathering is higher in warm and humid regions
Andesite Extrusive Fine Hornblende Pyroxenes compared to cooler and drier regions and, depending on the climatic
(quartz conditions, the effect of weathering may vary widely.
usually
absent) Residual soil deposits are common in the tropics. The nature of a residual soil
Syenite Intrusive Coarse Potassium Feldspar Sodium deposit will generally depend on the parent rock. When hard rocks, such as
Trachyte Extrusive Fine feldspar, granite and gneiss, undergo weathering, most of the materials are likely to
Biotite, remain in place. These soil deposits generally have a top layer of clayey or
Hornblende silty clay material, below which are silty or sandy soil layers. These layers in
Peridotite Intrusive Coarse Olivine, Pyroxenes Oxides of turn, are generally underlain by a partially weathered rock, and then sound
Iron bedrock. The depth of the sound bedrock may vary widely, even within a
distance of a few meters.

Weathering of Rocks and Types of Soils
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and
chemical processes into smaller pieces. Most of the soils that cover the earth
are formed by the weathering of various rocks. There are two general types
of weathering: (1) mechanical weathering and (2) chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into
smaller and smaller pieces by physical forces, including running water, wind,
ocean waves, glacier ice, frost, and expansion and contraction caused by the
gain and loss of heat.
In contrast to hard rocks, there are some chemical rocks, such as limestone,
that are chiefly made up of calcite (CaCo3) minerals. Chalk and dolomite
have large concentrations of dolomite minerals [Ca Mg(Co3)2]. These rocks
have large amounts of soluble materials, some of which are removed by
groundwater, leaving behind the insoluble fraction of the rock. Residual
soils that derive from chemical rocks do not possess a gradual transition
zone to the bedrock. The residual soils derived from the weathering of
limestone-like rocks are mostly red in color. Although uniform in kind, the
depth of weathering may vary greatly. The residual soils immediately above
the bedrock may be normally consolidated. Large foundations with heavy
loads may be susceptible to large consolidation settlements on these soils.
Transported Soil
Transported soils can be subdivided into five major categories based on the
transporting agent: gravity transported soil/ colluvial soil, lacustrine (lake)
deposits, alluvial or fluvial soil deposited by running water, glacial deposited
by glaciers, aeolian deposited by the wind, marine soils formed by
deposition in the sea
Gravity Transported Soil
Residual soils on a steep natural slope can move slowly downward, and this
is usually referred to as creep. When the downward soil movement is
sudden and rapid, it is called a landslide. The soil deposits formed by
landslides are colluvium. Mudflows are one type of gravity transported soil.
In this case, highly saturated, loose sandy residual soils, on relatively flat
slopes, move downward like a viscous liquid and come to rest in a more dense
condition. The soil deposits derived from past mud flows are highly
heterogeneous in composition.
process, these streams may build up a complex tangle of converging and
diverging channels, separated by sandbars and islands.
The deposits formed from braided streams are highly irregular in
stratification and have a wide range of grain sizes. Figure 2 shows a cross
section of such a deposit. These deposits share several characteristics:
The grain sizes usually range from gravel to silt. Clay-sized particles are
generally not
found in deposits from braided streams.
Although grain size varies widely, the soil in a given pocket or lens is rather
uniform.
At any given depth, the void ratio and unit weight may vary over a wide
range within a lateral distance of only a few meters.

Lacustrine Deposits

Water from rivers and springs flows into lakes. In arid regions, streams carry
large amounts of suspended solids. Where the stream enters the lake,
granular particles are deposited in the area forming a delta. Some coarser
particles and the finer particles; that is, silt and clay that are carried into the
lake are deposited onto the lake bottom in alternate layers of coarse-
grained and fine- grained particles. The deltas formed in humid regions Figure 2. Cross section of braided stream deposit
usually have finer grained soil deposits compared to those in arid regions. Meander Belt Deposits
Meander Belt Deposits
Alluvial soil deposits deri The term meander is derived from the Greek work maiandros, after the
Alluvial Deposits Maiandros (nowThe Menderes) River in
term meander Asia, famous
is derived from for
theits winding
Greek workcourse.
ve from the action of streams and rivers and can be divided into two major Mature streamsmaiandros,
in a valley after
curvetheback and forth.(now
Maiandros The valley floor River
Menderes) in whichin a
categories: (1) braided-stream deposits, and (2) deposits caused by the river meandersAsia,
is referred
famous tofor
as its
thewinding
meander belt. InMature
course. a meandering
streamsriver,
in a the
meandering belt of streams. soil from the bank is continually
valley curve backeroded from
and forth. thevalley
The points where
floor it is concave
in which a river
in shape and is deposited at points where the bank is
meanders is referred to as the meander belt. In aconvex in shape, as
Deposits from Braided Streams shown in Figuremeandering
3. These deposits are soil
river, the called
frompoint
thebar
bankdeposits, and they
is continually
usually consist of sand from
eroded and silt-sized
the points particles.
where itSometimes,
is concave in during
shapethe and is
Braided streams are high-gradient, rapidly flowing streams that are highly process of erosion and deposition, the river abandons a meander
deposited at points where the bank is convex in shape, as and cuts a
erosive and carry large amounts of sediment. Because of the high bed load, shorter path. The abandoned
shown in Figuremeander,
3. These when filled
deposits arewith water,
called pointisbar
called an
a minor change in the velocity of flow will cause sediments to deposit. By this oxbow lake. deposits, and they usually consist of sand and silt-sized
particles. Sometimes, during the process of erosion and
deposition, the river abandons a meander and cuts a
shorter path. The abandoned meander, when filled with

During floods, rivers overflow low-lying areas. The sand and silt-size
particles carried by the river are deposited along the banks to form ridges
known as natural levees (Figure 4). Finer soil particles consisting of silts and
clays are carried by the water farther onto the floodplains. These particles
settle at different rates to form backswamp deposits, often highly plastic
clays.
Figure 3. Formation of
point bar deposits and
oxbow lake in a
meandering stream
Figure 4. Levee and
backswamp deposit
Glacial Deposits
During the Pleistocene Ice Age, glaciers covered large areas of the earth.
The glaciers advanced and retreated with time. During their advance, the
glaciers carried large amounts of sand, silt, clay, gravel, and boulders. Drift is
a general term usually applied to the deposits laid down by glaciers.
Unstratified deposits laid down by melting glaciers are referred to as till. The
physical characteristics of till may vary from glacier to glacier.
The landforms that developed from the deposits of till are called moraines.
A terminal moraine (Figure 5) is a ridge of till that marks the maximum limit
of glacier’s advance.
Recessional moraines are ridges of till developed behind the terminal
moraine at varying distances apart. They are the result of temporary
stabilization of the glacier during the recessional period. The till deposited
by the glacier between the moraines is referred to as ground moraine.
Ground moraines constitute large areas of the central United States and are
called till plains.
The sand, silt, and gravel that are carried by the melting water from the
front of a glacier are called outwash. In a pattern like that of braided-stream
deposits, the melted water deposits the outwash, forming outwash plains,
also called glaciofluvial deposits. The range of grain sizes present in each till
varies greatly.
Figure 5. Terminal moraine, ground moraine, and outwash plain
Aeolian Soil Deposits
Wind is also a major transporting agent leading to the formation of soil
deposits. When large areas of sand lie exposed, wind can blow the sand
away and redeposit it elsewhere. Deposits of windblown sand generally take
the shape of dunes (Figure 6). As dunes are formed, the sand is blown over
the crest by the wind. Beyond the crest, the sand particles roll down the
slope. The process tends to form a compact sand deposit on the windward
side, and a rather loose deposit on the leeward side of the dune. Following
are some of the typical properties of dune sand:
The grain-size distribution of the sand at any particular location is
surprisingly uniform. This uniformity can be attributed to the sorting action
of the wind.
The general grain size decreases with distance from the source, because the
wind carries the small particles farther than the large ones.
The relative density of sand deposited on the windward side of dunes may
be as high as 50 to 65%, decreasing to about 0 to 15% on the leeward side.
Loess is an aeolian deposit consisting of silt and silt-sized particles. The grain
size distribution of loess is rather uniform. The cohesion of loess is generally
derived from a clay coating over the silt-sized particles, which contributes to
a stable soil structure in an unsaturated state. The cohesion may also be the
result of the precipitation of chemicals leached by rainwater. Loess is a
collapsing soil, because when the soil becomes saturated, it loses its binding
strength
between particles. Special precautions need to be taken for the
construction of foundations over loessial deposits.
Volcanic ash (with grain sizes between 0.25 to 4 mm), and volcanic dust
(with grain sizes less than 0.25 mm), may be classified as wind-transported
soil. Volcanic ash is a lightweight sand or sandy gravel. Decomposition of
volcanic ash results in highly plastic and compressible clays.
Figure 6. Sand dune
In addition to transported and residual soils, there are peats and organic
soils, which derive from the decomposition of organic materials. Organic
soils are usually found in low-lying areas where the water table is near or
above the ground surface. The presence of a high water table helps in the
growth of aquatic plants that, when decomposed, form organic soil. This
type of soil deposit is usually encountered in coastal areas and in glaciated
regions. Organic soils show the following characteristics:
Their natural moisture content may range from 200 to 300%.
They are highly compressible.
Laboratory tests have shown that, under loads, a large amount of
settlement is derived from secondary consolidation.
Sedimentary Rock
The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by weathering may
become compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like
iron oxide, calcite, dolomite, and quartz. Cementing agents are generally
carried in solution by groundwater. They fill the spaces between particles
and form sedimentary rock. Rocks formed in this way are called detrital
sedimentary rocks. The following are some examples of detrital rocks.
Sedimentary rock also can be formed by chemical processes. Rocks of this
type are classified as chemical sedimentary rock. The following are some
examples of chemical sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic Rock
• Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and
texture of rocks (without melting) by heat and pressure. During
metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral grains are
sheared to give a foliated texture to metamorphic rock.
 • Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from high-grade regional
metamorphism of igneous rocks, such as granite, gabbro, and
diorite.
• Low-grade metamorphism of shales and mudstones results in slate.
The clay minerals in the shale become chlorite and mica by heat;
hence, slate is composed primarily of mica flakes and chlorite.
• Phyllite is a metamorphic rock, which is derived from slate with
further metamorphism being subjected to heat greater than 250 to
300C.
• Schist is a type of metamorphic rock derived from several igneous,
sedimentary, and low-grade metamorphic rocks with a well-foliated
texture and visible flakes of platy and micaceous minerals.
• Metamorphic rock generally contains large quantities of quartz and
feldspar as well. Marble is formed from calcite and dolomite by
recrystallization. The mineral grains in marble are larger than those
present in the original rock. Green marbles are colored by
hornblends, serpentine, or talc. Black marbles contain bituminous
material, and brown marbles contain iron oxide and limonite.
• Quartzite is a metamorphic rock formed from quartz-rich
sandstones. Silica enters into the void spaces between the quartz
and sand grains and acts as a cementing agent. Quartzite is one of
the hardest rocks.
Under extreme heat and pressure, metamorphic rocks may melt to form
magma, and the cycle is repeated.
Soil Particle Size
Irrespective of the origin of soil, the sizes of particles in general, that make
up soil, vary over a wide range. Soils are generally called gravel, sand, silt, or
clay, depending on the predominant size of particles within the soil. To
describe soils by their particle size, several organizations have developed
soil-separate-size limits. Table 2 shows the soil-separate-size limits
developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation. In this table, the MIT system is presented for
illustration purposes only, because it plays an important role in the history
of the development of soil-separate-size limits. Presently, the Unified
System is almost universally accepted. The Unified Soil Classification System
has now been adopted by the American Society for Testing and Materials.
• Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz,
feldspar, and other minerals.
• Sand particles are made mostly of quartz and feldspar. Other
mineral grains may also be present at times.
• Silts are the microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine
quartz grains and some flake- shaped particles that are fragments of
micaceous minerals.
• Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicroscopic
particles of mica, clay minerals, and other minerals. As shown in
Table 2, clays are generally defined as particles smaller than 0.002
mm. In some cases, particles between 0.002 and 0.005 mm in size
are also referred to as clay. Particles are classified as clay based on
their size; they may not necessarily contain clay minerals. Clays are
defined as those particles “which develop plasticity when mixed
with a limited 1953). (Plasticity is the putty-like property of clays
when they contain particles of quartz, fieldspar, or mica that are
small enough to be within the clay size classification. Hence, it is
appropriate for soil particles smaller than 2µ or 5 µ as defined under
different systems, to be called clay-sized particles rather than clay.
Clay particles are mosty colloidal size range (<1 µ) and 2 µ appears
to be the upper limit.
Table 2: Soil-separate-size limits
Soil Particle Shapes
Weathering and transportation processes produce a variety of particle
shapes, from angular to rounded, as shown in Figure 7 (Müller 1967). Since
soil is an assemblage of particles, interlocking of those particles and their
contact mechanism in particular, for larger particles determines many
important mechanical properties of soils such as strength, rigidity,
permeability, and compaction. For example, angular particle assembly will
give more resistance to sliding deformation (higher rigidity and strength) as
compared to rounded particle assembly.
Soil angularity can be determined by comparing particle shape (under a
microscope, if needed) with the sample shapes shown in Figure 7. For
smaller particle assemblies, such as in clay minerals, particle shapes are
much flatter and sometimes flaky. In those smaller particle soils, short-
range interparticle forces play an important role to determine the
behavior of soils. The details of clay minerals will be discussed in the
succeeding modules.

Figure 7. Soil Angularity

In this module, we discussed the soil, its definition based on different

professional perspectives, and how it is formed from the rock cycle process.
The development of geotechnical engineering specialization and key
persons in this field was also presented.

Think technical. Avoid flowery words as we are now in our professional

course.