Lecture 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS AND

PHONOLOGY
1.Phonetics vs. Phonology

Phonetics Phonology
The linguistic science that studies
speech sounds
- Study of description of the distinctive
+ the way in which they are produced/
sound, units of a language and their
uttered/ articulated
relationship to one another
+ the way in which they are perceived
- Rules describe the changes when
+Their physical characteristics.
sounds are combined
→ Study of sounds and production of
speech sounds.
2. Three branches of phonetics

a. Articulatory phonetics: is the study of how speech sounds are produced using the
articulators – the parts of the body involvedin producing speech sounds.

b. Acoustic phonetics: involves the study of the speech signals (the sound waves
produced when a speaker speaks). In other words, it deals with the transmission of
speech sounds through the air.

c. Auditory phonetics: is the study of how speech signal is sensed in the auditory
canal and interpreted by the relevant parts of the brain. In other words, it deals with
how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.
Lecture 2: ARTICULATORS AND PRODUCTION OF SOUNDS
Speech organs
• Lips /lips/
• Oral cavity /'ɔ:rəl 'kæviti/
• Teeth /ti:θ/
• Nasal cavity /'neizəl 'kæviti/
• Tongue /tʌη/
• Trachea /trə'kiə/
• Jaw /dʒɔ:/
• Pharynx /'færiηks/
• Alveolar ridge /æl'viələ ridʒ/
• Larynx /'læriηks/
• Hard palate /hɑ:d 'pælət/
• Vocal cords /'vəukl kɔ:dz/ = Vocal
• Soft palate /sɔft 'pælət/ =
folds
velum /'vi:ləm/
• Epiglottis /epi'glɔtis/
• Uvula /'ju:vjulə/ • Nostrils /'nɔstrilz/
• Lungs /lʌηz/

Place of articulation Active articulator Passive articulator

1 Bilabial Lowerlip Upper lip
2 Labiodental Lower lip Upper teeth
 3 Interdental Tounge lip Teeth
4 Dental Tounge lip Behind top teeth
5 Alveolar Tounge lip Alveolar ridge
6 Paloto - alveolar Tounge blade Behind alveolar ridge
7 Palatal Tounge front Hard palate
Front of soft palate;
8 Velar Tounge back
velum
9 Uvular Tounge back Back of soft palate; uvula
10 Pharyngeal Tounge roof Back of
11 Glottal Vocal folds (none)

How are speech sounds produced?

Air from lungs Trachea

→ larynx Vocal cords→ pharynx → uvula → nostrils

∟ → mouth

When we are making sounds, the air from the lungs comes up through the
wind – pipe and arrives first at the larynx. Then it goes through the vocal cords and
up the pharynx to the uvula. At this point, it may go in either way. It may go into
the oral cavity (if the soft palate is raised) and go out of the mouth. Or it may go
into the nasal tract (if the soft palate is lowered) and get out through the nostrils.

How are nasal sounds produced?

• In the process of making sounds, if the air stream is blocked somewhere in

the oral cavity but the soft palate is lowered so that the air stream can get into the
nasal tract and get out through the nostrils → we have nasal sounds

e.g. There are 3 nasal sounds: /m/ /n/ /ŋ/

How are oral sounds produced?

• In the process of making the sounds, at the uvula, if the soft palate is
raised, blocking off the nasal tract, the air stream can only go into the oral tract and
go out of the mouth → we have oral sounds

e.g. There are 21 oral sounds: /g/ /s/ /b/ …

 How are consonant sounds produced?

• When we are making sounds, if two articulators touch or come together,

obstructing the air stream and the air stream can not get out freely → we have
consonant sounds.

e.g. There are 24 consonants sounds /k/ /f/ /b/ /m/

How are vowel sounds produced?

• When we are making sounds, if there is no obstruction to the flow of air

when it passes from the larynx to the lips and the air can get out freely → we have
vowel sounds.

e.g There are 20 vowel sounds: /æ/ /i/ /u:/

How are voiced sounds produced?

• When we are producing sounds, the air stream goes through the vocal
cords. If the vocal cords come together, obstructing the air stream, the air stream
can not get out through them freely and makes them vibrate → we have voiced
sounds. e.g. /d/ /v/ /m/

How are voiceless sounds produced?

• The air stream goes through the vocal cords. If the vocal cords come apart,
they are open. The air stream can go out through them freely and it does not make
them vibrate → we have voiceless sounds. e.g. /s/ /t/ /ʃ/

- Voiced: /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /y/, /w/

- Voiceless: /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /∫/, / t∫/, /h/

E.g. Name the important articulators above the larynx which are involed the
production of these sound.

/s/: tounge tip, alveolar ridge, velum, oral cavity

/m/: 2 lips, velum, nasal cavity

 Lecture 3: CONSONANTS
 Consonant letters (21)
 Consonant sounds (24)
1. Definition:

Consonants are the sounds in the production of which one articulator moves
towards another or two articulators come together, obstructing the air-stream and
the air-stream can’t get out freely.

In other words, in the production of consonants there is the presence of air-

stream obstruction.

I. According to place of articulation – 9 types

Place of articulation is the location of the obstruction of the air-stream in the

articulation of consonants. It describes the point at which the articulators actually
touch or are at their closest.

1. Bilabial /ˌbaɪˈleɪ.bi.əl/ are the sounds made with the two lips pressed together or
coming together. (/m/, /p/, /b/, /w/)

2. Labio-dental /ˌleɪ.bi.oʊˈden.t̬əl/ are the sounds which are produced with the
lower lip touching the upper front teeth. (/f/, /v/)

3. Dental /ˈden.t̬əl/ are the sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the
tongue is put between the upper and lower front teeth. (/θ/, /ð/)

4. Alveolar /ælˈviː.ə.lɚ/ are the sounds which are produced with the tip or blade
of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge. (/s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/)

5. Palato-alveolar /ˌpæl.ə.toʊ.ælˈviː.ə.lɚ/ are the sounds which are produced with

the tongue tip or blade coming close to the area between the back of the alveolar
ridge and the front of the hard palate (/ʒ/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/)

6. Palatal /ˈpæl.ə.t̬əl/ is the sound which is produced with the front of the tongue
coming close to the hard palate. (/j/)

7. Velar /ˈviː.lɚ/ are the sounds which are produced with the back of the tongue
touching the soft palate. (/k/, /g/, /ŋ/)
8. Retroflex /ˈret.rə.fleks/ is the sound which is produced with the tip of the tongue
curling back towards the back of the alveolar ridge. (/r/)

9. Glottal /ˈɡlɑː.t̬əl/ is the sound which is produced without the active use of the
tongue and other parts of the mouth. (/h/)

II. According to manner of articulation – 6 types

Manner of articulation is the way in which the air-stream is obstructed or

altered in the production of speech sounds. It describes the types of obstruction
caused by the narrowing or closure of the articulators.

1. Plosive /ˈploʊ.sɪv/ (oral stop) are the sounds produced with the air-stream being
stopped in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised blocking off the nasal cavity.
Then the two articulators come apart quickly and the air escapes through the oral
cavity. (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/)

2. Nasal /ˈneɪ.zəl/ (nasal stop) they are produced with the air-stream being stopped
in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can go out through the
nose. (/n/, /m/, /ŋ/)

3. Fricative /ˈfrɪk.ə.t̬ɪv/ are the sounds in the production of which two articulators
come close together, but there is a small opening between them so the air-stream is
partially obstructed and an audible friction noise (a hissing sound) is produced.
(/f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/)

4. Affricate /ˈæf.rɪ.kət/ are the sounds which are produced when a stop is
immediately followed by a fricative. (/tʃ/, /dʒ/)

5. Lateral /ˈlæt̬.ɚ.əl/ this sound is made when the airstream escapes along the
sides of the tongue. (/l/)

6. Approximant /əˈprɑːk.sə.mənt/ are the sounds in the production of which two

articulators come close together but without the vocal tract being narrowed to
such an extent that a friction noise is not produced. (/w/, /r/, /j/)

III. According to Velum Behaviour

• Lowered down: (with pharynx wall, forming a gap)

→ nasal

Eg: /m, n, ŋ/

• Raised up: (contacting pharynx wall)

→ oral

Eg: /b, p, k, g…/

IV. According to voicing

1. Voiced consonants (Lenis): are produced when the vocal cords are vibrating

e.g. /b/ /d/ /g/ /v/ /ð/ /z/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /j/ /l/ /r/ /w/

2. Voiceless consonants (Fortis): are produced when the vocal cords are not
vibrating.

e.g. /p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /θ/ /s/ /ʃ/ /tʃ/ /h/

Describing/Identifying English consonants

Place of Manner of
Velum behavior Voicing
articulation articulation
/s/
Oral Voiceless Alveolar Fricative
/n/
Nasal Voiced Alveolar Stop
 Lecture 4: VOWELS
Definition :

- Vowels are the sounds in the production of which none of the articulators come
very close together, so the passage of air-stream is relatively unobstructed and the
air can get out freely.

- Vowels are the type of sounds that depend mainly on the variations in the
position of the tongue. They are normally voiced.

1. According to the height of the body of the tongue

a. High vowels: are those in the production of which the tongue is high in the
mouth. It is raised above its rest position:

e.g. /i:/ /ɪ/ /u:/ /ʊ/

b. Middle vowels: are those made with the tongue neither high nor low in the
mouth. e.g. /e/ /ə:/ /ə/ /ɔ:/

c. Low vowels: are those made with the tongue below its rest position.

e.g. /æ/ /ʌ/ /ɔ/ /a:/

2. According to the position of the highest point

a. Front vowels: are those in the production of which the front of the tongue is the
highest point. e.g. /i:/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/

b. Central vowels: are those in the production of which the tongue is neither high
nor low in the mouth. e.g. /ə:/ /ə/ /ʌ/

c. Back vowels: are those in the production of which the back of the tongue is the
highest point. e.g. /u:/ /ʊ/ /ɒ/ /ɔ:/
3. According to the length

- Long vowels: /ə:/, /i:/, /a:/, /u:/, /ɔ:/

- Short vowels: /ʊ/, /ɔ/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ə/

 Long vowels tend to be longer than short vowels in similar context. The
symbol consists of one single vowel plus a length mark made of two dots.
 They are different from short vowels not only in length but also in quality,
resulting from differences in tounge shapes and lip positions.

4. According to degree of lip rounding

a. Rounded vowels: are those made with the rounded lips. The corners of the lips
are brought towards each other and the lips are pushed forwards. e.g. /u:/ /ʊ/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/

b. Spread vowels: are those made with the lips spread. The corners of the lips are
moved away from each other as for a smile. e.g. /i:/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/

c. Neutral vowels: are those made with the lips neither rounded nor spread. e.g. /ə/
/ə:/ /ʌ/ /a:/

- Unrounded: /i:/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ /ə/ / ə:/ /ʌ/ /a:/

- Rounded: /u:/ /ʊ/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ → 12 monophthongs

5. Diphthongs (8 diphthongs)

 Definition:
A diphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and the whole glide acts
like one of the long simple vowels.
There are 8 diphthongs in English: /aʊ/, /aɪ/, /eɪ/, /eə/, /ɪə/, /oʊ/, /ɔɪ/, /ʊə/
 In term of length, diphthongs are like long vowels. The most important thing
to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and
stronger than the second part. As a result, the second part is shorter and
quieter.
6. Triphthongs

 A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all
produced rapidly without interruption.
 There are 5 triphthongs in English. They are composed of the five closing
diphthongs with /ə/ added at the end: /aʊə/, /eɪə/, /əʊə /, /ɔɪə/, /aɪə/.

Part of tonge
Lenght Tonge height Lip-rounding
raised
/e/
Short Mid Front Unrounded
/ə:/
Long Mid Central Unrounded
 Lecture 5: PHONEMES & ALLOPHONES
1. Phonemes – minimal pairs

A phoneme is the smallest segment of sound which can distinguish two

words.

• 44 phonemes: 24 consonants + 20 vowels

• Each phoneme is meaningless in isolation: e.g. /i:/ /t/ - /ti:tʃə/; /ə/ /tʃ/ - /tʃi:tə/

Phonemes form a set of abstract units that can be used for writing down a
language systematically and unambiguously.

• What are minimal pair?

Pair of words which differ by only one phoneme in identical environment.

2. Allophones – biến thể âm vị

• tea /ti:/ stay /stei/ get there /get ðeə/

• Allophones are the variants of phonemes that occur in speech.

Allophones vs.Phonemes

The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that

• substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different
meaning, as well as a different pronunciation. That's why phonemes can be defined
as meaningdistinguishing sounds.

• but substituting allophones only results in a different pronunciation of the same

words.

3. Symbols: Phonemic & phonetic

Phonemic
• Phonemic symbols: are symbols for
phonemes.
• The number of phonemic symbols
must be exactly the same as the number
Phonetic
• Phonetic symbols: are symbols for
allophones.
• They are used to give an accurate
label to an allophone of a phoneme or
 of phonemes we decided to exist in the to represent sounds more accurately.
language. In RP , there are 44 Phonetic symbols usually make use of
phonemic symbols. diacritics
• Eg: /b/, /e/, /k/,… • Eg: [h], [o],…

TRANSCRIPTION

Phonemic/broad transcription Phonetic/Narow transcription

• Aphonemic transcription is a
transcription in which each phoneme is
represented by one phonemic symbol
• Aphonemic transcription does not
show a great deal of phonetic detail and
is usually placed between slanting lines
• E.g.: department /diˈpa:tmənt/
• Aphonetic transcription is a
transcription which contains a lot of
information about the exact quality of
the sounds. It shows more phonetic
detail such as aspiration, length,
nasalization…., by using a wide variety
of symbols and in many cases
• In a phonetic transcription, the
symbols are used to represent precise
phonetic values, not just to represent
phonemes. A phonetic transcription is
usually put between square brackets.
• E.g.: department [diˈpha:tomənt]

4. RULES FOR ENGLISH CONSONANT ALLOPHONES

1. Initial voiceless stops (/p, t, k/) are aspirated. [h]

pie [phai] tea [thi:] key [khi:]

2. Voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) are unaspirated after /s/ at the beginning of a
syllable. [o]

stay [st˚ei] sky [sk˚ai] speak [sp˚i:k]

3. Stops (/p, t, k, b, d, g/) are unexploded when they occur before another stop. [˺]

apt [æp˺t] rubbed [rʌb˺d] looked [luk˺t] stopped [stɔp˺t]

4. Approximants /w, r, j/ and the lateral /l/ are devoiced when they occur after
initial /p, t, k/. [o]
play [pl̥ei] queen [kw̥ i:n] twin [tw̥ i:n]

5. Voiced obstruents (voiced stops and fricatives: /b, d, g, v, ʒ, z/) are devoiced
when they occur at the end of an utterance or before a voiceless sound. [o]

improve /impru:v̥ / big /biɡ̥ / add two /æd̥ tu:/

6. Voiced stops and affricates /b, d, g, dʒ/ are voiceless when syllable initial,
except when immediately preceded by a voiced sound. [o]

dog /d̥ ɔɡ/ big dog

7 . Voiceless stops become glottal stop [ʔ] plus voiceless stops when they are
syllable final and after a vowel.

Eg: tip [ti:ʔp] kick pit

8. In many accents of English, /t/ is replaced by a glottal stop when it occurs before
an alveolar nasal /n/ in the same word.

E.g. beaten [bIʔn̩ ]

- Phonetic transcription Practice

Supplying appropriate phonetic transcription of this utterance

• ‘Tom’s playing tennis with John.’

[tʰɔ̃mz̥ pʰl̥eiĩɳ tʰɛ̃nǏs wǏθ dʒɔ̃n]

• Peter worked late last night

[phi:thə wə̌ :k ˺t leǏt lǎ:s˺t naǏt]

 Lecture 6: SYLLABLE
I. Definition: Phonetically, a syllable is a unit which consists of a vowel as the
centre and/or consonant(s) before and after it

E.g. are /a:/ no /nəʊ/ at /æt/ cat /kæt/

consonant + a vowel + consonant

Eg: /n/ / əʊ/

/k/ /æ/ /t/

/a:/

+ A syllable can form the whole or a part of a word

E.g. Fish /fɪʃ/ selfish /ˈsel.fɪʃ/

II. The nature of syllables

+ A minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation:

e.g. are /a:/ or /ɔ:/ err /ɜ:/

+ Some syllables have an onset. That means they have more than just silence
preceding the center of the syllable.

e.g. my /mai/

+ Some syllables may have no onset but have a coda (termination)

e.g. On /ɑːn/ an /ən/

+ Some syllables have both an onset and a coda (termination). e.g. Meat /miːt/

III. Structure of English syllables

- On set (optional)
- Centre/Peak/Nucleus (vowel)
- Coda (optional)
1. Syllable onset

* If the syllable begins with

+ A vowel → Zero Onset

e.g. ease our at of

+ One consonant → initial consonant

e.g. see toy dough

+ Two or more consonants together → an initial consonant cluster

e.g. spring clam threat

o Initial two consonant clusters

+ Pre-initial /s/ + initial consonant (+ center)

e.g. slight smoke snake

+ Initial + post – initial /j, w, l, r/ (+ center)

e.g. queue /kjuː/ twin clean try

o Initial three consonant clusters

+ Pre-initial /s/ + initial /p, t, k/ + post- initial / j, w, l, r/ (+ center)

e.g.scream /skr/ stew /stj/ squid /skw/ string /str/

3. Syllable coda (Termination)

* If a syllable ends with:

+ A vowel → zero termination

e.g. no car

+ A consonant → final consonant

e.g. meal late

+ More than one consonant → final consonant cluster

e.g. ask next texts

Final two consonant clusters

1. Pre-final /m, n, ŋ , l, s/ + final /d,k,p,t/

Examples: Bond pump Bank dealt Desk think

2. Final /t, k, g/ + post-final /s, z, t, d, θ/.

Examples: Cats bags Looked begged

Final three consonant clusters

1. Pre-final + final /p, k, d, f/+ post-final.

2. Final /p, k, t, f/ + post-final 1 + post-final 2.

Pre-final final post-final 1 post-final 2

Final four consonant clusters

1. Pre-final + final + post-final 1 + post-final 2

Pre-final final post-final 1 post-final 2

2. Final + post-final 1 + post-final 2 + post-final 3

Pre-final final post-final 1 post-final 2 post-final 3

Practice: Analyze the structure of the following one-syllable English words

Example: Cramped /kræmpt/

 Lecture 7: TYPES OF SYLLABLES
EXAMPLES

• Nationality /ˌnæʃ.(ə)nˈæl.ə.t̬i/

• Incomprehensibility /ɪnˌkɒm.prɪˌhen.səˈbɪl.ə.ti/

1. STRONG SYLLABLES

+ Strong syllables are stressed.

+ They are syllables that have their centres one of the vowel phonemes (or possibly
a triphthong) but not /∂/

Examples: contain advise determine

Bamboo muscle headache

2. WEAK SYLLABLES

+ are unstressed.

+ They are syllables that can have four types of center:

a. The vowel /∂/: worker banana

b. A close front unrounded vowel in the general area of /i:/ and /i/

money family

c. A close back rounded vowel in the general area of /u:/ and /u/

thank you influence

d. A syllabic consonant: bottle garden

Syllabic consonants

A syllabic consonant stands as the peak of the syllable instead of a vowel.

(syllables in which no vowel is found.)

It is usual to indicate that a consonant is syllabic by means of a small vertical mark

Phonetic symbols: l̩ n̩ r̩ m̩
Example: Listen /ˈlɪ.sn̩/ Castle /ˈkæ.sl̩/ Bottom /ˈbɑː.t̬m / Hungary /ˈhʌŋ.ɡr.̩i/

Some terms

• Blend: When two or more letters appear together and you hear each sound that
each consonant would normally make, the combination is called a blend. (E.g.
blend) : bl, br, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr, nd, pl, pr, sl, sm, sn, sp, st.

• Digraph: a single sound, or phoneme, which is represented by two letters (E.g.

photo) : ch, ck, gh, gn, kn, ng, ph, qu, ll, mb, sh, ss, th, wh, wr, zz.

• Trigraph: a phoneme which consists of three letters (E.g. catch): dge /dʒ/, tch /t∫/
 Lecture 8: STRESS
Definition

• Stress is an extra force exerted on a particular syllable or a particular word in

spoken language.

• Examples: incomprehensible

I don’t think she will listen to him.

- I don’t think she will listen to him.

- I DON’T think she will listen to him.
- I don’t think SHE will listen to him.
- I don’t think she will LISTEN to him.
- I don’t think she will listen to HIM.

Types of stress

WORD STRESS SENTENCE STRESS

• is an extra force put on a particular
• is an extra force put on a particular
word in a sentence. Sentence stress is
syllable of the word. It is usually fixed.
not fixed.
• E.g. entertain determine • E.g. I never said she stole my money.
The nature of stress

• From the production point of view: More muscular energy is used for stressed
syllables than for unstressed syllables.

• From the perception point of view: all stressed syllables have 1 characteristic in
common, and that is prominence (loudness, length, pitch and vowel quality).

Level of stress

* Primary stress (tonic/nuclear):

- the strongest

- marked by a small vertical line

* Secondary stress (non-tonic)

- weaker than primary stress

- stronger than unstressed

- represented with a low mark

* Unstressed

- absence of prominence

Placement of stress within words

• In simple words

• In complex words – Derived words – Compound words

Simple word stress

1. Two syllable words.

a. Verbs

b. Nouns

c. Adjectives

d. Adverbs and prepositions

2. Three syllable words

a. Verbs

b. Nouns

c. Adjectives

Two – syllable Verbs

a. If the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel or a diphthong or it ends
with more than one consonant, that second syllable is stressed.

e.g. provide protest contain agree

More examples: select, arrest, design, inform, invent, prefer, depend, occur,
succeed, deny, apply, record, invite.

b. If the second syllable contains a short vowel and ends with one or no consonant,
the first syllable is stressed.

Examples: enter worry travel open

More examples: settle, marry, differ, answer

c. The second syllable is also unstressed if it contains /∂u/. The stress will be on the
first syllable.

Examples: follow borrow

Two-syllable nouns

a. If the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will be on the first
syllable. Otherwise, it will be on the second syllable.

money reason office Larynx Estate affair delight canoe

Surface balloon
Two-syllable adjectives

+ Two syllable adjectives are stressed according to the same rules as verbs.
Examples: Correct major Polite Heavy complete happy
Sincere precise

Two-syllable adverbs and prepositions

+ Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave likes
verbs and adjectives.

Examples: beyond never seldom behind again very

before after except across

Three-syllable verbs

a. If the final syllable contains a short vowel and ends with no more than one
consonant, the final syllable will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the
second syllable.
E.g. encounter determine abandon remember

b. If the final syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or ends with more than
one consonant, the final syllable will be stressed.

E.g: entertain introduce intervene recommend

Three – syllable nouns

a. If the final syllable contains a short vowel or /əu/, it is unstressed. If the second
syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong, or it ends with more than one
consonant, the second syllable will be stressed.

E.g: potato disaster cathedral advantage

b. If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the second syllable contains a
short vowel and ends with no more than one consonant, both the final and middle
syllables are unstressed, and the first syllable is stressed.

E.g: quantity cinema enemy alphabet animal company

antonym character

c. If the final syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong or it ends with more
than one consonant, the stress will usually be placed on the first syllable.

E.g: paradise exercise architect marigold photograph attitude

Three – syllable Adjectives

Three – syllable adjectives seem to need the same rules as Nouns to produce stress
pattern such as:

Popular insolent possible important absolute enormous

similar accurate

Stress in derived words

The affixes will have one of the three possible effects on word stress.

1. The affix itself receives primary stress.

Circle semi-circle /ˈsem.iˌsɝː.kəl/

Employ employee /ˌem.plɔɪˈiː/

person personality /ˌpɝː.sənˈæl.ə.t̬i/

cigar cigarette /ˌsɪɡ.ərˈet/

picture picturesque /ˌpɪk.tʃərˈesk/

mountain mountaineer /ˌmaʊn.tənˈɪr/

2. The word is stressed as if the affix were not there.

comfort comfortable marry marriage

refuse refusal wide widen

wonder wonderful amaze amazing

red reddish power powerless

punish punishment poison poisonous

3. The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable.

advantage /ədˈvæn.t̬ɪdʒ/ advantageous /ˌæd.vænˈteɪ.dʒəs/

climate /ˈklaɪ.mət/ climatic /klaɪˈmæt̬.ɪk/

injure /ˈɪn.dʒɚ/ injurious /ɪnˈdʒʊr.i.əs/

photograph /ˈfoʊ.t̬oʊ.ɡræf/ photographer /fəˈtɑː.ɡrə.fɚ/

economy /iˈkɑː.nə.mi/ economical /ˌiː.kəˈnɑː.mɪ.kəl/

equator /ɪˈkweɪ.t̬ɚ/ equatorial /ˌek.wəˈtɔːr.i.əl/

Stress in Compound words

a. If the first word/part of the compound is, in a broad sense, adjectival, the
primary stress goes on the second element with a secondary stress on the first.

full moon /ˌfʊl ˈmuːn/ fast food /ˌfæst ˈfuːd/ open-hearted /ˌoʊ.pənˈhɑːr.t̬ɪd/
ill-mannered /ˌɪlˈmæn.ɚd/
b. However, if the first element is, in a broad sense, noun, the primary stress goes
on the first element and the secondary stress on the second syllable.

E.g: teacup suitcase bottle feed farmhouse airplane

bodyguard bedroom

Word class pairs

• The stress will be placed on the second syllable if the word is a Verb, but on the
first syllable of the Noun or Adjective.

conduct (n) /ˈkɑːn.dʌkt/ conduct (v) /kənˈdʌkt/

contrast (n) /ˈkɑːn.træst/ contrast (v) /kənˈtræst/

desert (n) /ˈdez.ət/ desert (v) /dɪˈzɜːt/

 Lecture 9: ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH
• Connected speech means that when we speak a language, words have some effect
on each other. We do not always pronounce words completely separately with a
neat pause in between. In fact, many words affect each other when you put them
into phrases and sentences.

• Learn how connected speech will help you to speak English faster, more fluently,
and much more like a native speaker.

Examples:

- He’s a good man

- Nice to meet you
- That girl is wearing a white coat
- Where do you live?

ASSIMILATION

I. Definition of assimilation

• Assimilation is the process which takes place when one sound adapts itself to
become similar to a neighbouring sound in one or more aspects.

• In other words, assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another

neighbouring phoneme, so that they become more alike.

• Assimilation may occur across word boundaries or between words.

E.g: light blue cats good girl beds

II. Kinds of assimilation across word boundaries

a. In terms of the direction of change

• Regressive assimilation:

• Progressive assimilation:

b. In terms of the way in which phonemes change

• Assimilation of place:
• Assimilation of manner:

• Assimilation of voice:

a. In terms of the direction of change

• Regressive assimilation: a phoneme is affected by one that comes later in the

utterance

E.g. /faiv/ (five) → /faifpens/ (five pence)

Conditioning - place of Across syllables (no Across words (no

articulation spelling change) spelling change)
/n/ become /m/ grandpa /græmpa/ can buy /kæmbay/
/n/ become /ŋ/ pancake /pæŋkeyk/ can go /kæŋgow/
• Progressive assimilation: Ci → Cf (a phoneme is affected by one that comes
earlier in the utterance)

E.g. students /-s/ v.s girls /-z/

III. Assimilation of Place of Articulation

1. Alveolar + Bilabial → Bilabial

/t/ + /p, m, b, w/ => /t/→/p/ Right place /raɪppleɪs/

(voiceless) might make /maɪpmeɪk/
white bird /waɪpbɜːd/
might win /maɪpwɪn/
/d/ + /p, m, b, w/ => /d/→/b/ Should put
(voiced) Good morning
Good boy
Should win
/n/ + /p, m, b, w/ => /n/→/m/ Seen Peter
(voiced nasal) Ten men
Seen Bill
Seen Walter
2. Alveolar + Velar → Velar

/t/ + /k, g/ => /t/→/k/ Might come Might go

/d/ + /k, g/ => /d/→/g/ Bad cold Should come Should go
/n/ + /k, g/ => /n/→/ŋ/ One cup Main gate
3. Alveolar + Palato-alveolar or Palatal → Palato-alveolar

/s/ + /ʃ, j/ => /s/→/ʃ/ Nice shoes This year

/z/ + /ʃ, j/ => /z/→/Ʒ/ These sheeps Where’s yours
/t, d/ + /j/ => /tʃ, dƷ/ Want you Did you?
4. Alveolar + dental → Dentalized

Get there [get̪ðeə] Bad things [bæd̪Ɵıŋz]

IV. Assimilation of manner of articulation

1. Plosive + fricative → fricative

 /t/ + /s/ → /s/ : that side

 /t/ + /z/ → /z/ : that zoo
 /d/ + /s/ → /s/ : good song
 /d/ + /z/ → /z/ : bad zone

2. Plosive + nasal → nasal

 /t/ + /n/ → /n/ : that night

 /d/ + /n/ → /n/ : good night

ELISION

1. Definition: Elision is the disappearance of sounds in speech.

2. Rules for elision:

1. Elided Weak vowel /ə/

a. Weak vowel /ə/ disappears after aspirated stops /t, p/

E.g: Today [thdeɪ] potatoes [phteɪtəʊ]

b. Weak vowel /ə/ disappears before syllabic consonants/n, l, r/

2. Elided Stops /t, d/

a. Stops + (stops) + stops. e.g: Looked back [lʊkt bæk]

b. Stops + (stops) + Fricative. e.g: Acts [ækt∙s]

c. Fricative + (stops) + fricative e.g: Guests [gest∙s]

d. /s/ + (/t/) + stop, nasal, fricative e.g: Last time [lɑːstaɪm]

e. /f/ + (/t/) + stop, nasal, fricative e.g: Left door [lefdɔ:]

f. /n/ + (/d/) + lenis, stop, nasal e.g: Kind nurse [kaɪnnɜːs]

g. /m/ + (/d/) + lenis, stop, nasal e.g: Skimmed milk [skɪmmɪlk]

3. Elided Final /v/ in OF + Consonant

e.g: Waste of money [weɪstəmʌnɪ]

4. Dropping –h

Give him [gɪvɪm] Tell him [telɪm] should have [∫ʊdəv]

 Lecture 10: ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH
I. Rhythm

• Rhythm is the relatively equal beat between stressed syllables.

• It has often been claimed that English speech is rhythmical and that rhythm is
detectable in the regular occurrence of stressed syllables.

e.g: Pronunciation is important

/prəˌnʌn.siˈeɪ.ʃən ɪz ɪmˈpɔːr.tənt/

Stress-Timing

• The stress-timed rhythm theory states that the time from each stressed syllable to
the next will tend to be the same, irrespective of the number of intervening
unstressed syllables.

How did you manage to be there in time?

How // did you manage // to be there // in time?

Syllable-Timing

• In languages which have syllable-timed rhythm, each syllable receives

approximately the same amount of stress as the others in a word or a sentence.

• These kind of languages thus have quite a different rhythm from that of English.

• Think of them as being like the line of solders.

II. Weak form vs. strong form

Why is it so important to learn about weak forms?

 Most native speakers of English find an “all – strong – form” pronunciation

unnatural and foreign – sounding.
 However, we may have difficulty understanding speakers who do use weak
forms.
- The weak form is used when the word is unstressed
- The strong form is used only when the word is stressed.
 Strong form Weak form
 Nouns  Prepositions
 Main verbs  Auxiliary verbs
 Adjective  Modal verbs
 Adverbs  Pronouns
 Possessive adjectives
 Possessive pronouns
 Conjunctions
 Articles
CONTENT WORDS FUNCTION WORDS
Almost all the words which have both a strong and weak form belong to a
category that may be called grammatical words/ function words.

prepositions weak form strong form

from frəm frɒm
to tə tuː
at ət æt
in ɪn ɪn
on ɒn ɒn

aux. verbs weak form strong form

am əm æm
are ə ɑː
have həv hæv
had həd hæd
does dəz dʌz

modal verbs weak form strong form

can cən cæn
will wɪl wɪl
would wəd wʊd
shall ʃəl ʃæl
must məst mʌst

articles weak form strong form

a ə eɪ
 an ən æn
the ðə ðiː

Pronouns weak form strong form

You /jə/ /ju:/
Me /mɪ/ /mi:/
He /hɪ/ /hi:/
She /ʃɪ/ /ʃi:/
Him /ɪm/ /hɪm/
Her /ə/ or /hə/ /hə:/
We /wɪ/ /wi:/
Us /əs/ /ʌs/
Them /ðəm/ /ðem/
 Lecture 11: TONE
Definition of Tones

• When we speak, we constantly vary the pitch of our voice. Tone is the overall
behaviour of pitch in a syllable.

• Pitch is described in terms of high and low.

• Pitch refers to the auditory sensation perceived by the listener.

Tone languages

• A tone language is one in which the tone can determine the meaning of a word
and a change from one tone to another can completely change the meaning of a
word. In other words, substituting one distinctive tone for another on a
particular word can cause a change in lexical meaning of that word.

E.g. Vietnamese, Chinese

Intonation languages

• English is one of those languages that do not use tone to distinguish the
meanings of words, though tones or pitch differences are used for other
purposes.

• English is an intonation language, not a tone language.

Description of tones

• The level tone is one in which the pitch remains at a constant level

• The falling tone is one which descends from a higher to a lower pitch

• The rising tone is a movement from a lower pitch to a higher one

• The fall-rise tone is one in which the pitch falls and then rises

• The rise-fall tone is one in which the pitch rises and then falls

Functions of English tones

1. The level tone.

- This tone almost always conveys a feeling of saying something routine,
uninteresting or boring. (unnatural)

- E.g. • A teacher’s calling the names of the students from a register and the
students respond the teacher with ‘Yes’.

2. The falling tone.

- This tone is most commonly associated with a statement. It is said to give an

impression of ‘finality’.

- If someone is asked a question and replies ‘yes’ or ‘no’ with a falling tone, it
will be understood that the question is now answered and there is nothing
more to be said.

Eg. Teacher: Have you finished, students?

Students: Yes.

3. The rising tone

- This tone conveys an impression that something more is to follow or an

invitation/ encourage to continue. It shows that the hearer is listening and
expects something more is coming.

A: Excuse me?

B: Yes.

A. Do you know John Smith?

B. Yes.

A: Have you seen Ann?

B: No

a. B is interested in the information about Ann

b. B has no interest in Ann’s information.

4. The fall-rise

- This tone is usually used to show ‘limited agreement’ or response with

reservations, uncertainty or doubt, requesting.

• Is he handsome? - Yes.

• Do you think this is a good idea? - Yes.

• Would you like another coffee?

5. The rise-fall

• This tone is used to convey rather strong feelings of approval, disapproval or

surprise.

• This tone does not occur as often as the tones mentioned above.

A: Did you know Gerry was a thief? B: No

→ surprise + go on, tell me more…

A: Isn’t the view lovely? B: Yes

→ Agree strongly
 Lecture 12: INTONATION
Definition

• Intonation is the pattern of pitch changes that occurs over a phrase which may
be a complete sentence.

E.g: Do you like banana?

She’s beautiful, isn’t she????

• The part of a sentence over which a particular pattern extends is called a tone
group. A short sentence often forms a single tone group, while longer ones are
made up of two or more.

• Within the tone group, there is usually a single syllable that stands out
because it carries a major pitch change. A syllable of this kind is called the
tonic syllable.

Functions of intonation

1. Attitudinal function

• Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this

adds a special kind of meaning to spoken language. This is called the
attitudinal function of intonation.

E.g. Thank you!

• Starts high and ends low → shows real gratitude

• Starts low and ends high → casual acknowledgment of something not very
important.

2. Accentual function

• Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to

be perceived as stressed, and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a
particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as the most
important in the tone unit. This has been called the accentual function of
intonation.
E.g: I want to know where he is traveling to.

He was very boring.

3. Grammatical function

• The listener is better able to recognize the grammar and syntactic structure of
what is being said by using the information contained in the intonation. For
example, such things as the placement of boundaries between phrases, clauses
and sentences, the difference between questions and statements and the use of
grammatical subordination may be indicated. This is called the grammatical
function of intonation.

e.g. My son John and my daughter went swimming this morning.

4. Discourse function

• Intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as new information

and what is already given, can suggest when the speaker is indicating some sort
of contrast or link with material in another tone unit and, in conversation, can
convey to the listener what kind of response is expected.

e.g. You love her, don’t you?

The basic English tunes

The falling tune – the glide-down

The first rising tune – the Glide up

The second rising tune – the take-off

The falling tune – the Dive

1. The falling tune – the glide-down

• The falling tune is the intonation pattern consisting of a fall in the voice from
a fairly high pitch to a very low one.

2. The first rising tune – the Glide up

• The glide up is the intonation pattern consisting of a rise at the end of a
sentence but the tune starts at a high pitch.

e.g: Is it true that you are changing your job?

Are you married?

3. The second rising tune – the take-off

• The take off is the intonation pattern that ends with a rise in the voice like the
Glide up but any words or syllables before the rise are low.

• We call it the take off because like an aeroplane taking off, it starts by
running along at a low level and finally rises into the air.

e.g: I was only trying to help.

4. The falling tune – the Dive

• It consists of a fall from rather high to low and then a rise to about the middle
of the voice.

e.g. Seventy Seventy of them.