Plain and Reinforced Concrete-II

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

University of Lahore (Islamabad campus)

• Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete
• Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures
• Visual Inspection
• Half-cell electrical potential testing method
• Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805)
• Carbonation depth measurement test
• Permeability test
• Penetration resistance/Windsor probe test (ASTM C803)
• Resistivity measurement
• Radiographic Testing
• Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)
• Acoustic Emissions
• Pull out test
• Infrared Thermography
Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete:
• Non-Destructive tests are method of testing existing concrete structures without
damaging the concrete.

• Non-destructive testing can be applied to both old and new structures.

• Used for maintenance, repair and rehabilitation of existing structures

Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful are, as follows:

• Quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ
• Removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material supplied
owing to apparent non-compliance with specification

• Confirming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship involved in

batching, mixing, placing, compacting or curing of concrete
• Monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork removal,
completion of curing, pre-stressing, load application or similar purpose
Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete…..
• Location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing and
similar defects within a concrete structure

• Determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core cutting, load

testing or other more expensive or disruptive tests

• Determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement

• Increasing the confidence level of a smaller number of destructive tests

• Determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in the selection of

sample locations representative of the quality to be assessed.

• Confirming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete resulting from such

factors as overloading, fatigue, external or internal chemical attack or change,
fire, explosion, environmental effects.
Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete…..
• Assessing the potential durability of the concrete.

• Monitoring long term changes in concrete properties.

• Providing information for any proposed change of use of a structure for

insurance or for change of ownership.

Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures:

The following methods, with some typical applications, have been used for the
NDT of concrete:
Visual inspection, which is an essential indication to any intended non
destructive test. An experienced civil or structural engineer may be able to
establish the possible cause(s) of damage to a concrete structure and hence
identify which of the various NDT methods available could be most useful for
any further investigation of the problem.
Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures…..
Half-cell electrical potential method, used to detect the corrosion potential of
reinforcing bars in concrete.
Schmidt/rebound hammer test, used to evaluate the surface hardness of concrete.
Carbonation depth measurement test, used to determine whether moisture has
reached the depth of the reinforcing bars and hence corrosion may be occurring.
Permeability test, used to measure the flow of water through the concrete.
Penetration resistance or Windsor probe test, used to measure the surface hardness
and hence the strength of the surface and near surface layers of the concrete.
Covermeter testing, used to measure the distance of steel reinforcing bars beneath
the surface of the concrete and also possibly to measure the diameter of the
reinforcing bars.
Radiographic testing, used to detect voids in the concrete and the position of
stressing ducts.
Basic methods for NDT of concrete structures…..
Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of
the concrete and hence the compressive strength of the concrete.
Sonic methods using an instrumented hammer providing both sonic echo
(sound coming back) and transmission methods.
Tomographic modelling, which uses the data from ultrasonic transmission tests in
two or more directions to detect voids in concrete.
Impact echo testing, used to detect voids and other anomalies in concrete.
Ground penetrating radar or impulse radar testing, used to detect the
position of reinforcing bars or stressing ducts.
Infrared thermography, used to detect voids and other anomalies in concrete
and also detect water entry points in buildings.
Visual Inspection:
• Visual testing is probably the most important of all non-destructive tests.

• cracks, pop-outs, spalling, disintegration, color change, weathering, staining,

surface blemishes and lack of uniformity.

• Extensive information can be gathered from visual inspection to give a

preliminary indication of the condition of the structure and allow formulation
of a subsequent testing program.
Half-cell electrical potential testing method:
This technique is most likely to be used for assessment of the durability of
reinforced concrete members where reinforcement corrosion is suspected. Reported
uses include the location of areas of high reinforcement corrosion risk in marine
structures, bridge decks and abutments.
Half-cell electrical potential testing method…..
Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805):

The Schmidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester. It works on the
principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against
which the mass impinges.
The device consists of a plunger rod and an internal spring loaded steel hammer and a latching
mechanism. When the extended plunger rod is pushed against a hard surface, the spring
connecting the hammer is stretched and when pushed to an internal limit, the latch is released
causing the energy stored in the stretched spring to propel the hammer against the plunger tip.
The hammer strikes the shoulder of the plunger rod and rebounds a certain distance. There is a
slide indicator on the outside of the unit that records the distance traveled during the rebound.
This indication is known as the rebound number. By pressing the button on the side of the unit,
the plunger is then locked in the retracted position and the rebound number (R-number) can be
read from the graduated scale. A higher R-number indicates a greater hardness of the concrete
surface.
Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805)……
Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805)….
Applications and Significances:
• It is used to investigate concrete hardness. Hardness measurements provide only the
information on the quality of the surface layer of the concrete only.
• It is low cost and has a simple operating procedure.
• The rebound hammer can be used for the concrete surface which is at the horizontal,
vertical or intermediate angle. Care should be taken that the hammer should be
provided perpendicular to the surface under test.
• It is easy to use because the rebound hammer is light in weight, compact and can be
easily carried in hand anywhere.
• It is used to test in-situ concrete as well as fresh concrete after final set. It is used to
assess the in-place uniformity of the concrete.
• It is used to find out the exact location of poor quality and deteriorated concrete.
Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805)….
Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM C805)….
Factors affecting rebound number
• Smoothness of test surface
• Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens
• Age of test specimens
• Surface and internal moisture conditions
• Type of coarse aggregate
• Type of cement
• Type of mold
• Carbonation of the concrete surface

Carbonation depth measurement test:

Carbonation of concrete occurs when the carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere in the
presence of moisture, reacts with hydrated cement minerals to produce
carbonates, e.g. calcium carbonate. Carbonation penetrates below the exposed
surface of concrete extremely slowly.
Carbonation depth measurement test….
A common and simple method to establish the extent of carbonation is by treating
a freshly broken surface of concrete with a solution of phenolphthalein in diluted
alcohol. The free Ca(OH)2 is coloured pink while the carbonated portion is
uncoloured; with progress of carbonation of the newly exposed surface, the pink
colouring gradually disappears. The test is easy to perform and is rapid but it
should be remembered that the pink colour indicates the presence of Ca(OH)2 but
not necessarily a total absence of carbonation. Indeed, the phenolphthalein test
gives a measure of the pH (the colour being pink above about 9.5) but does not
distinguish between a low pH caused by carbonation and by other acidic gases. As
far as the risk of corrosion of reinforcement is concerned, the cause of a low value
of pH may not be important but care is required in interpreting the observed colour
pattern.
Permeability test:
Permeability of concrete is important when dealing with durability of concrete
particularly in concrete used for water retaining structures or watertight sub-structures.
Structures exposed to harsh environmental conditions also require low porosity as well
as permeability.
Such adverse elements can result in degradation of reinforced concrete, for example,
corrosion of steel leading to an increase in the volume of the steel, cracking and eventual
spalling of the concrete. Permeability tests measure the ease with which liquids, ions and
gases can penetrate into the concrete.

• Initial surface absorption test

• Modified Figg permeability test

• In situ rapid chloride ion permeability test

Initial surface absorption test

• In ISAT a constant pressure head is

applied to concrete surface & resulting
Modified Figg permeability test
rate of water flow into concrete per unit
area is measured.
Penetration resistance/Windsor probe test (ASTM C803):
The Windsor probe, like the rebound hammer, is a hardness tester, and its
inventors’ claim that the penetration of the probe reflects the precise compressive
strength in a localized area is not strictly true. However, the probe penetration does
relate to some property of the concrete below the surface, and, within limits, it has
been possible to develop empirical correlations between strength properties and the
penetration of the probe.

• The Windsor probe test has been used to estimate the early age strength of
concrete in order to determine when formwork can be removed.

• As a substitute for core testing.

Penetration resistance/Windsor probe test (ASTM C803)...
• The test is relatively quick and simple.
• Windsor probe uses a powder activated driver to fire a hardened alloy probe
into concrete. The exposed length of probe is measure of penetration
resistance of concrete.
Resistivity measurement:
Resistivity measurement is a fast, simple and cheap in situ non-destructive method
to obtain information related to the corrosion hazard of embedded reinforcement.

Although other commercial devices like the less accurate two probe system are
also available, the Wenner four probe technique is generally adopted for resistivity
measurement of in situ concrete.

• ρ = Resistivity
• ∆V = Potential difference between inner pair of probes
• i = current through the outer pair of probes
• a = distance between the probes
Resistivity measurement…..
Radiographic Testing:
The intensity of a beam of X rays or gamma rays suffers a loss of intensity while
passing through a material. This phenomenon is due to the absorption or scattering
of the X or gamma rays by the object being exposed. The amount of radiation lost
depends on the quality of radiation, the density of the material and the thickness
traversed.

The specimen absorbs radiation but where it is thin or, where there is a void, less
absorption takes place. Since more radiation passes through the specimen in the
thin or void areas, the corresponding areas of the film are darker. Gamma (g) ray
sources are usually used for concrete thickness up to about 500 mm. Above 500
mm the use of high energy X rays is more appropriate
Radiographic Testing….
Approximate Concrete thickness
Source
Minimum Maximum

Co-60 125 mm 500 mm

Ir-192 25 mm 250 mm

Linac, `18 MeV X rays 500 mm 1600 mm

Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597):
A pulse of longitudinal vibrations is produced by an electro-acoustical transducer,
which is held in contact with one surface of the concrete under test. When the
pulse generated is transmitted into the concrete from the transducer using a liquid
coupling material such as grease or cellulose paste, it undergoes multiple
reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within the concrete. A
complex system of stress waves develops, which include both longitudinal and
shear waves, and propagates through the concrete. The first waves to reach the
receiving transducer are the longitudinal waves, which are converted into an
electrical signal by a second transducer. Electronic timing circuits enable the
transit time T of the pulse to be measured.
Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)….
Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.
i) Preparing for use: Before switching on the ‘V’ meter, the transducers should be
connected to the sockets marked “TRAN” and ” REC”.
The ‘V’ meter may be operated with either:
a) the internal battery,
b) an external battery or
c) the A.C line.

ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The
pulse time for the bar is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer
faces before placing it on the opposite ends of the bar. Adjust the ‘SET REF’
control until the reference bar transit time is obtained on the instrument read-out.
Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)….
iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond

range be selected for path length upto 400mm.

iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be

tested, make careful measurement of the path length ‘L’. Apply couplant to the surfaces of

the transducers and press it hard onto the surface of the material. Do not move the

transducers while a reading is being taken, as this can generate noise signals and errors in

measurements. Continue holding the transducers onto the surface of the material until a

consistent reading appears on the display, which is the time in microsecond for the

ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance ‘L’. The mean value of the display readings should

be taken when the units digit hunts between two values.

Pulse velocity=(Path length/Travel time)

Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)….
v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from

coming into close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being

taken. If this is not done, the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the

transmitter lead and this would result in an incorrect display of the transit time.
Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)….

Applications

• Determination of the uniformity of concrete in and between members

• Measurement of changes occurring with time in the properties of concrete

• Correlation of pulse velocity and strength as a measure of concrete quality.

• Determination of the modulus of elasticity and dynamic Poisson's ratio of the

concrete.
Ultrasonic testing (ASTM C597)….
Factors influencing pulse velocity measurements

• Moisture content

• Temperature of the concrete

• Path length

• Shape and size of specimen

• Effect of reinforcing bars

Acoustic Emissions:
Acoustic Emission is noninvasive nondestructive method that analyzes the noise
created when materials deform or fracture. Each acoustic emission event is a
signature of an actual mechanism, a discrete event that reflects a given materials
response.
Pull out test:
A pullout test consists of casting a specially shaped steel insert with an enlarged
end into fresh concrete, this steel inserted is then pulled out from the concrete and
the force required for pullout is measured using dynamo meter.
Infrared Thermography:

The thermograms taken with an infrared camera measure the temperature

distribution at the surface of the object at the time of the test.
The detectability of any internal structure such as voids, delaminations or layer
thicknesses depends on the physical properties (heat capacity, heat
conductivity, density, emissivity) of the materials of the test object.
There are two types of infrared cameras available:
• Focal Plane Array (FPA) cameras
• Single active element scanner cameras

Reference:
Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2008). Concrete: structures, properties and
materials. Sao Paulo: IBRACON.