Apuntes Sintaxis Marciano

Apuntes Sintaxis.
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fornarnia
Sintaxis del Ingles
2º Grado en Estudios Ingleses
Facultad de Filología
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
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UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION
There is linguistic variation of the English language along several dimensions like history,
age, education, register -in professional fields- and whether it’s spoken or written. In short, there are
different variants of “Englishes” depending on how, when and by who it’s used.
1- Syntax:
It’s the set of rules* for combining words that a language has developed throughout
generations of use by the speakers of a community.
As
descriptive
"regularity"
Rule
As
prescriptive
"imposition"
Those regularities have been studied from early times and systematised and written down as
“grammars”. Different descriptions of what is grammar may vary in some terms, but they are all
concerned about language, which evolves parallel to social, cultural and historical changes.
Each language has its own ways of assembling words in a certain order to convey meaning.
Grammar is just a list of all the possible ways sentences can be assembled.
• Syntactic grammar: is concerned with well-formed English sentences, but languages aren’t
rigid systems, they’re flexible systems where gradation, adjustment, adaptation is crucial.
• Descriptive grammar: isn’t concerned with correctness or incorrectness, but rather with
appropriacy or acceptability.
2- The organization of language in units:
A- Language as system:
Language is a communicative system formed by signs or symbols. A system is a set of

elements that are connected among each other by inter-dependent relations that define and delimit
them, meaning that if one of those elements is affected, all the other elements are modified. A
system is not a simple collection of parts.
Language can also be known as an articulated system of sign, primarily realised by the
medium of speech. An articulated system has the property of being able to build up units of one
order into units of another order.
B- Unit, structure, classes of units:
A unit is any stretch of language that constitutes a semantic whole that has a recognised
pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and writing. Structure is a general concept applicable to
any complex entity.
• It is divisible into parts (constituent)

• There are different kinds of parts (categories of constituents)
• The constituents are arranged in a specific, regular and recognisable way
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• Each constituent has a specific function in the structure of the entity as a whole
• Constituents are often complex in themselves
Some of the units of language description are the morpheme, the word, phrase, clause and
sentence.
C- The rank scale:
Language is a hierarchical system, with units assigned to different layers or ranks which
constitute the rank scale.
morpheme word phrase clause sentence
D- Constituency, function, category:
A full identification of a unit involves combining information of two types:
1. Identification of internal properties

2. Identification of external function: the position and the syntactic function plays within the
structure of the constituent above.
Understanding the structure of a sentence involves more than knowing what its constituents
are, it involves knowing the category and the function of those constituents: phrases, clauses and
sentences are not only syntactic units, but coherent units of sense.
The progressive articulatory structure makes it possible to increase the range of meanings
and to make them more precise. It is a complex system.
UNIT 2- THE MORPHEME
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit, it cannot be decomposed into
smaller parts. Morphemes can be classified:
• Free morphemes
o Lexical morphemes: the provide content and are the stem of the word
o Functional morphemes
• Bound morphemes
o Inflectional: they contribute to build up the grammatical structure of clause/sentence
(-ed, -ing-, -s…)
o Derivational: they contribute to create new words from existing ones. They often
involve a change of class (noun  verb, adjective  adverb), but not always. They
are also called affixes and they can be subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.
When comparing lexical and non-lexical morphemes, there are some differences between
them:
Lexical Non-lexical
Morphemic status Free Bound
Size Large Small
Meaning Complex & specific Simple & general
Stress Stressed Unstressed
Class size Large Small
Membership Open Close
Syntactic function Stem Affix
UNIT 3- THE WORD
1- The structure of words:
A- Structure:
Words are made up of morphemes that operate as elements of the structure of the word.
The field that studies these phenomenon is the morphology.
English words consist of one obligatory constituent, that is the stem or base. Further
elements of structure of the word are optional and dependent on the stem, like affixes (prefixes or
suffixes). It’s a prefix if it precedes the stem and a suffix if it follows the stem
While the stem is realised by a free morpheme, the affixes are realised by bound
morphemes. Affixation may entail changes in spelling and pronunciation.
The structure of the word can be described in two ways:
• Simple: consisting of a free morpheme functioning as a base/stem

o Book, man
• Complex: [prefix] + base/stem + [suffix(es)]
o Kingdom
B- Complex word-forms:
B.1- Inflection:
Inflectional suffixes signal grammatical relationships. Inflection can be applied to many

categories:
• Nouns: base + inflectional suffix

o -s: plural morpheme (+ allophones)
o -‘s: genitive
• Verbs: base + inflectional suffix
o -s: 3rd person singular (walk  walks)
o -ed: past tense (walk  walked)
o -ed: past participle (walk  walked)
o -ing: present participle (walk  walking)
• Adjectives + adverbs: base + inflectional suffix
o -er: comparative (bright  brighter // soon  sooner)
o -est: superlative (bright  brightest // soon  soonest)
B.2- Derivation:
Derivational prefixes or suffixes are added to a base to form new words and they often entail
a change of the word class, but it doesn’t happen always. Other processes besides derivation are
clipping, back-formation, blending, acronyms and abbreviation.
B.3- Compounding:
Compounding is a word-formation process where 2 bases combine to form a new word,

which behaves as a single word that has the stress in the first element (‘bluebird). That new word
can be formed with different stems:
• Noun + noun: chairman, boyfriend, textbook, bookcase, sandstone

• Noun + adjective: colour-fast, user-friendly, care-free
• Verb + noun: playboy, washing-machine, guesswork
• Adjective + noun: nobleman, blackbird, blackberry
B.4- Multiword lexical units-idioms:
A sequence of word-forms that function as a single grammatical unit and has become
lexicalised: sometimes they are called idioms
2- Major word classes:
The parts of speech are the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They are open classes as
they admit new members because words, of whichever category, are constantly being born.
Categorising is a process that consists of a grouping of linguistic expressions which have a common
set of formal and syntactic properties and sometimes semantic properties.
Those categories are necessary for description and explanation, but they aren’t always
straightforward so sometimes there can be difficulties for defining a continuum. The problematic
cases will have to be tested against various types of evidence. The categories are non-discrete and
overlapping so following a prototype is more useful.
The classification of major word classes -lexical words- is done by means of a cluster of
criteria:
• Morphological: types of morphemes (inflectional and derivational) associated with each

class
• Syntactic: position they occupy and grammatical role or function they play in the structure of
the phrase
• Semantic: the types of meanings most typically encoded by each class
These classes are not homogenous and class membership is a matter of degree. Some
words may be said to belong to more than one class  multiple membership.
A- The noun:
A.1- Properties:
• Morphological: they are affected by both inflection and derivation

o Inflection: number (singular and plural) and case (genitive)
o Derivation
• Syntactic: nouns function as the head or nucleus of the noun phrase (NP) and they are
typically determined by a determinant. They can also be optionally pre-modified by an
adjective (a beautiful house), a numeral (three men on a boat), post-modified by a relative
clause or a prepositional phrase (the music that I like) and they can function as modifier of
the head of a NP (the delivery truck).
• Semantic:
o Concrete/abstract
o Animate/inanimate
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o Countable/uncountable
o Common/proper
B- Verbs:
They constitute a major word class, distinct from the other major word classes. They are
characterised by specific formal, syntactic and semantic features.
They are typically associated with specific grammatical morphemes, the TAM morphemes
(Tense, Aspect, Modality), which may be suffixes or periphrastic constructions involving the
combination of lexical forms (free morphemes) and auxiliaries (function words).
Verbs are essential constituents in the structure of the verbal phrase (VP). In that VP,
different classes of verbs play different syntactic functions. Semantically speaking, verbs are
typically associated with the expression of actions, events, states…
They are classified into various sub-classes, depending on their form, i.e. their morphological
properties, their functions and their meanings.
B.1- Lexical verbs:
They are an open word class that have a series of morphological properties:
• Derivational morphology: the most common derivational suffixes associated with the word
class verb are:
o -en: darken
o -ify: satisfy
o -ize/ise: realise, economize
o -ate: concentrate
• Inflectional morphology: the verbal inflectional morphemes in English are:
o Base: if there is not an inflectional morpheme added to the base, the verb is used to
indicate: infinitive, imperative, present tense indicative or present tense subjunctive
o Present tense morpheme [3rd sg (-s)]: he sings
o Past tense morpheme (-ed): he walked
o Past participle morpheme (-ed): he has walked
o Present participle (-ing): he is walking
Those morphemes may have different realisations (allophones) and spellings. A large
number of very common lexical verbs (over 200) are irregular in the sense that they form their past
tense and their past participle in other ways than those previously.
B.2- Auxiliary verbs:
They constitute a closed class with specific formal, syntactic and semantic properties:
• They function as words  they cannot stand on their own, they must accompany and
precede a lexical verb -that’s why they’re known as helping verbs-
• They constitute a closed class
• They determine the TAM of another verb in the VP
They fall into 3 sub-classes: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries. The
main difference between lexical verbs and auxiliaries are the N.I.C.E properties related to morpho-
syntactics properties:
Negation:
Lexical verbs cannot be used in the negative form without the help of an auxiliary verb, that’s
why auxiliaries are the ones that take “not” and “n’t” to form the negative form. Thus, an auxiliary
form (primary or modal auxiliary) is obligatory in negation.
• I like black coffee  I don’t like black coffee (periphrastic do)

• I have seen my aunt Mary  I haven’t seen my aunt Mary (primary auxiliary have)
• They can come tomorrow  They can’t/cannot come tomorrow (modal auxiliary can)
Inversion:
Lexical verbs require an auxiliary and the inversion auxiliary-subject in the following cases:
1. Yes/no questions:
• Is the boy coming?
• Will they be there?
2. Wh- questions (except when the Wh- form is the subject*):
• When is Betty coming?
• *Who are you talking to?
3. In sentences opening with initial semi-negative adverb
• Seldom had they seen such a castle
• Hardly had I left the room, when they began talking
4. In certain types of conditional sentences
• Had I known they were coming, I would have waited
Code (substitution):
It refers to the use of an auxiliary verb as code, as a substitute of a lexical verb in order to
avoid repetition. These are sentences in which a lexical verb is later “picked up” by an auxiliary:
• I can come and John can come  I can come and so can John
• We must go and you must go  We must go and so must you
• I liked the film and they liked the film  I liked the film and so did they
Code is used to get an invited or interested response, an agreement and to express surprise
or annoyance.
Emphasis:
Lexical verbs cannot be used emphatically to express a contrast, but require the auxiliary do.
• +Mary didn’t go to the faculty this morning

-Oh! Yes, she did
• +He hasn’t bought a new BMW
-Yes, he has
B.2.1- Primary auxiliaries
The auxiliary do:
• It has finite forms: does, did, done

• It is a special type of auxiliary
o It’s an empty or neutral auxiliary, obligatory in N.I.C.E if there isn’t another auxiliary
available
o It functions as an operator
• It always occurs initially in the VP
• It is always finite
• It cannot occur with other auxiliaries
o *He does can sing
• It mustn’t be confused with the lexical verb to do
o He is doing a good job  Do as an auxiliary only exists as do, does and did + there’s
already an auxiliary
The auxiliary have:
• It has finite (has, have, had) and non-finite (have, having) forms
• It can co-occur with a modal auxiliary and with the auxiliary be:
o Modal + have + lexical  She may have written
o Have + be+ lexical (-ing)  She has been writing
o Modal + have + be + lexical (-ed)  She may have been abducted
• It’s the auxiliary of the perfective aspect [Have + lexical (-ed)]
o Present perfect has/have + lexical (-ed)
o Past perfect  have + lexical (-ed)
• It mustn’t be confused with the lexical verb to have
o Did you have a good time?  already an auxiliary
o She has a beautiful house  it implies ownership
The auxiliary be
• It has finite (is, are, am, was, were) and non-finite (be, being, been) forms
• It can co-occur with a modal auxiliary and with the auxiliary have:
o Modal + be + lexical (-ing)  She may be writing
o Modal + be + lexical (-ed)  It may be written
o Have + be + lexical (-ing)  She has been writing
o Modal + have + be + lexical (-ed)  She may have been abducted
• It’s the auxiliary of the progressive aspect [be + lexical (-ing)]
o Am, is, are + lexical (-ing)  He is composing a new song
o Was, were + lexical (-ing)  He was writing a letter
• It’s the auxiliary of the passive voice [be + lexical (-ed)]
o He was knocked down by a bus
• It can combine aspect and voice:
o The new motorway has already been built  present perfect & passive
o The new roundabout is being built  present progressive & passive
• It mustn’t be confused with the lexical verb be
o He is a good Prime Minister  establishes a relationship between 2 elements
o The lecture is at two  copula
B.2.2- Modal auxiliaries:
Morpho-syntactic properties
• Will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, dare to, need to
• They are defective:
o They only have a certain number of forms  they are finite
o They aren’t inflected
• Some have distinct past forms (could, should, would, might), but they are used for more
meanings than just reference to the past
• Some have negative forms  can’t, cannot, mustn’t, may not
• They come always first in the VP and are followed by the base form of the verb
Semantic properties
Modality refers to the expression of the speaker’s attitudes towards the message, towards
the truth of the proposition, in terms of notions like probability, certainty, possibility and prediction.
This is epistemic (or extrinsic) modality, related to knowledge, to an external, personal, comment on
the truth or the logical status of the preposition.
Modality also refers to the personal intervention of the speaker in the speech event in terms
of notions such as obligation, permission, prohibition and volition. This type of modality is called
deontic (or intrinsic), it refers to actions and events that humans directly control.
A non-modalised assertive form is a categorical assertion, it states facts and things based on
truth. Whereas, modalised assertions express an attitude or personal standpoint from the part of the
speaker.
Modals, and semi-modals, can be gropued into 3 major categories according to their central
meaning:
1. Permission, possibility, ability: can, could, may, might

2. Obligation, necessity, suggestion: must, should (semi-modals: had better, have got to,
need to, ought to, be supposed to)
3. Volition, prediction: will, would, shall (semi-modal: be going to)
C- Adjectives:
Morphological properties:
• Most adjectives are gradable

o They can be inflected for comparison:
 Absolute (dark) < comparative (darker) < superlative (darkest)
o Some are irregular when inflected:
 good < better < best
o Some adjectives form the comparative and the superlative using more and most:
 important < more important < most important
• They are often complex
o They are derived
 -able/-ible: perishable, convertible
 -al: accidental, cultural
 -ary: legendary, evolutionary
 -ful: beautiful, insightful
 -less: hopeless, speechless
 -ly: friendly, fatherly
 -ous: curious, famous
o They can be compound adjectives:
 colour-blind
• Many adjectives are derived from -ed and -ing participles:
o surprised
o interesting
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Syntactic properties:
• They function as the head of the adjectival phrases (AP)

o Very dark
o Extremely large buildings
• Adjectival phrases typically function as:
o Pre-modifiers in noun phrases  A beautiful garden
o Predicative in clauses  He has been very brave
o Head of NP (nominalised)  The big issue is the increasing gap between the rich
and the poor
Semantic properties:
• Adjectives typically describe qualities and properties  size, colour, emotional and
evaluative qualities, etc
o A heavy box
o The situation is critical
• Many adjectives are classifiers
o Criminal law
o Medical student
D- Adverbs:
Morphological properties:
• Many adjectives are formed from adjectives adding -ly  clearly, eagerly, quickly
• Not all adverbs have specific endings  However, now, yesterday
• Some, not all, have comparative forms  soon < sooner < soonest
Syntactic properties
• They function as the head of the adverbial phrases  very clearly

• Adverbs may function as:
o Modifiers in:
 The adjectival phrase  Totally wrong
 The adverbial phrase  Just outside
o Adverbials in the clause
Semantic properties
• They function as modifiers of degree

o Totally wrong
o Just outside
• Circumstantial adverbials or adjuncts specify the circumstances under which an action or
process takes place
• Stance adverbials or disjuncts convey the speaker’s attitude
• Linking adverbials or conjuncts express connection between clauses
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UNIT 4- THE PHRASE
1- The noun phrase (NP):
The NP is identifiable by its internal, formal properties as well as its external, syntactic
properties and its semantic properties.
A- Formal properties:
• The head, a noun, is an obligatory constituent

o The head determines the number and gender of the NP as a whole
• Though there can be more than one noun in the NP, only one can function as the head
(except in coordinate phrase)
• Typically, the NP has a fixed pattern that combines 2 different categories of words in a
specific way  Determiner + Noun
o The determiner specifies the reference of the noun
o The determiner isn’t always necessary:
 Peter was jumping over the fence
 He was jumping over the fence
 Smoke gets in her eyes
o Provisionally, the structure of the NP can be stated as: NP  Det + Noun/Pronoun
• The noun can be preceded by modifiers -pre-modifiers- that are typically optional
o Pre-modifiers describe or classify the entity denoted by a N
• The noun can also be followed by modifiers -post-modifier or complement- that completes
the meaning of the N
B- Syntactic properties:
Noun phrases tend to appear in certain positions and to perform certain syntactic functions
which are distinctive:
• Subject: The cow was jumping over the fence

• Direct object (DO): She broke the car
• Indirect object (IO): The old lady gave the baby a kiss
• Complement of the Prepositional Phrase (CPrep): They were rowing on the river
C- Structure and realization of NP:
Within the structure of NP there are intermediate levels, like the intermediate levels in the
VP. The NP has 2 immediate constituents  Determiner (det) and Nominal (nom).
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D- Determiners:
They are a fixed set of grammatical words that provide information about definiteness and
indefiniteness.
definite → the
Articles (art)
indefinite → a
Demonstratives this, that, these,

Determiners (dem) those
(Det)
some, any, no,
Quantifiers (Q) each, every,
either, neither
Possessives my, your, its, her,

(poss) his, our, their, X's
• The determiner position isn’t always filled

o An unfilled determiner gives the NP a more indefinite and more general interpretation
o Only plural count nouns and non-count mass nouns can be used with an unfilled
determiner  a “zero determiner”
o The only NPs that don’t have a determiner are NPs consisting of a pronoun or a
proper noun
• A possessive determiner can consist of:
o A possessive pronoun
 My bike (1)
o A full NP with genitive -s
 The boy’s behaviour (2)
(1) (2)
NP
Det Nom
Poss -s N
NP
NP
Det Nom
Det N
poss N
art
my bike the boys behaviour
E- Pre-determiners (Pre-det):
They determine a NP and can also be partitive.
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F- Pre-modifiers in Nom:
They are typically optional, and they are used to describe or classify the entity denoted by
the N. The N can also be post-modified to complete its meaning.
• Adjective Phrases (AP): are the commonest pre-modifiers of the noun within the Nom
constituent
o Quantifying adjectives (QA): they are the head of the AP. Any AP with a QA always
precede other APs in Nom
 They can co-occur with and follow determiners
 They may occur in VP as subject complement
 They are gradable
o Numerals: should be treated as QA within Nom since they follow Det, including
unfilled Det
 Cardinals: one, two, three…
 Ordinals: first, second, third…
o Adjectives: they are sometimes considered post-determiners. Some can pre-modify
or post-modify the head noun
 The present members // The members present
 Post-modifying APs occupy the same position in Nom as post-modifying PPs
• Participle Phrases (PartP): non-finite forms of verbs (-ing and -ed) may appear as pre-
modifiers within Nom
o The non-finite forms are verbal when they aren’t gradable
 The smiling lady // *The very smiling lady
o If they are gradable, they should be analysed as adjectives
 Rather surprising
• Nouns: they may act as pre-modifiers of head nouns
o The combination of a modifier noun and a head noun is often considered a
compound noun (treated as a compound word)
 Computer programme
G- Post-modifiers in NP
• Prepositional phrase (PP): the head of the PP is a preposition and it’s followed by a
complement of the PP (CPrep), usually a NP
o A visit to some villages (1)
• Adjectival phrase: only a few adjectives can both pre and post-modify a head, and when
they do so, they change the meaning of the sentence. Post-modifying AP occupy the same
position in Nom as post-modifying PP
o The responsible men // The men responsible
o The members present (2)
o Any AP with a complement of the adjective must have a post-modifying position in
the structure of NP
 The men responsible for the distribution of goods
• Adverbial phrase (AdvP): the head noun is post-modified by an AdvP
o The day before (3)
• Nominalised clauses: relative clauses and non-finite clauses
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(1)
NP
Det Nom
art N PP
P NP
Det Nom
Q N
A visit to some villages
(2) (3)
NP
NP
Det Nom
Det Nom
art N AP
art N AdvP
A Adv
The members present The day before
2- The adjectival phrase (AP):
The AP is centred around a lexical category -the adjective- that is characterised by a certain
number of properties:
• Morphological: adjectives are gradable (they have a comparative and a superlative form)
and associated with certain derivational morphemes (-able, -al, -ful, -ic)
• Semantic: they are usually associated with the expression of qualities and properties,
generally narrowing the sense of the noun by ascribing certain attributes
• Syntactic: in the NP, the AP acts as a modifier, be it a pre-modifier or a post-modifier. In the
VP, the AP acts as a subject complement or an object complement
o The present members  pre-modifier in NP
o The members present  post-modifier in NP
o She is beautiful  Subject complement in VP
o She makes me sad  Object complement in VP
A- Structure of AP:
In the AP, the adjective functions as the head of the phrase. The AP can be complex, more
than one word, or simple, one word.
• Adjectives may be preceded, pre-modified, by adverbs

o Degree adverbs: quite, very, so, rather, incredibly
 It is a rather impressive building (1)
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oGeneral adverbs: theoretically, immediately
 It is practically useless (2)
• Some adjectives may be followed, post-modified, by PP, non-finite clauses, finite clauses
o Peter is fond of music (3)
(1)
NP
Det Nom
art AP N
Advp A
deg
A impressive building
rather
(2) (3)
AP
AP
A PP
Advp A
P NP
Adv
N
practically useless fond of music
B- Recursive modification:
• When more than one adjective appears, the order of those adjectives is rigid
o A big red bull // *A red big bull
• Adjective is closer to the noun if
o It is more central to the meaning of the N
 A large national museum
o More inherent, durable quality of the N
 A big African elephant
o More generic than specific information
 A stupid four-legged animal
3- The adverbial phrase (AdvP):
In an AdvP, the head word is an adverb. The head of the phrase, the adverb, can be pre-
modified by another adverb (very recently). Usually, adverbs aren’t post-modified, but there are
cases when they are (unfortunately for him).
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4- The verbal phrase (VP):
It’s identifiable by its formal, syntactic and semantic properties. The VP functions as the
predicate in the clause, it is the main constituent of the clause and the element that determines the
properties of the clause as a whole.
Clause
NP: subject VP: predicate
A- Structure of VP:
A.1- The predicator:
It’s the one constituent that’s obligatory and it’s realised by a verb group (Vgrp), the lexical
verb. The predicator is the head of the VP. The VP may contain complements and/or adjuncts:
• Complements: depending on the type of lexical verb they vary

• Adjuncts: the may modify the VP with a PP or an AdvP, i.e. with adjuncts
While a simple Vgrp contains just a single verb, that must be lexical, a complex Vgrp
contains one or more auxiliaries that accompany the obligatory lexical verb. Lexical and auxiliary
verbs constitute different sub-classes of the word class verb as they have different morphological,
syntactic and semantic features and properties.
A.1.1- The auxiliary:
The auxiliary is a restricted sub-class of verbs that fulfil a variety of functions as they indicate
tense, aspect, modality and voice. In fact, in a complex Vgrp, the tense feature attaches to the first
verb in the Vgrp. They are also compulsory for the phenomena of negation, inversion,
code/substitution and emphasis. They are highly structured and can contain up to four immediate
constituents.
All four of them are optional and any combination of them is possible but they always appear
in a specific and rigid order. Each may appear only once and only the first verb is tensed.
1. Modal (mod): modal + bare infinitive

2. Perfective aspect (perf): have + verb (-en)
3. Progressive aspect (prog): be + verb (-ing)
4. Passive voice (pass): be + verb (-en)
B- Complementation
The VP may contain a second constituent, however, not all VPs require a NP. The NP
depends on the type of lexical verb functioning as head of Vgrp/Predicator. Lexical verbs sub-
categorise according to what other elements must appear with them in the VP, i.e. they are sub-
categorised in terms of their complementation.
The sub-categories of verbs are:
• Transitive (mono-transitive) • Intensive

• Intransitive • Complex-transitive
• Ditransitive • Prepositional
16
B.1- Transitive Vgrps
• They require a single NP to complement the Vgrp

• In them, the NP functions as a direct object (DO)
o Figo kicked the ball.
• When the head of NP is a pronoun, that PRO must be in objective case
o Tom fears me/her/him/us/them.
• When the form of a NP is determined by its complement relation with the other constituent, it
is said to be governed by it:
o Tom fears her
o For him
NP VP
Vgrp
N NP
[trans]
B.2- Intransitive Vgrps
• They don’t require any further constituents as sister in VP
NP VP
Vgrp
N
[intrans]
Martha smiled
B.3- Ditransitive Vgrps:
• They require two NPs as complementation

o Mary gave her brother a kiss (1).
 The first NP functions as indirect object (IO) and the second as DO, but both
NPs are governed by Vgrp.
• There is a systematic correlation between IO and a PP following DO
o Mary gave a kiss to her brother.
• The IO can be specified or realised by either a NP or a PP with “to”, “for” …
• The PP is part of the complementation, it is not optional
S
NP VP
Vgrp
N NP: IO NP: DO
[ditrans]
her
Mary gave a kiss
brother
17
B.4- Intensive/Copulative Vgrps:
• They require a single complement, which can take the form of AP, NP or PP
• The most typical intensive verb is “be”, although there are others such as remain, become,
get, grow, look around, turn, sound, etc
o Generally, if the intensive verb can be exchanged with “be” and not change the
meaning of the sentence, then the verb can be considered a copula
 Paul is quite clever
• The complement of an intensive verb functions as predicative that are used to attribute
properties to what is referred to:
o By the subject [subject predicative (SPred) or subject complement (Cs)]
o By the DO [object predicative (OPred) or object complement (Co)]
• The main difference between a NP functioning as predicative complement and a NP
functioning as DO is the ability to form the passive
o As a predicative complement, the NP can’t form a passive:
 Ed was a student (1)  *A student was been by Ed
o As a direct object, the NP can form a passive:
 Ed spotted a student (2)  A student was spotted by Ed
• PPs can also function as subject predicative:
o Jim should be in his office
S S
NP VP NP VP
Vgrp
N NP: Cs Vgrp
[intens] N
[monotrans]
NP: DO
Ed was a student
Ed spotted a student
B.5- Complex transitive:
• They are a complex construction resulting from combining 2 VPs

o They elected Brad + Brad is chairman of the board  They elected Brad chairman
of the board
• They require a DO and a complement (Co), an object predicative which predicates
something about the object
• The predicative complement can take the form of AP, NP, PP
o John found the discussion extremely interesting
VP
Vgrp NP: DO AP: Co
complex-
trans (past)
the extremely
found
discussion interesting
18
B.6- Prepositional Vgrps:
• They require a PP as complement

o I looked at the beautiful flowers
• They must be distinguished from:
o Intransitive Vgrps with optional modifying PP
 Martha was smiling in her bathroom
o Intensive Vgrps with subject complement (SC) realised as PP
 Jim should be in his office.
• Some of them are: account for, concentrate on, insist on, look for, listen to, look at
VP
Vgrp PP: PrepC
prep (past)
at the
looked beautiful
flowers
C- Multiword lexical verbs:
They consist of at least 2 lexical items. These kinds of verbs are:
• Phrasal verbs
• Phrasal-prepositional verbs
• Idiomatic verb constructions
C.1- Phrasal verbs:
They are very numerous, and they are a combination of a verb and a member of a closed
class of either an adverbial or a prepositional phrase called a particle (about, up, on, out, off). They
are idiomatic constructions, meaning that they form a semantic unit and that the meaning of the verb
can’t always be deducted from the meaning of the parts. They can be replaced by another lexical
verb, resulting in a more formal construction.
• In the phrasal verbs, the particle’s stressed and can be displaced:

o Did you make up this story?
o Did you make this story up?
• The adverb in the phrasal verb cannot be interpolated
o He turned off the light suddenly
o *He turned suddenly off the light
Phrasal verbs are constantly created and can be both transitive and intransitive.
Vgrp [phrasal-
VP V+part passed away
intrans]
19
C.2- Phrasal-prepositional verbs:
They are a combination of a phrasal verb and a prepositional verb. Some examples are:
look down on, cut down on (2).
VP
Vgrp [phrasal-
PP: PrepC
prep]
aux V+part on expenses
mod cut down
must
C.3- Idiomatic verb constructions:

They are indivisible units that are analysed as (mono)transitive. Examples of these kind of
verbs are: catch sight of, give way to, lay claim to, set fire to, make allowance for, make fun of, take
advantage of.
VP
Vgrp [idiom-
NP: DO
trans]
D- Adverbials:
Adverbials refer to any item that functions in a supplementary capacity, added to VP,
sentence, etc. Adverbials can be realised by AdvP, NP, PP, finite clauses, non-finite clauses and
verb-less clauses. There are 3 types according to their function:
1. Circumstantial adverbials (adjuncts): provide information concerning time, place, manner,

means, etc
2. Stance adverbials (disjuncts): provide an attitudinal comment by the speaker on the
content of the clause or sentence
3. Connective adverbials (conjuncts): are not elements of structures, but connectors of
structures. They signal how the speaker intends the semantic connections to be made
between one part of the discourse and another
D.1- Adjuncts:
Properties:
• They are optional, not essential to the acceptability of the utterance

• They usually appear in the predicate and modify the VP
• They are movable
o My boyfriend will be here next week
o Next week my boyfriend will be here
• All VPs may optionally be modified by a PP, AdvP or a NP  by Adjuncts
20
o The dog is running through the field (PP)
o The man saw a cow behind the trees (PP)
o The dog is running very fast (AdvP)
o I saw him this morning (NP)
• Adjuncts can be stacked up
• Only adjuncts of the same semantic category can be coordinated with “and”
o Ann walked over the bridge and through the woods (place)
o He danced gracefully and with great feeling (manner)
o *Ann walked to the park and at noon (*place + time)
• The order of adjuncts is a loosely conventional order
Classification:
1. Locative
a. Place
b. Direction
2. Temporal
a. Adverbial constructions expressing a boundary in time
b. Duration
c. Frequency
3. Manner
4. Means
5. Reason/purpose
6. Result
7. Intensifying, downtowners, limiting adjuncts
a. a small class of adverbs
b. closely related to adverbs that modify
c. adjectives and adverbs
D.2- Disjuncts:
They are sentence-adverbials. Adverbs and prepositional phrases that provide some
comment of attitude from the speaker about what is being reported (attitudinal, evaluative). They are
loosely associated with the sentence: intonation, break, punctuation. Disjuncts can be in initial,
medial or final position:
• Unfortunately, my friends arrived late and missed the plane

• My friends arrived late and missed the plane, unfortunately
• My friends, unfortunately, arrived late and missed the plane
D.3- Conjuncts:
They connect clauses, sentences and paragraphs. There are different types of conjuncts
depending on their function:
• Additive: besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, as well, also
• Contrast: instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet
• Causal: for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus
• Temporal: first, then, next, after that, finally, at once
21
UNIT 5- THE CLAUSE/SENTENCE
The sentence is traditionally defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete
idea and that includes a subject and a verb.
1- Classification of sentences/clauses:
Traditionally, sentences can be classified according to various criteria:
• Major vs. minor sentences • Sentence/clause patterns

• Simple, compound and complex • Finite vs. non-finite clauses
sentences • Independent vs. subordinate clauses
• Sentence/clause types
A- Major vs. Minor sentences:
While major sentences can be broken into clausal constituents: subject and predicate, minor
sentences are not constructed in a regular way and cannot be analysed into a sequence of clause
elements. Both are used in written and spoken language and to create the same productions:
• Headlines, labels, advertisements, websites

• Formulae for stereotyped situations: Cheers!
• Emotional/functional noises: ow!
• Proverbs: easy come, easy go
• Abbreviated forms: wish you were here
B- Simple, compound and complex sentences:
In terms of their complexity, sentences can be classified into:
• Simple: they consist of one independent clause

• Compound: they consist of at least two independent clauses
• Complex: they consist of an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
• Compound-complex: they consist of two or more independent clauses and at least one
dependent clause
C- Sentence types:
A set of syntactic arrangements of clause elements, characteristically used to perform

different kinds of speech acts. A classification on the basis of the communicative function the
sentence performs as:
• Declarative: they make a statement. They are by far the most common type  David plays
the piano
• Closed interrogative: they ask a closed question  Is this your book?
• Open interrogative: they ask an open question  Should I phone or e-mail you?
• Exclamative: they make an exclamatory statement  What a stupid man he is!
• Imperative: they issue a directive  Write soon, won’t you?
D- Sentence patterns
• S + V (intransitive)  She was smiling

• S + V + Adjunct  The baby was laying on his back
22
• S + V (intensive) + Cs  He is a happy guy
• S + V (transitive) + DO  we opened the door
• S + V (ditransitive) + IO + DO  I sent him a letter
• S + V (prepositional) + PrepC  She is looking for some chocolate
• S + V (transitive prepositional) + DO + PrepC  They blamed the problem on tough
competition
• S + V (complex-transitive) + DO + Co  They elected Peter chairman of the board
E- Finite vs. Non-finite clauses:
Finite verbs carry tense, and the clauses containing them are finite clauses:
• She writes home every day  finite clause, present tense verb
• She wrote home yesterday  finite clause, past tense verb
On the other hand, non-finite verb phrases do not carry tense. Their main verb is either a to-
infinitive (1), a bare infinitive (2), an -ed form (3) or an -ing form (4):
1. David loves to play the piano

2. We made David play the piano
3. Written in 1864, it soon became a classic
4. Leaving home can be very traumatic
F- Independent vs. subordinate clauses:
F.1- Independent clauses:
Nominal relative clauses (or independent relatives) function in some respects like noun
phrases:
• What I like best is football ↔ The sport I like best is football

• The prize will go to whoever submits the best design ↔ The prize will go to the person who
submits the best design
• My son is teaching me how to use email ↔ My son is teaching the way to use email
• This is where Shakespeare was born ↔ This is the place where Shakespeare was born
Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such as “who” or “which”.
However, the relative pronoun may be ellipted. Another variant, the reduced relative clause, has no
relative pronoun, and the verb is non-finite.
• The man who lives beside us is ill

• The video which you recommended was terrific ↔ The video you recommended was terrific
• The man living besides us is ill
F.2- Subordinate clauses:
Subordinate clauses may be finite or non-finite. Within this broad classification, further
distinctions can be made. Looking at their formal characteristics, many of the subordinate clauses
can be named after the form of the verb which they contain:
• To- infinitive clause: You must book early to secure a seat

• Bare infinitive clause: They made the professor forget his notes
• -Ing participle clause: His hobby is collecting old photographs
• -Ed participle clause: Rejected by his parents, the boy turned to a life of crime
23
• If- clause: I’ll be there at nine if I catch the early train. If- clauses are sometimes called
conditional clauses
• That- clause: David thinks that we should have a meeting. The “that” element is sometimes
ellipted  David thinks we should have a meeting
Subordinate clauses can also be classified according to their meaning:
Subordinate Clause Type Examples

-I’ll ring you again before I leave
-David joined the army after he graduated
Temporal
-When you leave, please close the door
-I read the newspaper while I was waiting
-I’ll be there at nine if I can catch the early train
Conditional -Provided he works hard, he’ll do very well at school
-Don’t call me unless it’s an emergency
-He bought me a lovely gift, although he can’t really afford it
Concessive -Even though he worked hard, he failed the final exam
-While I don’t agree with her, I can understand her viewpoint
-Paul was an hour late because he missed the train
Reason -I borrowed your lawn mower, since you weren’t using it
-As I don’t know the way, I’ll take a taxi
-The kitchen was flooded, so we had to go to a restaurant
Result
-I’ve forgotten my password, so I can’t read my email
-This is a lot more difficult than I expected
Comparative -She earns as much money as I do
-I think London is less crowded than it used to be
2- Structure of the clause
The most familiar grammatical function is the subject which performs the “action” denoted by
the verb. In these terms, this means that the subject can be identified by asking a “wh-” question.
• David plays the piano  Q. Who plays the piano? A. David (= subject)
• The police interviewed everyone  Q. Who interviewed everyone? A. The police (= subject)
Having identified the subject, the remainder of the sentences tells what the subject does or
did. That remainder of the sentence is called the predicate of the sentence. In most examples, the
subject performs the actions described in the predicate, but sometimes there can be problems in
defining verbs as “action” words and the “subject” as the performer of the action.
A- The subject:
The grammatical subject has a number of characteristics:
1. Subject-verb inversion:
In a declarative sentence, the subject comes before the verb: David is unwell, but when the
sentence becomes a yes/no interrogative, the subject and the verb change places with each other:
Is David unwell?
24
However, if an auxiliary verb is present, the subject changes places with the auxiliary: Jim
has left already (declarative) ↔ Has Jim left already? (interrogative). In this interrogative, the
subject still comes before the main verb, but after the auxiliary. This also happens in interrogatives
with a do- auxiliary: Jim left early (declarative) ↔ Did Jim leave early? (interrogative).
Subject-verb inversion is probably the most reliable method of identifying the subject of a
sentence.
2. Position of the subject:
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually the first constituent: Paul arrived too late for
the party, however, there are exceptions to this rule: Yesterday the theatre was closed. Here, the
first constituent is the adverbial phrase “yesterday”, but it’s not the subject, “the theatre” is, as it
inverts with the verb in the interrogative: Yesterday the theatre was closed (declarative) ↔
Yesterday was the theatre closed? (interrogative).
3. Subject-verb agreement:
Subject-verb agreement or concord relates to number (singular or plural) agreement

between the subject and the verb which follows it: The dog howls all night (singular subject) ↔ the
dogs howl all night (plural subject).
There are two important limitations to subject-verb agreement. Firstly, agreement only
applies when the verb is in the present tense, not in the past tense: The dog(s) howled all night. And
secondly, agreement applies only to third person subjects, there is no distinction between a first
person singular subject and a first person plural subject: I howl at night ↔ We howl at night.
4. Subjective pronouns:
The pronouns “I, he/she/it, we, they” always function as subjects, in contrast with “me,
him/her, us, them”: I left early (valid) ↔ *Me left early (not-valid). The pronoun “you” can also be a
subject (You left early), but it doesn’t always perform this function, as in the following example the
subject is “Tom”, not “you”: Tom likes you.
B- The predicate:
The predicate consists of a verb phrase that can be divided into further elements. In formal
terms, the verb is referred to as the predicator, because its function is to predicate or state
something about the subject.
25
UNIT 6- COMPLEX SENTENCES
1- Coordination and apposition
The sentence is traditionally the highest grammatical unit. A simple sentence consists of one
independent clause. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses of
equal status, linked in a relationship of coordination. A complex sentence consists of one
independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, linked in a relationship of dependency
or subordination.
Coordinated clauses are linked in a relation of equivalence and interdependency based on

similarity of function and relevance. Coordination is a type of relation that holds between units of
similar function, and often similar form:
• Independent clauses
• Dependent clauses
• Phrases
• Words
Ellipsis is often involved, since part of the information in one unit may be recoverable from
the other unit. Ambiguity is often present in coordinated structures. When no explicit formal marker
of coordination is present, and the relationship is of equivalence, apposition is used. Apposition is a
construction in which a NP specifies another NP.
• The murderer, the man with a scar, will be arrested soon

• A surprise present, a bouquet of roses, was offered to the boss
• A university lecturer, Dr. Smith, has won the Nobel prize
2- Complex sentences
Complex sentences consist of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses,
linked in a relationship of dependency. The speaker/writer presents states as being foregrounded
(main clause) and backgrounded (subordinated clause).
The clause functions as an obligatory constituent of another clause: subject, object (OD, OI),
complement (Cs, Co), or as a constituent of a phrase. Clauses functioning as adjuncts are
considered as constituents of the clause, although they are not obligatory constituents, so their
degree of integration is relative.
There are several types of complex sentences or sentences within sentences:
• That-clauses (nominal clauses)

o Subject and extraposed subject
o Complement of Vgrp within VP
o Complement of A within AP
o Complement of N within NP
o Complement of P within PP
• Adverbial clauses
o Adverbial functions
• Relative clauses (adjectival clauses)
o Post-modifier of N within NP
• Non-finite clauses
26
Subordinate clauses are marked by any the following markers of clausal subordination:
• Complementizers: that, whether

• Subordinating conjunctions: before, after, until, since…
• Wh- words: they appear in interrogative and relative subordinate clauses
• Non-finite Vgrp
A- That-/whether- clauses:
Subject (and extraposed subject):
Pragmatically speaking, these sentences aren’t fully acceptable in English. They usually
follow the End-Weight principle, where “heavy” and complex constituents tend to be placed towards
the end of the sentence. This movement to the final position is called extraposition. The clausal
subject is extraposed, leaving in its place a “dummy” subject, the empty pronoun or expletive it.
• That his career has been a success is undeniable

• It is undeniable that his career has been a success
Complement of Vgrp within VP:
• They realised [that] Claire had a real musical talent

• The problem is that there are not enough computer-rooms
Complement of A within AP:
Within AP, some adjectives can be complemented by a PP: He was furious at the driver.
Some adjectives can be also complemented by a that- and whether- clause: He is very angry that
he missed the train // The teacher is unsure whether she will include a new unit.
Complement of N within NP:
The subordinate clause complements the N within the NP. Noun-complement clauses can
only complement abstract nouns (idea, problem, suggestion, issue, etc).
B- Adverbial clauses:
They can be realised by:
• Adverb phrases
• Noun phrases
• Prepositional phrases
• Finite clauses
• Non-finite clauses
• Verb-less clauses
C- Relative clauses:
They are in relation of modification, i.e. they offer peripheral information within the structure
of the NP. They are marked by a WH- word, a traditionally called relative pronoun. They can be
restrictive or non-restrictive.
D- Non-finite clauses:
It’s a type of clause that has a non-finite, that is, tense-less, Vgrp. Non-finite clauses are
always subordinate. There are some types:
27
• Bare infinitive Vgrp  All you have to do is examine the sentences
• To-infinitive Vgrp  Unfortunately, he doesn’t like to work hard
• -Ing participle Vgrp  Mary was busy reading the newspaper
• Past participle (-ed) Vgrp I want all the notes revised
Non-finite clauses can function as:
1. Subject and extraposed subject

o Watching TV for hours is a waste of time
o It is a waste of time watching TV for hours
2. Complement of A in AP
o Ann is eager to start her new job
3. Complement of P in PP
o The same effect can be achieved by pressing this button
4. Adverbial
o Having been fired, he got a depression
5. Modifier of NOM in NP
o She was the last woman to be rescued from disaster
6. Complement of N in NP
o Her ability to negotiate with them made her the best candidate for the post
7. Complement of Vgrp
o Unfortunately, he doesn’t like to make an extra effort
28

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Apuntes Sintaxis.

Sintaxis del Ingles

2º Grado en Estudios Ingleses

Reservados todos los derechos.

2- The organization of language in units:

Language is a communicative system formed by signs or symbols. A system is a set of

B- Unit, structure, classes of units:

• It is divisible into parts (constituent)

C- The rank scale:

morpheme word phrase clause sentence

D- Constituency, function, category:

A full identification of a unit involves combining information of two types:

1. Identification of internal properties

1- The structure of words:

The structure of the word can be described in two ways:

• Simple: consisting of a free morpheme functioning as a base/stem

Inflectional suffixes signal grammatical relationships. Inflection can be applied to many

• Nouns: base + inflectional suffix

Compounding is a word-formation process where 2 bases combine to form a new word,

• Noun + noun: chairman, boyfriend, textbook, bookcase, sandstone

B.4- Multiword lexical units-idioms:

2- Major word classes:

• Morphological: types of morphemes (inflectional and derivational) associated with each

• Morphological: they are affected by both inflection and derivation

B.1- Lexical verbs:

B.2- Auxiliary verbs:

• I like black coffee  I don’t like black coffee (periphrastic do)

• +Mary didn’t go to the faculty this morning

B.2.1- Primary auxiliaries

The auxiliary do:

• It has finite forms: does, did, done

The auxiliary have:

B.2.2- Modal auxiliaries:

1. Permission, possibility, ability: can, could, may, might

• Most adjectives are gradable

• They function as the head of the adjectival phrases (AP)

• They function as the head of the adverbial phrases  very clearly

• They function as modifiers of degree

1- The noun phrase (NP):

• The head, a noun, is an obligatory constituent

• Subject: The cow was jumping over the fence

C- Structure and realization of NP:

Demonstratives this, that, these,

Possessives my, your, its, her,

• The determiner position isn’t always filled

my bike the boys behaviour

They determine a NP and can also be partitive.

A visit to some villages

The members present The day before

2- The adjectival phrase (AP):

• Adjectives may be preceded, pre-modified, by adverbs

practically useless fond of music

3- The adverbial phrase (AdvP):

NP: subject VP: predicate

A.1- The predicator:

• Complements: depending on the type of lexical verb they vary

A.1.1- The auxiliary:

1. Modal (mod): modal + bare infinitive

The sub-categories of verbs are:

• Transitive (mono-transitive) • Intensive

• They require a single NP to complement the Vgrp

B.2- Intransitive Vgrps