Genie Energetique Syllabus

École d'Ingénieurs
de Pierrard - Virton
Génie énergétique
Enseignant : Nathalie Bailly
Bloc d'études : 3B
Année académique 2022-2023
Table des matières
Organisation vii
Modalités d’enseignement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Modalités d’évaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Notes de cours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
I. Fluid Machines 1
Introduction 3
1. Pumps 7
1.1. Types of machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1. Positive displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2. Rotodynamic pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2. Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1. Positive displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2. Rotodynamic pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3. Design of a fluid circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.2. Study of the circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.3. Choice of the pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient circuit design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.1. Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.2. Siphoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.3. Water hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.4. Hydraulic balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.5. Thermal dilatation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.6. Hydraulic coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.7. By-pass of large valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient pump operation . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.1. Stability of the operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.2. Instability of pumps associated in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.3. Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.4. Priming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.5. Excessive warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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Table des matières
1.5.6. Control of a rotodynamic pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2. Compressors, Fans and Blowers 37

2.1.1. Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.2. Fans and blowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.1. Fans and blowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.2. Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3. Design of a compressed air network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1. Study of the circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2. Choice of the compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.1. Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2. Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient compressor operation . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.1. Off-loading operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.2. Energy savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.3. Energy recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3. Water Turbines 45
3.1.1. Impulse turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.2. Reaction turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.3. Positive displacement turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3. Design of a hydroelectric power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1. Site study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2. Choice of the turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4. Actions to be taken for an efficiently operating system . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.1. Impacts between the turbine and objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.2. Fish interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.3. Water hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4.4. Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.5. Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4. Wind Turbines 57
4.1.1. Horizontal-axis turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1.2. Vertical-axis turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.1. Betz’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
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Table des matières
4.2.2. Turbine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.3. Design of a wind farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.1. Site study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.2. Choice of a wind turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4.1. Lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.2. Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.3. Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.4. Variation of the wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.5. Interaction with plane sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.6. Axial thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.7. Flying animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.8. Neighbouring people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5. Combustion Engines 69
5.1.1. Internal combustion engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.1.2. External combustion engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3. Design of a vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.1. Load curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.2. Choice of the engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3.3. Choice of the gearbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3.4. Other cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.1. Starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.2. Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.3. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.4. Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.5. Icing of the carburettor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.6. Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
II. Building Envelope and Technical Installations 79

6. References in the Building Sector 81
6.1. Requirements of the energy performance of buildings . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.2. Requirements of a passive building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7. Building Envelope 87
7.1. Types of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.1.1. Building elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
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Table des matières
7.1.2. Construction details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

7.2.1. Heat transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.2.2. Degree of global thermal insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2.3. Construction details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.2.4. Air-tightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3. Design of the building envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.4.1. Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.4.2. Infiltration et exfiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.4.3. Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8. Ventilation and Air Conditioning 103

8.1. Types of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.1.1. Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.1.2. Air conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.2. Comfort criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2.1. Human behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2.2. Thermal environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.3. Indoor air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.4. Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.2.5. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.3. Design of a fan assisted balanced mechanical ventilation . . . . . . . . . 108
8.3.1. Room characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.3.2. Calculation of the flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.3.3. Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.3.4. Choice of the ventilation unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.4. Design of an air handling unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.4.1. Air conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.4.2. Room load calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.4.3. Calculation of the operating points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.4.4. Choice of the air handling unit components . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient ventilation system . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.5.1. Fouling of filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.5.2. Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.3. Icing of the heat exchanger or of a coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.4. Overheating during summer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.5. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.6. Fire safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.7. Insulation of the pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.8. Legionellosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.5.9. Bleed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
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Table des matières
8.5.10. Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

8.5.11. Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9. Heating and Cooling 117

9.1. Types of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.1.1. Heat or cold generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.1.2. Heat transfer medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.1.3. Heat or cold emission systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.2.1. Heat or cold emission systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.2.2. Heat generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.3. Sizing of a heating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.3.1. External temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.3.2. Description of the spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.3.3. Description of the building elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.3.4. Description of the ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.3.5. Description of the heated spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.3.6. Design heat load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.3.7. Choice of the heating generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.3.8. Heating elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.4. Sizing of a cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.4.1. Outdoor design conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.4.2. Description of the building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.4.3. Description of the heat gain for exterior surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.4.4. Description of the other gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.4.5. Calculation of the hourly cooling loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a heating system . . . 131
9.5.1. Heating curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5.2. Heat storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5.3. Condensing boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5.4. Thermal dilatation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5.5. Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5.6. Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.5.7. Hydraulic balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.5.8. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.6. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a cooling system . . . . 133
9.6.1. Thermal shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6.2. Limit to the number of starts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6.3. Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6.4. Refrigerant fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6.5. Negative temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.6.6. Icing of the evaporator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
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Table des matières
10.Cogeneration 135
10.1. Type of systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.2.1. Sankey diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.2.2. Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.2.3. Other data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.3. Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of an internal combustion
engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4.1. Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4.2. Regulation of the needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4.3. Cold return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4.4. Exhaust gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4.5. Room ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Appendices xiii
vi
Organisation
Cette unité d’enseignement introduit les notions nécessaires afin de sélectionner le
composant adéquat pour une situation énergétique donnée. De nombreux systèmes et
machines sont abordés du point de vue d’un bureau d’études (sélection du système
approprié et précautions pour un fonctionnement optimal) ; leur dimensionnement et
leur conception (point de vue du fabriquant) sont présentés par l’unité d’enseignement
« Conception énergétique » en bloc 1M EM.
Modalités d’enseignement
L’unité d’enseignement est divisée en séances alliant théorie et exposés pratiques au
premier quadrimestre, et en séances de laboratoire au deuxième quadrimestre ; le tra-
vail en autonomie fait partie des méthodes d’apprentissage, et il comprend un bureau
d’études.
Théorie
Le chapitre vu à chaque séance de théorie est donné préalablement sur la plateforme
Moodle. Il est demandé à l’étudiant souhaitant assister au cours de préparer les séances
théoriques en explorant préalablement les parties à voir, de manière à ce que l’apprentis-
sage soit plus efficace. L’étudiant ne souhaitant pas assister au cours a les informations
nécessaires pour évoluer seul dans la connaissance des équipements étudiés.
L’accès aux séances théoriques est conditionné à un travail de recherche préalable :
au plus tard la veille à 18 heures, l’étudiant doit déposer sur la plateforme Moodle une
coupe ou un schéma détaillé d’une machine ou d’un dispositif étudié lors de la séance en
question. Pour faciliter la recherche, une liste préalablement établie par l’enseignant est
en ligne sur la plateforme Moodle (lien « Liste d’équipements devant faire l’objet d’une
recherche de plans ou de schémas préalablement à la séance théorique »), et les sujets
réservés par les étudiants (via les outils « Forum » « Recherche de schémas ou de plans »)
sont indiqués comme réservés au fur et à mesure (la liste est mise à jour au mieux une
fois par jour, au pire une fois par semaine) ; si certaines listes sont trop courtes pour
offrir une possibilité par étudiant, les étudiants ayant choisi le même équipement doivent
se concerter pour ne pas présenter la même image ; les étudiants sont libres de proposer
des équipements alternatifs qui seraient concernés par le cours mais non contenus dans
la liste. Les résultats de cette recherche sont examinés en début de cours au moyen de
vii
Organisation
Microsoft Whiteboard : chaque étudiant présente et défend son ou ses images, idéalement
en anglais. L’étudiant n’ayant pas déposé sur la plateforme son résultat de recherche peut
exceptionnellement l’apporter en version papier (par exemple, dans le cas d’un poster, ou
d’un livre issu de la bibliothèque) ; sans résultat, l’étudiant n’est pas invité sur le tableau
Microsoft Whiteboard compilant l’ensemble des images. La qualité de cette recherche
est importante : elle constitue la base de travail d’un acquis d’apprentissage sanctionné
par l’examen.
Suite à cette partie, le cours se poursuit par l’examen des questions qui demeureraient
suite à la lecture du chapitre concerné. Un résumé de la démarche est alors créé sous
forme de mindmapping. Pour conclure, divers travaux réalisés et des logiciels dédiés sont
présentés, avec un questionnaire en fin de séance.
Au second quadrimestre, l’organisation de visites est possible, pour autant que le
groupe se montre proactif et désireux. Si une majorité d’étudiant s’engage à y prendre
part, le choix du ou des thèmes est réalisé au moyen d’un vote de Condorcet. Les détails
de la visite sont réglés par différents échanges entre le délégué de classe et l’enseignant.
Bureau d’études
Le bureau d’études consiste à opérer la sélection d’un composant énergétique et à
évaluer sa consommation ou sa production énergétique. Le sujet est laissé libre, pour
autant qu’il concerne un chapitre du cours et que les puissances dont il est question
soient compatibles avec l’optique de l’unité d’enseignement : il doit donc être validé
par l’enseignant. Similairement aux situations que l’on peut rencontrer en industrie,
relativement peu d’informations sont données, et l’étudiant doit donc déployer toute son
ingénierie pour pallier le manque de données.
À partir du mois de septembre et quand il le souhaite, l’étudiant propose son sujet
de bureau d’études à l’enseignant. Il formalise et détaille celui-ci au moyen d’un outil
« Feedback » « Soumission du sujet du bureau d’études » disponible sur la plateforme
Moodle. Ce dernier décrit en quoi consiste l’atteinte de l’acquis d’apprentissage visé par
le bureau d’études et ses (minimum) trois dépassements possibles. L’enseignant exprime
son accord par un commentaire dans le fichier Excel « Synthèse des engagements » ; pour
le choix du sujet, il veille à ce qu’une diversité des sujets soit rencontrée.
Chaque étudiant se voit attribuer quatre heures cumulées d’aide individuelle par ses-
sion, avec un seul retour de l’enseignant par semaine (réponse écrite, entrevue en présen-
tiel ou distanciel). À chaque semaine du deuxième et du troisième quadrimestre qui passe,
ce quota d’heures (s’il n’est pas utilisé) est écrêté en proportion des semaines restantes
avant la session d’examen ; un récapitulatif est disponible sur la plateforme Moodle au
moyen d’un fichier Excel « Utilisation du quota d’heures pour l’aide individuelle ». Les
demandes sont adressées prioritairement via la plateforme via l’outil « Forum » intitulé
« Soumission des questions pour l’aide individuelle (aspects techniques) », puis éven-
tuellement (si une réponse écrite n’est pas satisfaisante) une demande de rendez-vous
est sollicitée par le calendrier Outlook : l’étudiant y spécifie la question et associe ses
viii
Modalités d’évaluation
camarades qui travaillent sur un sujet issu du même chapitre ; ainsi, ces derniers peuvent
assister à la réponse (si cela les intéresse) et ajouter leur propre question. C’est le quota
de la personne qui pose la question qui est consommé, pas celui des personnes qui as-
sistent. Le rendez-vous a lieu préférentiellement dans l’outil « BigBlueButton » « Salle
pour les questions techniques (sur rendez-vous) », de manière à laisser un enregistrement.
Modalités d’évaluation
L’unité d’enseignement fait l’objet d’une évaluation intégrée. Elle se fait sur base
de trois épreuves : des rapports de laboratoires, un rapport de bureau d’études et un
examen oral en janvier. Les rapports de laboratoires permettent de sanctionner les acquis
d’apprentissage :
— estimer les incertitudes de mesure ;
— interpréter des mesures à la lumière de leurs incertitudes.
Le rapport de bureau d’études permet de sanctionner l’acquis d’apprentissage :
— sélectionner un système ou ses composants, au moyen de tables, de formules, d’un
logiciel ou de normes.
L’examen oral permet de sanctionner les acquis d’apprentissage :
— reconnaître un type de machine ou de système particulier et expliquer son prin-
cipe de fonctionnement, les phénomènes sous-jacents et l’utilité de chacun de ses
accessoires.
— sélectionner un système ou ses composants, au moyen de tables, de formules, d’un
logiciel ou de normes ;
— expliquer les précautions liées à l’usage d’une machine particulière ou un système
particulier et les phénomènes impliquant la prise de telles précautions.
L’unité d’enseignement est réussie (= 10/20) à partir du moment où chaque acquis
d’apprentissage est atteint. Lorsque certains acquis ne sont pas atteints, la note est en
proportion du nombre d’acquis atteints sur une base de 10 points. Lorsque tous les ac-
quis d’apprentissages sont atteints, des éléments de dépassement permettent d’atteindre
une mention (> 10/20). Si une des épreuves n’est pas présentée par l’étudiant, l’unité
d’enseignement entière est réputée « pas présentée » (PP) ; si une des épreuves est ca-
ractérisée uniquement par la présence de l’étudiant, l’unité d’enseignement entière est
caractérisée pour une note de « présence » (PR) et « non validée » (NV). En seconde
session, toutes les épreuves sont remédiables. D’une session à l’autre, les enseignants se
réservent le droit dispenser de l’épreuve où les acquis sont atteints : une telle dispense
n’est pas automatique et doit être sollicitée par l’étudiant.
Rapport de bureau d’études

Le bureau d’études permet de sanctionner l’acquis d’apprentissage « sélectionner un
système ou ses composants, au moyen de tables, de formules, d’un logiciel ou de normes ».
ix
Organisation
Cet acquis d’apprentissage est atteint si le système est fonctionnel et correctement di-
mensionné, avec sa production ou la consommation du système évaluée correctement ;
trois éléments de dépassement sont sanctionnés s’ils sont corrects et conformes à l’enga-
gement initial.
L’ensemble du rapport doit être remis avant le début de la session, accompagné de tous
les fichiers annexes (calcul, plan, diaporama, fichier spécifique à un logiciel). Le rapport
doit être écrit dans un format courant (de préférence Word, ou sinon Portable Document
File) ; il est composé de sections, chacune en rapport avec une partie de l’engagement
(dimensionnement, consommation ou production, dépassement 1, dépassement 2, …).
Ce rapport est nommé idéalement comme suit : « Nom Prénom.extension » ; exemple :
« Vincent Hanus.docx ». Il est accompagné de fichiers annexes dans d’autres formats
joints pour faciliter la compréhension et montrer les calculs. Tous ces fichiers annexes
sont nommés idéalement comme suit : « Nom Prénom_chiffre.extension » ; exemple :
« Vincent Hanus_1.EES ». Il n’est pas permis d’utiliser d’archive, si possible : s’il n’est
pas possible d’en éviter l’usage, il ne faut y mettre que des fichiers annexes, et maintenir
le rapport à part (pour la détection de plagiat).
À n’importe quel moment de l’année (et au plus tard une semaine avant le début de
la session), l’étudiant peut soumettre son bureau d’études via l’outil « Devoir » intitulé
« Bureau d’études (première session) » ou « Bureau d’études (seconde session) » de la
plateforme Moodle. L’enseignant s’engage à noter et commenter le travail sous les 7
jours : soit l’acquis est atteint, soit des corrections et compléments sont demandés et
l’étudiant peut les y introduire pour la seconde remise autorisée du travail à réaliser via
le même outil « Devoir » de la plateforme Moodle avant le début de la session.
En seconde session, l’étudiant peut conserver le même sujet, ou bien s’engager dans
une autre thématique ; il a de nouveau deux possibilités de solliciter l’enseignant pour
être évalué sur l’atteinte de l’acquis.
L’étudiant est libre de disposer de toute information souhaitée. L’enseignant n’hésite
pas à investir dans des ouvrages de qualité pour alimenter la bibliothèque, et chaque
étudiant peut suggérer des achats afin d’en profiter ; compte tenu des délais de livraison,
il est nécessaire de suggérer ces acquisitions assez tôt dans l’année scolaire.
Examen oral
L’acquis d’apprentissage de l’examen oral en rapport avec la reconnaissance d’une
machine est examiné au moyen d’un poster présenté à l’étudiant ; ce poster ne possède
pas de légende et représente une machine à fluide (voir partie I). L’étudiant doit :
— reconnaître le type d’équipement (c’est-à-dire le chapitre dans lequel il a été pré-
senté),
— justifier correctement sa réponse,
— reconnaître le modèle de l’équipement (selon les cas, une ou plusieurs réponses
sont attendues),
— justifier correctement sa réponse ;
x
Notes de cours
— reconnaître deux éléments de l’équipement, choisis par l’enseignant,

— expliquer leur fonctionnement.
L’étudiant peut se dépasser en reconnaissant deux éléments supplémentaires de l’équi-
pement (toujours choisis par l’enseignant) et en expliquant leur fonctionnement.
Les autres acquis d’apprentissage sont examinés au moyen d’un diaporama présenté
par l’étudiant. Ce diaporama peut être celui construit ensemble dans le lien Moodle
« Présentations pour l’examen oral » ; il peut également être réalise comme préparation
au cours théorique, et présenté à cette occasion. Certaines restrictions sont à appliquer :
— il peut contenir au plus cinq diapositives, contenant elle-même son titre et au plus
cinq lignes de texte, contenant eux-mêmes au plus cinq mots ;
— les équations et les graphiques doivent être construits avec les outils ad hoc du
logiciel même ou de logiciels liés et non faire l’objet d’un collage ;
— il n’y a pas de limitation sur le nombre d’équations et de graphiques ;
— les éléments répondant à deux acquis d’apprentissage différents ne se retrouvent
pas sur la même diapositive ;
— les diapositives traitant un acquis d’apprentissage sont regroupées ensemble.
L’enseignant choisit deux sujets. L’étudiant se sert de ses deux diaporamas relatifs aux
sujets demandés et montre par son discours le détail des points mentionnés et les relations
qui les lient. L’acquis d’apprentissage lié à la sélection d’un composant est sanctionné
comme atteint si, pour chacun des deux sujets, l’étudiant :
— synthétise la démarche de dimensionnement dans un cas général,
— présente les cas particuliers de dimensionnement, et
— donne les formules de référence du chapitre en question.
L’acquis d’apprentissage lié aux précautions est sanctionné comme atteint si, pour cha-
cun des deux sujets, l’étudiant :
— explique en détail trois phénomènes dangereux et les stratégies pour les contrer,
et
— mentionne toutes les autres précautions.
Pour ces acquis d’apprentissage, l’étudiant n’est pas interrogé sur le chapitre qui concerne
le dernier bureau d’études qu’il a rendu si ce dernier est réussi.
Notes de cours
Ces notes sont inspirées en partie de celles de Ralph Lescroart, avec de profonds
remaniements apportés par Vincent Hanus au fil des ans.
xi
Part I.
Fluid Machines
1
Introduction
A fluid machine 1 is a device either for converting the energy held by a fluid into
mechanical energy or vice versa (see figure 1 for a classification).
A turbomachine 2 is a device transferring energy between:
— a permanent fluid flow
and
— a rotor, rotating at a constant speed around an axle.
Another type of energy transfer consist in varying the volume of an enclosed space where
the fluid is trapped: such a machine is a positive displacement machine.
During its travel in the machine, the fluid can be considered as incompressible (liquid
or gas with a weak pressure difference) or compressible (gas with an important pressure
difference). So there are hydraulic machines 3 where energy is transferred as a varying
pressure and at a significantly constant temperature, and heat machines 4 where the
pressure changes occur with important temperature changes.
Depending on the direction of the energy transfer, it is
— a driving machine 5 when it generates mechanical energy by removing it from the
fluid,
— a recipient machine 6 when it gets mechanical energy and gives it to the fluid.
A fluid machine is always coupled with another machine that acts as, respectively:
— a driven machine 7 (alternator, recipient machine, etc.),
— a motor 8 (electric motor, driving machine, etc.).
Usually, the injection of energy to a fluid induces an increase of pressure 9 , and the
extraction of energy induces an expansion 10 . So a recipient turbomachine is also called a
compression turbomachine 11 and a driving turbomachine is called an expansion turboma-
1. machine à fluide
2. turbomachine
3. machines hydrauliques
4. machines thermiques
5. machine motrice ou génératrice
6. machine réceptrice
7. machine entraînée
8. motor
9. compression
10. détente
11. turbomachine de compression
3
Fluid machines
Turbomachines Positive displacement machines
Hydraulic machines Heat engines Hydraulic machines Heat engines
Incompressible fluids Compressible fluids Incompressible fluids Compressible fluids
Driving machines Driving machines Driving machines Driving machines
Hydraulic turbines Steam turbines Hydraulic motors Combustion engine
Wind turbines Gas turbines Hydraulic cylinder Stirling engine
Recipient machines Recipient machines Recipient machines Recipient machines
Rotodynamic pumps Turbocompresseurs Positive displacement pumps Reciprocating compressor
Propellers Screw compressor
Fans Rotary vane compressor
Figure 1. – Classification of fluid machines
Introduction
4
chine 12 . Most of the expansion turbomachines are called turbines 13 , whereas compres-
sion turbomachines are called pumps 14 , fans and blowers 15 or compressors 16 , depending
on the fluid and its compressibility.
This part presents only some fluid machines: those that are often occur in industry (so
with low and medium power) and therefore have a standardised way for the selection.
Machines with a large power are usually specific and each project has its own features. So
this part presents hydraulic recipient machines (pumps and fans, chapter 1), hydraulic
driving machines (hydraulic turbines in chapter 3 and wind turbines, chapter 4), heat
recipient machines (compressors, chapter 2), and heat driving machines (combustion
engines, chapter 5). So all types of machines are studied:
— both turbomachines and positive displacement machines,
— both hydraulic and heat machines,
— both driving and recipient machines.
12. turbomachine de détente

13. turbines
14. pompes
15. ventilateurs et soufflantes
16. compresseurs
5
Chapter 1.
Pumps
Although the whole chapter is about pumps, the same principles apply to the fans
and blowers.
1.1. Types of machines

When talking about pumps, two working principles have been developed:
— positive displacement pumps 1 , and
— rotodynamic pumps 2 .
1.1.1. Positive displacement pumps

The following positive displacement pumps exist:
— piston pumps 3 :
— simple-acting 4 or double-acting 5 piston pump,
— duplex 6 or triplex pump 7 ,
— plunger pump 8 ,
— inside impinged 9 or outside impinged 10 radial piston pump 11 , and
— axial piston machine of the swashplate type 12 or of the oblique-axis type 13 ;
— gear pumps 14 :
1. pompes volumétriques
2. pompes rotodynamiques
3. pompes à piston
4. simple effet
5. double effet
6. pompe duplex
7. pompe triplex
8. pompe à piston plongeur
9. à appui extérieur
10. à appui intérieur
11. pompe à pistons radiaux
12. pompe à pistons axiaux à plateau oblique
13. à axe oblique
14. pompes à engrenage
7
Chapter 1. Pumps
— external gear pump 15 ,

— internal gear pump 16 , and
— gerotor pump 17 ,
— pumps with a rotor with a constant and special shape:
— screw pump 18 ,
— lobe pump 19 ,
— progressing cavity pump 20 ,
— rotary vane pump 21 ,
— pumps without sealing 22 :
— diaphragm pump 23 ,
— peristaltic pump 24 .
Piston pump
A piston pump uses the following components:

— the piston 25 or the plunger 26
— the cylinder 27 ,
— the cylinder liner 28 ,
— the fluid end 29
— the pumping chamber 30 ,
— the shaft sealing ring or piston-rod packing 31 ,
— the pump casing 32 ,
— the liquid suction or the inlet port 33 ,
— the liquid discharge or the outlet port 34 ,
15. pompe à engrenage extérieur

16. pompe à engrenage intérieur
17. pompe à couronne dentée
18. pompe à vis
19. pompe à lobes
20. pompe à rotor hélicoïdal excentré
21. pompe à palettes
22. étanchéité
23. pompe à membrane
24. pompe péristaltique
25. piston
26. piston plongeur
27. cylindre
28. chemise de cylindre
29. bout fluidique
30. chambre d’aspiration ou de pompage
31. bague d’étanchéité ou garniture d’arbre
32. corps de pompe
33. tubulure d’aspiration
34. orifice ou tubulure de refoulement
8
— the inlet check valve 35 ,

— the outlet check valve 36 ,
— the piston rod 37 ,
— the cam 38 ,
— the connecting rod 39 ,
— the pin boss 40 ,
— the pulsation damper 41 ,
— the valve plate, port plate or control lens 42 ,
— the suction kidney or kidney-shaped control slot 43 ,
— the discharge kidney or kidney-shaped control slot 44 ,
— the barrel 45 ,
— the swash plate 46 ,
— the cylinder block or barrel 47 ,
— the shaft 48 ,
— the cam 49 ,
— the tension spring 50 , and
— the eccentric shaft 51 .
The reciprocating pump 52 travels upstroke 53 and downstroke 54 between the top dead
centre 55 and the bottom dead centre 56 . A radial piston pump works between the inner
dead centre and the outer dead centre.
35. soupape ou clapet d’aspiration

36. soupape ou clapet de refoulement
37. tige
38. manivelle
39. bielle
40. trou d’axe (du piston)
41. amortisseur de pulsation
42. glace de distribution
43. lumière d’aspiration
44. lumière de refoulement
45. barillet
46. plateau incliné ou berceau oscillant
47. barillet
48. arbre
49. patin ou sabot coulissant
50. ressort de tension de glace
51. arbre excentrique
52. pompe alternative
53. course ascendante
54. course descendante
55. point mort haut
56. point mort bas
9
Chapter 1. Pumps
Gear pump
A gear pump uses the following components:

— the cover 57 ,
— the flange 58 ,
— the axial seal 59 ,
— the radial seal 60 ,
— the retaining ring 61 ,
— the shaft seal ring 62 ,
— the front cover 63 ,
— the slide bearing 64 ,
— the centring pin 65 ,
— the driving gear 66 ,
— the idle gear 67 ,
— the housing seal 68 ,
— the internal gear 69 ,
— the external gear 70
— the crescent 71 ,
— the pump housing 72 ,
— the bearing 73 ,
— the axial zone seal 74 ,
— the rear cover 75 ,
— the ring gear 76 ,
— the pinion shaft 77 ,
57. couvercle
58. bride
59. étanchéité axiale
60. étanchéité radiale
61. circlip
62. joint d’arbre
63. couvercle frontal
64. palier lisse
65. goujon de centrage
66. pignon moteur
67. pignon fou
68. joint du corps de pompe
69. pignon interne
70. pignon externe
71. croissant
72. corps de pompe
73. lunette à paliers
74. joint axial
75. couvercle arrière
76. roue à denture interne
77. arbre à pignon
10
— the axial disc 78 ,

— the stop pin 79 ,
— the segment 80 ,
— the segment carrier 81 ,
— the sealing roll 82 ,
— the flange housing 83 ,
— the inner rotor 84 ,
— the outer rotor 85 ,
— the port plate 86 ,
— the driving disk 87 , and
— the radial gap 88 .
Pump with a rotor with a constant and special shape
A screw pump, a lobe pump or a progressing cavity pump uses the following compon-
ents:
— the screw 89 ,
— the bearing 90 ,
— the mechanical seal 91 ,
— the timing gear 92 ,
— the cover liner 93 ,
— the casing liner 94 , and
— the wear plate 95 .
— a lantern ring 96 ,
78. disque axial

79. cheville de butée
80. segment
81. support de segment
82. rouleau d’étanchéité
83. boîtier de bride
84. rotor denté
85. couronne dentée
86. lumière
87. disque d’entraînement
88. fente radiale
89. vis
90. roulement
91. étanchéité mécanique
92. pignon de synchronisation
93. chemise du couvercle
94. chemise du corps
95. plaque d’usure
96. lanterne
11
Chapter 1. Pumps
— a single mechanical seal 97 with or without flushing 98 , back-to-back or tandem

double mechanical seal 99 , packing gland seal 100 with or without flushing,
— a close-coupling support 101 ,
— a bushing 102 , and
— a protective sleeve of the transmission coupling 103 .
Rotary vane pump

A rotary vane pump uses the following components:
— the vane 104 ,
— the circular stator ring 105 ,
— the reciprocating control piston 106 ,
— the height adjustment screw 107 ,
— the control plate 108 ,
— the suction channel 109 ,
— the pressure channel 110 , and
— the cell 111 .
Pump without sealing

A diaphragm pump or a peristaltic pump uses the following components:
— a diaphragm 112 ,
— an eccentric 113 ,
— a valve ball 114 ,
— a rotor shoe 115 ,
97. garniture mécanique simple

98. avec ou sans fluxage
99. garniture mécanique double opposée ou en tandem
100. joint presse-étoupe
101. raccord monobloc
102. douille
103. embout de protection du joint de transmission
104. palette
105. bague statorique circulaire
106. tiroir de réglage oscillant
107. vis de réglage de hauteur
108. plateau-came
109. canal d’aspiration
110. canal de pression
111. cellule
112. membrane
113. excentrique
114. soupape de retenue à bille
115. patin du rotor
12
— a hose 116 ,
— a bearing housing 117 , and
— a port flange 118 .
1.1.2. Rotodynamic pumps

The following rotodynamic pumps exist:
— centrifugal pumps 119 :
— single-stage 120 or multi-stage 121 centrifugal pump, and
— double suction pump 122
— mixed flow pump 123 ,
— axial-flow pump 124 .
Centrifugal pump
A centrifugal pump uses the following components:
— the pump casing 125 ,
— the impeller 126 ,
— the pump shaft 127 ,
— the shaft sleeve 128 ,
— the impeller vane or blade 129 ,
— the mobile channel 130 ,
— the distributor 131 ,
— the diffuser 132 ,
— the volute 133 ,
— the balancing hole 134 ,
116. tube
117. logement de palier
118. bride
119. pompes centrifuges
120. monocellulaire
121. multicellulaire
122. pompe à double ouïe
123. pompe hélicocentrifuge ou mixte
124. pompe axiale
125. corps de pompe
126. roue
127. arbre de pompe
128. chemise ou fourreau d’arbre
129. aube, pale ou ailette mobile
130. canal mobile
131. distributeur
132. diffuseur
133. volute
134. trou d’équilibrage
13
Chapter 1. Pumps
— the balancing chamber 135 ,

— the balancing drum 136 ,
— the shaft seal housing 137 ,
— the labyrinth ring 138
— the stuffing box and its gland 139 ,
— the quenching liquid connection 140 ,
— the flange 141 ,
— the priming funnel 142 ,
— the stage 143 ,
— the outlet 144 ,
— the cooling water feed line 145 , and
— the drop water line 146 .
Axial-flow pump
An axial-flow pump uses the following components:

— the flange 147 ,
— the propeller 148 ,
— the casing 149 ,
— the wear ring 150 ,
— the suction bell 151 , and
— the cartridge seal 152 .
135. chambre d’équilibre

136. piston d’équilibrage
137. boîte à garniture
138. bague labyrinthe ou à chicane
139. presse-étoupe
140. arrosage du presse-étoupe
141. bride
142. entonnoir d’amorçage
143. étage
144. ouïe de sortie
145. entrée d’eau de refroidissement
146. écoulement du liquide de fuite
147. bride
148. hélice
149. corps de pompe
150. bague d’usure
151. cloche d’aspiration
152. étanchéité par montage cartouche
14
1.2. Characteristics
The service provided by a pump is to deliver a flow rate 153 V̇ of a fluid with a pressure
difference 154 ∆p, also expressed as a head 155 H = ∆p ρ·g
. To perform it, the pump requires
a mechanical power 156
Ẇt delivered at a rotation speed 157 N . So it is possible to define
the efficiency 158
η of a pump:
ρ · g · H · V̇
η= (1.1)
Ẇt
This efficiency comes from the combination of several phenomena, such as the internal
leakage in the pump, friction in the bearings, friction in the fluid, etc. So two components
can be defined:
— the volumetric efficiency 159 ηv , and
— the hydraulic-mechanical efficiency ηhm .
η = ηv · ηhm (1.2)

For a given pump running at a defined operating point V̇ , N , there is a relationship
between V̇ , N and H:
f H, V̇ , N = 0 (1.3)

In three dimensions, it is a surface in a coordinate system H, V̇ , N and each operating
condition is represented by a point. Curves can also gather the points with the same
efficiency. But such a surface is usually represented using only two dimensions.
1.2.1. Positive displacement pumps

For one revolution at the shaft of the pump, a volume V , called displacement 160 , is
delivered by the pump. The pressure level has a tiny influence on the flow rate (by the
internal leaks that increase) and this influence is taken into account via the volumetric
efficiency ηv ; so the flow rate can be obtained as follows:
V̇ = ηv · V · N (1.4)
153. débit
154. différentiel de pression
155. hauteur
156. puissance mécanique
157. vitesse de rotation
158. rendement
159. rendement volumétrique
160. cylindrée
15
Chapter 1. Pumps
The mechanical power is thus:

V̇ · ∆p
Ẇt = (1.5)
η
V · N · ∆p
Ẇt = (1.6)
ηhm
The drive torque M is thus:
V · ∆p
M= (1.7)
ηhm
As the efficiencies are quite constant, the performance charts are obtained as shown in
V = 4 cm3/rev
80
V = 14 cm3/rev
V = 28 cm3/rev
60
V̇ [L/min]
40
20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
N [rev/min]
Figure 1.1. – Performance chart of the flow rate V̇ of a positive displacement pump
figures 1.1 and 1.2:

— the flow rate is rather proportional to the rotation speed and to the displacement;
— the power is rather proportional to the rotation speed, to the pressure difference
and to the displacement;
— the torque is rather proportional to the pressure difference and to the displacement.
Another given characteristic are the minimum and maximum pressure of the pump:
— a too low pressure induces cavitation;
— a too high pressure induces plastic deformation of the components of the pump.
1.2.2. Rotodynamic pumps

Equation 1.3 is not easy to handle for rotodynamic pumps. Therefore diagrams with
a constant rotation speed N are preferred to draw the characteristic curve 161 :
H = f (V̇ ) Ẇt = f (V̇ ) η = f (V̇ ) (1.8)

161. courbe caractéristique
16
8
∆p = 280 bar
∆p = 200 bar
∆p = 100 bar
6
Ẇt [kW]
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
N [rev/min]
(a) Power Ẇt for V = 4 cm3/rev
25
20
15
M [N · m]
10
5 ∆p = 280 bar
∆p = 200 bar
∆p = 100 bar
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
N [rev/min]
(b) Torque M for V = 4 cm3/rev
Figure 1.2. – Performance charts of a positive displacement pump for a specified dis-
placement (V = 4 cm3/rev)
17
Chapter 1. Pumps
As for the positive displacement pumps, a too weak pressure at the suction port can
induce cavitation: the required net pressure suction head by the pump is also specified
(see figure 1.3).
Ẇt
H
0 0
0 0
V̇ V̇
(a) Head curve (b) Power curve
100
N P SHr
η [%]
0 0
0 0
V̇ V̇
(c) Efficiency curve (d) Net pressure suction head required
Figure 1.3. – Characteristic curves of a rotodynamic pump at a constant rotation speed
The similarity theory is used to obtain the characteristic curves at another rotation
speed. This one gives the following relationship for one rotodynamic pump running at
a varying rotation speed:
η = Ct (1.9)
V̇ ∝ N (1.10)
18
1.3. Design of a fluid circuit
H ∝ N2 (1.11)
Ẇt ∝ N 3 (1.12)

For a pump with the characteristic curves H = H V̇ and η = η V̇ at the rotation
speed N (figure 1.4), onecan calculate
therunning speed N1 to give a flow rate V̇1 witha
head H1 , knowing that V̇1 , H1 ∈ / H V̇ . If M the wanted operating point V̇1 , H1 ,
it is possible to find the corresponding point K at the rotation speed N :
H ∝ N2 (1.13)
With equation 1.10, one knows that:
H ∝ V̇ 2 (1.14)
This parabola gives all the corresponding points with a similar functioning.
H at rotation speed N
η at rotation speed N
Affinity parabola
K
H2
H,η
M
H1
η1 = η2
0
0 V̇1 V̇2
V̇
Figure 1.4. – Speed affinity law for a pump

The selection of a centrifugal pump is extensively described in « Selecting Centrifugal
Pumps » [1].
1.3.1. Classification
The fluid circuits can be very different and can be classified as follows:
— the moving fluid;
19
Chapter 1. Pumps
— open or closed circuit;

— temperature and pressure of the fluid;
— users to feed;
— domain.
For any circuit, there are several solutions. The choice of the type of pump depends on
all these characteristics, but there remains a difference:
— positive displacement pumps are used for small flow rates and high pressure;
— rotodynamic pumps are used for large flow rates and low pressure.
1.3.2. Study of the circuit

The flow rate of the circuit comes usually from issues such as the wanted service and
is a data for the design of the circuit. One should take account of further expansion of
the circuit.
If the circuit is already existing, the dimensions and the required flow rates allows to
calculate the head losses. If this is not the case, the circuit can be designed by choosing
a fluid velocity inside the ducts:
— around 1 m/s to 2 m/s for a liquid;
— around 10 m/s for a gas.
π · D2
V̇ = c · A = c · (1.15)
4
These values should give a good trade-off between investment costs (size of the pipes)
and operating costs (head losses). The diameter is obviously standardised.
The head losses are divided into three categories:
— Major losses 162 are calculated with the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
L c2
H=f· · (1.16)
D 2
where H = major head loss,
f = friction factor,
L = pipe length,
D = hydraulic diameter, and
c = average fluid speed.
The Darcy’s friction factor depends on the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe.
— Minor losses 163 can be calculated through the K factor method or through the
162. pertes de charge régulières

163. pertes de charge singulières
20
equivalent length of pipe. The K factor method used the following formula:
c2
H=K· (1.17)
2·g
where H = minor head loss,
K = dimensionless resistance coefficient of the component,
c = average fluid speed, and
g = gravity of Earth.
— The head losses of a piece of equipment along the circuit are given by its manu-
facturer.
Figure 1.5. – Process flow diagram of a pump
Using Bernoulli’s principle, the total dynamic head 164 for the pump H can be calcu-
lated (see figure 1.5):
p2 − p1 1
· c22 − c21 + (z2 − z1 ) + H1 + H2 (1.18)

H= +
ρ·g 2·g
where 1 et 2 = inlet and outlet side respectively,
p = pressure,
c = average speed,
z = height, and
H1 and H2 = head losses.
This value could be enough to define the operating point V̇ , H and to choose the
pump, but some failures of the operation
can be discovered only by knowing the char-
acteristic curve of the circuit H = H V̇ (see section 1.5.1).
Some particular cases should be mentioned:
— When many users are connected on the same circuit and when their needs are not
simultaneous, a diversity factor 165 can be applied to decrease the needs.
— When the fluid has a temperature that changes along the circuit with changes of
height, the buoyancy 166 of the worst case should be taken into account to calculate
the head.
164. hauteur manométrique totale
165. coefficient de foisonnement
166. poussée d’Archimède
21
Chapter 1. Pumps
— When pumping from a well, the fluid level inside this one decreases as well as the
flow rate increases. This phenomenon should be taken into account to calculate
the head.
1.3.3. Choice of the pump

As already mentioned:
— positive displacement pumps are used for small flow rates and high pressure;
— rotodynamic pumps are used for large flow rates and low pressure.
Rotodynamic pump
The rotation speed N of the pump is usually a piece of information given by the
external environment, for example by the frequency of the power grid and the number
of pairs of poles of the electric motor. The specific speed 167 Ns is defined as follows:
1
V̇ 2
Ns , N · 3 (1.19)
H4
where N = rotation speed [rev/min],
V̇ = flow rate [m3/s], and
H = total dynamic head [m].
The obtained value refers to a type of impeller:
— Ns < 25: radial high head impeller;
— Ns < 40: radial medium head impeller;
— Ns < 70: radial low head impeller;
— Ns < 160: mixed flow impeller;
— 140 < Ns < 400: axial flow propeller;
This value can thus help to choose the type of impeller for a rotodynamic pump.
The catalogues of the manufacturers
give selection charts where all the designs of a
type of pump are gathered in a V̇ , H chart. The operating point is thus located in
one region covered by a design.
Positive displacement pump
Each type of positive displacement pump can run in a determined speed range given
by the manufacturer. Through equation 1.4, the choice of the pump, for a given rotation
speed, is the choice of the displacement V . With that displacement V and the required
head H, a selection of the pump can be made.
167. vitesse spécifique
22
Cavitation
The cavitation 168 should not occur to protect the pump from any destruction. This
phenomenon occurs when the pressure decreases below the saturation pressure of the
fluid: vapour bubbles appear. When the pressure increases, the bubbles implode, indu-
cing shock waves. Cavitation can be detected through the following phenomena:
1. bubbles,
2. a specific noise and vibrations,
3. erosion,
4. a loss of head.
Cavitation is avoided when:
N P SHa > N P SHr (1.20)
where N P SHa = available net positive suction head 169 , and

N P SHr = required net positive suction head, given by the manufacturer (see
figure 1.3d).
N P SHa is defined as:
p0 − pvs 1
N P SHa = + · c2 (1.21)
ρ·g 2·g 0
where p0 = pressure at the inlet port, and
pvs = vapour pressure, and
c0 = average speed at the inlet port.
These variables can be obtained through Bernoulli’s principle.
Special case: series association

For circuits with a high head and low flow rate, one can associate pumps in series. All
the pumps have the same flow rate and they contribute all to the total dynamic head.:
(1.22)
X
V̇ = V̇i H= Hi
i
It means that the characteristic curve of the association is obtained by a vertical sum of
the head curve of the pumps.
The connection in series of rotodynamic pumps can generate malfunction to supply
the circuit (see section 1.5.1).
The connection in series of positive displacement pumps must be made with some
care:
168. cavitation
169. charge nette absolue disponible
23
Chapter 1. Pumps
— Pumps with variable instantaneous flow rate should be equipped with a pulsation
damper 170 .
— The manufacturers recommend to spread the pressure increase between the pumps.
Special case: parallel association
The connection in parallel is characterised by the following relationships:
(1.23)
X
V̇ = V̇i H = Hi
i
The characteristic curve is obtained by adding horizontally the characteristic curve of

each pump. To prevent one backflow 171 of a pump in the others, a check valve 172 should
be introduced.
Usually, important circuits supplying a plant use three pumps:
— Only one runs for a low flow rate.
— The second one is used for a large flow rate.
— The third one is the backup in case of failure or maintenance.
Some positive displacement pumps use several pistons in order to smooth the instant-
aneous flow rate: it is a kind of association in parallel.
1.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient circuit design
1.4.1. Degassing
Water usually contains dissolved air. When the pressure decreases, the degassing 173
is more likely to occur. A degassing suction can discharge 174 the pump. By releasing
gaseous oxygen, it can induce corrosion in closed loops. The solutions can be:
— to have a flooded suction 175 ;
— to remove vertical loop by sucking water vertically through a foot valve 176 ;
— to deaerate 177 the water before filling the circuit.
170. amortisseur de pulsation

171. refoulement
172. clapet de non-retour
173. dégazage
174. désamorcer
175. aspiration en charge
176. clapet de pied
177. désaérer
24
1.4.2. Siphoning
A rotodynamic pump is an open device: the water can still flow along the blades when
the machine is off. So the vessel on the outlet side can be emptied in the vessel on the
inlet side if there is a height difference. The solution is to use:
— a check valve,
— a valve at the outlet port, or
— a valve at the inlet port for a flooded suction.
When there are vertical loops on the outlet side, the pump must be able to fill the duct
till the highest positioned place, even if Bernoulli’s principle requires less head when the
pipe is filled.
1.4.3. Water hammer

A water hammer 178 occurs when sudden variations of the flow occur, like:
— start or stop of a pump,
— sudden opening or closure of a valve.
When these phenomena occur slowly, then the kinetic energy is transformed into piezo-
metric energy as follows:
L dc
∆H = · + H (c) (1.24)
g dt
where ∆H = head difference between two points with a length L between them in a
duct with a constant diameter,
d c
dt
= speed gradient, and
H (c) = head losses between the two points.
dx
ρ · g · A · dx
Figure 1.6. – Piece of duct
When these phenomena occur suddenly, one cannot neglect the compressibility of the
fluid and the deformation of the duct. For the water in the piece of duct of figure 1.6,
the external forces along the local axis are:
— the weight: −ρ · g · A · dx · sin α
178. coup de bélier
25
Chapter 1. Pumps
— the pressing force upstream: p · A

— the pressing force downstream: p − ∂ p

∂x
· dx · A
Applying Newton’s law, one obtains:
dc 1 dp
= g · sin α + · (1.25)
dt ρ dx
For an incompressible fluid (ρ 6= ρ (p)) and a rigid pipe (A 6= A (p)), it gives equa-
tion 1.24. In the other case, it gives Allievi’s equation:
g x x
c − c0 = · F t − −f t+ (1.26)
a a a
x x
∆H = F t − −f t+ (1.27)
a a
where F and f = specific functions.
It means that two waves propagate with a velocity a obtained as follows:
1 1 D 1 − ν2
= + ρ · · (1.28)
a2 c2s e E
q
where cs = Kρ sound speed in the water,
K = elastic modulus of water,
ρ = water density,
D = duct diameter,
e = duct thickness,
ν = Poisson’s ratio of the material of the duct, and
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the duct.
Joukowsky’s theory gives the overpressure ∆p obtained for a speed variation of the fluid
∆c:
∆p = ρ · a · ∆c (1.29)
a
∆H = · ∆c (1.30)
g
This theory is valid if the speed variation is applied faster than the time required by
the wave to be reflected at the end of the pipe and to come back. The overpressure can
destroy equipment, and the depression can generate cavitation (see section 1.3.3) .
The solutions can be:
— to avoid sudden closure or opening of valves:
— with an adapted procedure;
— with a counterweight attached to the valves ;
— to ensure a smooth starting or stop of pumps:
— with a frequency inverter;
26
— by smoothly opening the delivery valve 179 ;

— with a flywheel 180 .
— to protect the duct:
— with a discharge valve 181 ;
— with an air vessel.
1.4.4. Hydraulic balancing [2]

For heating circuits, a hydraulic balancing 182 is required. In such circuits, the heat
power delivered is proportional to the flow rate; this flow rate is regulated by thermostatic
valves. When the circuit is overloaded, the thermostatic valves are full opened and the
flow rate no longer depends on the temperature of the room, but on the head loss of
the limb of the circuit: it induces that the user with the smallest head loss receives the
required flow rate (and thus heating power), when the user with the highest head loss
can no longer receive any flow rate at all. The solution is to place balancing valves 183
on each limb of the circuit and to set them to obtain the same head loss in each limb
when all the thermostatic valves are opened.
1.4.5. Thermal dilatation

For heating or cooling circuits, the variation of temperature of the fluid induces a
thermal dilatation. It can generate an overpressure. The solution is to place an expansion
tank 184 combined with a discharge valve.
1.4.6. Hydraulic coupling

When there are several user circuits and only one supplier, the difference of flow rate
between the supplier should be managed so that no influence can be generated between
them.
The solutions are:
— a mixing bottle 185 ,
— a manifold 186 with a by-pass,
— a by-pass at the end of the circuit,
— a variable speed for the pump of the supplier.
179. vanne de refoulement
180. volant d’inertie
181. vanne de décharge
182. équilibrage hydraulique
183. vannes d’équilibrage
184. vase d’expansion
185. bouteille casse-pression
186. collecteur
27
Chapter 1. Pumps
1.4.7. By-pass of large valves

A large valve cannot be opened directly if the difference of pressure between the two
sides is too large. The solution is to insert a small by-pass valve which allows to balance
the pressure between the sides, allowing the opening with a moderate force.
1.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient pump operation

1.5.1. Stability of the operating point
B
HB
A
HA
H
Pump
Circuit
0
0 V̇A V̇B
V̇
Figure 1.7. – Stability of an operation point
The operating point of a pump is not necessarily stable. At figure 1.7, the operating
point A is unstable (the slope of the circuit curve is weaker than the slope of the pump
curve) when operating point B is stable. Moreover, the starting of this pump is not
possible. So the solution is to check the head losses of the circuit so that the starting is
possible with the chosen pump.
1.5.2. Instability of pumps associated in parallel

As discussed in section 1.3.3, when two pumps are running in parallel, one can flow
in the other (when one has a negative slope at a given head). The solution to prevent
the backflow is to introduce a check valve.
1.5.3. Cavitation
As explained in section 1.3.3, one should check if the available N P SHa is larger than
the required N P SHr . If this is not the case, the solutions are:
28
— to choose a pump with a smaller N P SHr ;

— to modify the circuit in order to increase N P SHa :
— by decreasing the head losses before the inlet port;
— by increasing the pressure of the vessel on the inlet side;
— by decreasing the height of the pump (e.g. flooded suction);
— by introducing a booster pump 187 .
1.5.4. Priming
On the suction side, it is impossible to raise a liquid at a height larger than the one
corresponding to the atmospheric pressure:
patm
hatm = (1.31)
ρ·g
For water, hatm = 10.33 m. But the atmospheric pressure decreases with the altitude:
h0atm = 10.33 − 0.0012 · Z (1.32)
where Z = altitude [m].

The duct never has a vacuum and contains at least the vapour of the liquid:
pvs
h = h0atm − (1.33)
ρ·g
When starting with empty pipes, one first needs to prime 188 the pump. Positive
displacement pumps are usually self-priming pumps 189 : they run as a compressor at the
beginning, and the pipe is filled.
For rotodynamic pumps, it is not necessarily the case: some of them are self-priming
with a special casing (but it decreases the efficiency), but most of them are not. When
full of air, they produce a head equal to:
∆psuc = ρair · g · H0 (1.34)
where H0 = head for no flow rate.

The height in the suction pipe is thus:
ρair
∆z = · H0 (1.35)
ρf luid
For water:
∆z = 1.293 × 10−3 · H0 (1.36)
187. pompe de gavage
188. amorcer
189. pompes auto-amorçantes
29
Chapter 1. Pumps
This height ∆z is usually too small to fill the pump and thus to prime it. The solutions
are:
— to use a foot valve 190 or a check valve 191 and to fill the pump the first time with
the priming funnel;
— to have a flooded suction;
— to use a liquid ring pump;
— to use a self-priming pump (for a weak power);
— to use an auxiliary vacuum pump.
1.5.5. Excessive warming

When there is no flow rate, the power is completely transformed into heat. The
temperature can then reach too high values for a powerful pump.
For example, when a pump starts, the valve on the outlet side is usually closed to
avoid water hammer (see section 1.4.3). The solution is then to have an opened by-pass
valve connected to the suction vessel.
When many users are connected to the circuit and when they stop together, the
supplier can run with no flow rate as there is no consumption. The solutions are:
— to have a by-pass at the end of the circuit (see section 1.4.6);
— to have three-way valves for each user (which does not suits with a variable speed
drive, see section 1.5.6).
1.5.6. Control of a rotodynamic pump

The aim of the control of a pump is to fit its flow rate with the value required by the
circuit. Several controls can be implemented:
— by acting on the characteristic curve of the circuit:
— throttling valve 192 ,
— by-pass valve 193 ;
— by acting on the characteristic curve of the pump:
— association in parallel,
— modification of the rotation speed with a variable frequency-drive.
Throttling control
The effect of a throttling control can be seen in figure 1.8: the flow rate decreases
from V̇F to V̇P , the pressure for the circuit is kept constant, the total dynamic head of
the pump increases and the power consumed decreases a little bit from Ẇt,F to Ẇt,P .
190. clapet de pied
191. clapet de retenue
192. vanne de laminage
193. vanne de by-pass
30
P
HC = HF
H
C F
HP
Pump
Circuit at full load
Circuit at partial load
Circuit at partial load and valve
0
0 V̇C = V̇P V̇F
V̇
(a) Head curve
F
Ẇt,F
P
Ẇt,P
Ẇt
0
0 V̇P V̇F
V̇
(b) Power curve
Figure 1.8. – Control of a circuit with a throttling valve
31
Chapter 1. Pumps
The valve should not be placed at the suction side, as it can induce cavitation and a loss
of prime 194 .
By-pass control
C F =P
HF = HC = HP
Pump
Circuit at full load and partial load with valve
0
0 V̇C = V̇P V̇F
V̇
(a) Head curve
Ẇt,F = Ẇt,P
F =P
Ẇt
0
0 V̇F = V̇P
V̇
(b) Power curve
Figure 1.9. – Control of a circuit with a by-pass valve
The effect of a by-pass control can be seen in figure 1.9: the flow rate in the pressure
is kept constant, the pressure for the circuit is kept constant and the power consumed
is kept constant.
194. désamorçage
32
Control by association in parallel
P F
HP = HF
Two pumps
One pump
Circuit at (almost) half load
0
0 V̇P V̇F
V̇
(a) Head curve
Ẇt,F
F
Ẇt
Ẇt,P
P
0
0 V̇P V̇F
V̇
(b) Power curve
Figure 1.10. – Control of a circuit with an association in parallel
As it can be seen in figure 1.10, by adding a pump, the flow rate and the power
are almost doubled. Other advantages of this configuration are given in section 1.3.3.
In fact, the regulation gives only two operating points for two pumps, which means
that a throttling regulation is usually used somewhere in the circuit to obtain a smooth
variation.
33
Chapter 1. Pumps
P F
HP = HF
Pump at full speed

Pump at partial speed
0
0 V̇P V̇F
V̇
(a) Head curve
F
Ẇt,F
Ẇt
P
Ẇt,P
0
0 V̇P V̇F
V̇
(b) Power curve
Figure 1.11. – Régulation par variation de vitesse
34
Control by a variable-frequency drive

Figure 1.11 shows that most of the characteristic curve or the circuit can be reached
(only small flow rates are instable, typically under 30 %). As the efficiency of the pump
is almost kept constant, the energy savings are maximum (the efficiency of the drive is
larger than 96 % above 60 % of the nominal frequency).
When planning to introduce a variable speed drive, an economic study must be per-
formed (see table 1.1).
Total or average
Operating time [%] 20 25 40 15 100
Flow rate [% of V̇nom ] 100 90 80 70 85
Throttling
Power [% of Ẇnom ] 105 104 102 99 102.65
Energy [% of Enom ] 22.6 28 43.9 16 110.5
Variable speed drive
Power [% of Ẇnom ] 103.6 87.9 72.6 60.3 88.8
Energy[% of Enom ] 22.3 23.6 31.2 9.7 86.8
Variable frequency drive
Power [% of Ẇnom ] 104.2 82.2 61.5 45.8 72.9
Energy [% of Enom ] 22.4 22.1 26.4 7.4 78.3
Table 1.1. – Comparison of some control solutions
35
Chapter 2.
Compressors, Fans and Blowers
Machines handling a gas to increase its pressure or its speed can be divided into two
categories:
— compressors 1 , which mainly increase the pressure (the gas must be considered as
compressible), and
— fans and blowers 2 , which mainly increase the speed (the gas may be considered as
incompressible).
2.1.1. Compressors
When the compressed gas is not the air, a sealing must be set up. So the compressor
can be:
— an open compressor 3 ,
— a semi-hermetic compressor 4 , or
— a hermetically sealed compressor 5 .
The compressor can be oil lubricated 6 or non-lubricated 7 . When working without oil
injection or with a high pressure ratio, the gas becomes too hot to be compressed in one
stage, and an intermediate cooling is introduced.
The following compressors exist:
— reciprocating compressor 8 , eventually high pressure 9 ,
— rotary-screw compressor 10 ,
1. compresseurs
2. ventilateurs et soufflantes
3. compresseur ouvert
4. compresseur semi-hermétique
5. compresseur hermétique
6. lubrifié
7. sec
8. compresseur à pistons
9. haute pression
10. compresseur à vis
37
Chapter 2. Compressors, Fans and Blowers
— lobe compressor 11 ,
— tooth compressor 12 ,
— rotary vane compressor 13 ,
— rolling piston compressor 14 ,
— scroll compressor 15 ,
— centrifugal compressor 16 , and
— axial-flow compressor 17 .
Reciprocating compressor
Compared to a reciprocating pump, the following components are used:

— the water separator 18 ,
— the intercooler 19 ,
— the filter 20 ,
— the active charcoal filter 21 ,
— the fin 22 ,
— the counterweight 23 ,
— the piston pin 24 ,
— the cylinder head 25 ,
— the valve leaf 26 ,
— the weld seam 27 ,
— the connecting rod 28 ,
— the oil groove 29 , and
— the flywheel 30 .
11. compresseur à lobes

12. compresseur à dents
13. compresseur à palettes
14. compresseur à piston roulant
15. compresseur à spirale
16. compresseur centrifuge
17. compresseur axial
18. filtre décanteur
19. refroidisseur intermédiaire
20. filtre
21. filtre à charbon actif
22. ailette
23. contrepoids
24. axe du piston
25. tête de cylindre
26. soupape à lamelle
27. joint de soudure
28. bielle
29. rainure à huile
38
Rotary-screw compressor
Compared to a screw pump, the following components are used:
— the control slide valve 31 ,
— the actuator piston 32 ,
— the timing gears 33 ,
— the shaft seal 34 ,
— the cooling jacket 35 ,
— the driving shaft 36 ,
— the thrust collar 37 ,
— the thrust bearing 38 ,
— the journal bearing 39 ,
— the rotor cover 40 ,
— the balance piston 41 ,
— the shaft seal 42 ,
— the discharge casing 43 , and
— the rotor casing 44 .
Rotary vane compressor

Compared to a rotary vane pump, the following components are used:
— the vane or impeller 45 ,
— the housing 46 ,
— the cylinder block 47 ,
— the rotor slot 48 , and
— the discharge reed or discharge valve 49 .
31. tiroir de puissance
32. piston de l’actionneur
33. pignons de synchronisation
34. garniture mécanique
35. enveloppe de refroidissement
36. arbre moteur
37. collet de butée
38. butée
39. palier
40. couvercle du rotor
41. piston d’allègement ou piston d’équilibrage
42. joint d’arbre
43. corps de refoulement
44. carter du rotor
45. palette
46. boîtier de stator
47. rotor
48. encoche du rotor
49. clapet anti-retour
39
Scroll compressor
A scroll compressor uses the following components:

— the suction connection 50 ,
— the oil sump 51 ,
— the discharge port 52 ,
— the check valve 53 ,
— the orbiting scroll 54 , and
— the fixed scroll 55 .
Centrifugal compressor
Compared to a centrifugal pump, the following components are used:

— the thrust bearing 56 ,
— the balance piston 57 ,
— the lube oil 58 ,
— the impeller 59 ,
— the seal 60 .
2.1.2. Fans and blowers

The following fans and blowers exist:
— axial-flow fan 61 , eventually variable-pitch 62 ,
— centrifugal fan 63 .
Compared to the rotodynamic pumps (see section 1.1.2), the following component is
used:
— the shell 64 .
50. aspiration
51. carter d’huile
52. orifice de refoulement
53. clapet anti-retour
54. spirale orbitale
55. spriale fixe
56. butée
57. piston d’équilibrage
58. huile de lubrification
59. roue
60. garniture
61. ventilateur axial
62. à pas variable
63. ventilateur centrifuge
64. virole
40
2.2.1. Fans and blowers
The characteristics of a fan are presented similarly to a rotodynamic pump (see sec-
tion 1.2.2); the differences are:
— the pressure is used instead of the head;
— there is no N P SH;
— the largest flow rate is called the « chocked flow 65 », while the largest pressure
obtained (without any flow) is called the « surge limit 66 »; these two operating
points should be avoided to prevent any failure (too large power supplied by the
motor).
2.2.2. Compressors
The service provided by a compressor is to deliver a flow rate V̇ of a fluid expressed in
« free air delivery 67 » (FAD) at a service pressure 68 p. To perform it, the pump needs a
mechanical power Ẇt delivered through an electrical or Diesel motor. So it is possible to
define the specific energy 69 achieved by the compressor as the ratio between the power
consumed at the shaft and the flow rate produced (usually expressed in W h/m3 ).
2.3. Design of a compressed air network

The design of a compressed air network is extensively described in the « Compressed
Air Manual » [3]: this section only presents a summary.
2.3.1. Study of the circuit

This step is similar to the one discussed in section 1.3.2.
Each user requires a flow rate at a defined pressure (usually, 6 bar). The network is
designed to obtain a weak pressure drop (usually, 0.2 bar to 0.3 bar), but the working
pressure is increased by ancillaries as the final filter, the dust filter, the dryer, other
piece of equipment.
2.3.2. Choice of the compressor

The selection of the type of compressor depends on many criteria:
65. débit choqué
66. limite de pompage
67. air libre
68. pression de service
69. énergie specifique
41
— lubricated compression or not,

— high pressure (40 bar), medium pressure (6 bar to 10 bar) or low pressure (1 bar),
— required flow rate,
— other.
High pressure is usually obtained through piston compressors (multi-stage compres-
sion). Screw compressors deliver many medium pressure networks in the industry.
The choice of the number of compressors and the configuration of the centralised
compressor plant 70 is the result of an optimisation to get the best efficiency. It is
calculated by knowing the required flow-duration curve 71 and by taking into account
the following facts:
— the off-loading operation 72 consumes typically 30 % of the full-load operation 73 ;
— the use of a variable speed drive in a centralised compressor plant deletes the
off-loading consumption , but introduces the efficiency of the variable speed drive;
— more compressors decrease the off-loading consumption;
— in a centralised compressor plant, the power of the compressors are not systemat-
ically identical;
— in a centralised compressor plant, the case of failure of a compressor induces an
additional compressor.
The air vessel 74 should be chosen large enough to get a cycle every 30 s. For medium
pressure applications, a rule of thumb gives:
V = 15 · V̇ (2.1)
where V = volume of the air vessel [L], and

V̇ = flow rate [L/s].
The ventilation must be enough to remove heat from the compression (in case of air
cooling) and to furnish enough intake air.
Some particular pieces of equipment should be introduced in the compressor room for
a full air treatment:
— The drying 75 of the air is obtained through different types of dryers 76 . The choice
depends on the required air quality (dew point 77 ). The adsorption dryers introduce
an extra air consumption.
— In case of lubricated compression, an oil filter must be introduced.
— In case of lubricated compression, the condensation produces an air/oil emulsion,
which must be treated through an oil/water separator.
70. cascade
71. courbe de débits classés
72. marche à vide
73. marche en charge
74. réservoir d’air
75. séchage
76. sécheur
77. point de rosée
42
2.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient network
2.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient network

2.4.1. Pressure drop
The pressure drop should be as small as possible to be able to decrease the pressure
as much as possible (it decreases the required specific energy for the compression). It
can be obtained:
— by using large ducts;
— by closing loops in the network.
2.4.2. Condensation
Even if the dryer removes water from air, condensation can appear in the network
(for example, when starting the use of the network). To remove it (to avoid for example
corrosion), one uses:
— a slope till the condensation drainage,
— the connection of the users on the network is made through a swan neck 78 .
2.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient compressor

operation
2.5.1. Off-loading operation
As already mentioned, the off-loading operation consumes typically 30 % of the full-
load operation. The consumption due to the off-loading can be decreased:
— with a well designed air vessel;
— an electronic regulation which uses all the possibilities of start/stop.
It can be deleted by the introduction of a variable speed drive for one compressor.
2.5.2. Energy savings

The energy consumption can be lowered as follows:
— a pressure reducer 79 should be placed for each user, as the amount of air filling a
cylinder is proportional to the pressure;
— a leakage audit can be conducted to control the leaks (through ultrasound or
background consumption);
— the pressure setpoint 80 should be as low as possible;
78. col de cygne
79. réducteur de pression
80. consigne
43
— a centralized management of the centralised compressor plant allows to decrease

the average pressure;
— the regulation of the adsorption dryers allows to decrease their air consumption.
2.5.3. Energy recovery

One can recover a part of the energy consumed by the compression as heat; typically:
— 90 % for an oil-free compressor;
— 70 % for an oil-injected compressor.
44
Chapter 3.
Water Turbines
Most of the water turbines are rotodynamic turbines. These ones can be divided into
two categories:
— In impulse turbines 1 , the potential energy is totally transformed into kinetic energy
in the distributor 2 , and no pressure change occur in the rotor. They use a partial
injection 3 , i. e. the fluid meets the rotor 4 at one or several points of the turbine
runner 5 .
— In reaction turbines 6 , a change of pressure happens in the distributor and in the
rotor. They use a total injection 7 , i. e. the fluid meets the rotor everywhere
around its periof that typeer.
3.1.1. Impulse turbine

The following impulse turbines exist:
— Pelton wheel 8 ,
— Turgo turbine 9 ,
— cross-flow turbine 10 .
Pelton wheel
A Pelton wheel uses the following components:
1. turbines à action
2. distributeur
3. injection partielle
4. rotor
5. roue de turbine
6. turbines à réaction
7. injection totale
8. turbine Pelton
9. turbine Turgo
10. turbine Banki-Michell
45
Chapter 3. Water Turbines
— the wheel 11 ,
— the injector 12 ,
— the casing 13
— the bucket 14 ,
— the bucket cutout 15 ,
— the nozzle 16 ,
— the spare 17 ,
— the splitting edge 18 ,
— the sump 19 ,
— the deflector 20 ,
— the penstock 21 , and
— the tail race 22 .
Turgo turbine
A Turgo turbine uses the following components:
— the main inlet valve 23 ,
— the spear valve 24 ,
— the spear rod 25 ,
— the spear tip 26 , and
— the nozzle holder 27 .
Cross-flow turbine
A Turgo turbine uses the following components:
— the inlet guide-vane 28 ,
11. roue
12. injecteur
13. enveloppe ou carter
14. auget
15. encoche de l’auget
16. tuyère
17. pointeau ou aiguille
18. bord d’attaque
19. puisard
20. déflecteur
21. conduite forcée
22. canal de fuite
23. vanne principale d’alimentation
24. obturateur
25. tige de l’obturateur
26. pointe de l’obturateur
27. porte-injecteur
28. aube directrice
46
— the venting valve 29 ,

— the air inlet valve or suction valve 30 ,
— the blade 31 , and
— the draft tube 32 .
3.1.2. Reaction turbine

The following reaction turbines exist:
— Francis turbine 33 ,
— Kaplan turbines 34 :
— pit turbine 35 ,
— S-turbine 36 ,
— turbine in siphon arrangement 37 ,
— bulb turbine 38 , and
— Very Low Head turbine 39 ,
— hydrokinetic turbines 40 :
— tidal turbine 41 , and
— Gorlov helical turbine 42 .
Francis turbine
A Francis turbine uses the following components:
— the spiral casing 43 ,
— the stay vane or stationary vane 44 ,
— the guide vane 45 ,
— the turbine blade 46 ,
29. vanne de purge
30. vanne d’admission d’air
31. aube
32. aspirateur
33. turbine Francis
34. turbines Kaplan
35. turbine en disposition verticale noyée
36. turbine en disposition horizontale
37. turbine en siphon
38. turbine bulbe
39. turbine VLH
40. hydroliennes
41. hydrolienne
42. turbine Gorlov
43. bâche spirale
44. aube fixe
45. aube directrice ou déflecteur
46. aube de la roue
47
— the runner 47 ,
— the speed multiplier or gearbox 48 ,
— the draft tube 49 , and
— the diffuser 50 .
Kaplan turbines
The Kaplan turbines use the following components:
— the forebay 51 ,
— the trash rack 52 ,
— the intake gate 53 ,
— the draft tube gate 54 ,
— the flip gate 55 ,
— the roller gate 56 ,
— the slide gate 57 ,
— the flap gate 58 ,
— the generator 59 ,
— the variable angle blade 60 ,
— the wicket gate 61 , and
— the screen and the trashrack cleaner 62 .
Hydrokinetic turbines
The hydrokinetic turbines use the following components:
— the blade 63 ,
— the hub 64 ,
47. roue
48. multiplicateur
49. aspirateur
50. diffuseur
51. bief
52. grille
53. vanne de tête d’amont
54. vanne d’aspiration
55. vanne basculante
56. vanne-wagon
57. vanne à glissière
58. vanne clapet
59. générateur électrique
60. aube à angle de calage variable
61. aube directrice
62. dégrilleur
63. pale
64. moyeu
48
— the pitch system 65 ,

— the turbine nacelle 66 ,
— the drivetrain 67 ,
— the driveline 68 ,
— the yaw system 69 ,
— the pylon 70 ,
— the brake disk 71 ,
— the slip ring 72 ,
— the speed multiplier or gearbox 73 , and
— the mechanical brake 74 .
3.1.3. Positive displacement turbine

Only one type of positive displacement turbine is commonly used: screw turbine 75 .
Screw turbine
The screw turbine use the following components:

— the screw 76 ,
— the self-cleaning sloped bar screen 77 ,
— the coupling 78 ,
— the inlet gate 79 ,
— the bypass channel 80 , and
— the weir gate 81 .
65. réglage du calage

66. nacelle
67. transmission
68. ligne d’arbre
69. système de commande en lacet
70. pylône
71. disque de freinage
72. collecteur tournant
73. multiplicateur de vitesse
74. frein mécanique
75. vis d’Archimède
76. vis
77. grille à barres inclinées auto-nettoyante
78. accouplement
79. vanne d’arrivée
80. canal de dérivation
81. déversoir
49
A water turbine converts hydraulic energy into electricity, i.e. it uses a flow rate V̇
given with a head H to transform it into a power Ẇt . This conversion is performed with
an efficiency η:
Ẇt = η · ρ · g · H · V̇ = η · g · H · ṁ (3.1)
where ρ = density [kg/m3 ],
g = gravity [m2/s],
ṁ = mass flow rate [kg/s].
The characteristics presented by the manufacturers can be given with several
ways:

— The envelope where the technology is available is given in a graphic V̇ , H (see
figure 3.1), where the region is limited by a maximum and minimum flow rate, a
maximum and minimum head and a maximum and minimum power.
— The efficiency is presented as a function of the opening or the nominal flow rate
(see figure 3.2).
— For a reaction turbine, the required NPSH can be given as a curve or as instructions
to prevent cavitation.
103
1 kW
10 kW
100 kW
1 MW
102
H [m]
101
100
10−2 10−1 100 101 102
V̇ [m3/s]

Figure 3.1. – Graphic V̇ , H used for the drawing of the envelope
3.3. Design of a hydroelectric power plant

3.3.1. Site study
A given site is characterised by a geometrical head and a varying flow rate; usually,
the geometrical head is constant. This head is usually decreased by the head losses:
50
3.3. Design of a hydroelectric power plant
100
90
80
η [%]
70
60
Double regulated
Wicket-gate controlled
50
0 20 40 60 80 100
Opening [%]
Figure 3.2. – Efficiency of Kaplan turbines
— for pipes, they are calculated as described in section 1.3.2, including equation 1.16
for major losses;
— for a open-channel flow, the major losses H are calculated with the Manning’s
formula:
L · c2
H= 4 (3.2)
Ks2 · rh3
where L = channel length,
c = average fluid speed,
Ks = Strickler’s coefficient, and
rh = hydraulic radius.
As explained in section 1.3.2, assuming a flow speed of 2 m/s to 3 m/s allows to design
the ducts and to know the net head available for the turbine.
The flow rate of a river varies during the year. Usually, the measurement point is
not located on the site itself, and the measured flow rate is hence not correct. A good
approximation is obtained by multiplying by the ratio of the catchment 82 areas for the
two points. If the flow rates obtained are sorted, one gets the ranked flows 83 . As it is
not allowed to drain the river for ecological reasons, an instream flow 84 is let into the
river, usually calculated from the low water level 85 . Once this instream flow subtracted,
the variation of flow rate for the turbine is known: between zero and the flood flow 86
(decreased by the instream flow). The nominal flow of the turbine is chosen in this
82. bassin versant

83. débits classés
84. débit réservé
85. débit d’étiage
86. débit de crue
51
range.
3.3.2. Choice of the turbine

Having an idea of the flow rate allows to chose the type of turbine:
— with the help of the envelopes given by the manufacturers (see figure 3.1);
— with the help of the specific speed Ns defined as:
1
Ẇt2
Ns = N · 5 (3.3)
H4
where N = rotation speed [rev/min],
Ẇt = power [kW], and
H = net head [m].
The following values characterise the type of turbine:
— 6 < Ns < 60 for a Pelton turbine,
— 30 < Ns < 210 for a cross-flow turbine,
— 50 < Ns < 350 for a Francis turbine, and
— 200 < Ns < 950 for a Kaplan turbine.
The selection of the power of the right model is based on the following considerations:
— in case of flood flow, only a part of the water is used to generate electricity;
— in case of low flow, the turbine runs with a low efficiency or is stopped.
The optimum size is located between these two cases:
— an undersized turbine induces that a large flow rate is lost through the weir gate;
— an oversized turbine induces often a functioning with a low efficiency or a shutdown
of the production.
For a chosen nominal flow rate, the efficiency curve given by the manufacturer (see
figure 3.2) allows to calculate the production of all the ranked flows (taking into account
the head losses and the functioning time). For a turbine with a grid connection 87 , the
nominal power could be the turbine maximizing the energy production. If the production
should match a defined consumption, the power should be decreased if the planned
production is larger than the consumption. A further step should be an economical
study: the load factor (the ratio between the annual production and the nominal power)
is usually obtained in a range from 4000 h to 6000 h.
In case of islanding 88 , then the turbine power is preferably chosen to cover the max-
imum consumption power, if the hydraulic power is large enough to offer it.
Some particular cases can modify this approach:
— If the turbine is supplied with a reservoir, the variation of the level in the reservoir
allows to run more often with the nominal power. For example, such plant can be
used to produce electricity to cover the peaks, and the turbine is then oversized.
87. connexion au réseau
88. îlotage
52
3.4. Actions to be taken for an efficiently operating system
— A pump storage plant 89 is designed according to the size of the reservoir and the
expected running time per day.
— The use of a draft tube for an impulse turbine allows to use the head after the
wheel, as a vacuum in the casing allows to expanse water below the atmospheric
pressure.
— The use of a draft tube for a reaction turbine can induce cavitation at the outlet
of the turbine. The NPSH is calculated as in section 1.3.3, except that the outlet
is the reference point, instead of the inlet.
3.4. Actions to be taken for an efficiently operating

system
3.4.1. Impacts between the turbine and objects
The turbine is set in a natural environment. Some large objects, like plant residues,
can destroy the turbine if an impact occurs. To avoid it, a screen is always set before
the pipe or the forebay, inducing a head loss. An automatic trashback cleaner is a good
solution to keep this head loss as low as possible. Overflow facilities 90 can also be used
to feed the pressure chamber.
3.4.2. Fish interaction

The turbine is set in a natural environment. The use of a dam to obtain the head
usually destroys the ecological continuity 91 . It can be ensured with the instream flow
and a fish ladder 92 .
If fish is passing through the turbine, it can be killed by impacts or by the pressure
variation. The screen prevents large fish to go through the pipe. Fish-friendly 93 turbines
(screw turbine, very low head turbine) can also be used, but they only allow the out-
migration 94 , not the return 95 .
3.4.3. Water hammer

The use of a long penstock can induce water hammer. Some solutions are already
explained in section 1.4.3, but other ones can be used for turbines:
89. centrale de pompage-turbinage
90. des ouvrages de surverse
91. continuité écologique
92. échelle à poisson
93. ichtyocompatible
94. dévalaison
95. montaison
53
— The slow closing of the gates can be used.

— A flywheel can be used to slow the acceleration of the turbine.
— A deflector can be used for some impulse turbines (Pelton, Turgo) to quickly
decrease the production without changing the flow rate.
— A surge chamber 96 can be set to smooth the overpressure induced by a sudden
closing of a gate.
3.4.4. Cavitation
As explained in section 3.3.2, cavitation can occur at the outlet of a reaction turbine.
The calculation of the N P SHr gives a way to quantify the risk. If this phenomenon can
occur, only a decrease of the height can solve the problem.
3.4.5. Control
The more common use of a turbine is to produce electricity at a constant rotation
speed, independently of the delivered power. For large turbines, the rotation speed is
not forced by the electrical grid, and this one can be maintained constant:
— by acting on the generator (brake),
— by acting on the pipe (head loss), or
— by acting on the turbine itself.
Only the last one is applied for industrial plants.
Pelton and Turgo turbine

The needle can modify the cross-section of the injector. A sudden modification is
performed by the deflector, when the needle moves slowly to avoid any water hammer.
Cross-flow turbine
The efficiency of the cross-flow turbine is kept high at partial load by dividing it into
two parts (1/3 and 2/3). By regulating the guide vane independently on both sides, a
large flow range can be obtained.
Francis turbine
Guide vanes are used in the distributor between the stationary vane and the runner:
it modifies the cross-section available for the flow rate, but also the angle of the flow.
This modification of the angle induces a loss of efficiency.
96. cheminée d’équilibre
54
Kaplan turbine
The same principle is used for a Kaplan turbine, but in this case, the blades of the
runner can be oriented to maintain an angle compatibility, and thus a good efficiency at
partial load. This second mechanism acts slower than the first one.
55
Chapter 4.
Wind Turbines
Wind turbines can be divided into two categories:
— horizontal-axis turbines 1 : 1-blade turbine, 2-blade turbine, 3-blade turbine and
Wells turbine;
— vertical-axis turbines 2 : Darrieus wind turbine 3 and Savonius wind turbine 4 .
4.1.1. Horizontal-axis turbines

The horizontal-axis turbines use the following components:
— the anemometer 5 ,
— the weather vane 6 ,
— the lightning rod 7 ,
— the low speed shaft 8 ,
— the speed multiplier 9 ,
— the cooling system 10 ,
— the high speed shaft 11 ,
— the nacelle guiding system 12 ,
— the foundation 13 ,
1. turbines à axe horizontal

2. turbines à axe vertical
3. éolienne Darrieus
4. éolienne Savonius
5. anémomtère
6. girouette
7. paratonnerre
8. arbre principal
9. multiplicateur de vitesse
10. unité de refroidissement
11. arbre secondaire
12. système d’orientation de la nacelle
13. fondation
57
Chapter 4. Wind Turbines
— the turbine airfoil or blade 14 , and

— the duct wall 15 .
4.1.2. Vertical-axis turbines

The vertical-axis turbines use the following components:
— the brake 16 ,
— the advancing blade 17 ,
— the returning blade 18 ,
— the end plate 19 , and
— the shroud 20 .
4.2.1. Betz’s law
The mechanical energy that can be recovered from a fluid stream is given by:
— a height difference g · ∆z
— a pressure difference ∆pρ
— a kinetic energy difference c2
2
When talking about wind (or a water stream without dam or waterfall), the height and
pressure differences can be neglected and only the kinetic energy can be used.
The Betz’s law is obtained for an incompressible fluid whose only the kinetic energy
is usable, with the following hypotheses:
— the fluid is uniform, incompressible and in a stable state;
— the friction and the drag 21 is neglected;
— the turbine has an infinite number of blades;
— the thrust 22 is uniform on the rotor area;
— the wake 23 phenomenon is neglected;
— the upstream 24 speed is constant ad infinitum;
— the static pressure downstream 25 and upstream are equal.
14. aube de turbine
15. paroi du conduit
16. frein
17. pale avançante
18. pale en phase de retour
19. plaque d’extrémité
20. hauban
21. trainée
22. poussée
23. sillage
24. amont
25. aval
58
c0
c1 = c2
c
c0 c3
1 2
c3
0
0 1=2 3
(a) Fluid flow (b) Speed
p1
p
pa = p0 = p3
p2
0 1=2 3
(c) Pressure
Figure 4.1. – Fluid stream through a rotor
59
Let’s call c0 the upstream speed ad infinitum and c3 the downstream speed at infinitum
(see figure 4.1). The pressures p0 and p3 are equal to the atmospheric pressure pa , and
removing mechanical energy corresponds to a decrease in speed of the stream. Between
the upstream and the downstream, the mass balance makes that the stream slows reg-
ularly. Because of the deceleration between points 0 and 1, the pressure increases from
p0 to p1 . Removing energy between points 1 and 2 implies a decrease in pressure from
p1 to p2 . Then the pressure increases again to reach p3 = pa .
The control volume of figure 4.1 covers all the stream in contact with the rotor. Far
from the rotor, the speed can be considered as axial and the pressure is uniform in the
plan perpendicular to the rotor axis . The principle of momentum conservation gives:
V̇ · ρ · (c3 − c0 ) = F (4.1)
where F = sum of all the aerodynamic forces applied by the stream on the rotor blades.
For symmetry reasons, this force is directed as the rotor axis. It is linked to the pressure
as follows:
F = A · (p2 − p1 ) (4.2)
where A = area of the rotor.
p2 − p1 = c1 · ρ · (c3 − c0 ) (4.3)
By applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 0 and 1, and points 2 and 3, one gets:
1 1
pa + · ρ · c20 = p1 + · ρ · c21 (4.4)
2 2
1 1
p2 + · ρ · c22 = pa + · ρ · c23 (4.5)
2 2
p2 − p1 c − c20
2
= 3 (4.6)
ρ 2
By combining equations 4.3 and 4.6, it gives:
c23 − c20
c1 · (c3 − c0 ) = (4.7)
2
c3 + c0
c1 = (4.8)
2
This equation shows that the deceleration of the stream is symmetrically split between
the upstream and the downstream. If all the kinetic energy of the stream was recovered,
the speed c3 would be equal to 0, preventing the stream to flow towards downstream.
There is thus an optimal ratio between the speeds c0 , c1 and c3 .
Without friction, the power recovered by the rotor is equal to the difference of pressure
60
multiplied by the mass flow rate:
c20 − c23
Ẇt = ρ · A · c1 · (4.9)
2
The speed c1 is substituted with its value of equation 4.8:
ρ·A
· c30 · +c20 · c3 − c0 · c23 − c33 (4.10)

Ẇt =
4
The maximum power is obtained for
3 · c23 · +2 · c0 · c3 − c20 = 0 (4.11)
There are two solutions:

c0
c3 = −c0 c3 = (4.12)
3
In the case of a wind turbine, only the second case is possible:
2 · c0 8
c1 = c2 = Ẇt,Betz = · ρ · A · c30 (4.13)
3 27
This theoretical maximum power is called Betz’s law. In fact, the turbine has its own
efficiency η, and the recovered power is:
8
Ẇt = η · · ρ · A · c30 (4.14)
27
So the power of a wind turbine is proportional to the square of its diameter and to
the specific volume (which can change in a range of 20 % when changing temperature,
pressure and humidity).
4.2.2. Turbine performance

The manufacturers use an dimensionless coefficient to express the turbine perform-
ance, called the power coefficient 26 Cp , which is defined as the ratio between the power
recovered by the rotor and the power available upstream:
Ẇt 16
Cp = c20
=η· (4.15)
ρ · V̇ · 27
2
For a perfect rotor, without any friction, Cp equals 1627

= 59.6 %. In fact, the efficiency
of the rotor is from 0.3 to 0.75, and the power coefficient is from 0.2 to 0.45. The power
coefficient depends on the upstream speed ans the blade speed, that can be compared
26. coefficient de puissance
61
with the tip-speed ratio 27 λ:

ω·r
λ= (4.16)
c0
For each type of wind turbine, ther is an optimal value of λ that gives the maximum
power coefficient. It is usually chosen to get the maximum performance at around 9 m/s:
higher wind speeds are infrequent.
50
40
30
Cp [%]
20
10
0
0 ci 5 10 cr 15 20 25 co 30
c [m/s]
(a) Power coefficient curve
2, 5
1, 5
Ẇt [MW]
0, 5
0
0 ci 5 10 cr 15 20 25 co 30
c [m/s]
(b) Power curve
Figure 4.2. – Characteristic curves of a wind turbine
The power curve of a wind turbine (see figure 4.2) as four parts:
27. vitesse spécifique
62
4.3. Design of a wind farm
1. Below the cut-in wind speed 28 ci (below 2 m/s to 3 m/s), the rotor is stopped.
2. Till the rated wind speed 29 cr (around 10 m/s to 12 m/s), the power coefficient is
as high as possible to recover the maximum of energy.
3. Below the rated wind speed and the cut-out wind speed 30 co (around 25 m/s to
28 m/s), the power absorbed by the rotor is limited to the maximal power of the
generator, and the power coefficient is the inverse of a cubic curve.
4. Beyond the cut-out wind speed, damage can occur and the wind turbine is stopped.
In fact, in case of storm, several controls can be implemented (see figure 4.3):
— The cut-out wind speed co that deactivates the turbine is about 34 m/s, higher
than the cut-in wind speed ci that reactivates the turbine (about 28 m/s).
— When the wind speed reaches the beginning of power reduction cpr (about 28 m/s),
the rated speed is linearly reduced down to the cut-out wind speed (about 34 m/s).
2, 5 2, 5
2 2
1, 5 1, 5
1 1
0, 5 0, 5
0 0
0 ci cr ci co 0 ci cr cpr co
c [m/s] c [m/s]
(a) Classical storm control (b) Progressive storm control
Figure 4.3. – Storm control

4.3.1. Site study
A good site is a site with constant and high wind speeds. Such conditions are obtained
for a small roughness and a wind turbine with some height above the ground. Some wind
28. vitesse d’amorçage ou de démarrage
29. vitesse de vent nominale
30. vitesse d’arrêt
63
atlas 31 gives a rough approximation of the average wind speed [4].

A speed profile is obtained only through measurements on site. The range should be
at least from 2 m/s to 25 m/s. The sampling is chosen for several minutes, but with an
average of the measurements made every second. The measurement can be performed:
— with one or several anemometers on a mast,
— with a SODAR or a LIDAR.
Theses measurements, typically performed during one year, are compared with data
of meteorological stations to estimate the wind behaviour during 10 or 15 years. The
heigh of measurement is very important, due to the vertical wind shear 32 , which can be
approximated as logarithmic above a flat ground:
α
c2 h2
= (4.17)
c1 h1
where c = speed,
h = height, and
α = windshear exponent 33 .
The obtained data are processed to know the frequency of each wind speed. It can
be made directly, or through the Weibull distribution (see figure 4.4), which draws in a
good way the probability of the wind speed:

k c k−1 c k
f (c) = exp − (4.18)
α α α
where k = shape factor, and

α = scale factor [m/s].
The scale factor is proportional to the average wind speed. The shape factor describes the
shape of the distribution and its value is typically between 1 and 3. The manufacturers
use typically k = 2.
A linear regression can be used to obtain the right Weibull’s factors of measurements.
If F (c) is the probability to have a speed lower or equal to the speed c, then a linear
law is obtained by changing the variables as follows:
y = k (x − ln α) (4.19)
where y = ln (− ln (1 − F (c))), and

x = ln c.
During this process, the relevant data are located in the range of 2 m/s to 25 m/s; the
data without any wind are not taken into account, but should not be forgotten when
evaluating the energy production.
31. atlas éolien
32. cisaillement vertical
33. exposant de cisaillement au vent
64
·10−2
Probability [s/m] 6
0
0 5 α 15 20 25
c [m/s]
Figure 4.4. – Weibull distribution for k = 2
The production of a wind turbine depends on the size of the rotor: for a give size of
the rotor and a chosen rated wind speed, one can build a typical characteristic curve, by
taking into account of the Betz’s law. The size of the rotor implies also a height for the
nacelle: it requires to scale the wind speed distribution of the wind with equation 4.17.
The combination of the wind speed distribution with a typical power characteristic curve
of the wind turbine gives a typical production for one size of the rotor: this calculation
can be performed for different sizes, allowing to choose the size which will match the
energy required by the consumer; it is called the ideal size in the next paragraphs.
4.3.2. Choice of a wind turbine
Wind class I II III IV

Wind high medium low
Average annual speed [m/s] 10 8.5 7.5 6
Largest speed for 50 years [m/s] 70 59.5 52.5 42
Largest speed for 1 year [m/s] 52.5 44.6 39.4 31.5
Table 4.1. – Wind classes [5]
The standard IEC-61400-1 [5] defines four classes to characterize a site (see table 4.1):
the selected wind turbine should have the required class.
Once the ideal size is found, the choice of the wind turbine is made by taking into
account the following parameters:
— The production should be lower than the consumption if this one is defined.
65
— The heigh of the hub can be limited by the neighbouring; it limits the rotor
diameter.
— The connection to the grid can limit the power.
For a site, a range of wind turbines with the ideal size is available, with similar power
and investment costs. The best choice can be obtained by comparing the production.
Again, this one is calculated by combining the wind data (or the Weibull distribution)
with the power characteristic curve, which is now given by the manufacturer instead of
being built with the Betz’s law. The choice between the different wind turbines depends
on the parameters previously mentioned: for a same rotor, the size of the generator can
be increased to extract more energy of fast winds, or decreased to extract energy with
a better efficiency of slow winds. Then an economic study can be made to improve the
payback time: the load factor is usually obtained in a range from 2000 h to 3000 h (lower
for onshore production than offshore production).
— In case of a wind farm, the distance between the turbines should be large enough
to minimize the effect of the wake of one turbine on another one. The direction
between two turbines should be considered through a wind rose: the wind direction
with a weak energy is better, so that the influence of the wake is minimized. It
can be calculated through a wake model, e. g. the Jensen-Katic (Park) model.
The visual influence over the landscape should also be considered.
— The shelter 34 is caused by an obstacle in the terrain. It depends on [4]:
— the distance from the obstacle to the site,
— the height of the obstacle,
— the height of the point of interest at the site,
— the length of the obstacle,
— the porosity of the obstacle.
— The effect of height variation in the terrain induces a relative speed-up 35 at the
crest of a hill, and a speed-down in the front and lee 36 of the hill [4].
— The vertical wind shear should be considered for large rotors: it depends on the
roughness of the terrain 37 .

system
4.4.1. Lightning
The lightning can damage the wind turbine. It is protected through a lightning rod.
34. effet d’obstacle
35. coefficient relatif de survitesse
36. à l’abri du vent
37. rugosité
66
4.4.2. Icing
As the wind turbine removes energy of the fluid, cold wet air can generate icing 38 on
the blades. It is avoided with special coatings and defrosting resistances 39 .
4.4.3. Storm
A storm can destroy the rotor. To avoid such destruction, the regulation can decrease
the power (see figure 4.3) by creating stall 40 for the blades. For too fast winds, the brake
stops the rotation of the rotor, which is then locked, and the wind turbine is placed in
feathered position 41 .
4.4.4. Variation of the wind

The variation of the direction of the wind is managed by the yaw drive, which modifies
the direction of the rotor.
The variation of the speed of the wind implies a variation of the rotation speed of the
rotor to obtain a maximum of energy: if available, the variation of the pitch 42 of the
blades helps to get a high power coefficient. The varying rotation speed of the rotor can
be managed with a gearbox 43 or with an electronic regulation of the excitation current
of the generator.
4.4.5. Interaction with plane sector

The height of a wind turbine can be so high that the interaction with planes is possible.
They require a lighting, and they cannot be placed too close to a RADAR.
4.4.6. Axial thrust

The foundation and the mast must be sized to transfer the axial thrust (see equa-
tion 4.2) to the ground. The bearing capacity 44 of the soil should also be considered.
4.4.7. Flying animals

Flying animals can be damaged. Some area are thus not allowed for wind turbines,
due to protected species. In case of bats, a protocol can be applied to stop the wind
38. givrage
39. résistances de dégivrage
40. décrochage
41. en drapeau
42. calage
43. boîte de vitesse
44. portance
67
turbine when the meteorological conditions are ripe for the flight of the bats: it induce
a decrease of 2.5 % of the production. An innovative system uses ultrasound to scare of
the bats [6].
4.4.8. Neighbouring people

Neighbouring people can have the syndrome NIMBY: « Not In My BackYard ». Com-
munication must be improved through tools based on science [7].
68
Chapter 5.
Combustion Engines
When talking about engines, two working principles have been developed:
— internal combustion engines 1 , and
— external combustion engines 2 .
5.1.1. Internal combustion engines

The following internal combustion engines exist:
— reciprocating piston engine 3 :
— positive- or spark-ignition engine 4 ,
— compression ignition engine 5 ,
— in-line engine 6 ,
— V engine 7 ,
— boxer engine 8 ,
— radial engine 9 ,
— four-stroke engine 10 ,
— two-stroke engine 11 ,
— direct injection engine 12 ,
— indirect injection engine 13 ,
1. moteurs à combustion interne
2. moteurs à combustion externe
3. moteur à pistons
4. moteur à allumage commandé
5. moteur à allumage par compression
6. moteur à cylindres en ligne
7. moteur à cylindres en V
8. moteur à cylindres à plat
9. moteur à cylindres en étoile
10. moteur à 4 temps
11. moteur à 2 temps
12. moteur à injection directe
13. moteur à injection indirecte
69
Chapter 5. Combustion Engines
— engine with carburetion 14 ,

— naturally aspirated engine 15 ,
— supercharged engine 16 , and
— turbocharged engine 17 ,
— rotary piston engine 18 ,
— gas turbine 19 :
— single shaft gas turbine 20 ,
— dual shaft gas turbine 21 ,
— gas turbine with recuperator 22 ,
— turboprop engine 23 ,
— propfan engine 24
— turbofan engine 25 ,
— turbojet engine 26 , and
— ramjet engine 27 .
Reciprocating piston engines
A reciprocating piston engine pump uses the following components:

— a fuel filter 28 ,
— a fresh water cooling pump 29 ,
— an oil pump 30 ,
— an air filter 31 ,
— an air intercooler 32 ,
— a turbocharger 33 ,
14. moteur à mélange carburé

15. moteur atmosphérique
16. moteur compressé
17. moteur turbocompressé
18. moteur rotatif Wankel
19. turbine à gaz
20. turbine à gaz à un axe
21. turbine à gaz à deux axes
22. turbine à gaz avec récupérateur
23. turbopropulseur
24. soufflante non carénée
25. turboréacteur à double flux
26. turboréacteur à simple flux
27. statoréacteur
28. filtre à mazout
29. pompe à eau
30. pompe à huile
31. filtre à air
32. intercooler
33. turbocompresseur
70
— a rocker arm 34 ,
— a valve lifter 35 ,
— an intake valve 36 ,
— an exhaust valve 37 ,
— a fuel injector 38 ,
— a cylinder liner 39 ,
— a cylinder head 40 ,
— a rocker arm push rod 41 ,
— a piston 42 ,
— a wrist pin 43 ,
— a connecting rod 44 ,
— a camshaft 45 ,
— a crankshaft 46 ,
— a crank pin 47 ,
— a transfert channel 48 ,
— an injection pump 49 ,
— an air inlet manifold 50 ,
— an air outlet manifold 51 ,
— a carburattor 52 ,
— a timing belt 53 ,
— a cylinder head gasket 54 ,
— a spark plug 55 ,
34. culbuteur
35. poussoir
36. soupape d’admission
37. soupape d’échappement
38. injecteur
39. chemise de cylindre
40. culasse
41. tige de culbuteur
42. piston
43. axe du piston
44. bielle
45. arbre à came
46. vilebrequin
47. maneton
48. canal de transfert
49. pompe à injection
50. collecteur d’admission
51. collecteur d’échappement
52. carburateur
53. courroie de distribution
54. joint de culasse
55. bougie d’allumage
71
— a flywheel 56 ,
— a piston ring 57 ,
— an oil scraper ring or oil control ring 58 ,
— a compression ring 59 ,
— a top land 60 ,
— a valve guide 61 ,
— a valve seat 62 ,
— a muffler 63 ,
— a butterfly valve 64 , and
— an ignition coil 65 .
Gas turbines
A gas turbine uses the following components:

— a compressor 66 ,
— a combustor 67 ,
— a turbine 68 ,
— an afterburner 69 ,
— a shaft 70 , and
— a recuperator 71 .
5.1.2. External combustion engines

The following internal combustion engine is still used: Stirling engine 72 .

57. segment
58. segment racleur ou d’étanchéité
59. segment de compression
60. segment coup de feu
61. guide de soupape
62. siège de soupape
63. silencieux ou pot d’échappement
64. vanne papillon
65. bobine d’allumage
66. compresseur
67. chambre de combustion
68. turbine
69. dispositif de postcombustion
70. arbre
71. récupérateur
72. moteur Stirling
72
The service given by an engine can be characterised by some variables:
— its rotation speed ω (usually, a range),
— its power Ẇ (usually, at full load and stationary speed),
— its torque M ,
— its specific consumption cs (amount of fuel consumed to develop one energy unit,
usually in g/kWh) or its efficiency η.
Some relationships links these variables:
Ẇ = M · ω (5.1)
Ẇ 1
η= = (5.2)
ṁf · N CV cs · N CV
where ṁf = mass flow rate of fuel, and
N CV = net calorific value 73 .
The manufacturer gives usually curves like in figure 5.1 to describe the behaviour of
an engine at full load and steady-state operation 74 . Some characteristics can be found:
— the idle speed 75 Ni ,
— the speed with maximum torque NM (around 4000 rev/min for a spark-ignition
engine, around 1800 rev/min to 2300 rev/min for a compression ignition engine),
— the rated speed 76 NẆ ,
— the maximum speed Nmax ,
— the normal rated power 77 Ẇmax (the maximum rated power 78 can be developed
only during short times),
Other data can be added on those graphs:
— curves of efficiency, at full and partial load,
— curves of specific consumption, at full and partial load.
Data about polluting emissions 79 can also be added. They can be decreased through
three ways:
— by removing the pollutant of the fuel (lead, sulphur),
— by modifying the combustion process (CO, particles),
— by using a smoke treatment (particle filter, catalytic converter for NOx , EGR
valve).
For other types of engine, the torque curve can be very different (see figure 5.2).
73. pouvoir calorifique inférieur

74. régime stationnaire
75. vitesse de ralenti
76. vitesse nominale
77. puissance nominale normale
78. puissance nominale maximale
79. émissions polluantes
73
100
Mmax
80
60
M [N · m]
40
20
0
0 Ni 1000 NM 3000 4000 NẆ Nmax
N [rev/min]
(a) Torque
40
Ẇmax
30
Ẇ [kW]
20
10
0
0 Ni 1000 NM 3000 4000 NẆ Nmax
N [rev/min]
(b) Power
Figure 5.1. – Characteristic curves
74
5.3. Design of a vehicle
2, 5
1, 5
Mr
M
Double shaft gas turbine

Single shaft gas turbine
0, 5 Compression ignition engine
Spark-ignition engine
Steam engine
0
0 0, 2 0, 4 0, 6 0, 8 1
N
N
Ẇ
Figure 5.2. – Torque compared to the rated torque for several types of engine
5.3.1. Load curve
For a vehicle, the power on the road 80 Ẇr is due to the rolling resistance 81 and to the
drag 82 :
1
Ẇr = Cr · m · g · cos θ + · ρair · Cx · A · c + m · g · sin θ · c
2
(5.3)
2
where Cr = rolling resistance coefficient 83 ,
m = vehicle mass,
g = gravity,
θ = angle of the slope of the road,
ρair = air density,
Cx = drag coefficient 84 ,
A = frontal area 85 ,
c = speed of the vehicle.
80. puissance sur route

81. résistance au roulement
82. traînée
83. coefficient de résistance au roulement
84. coefficient de trainée
85. maître-couple
75
5.3.2. Choice of the engine

For a chosen maximum speed, the required power can be obtained through equa-
tion 5.3: it allows to choose the engine with the same rated power. Other considerations
should be taken into account:
— the performances in the used range,
— the fuel consumption and the fuel cost,
— the noise and the polluting emissions,
— the investment cost,
— the reliability, the durability, the maintenance requirements and the availability,
— etc.
5.3.3. Choice of the gearbox

The rated power occurs at a rotation speed which is different of the wheel rotation
speed. So a gearbox is introduced, and its internal gearbox ratio is chosen to match the
two speeds. This is usually the largest ratio.
As the engine has an idle speed, another ratio should be chosen to get enough torque
for a start, specially for a hill start 86 . The chosen ratio allows usually to get enough
torque for a slope of 15 % to 25 %. The clutch 87 allows that the rotation speeds do not
match.
Between these two ratios, other ratios should be chosen so that the power decrease
between two ratio is not two large: hence, the full power of the engine is available for
every vehicle speed (see figure 5.3). A regular decrease between the ratios is obtained
with a geometric progression . This choice can be tuned by taking account of speed
limits, use profile, etc. to optimise the choice.
5.3.4. Other cases

An extra power should always be taken into account, as the inertia of the engine
requires some power to reach the rated power.
If the load requires a constant rotation speed (e.g., a power generator 88 ), the rotation
speed of the engine is chosen to minimise the fuel consumption, by taking into account
the load profile.
For aeronautic or marine applications, the rolling resistance disappears and only the
drag remains. In this case, the engine should provide a thrust 89 F (itself or through a
propeller):
F = ṁo · co − ṁi · ci (5.4)
86. démarrage en côte
87. embrayage
88. groupe électrogène
89. poussée
76
40
Road
1st ratio
2nd ratio
Ẇmax 3rd ratio
30 4th ratio
5th ratio
6th ratio
Ẇ [kW]
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
c [km/h]
Figure 5.3. – Power curves of a vehicle
where ṁo = mass flow rate at the outlet,

co = outlet speed 90 ,
ṁi = mass flow rate at the intlet, and
ci = inlet speed 91 .
Two effects can be identified:
— The engine power increases the kinetic energy of the fluid:

1 1
Ẇp = · ṁo · c2o − · ṁi · c2i (5.5)
2 2
— The power is used only if the thrust works:
Ẇu = F · ci (5.6)
So a propulsion efficiency 92 ηjet multiplies the engine efficiency:
Ẇu
ηjet = (5.7)
Ẇp
90. vitesse d’éjection

91. vitesse d’aspiration
92. rendement propulsif
77

system
5.4.1. Starter
The idle speed requires a launch of the engine, performed by the starter 93 . When the
engine is cold, the glow plug 94 helps to ignite the first combustions by increasing the
temperature of the combustion chamber.
5.4.2. Heat
Following the second law of thermodynamics, an engine releases always a lot of heat.
This heat should be removed through fins 95 or a heat exchanger.
5.4.3. Noise
An engine is usually noisy. The noise is decreased with a muffler 96 .
5.4.4. Lubrication
Moving parts require lubrication. For a four-stroke engine, an oil bath in the casing
prevents to tilt it too much. For a two-stroke engine, a mix of oil and petrol is injected
in the carburettor.
5.4.5. Icing of the carburettor

The vaporisation of the petrol in a carburettor decreases the temperature of the air:
icing can appear. To avoid it, a preheating 97 can be introduced.
5.4.6. Filters
Some filters are used to avoid any destruction due to dust. There are filters for the
air, for the fuel and for the oil.
93. démarreur
94. bougie de préchauffage
95. ailettes
96. pot d’échappement
97. préchauffage
78
Part II.
Building Envelope and Technical

Installations
79
Chapter 6.
References in the Building Sector
In order to obtain sustainable buildings, it is important to decrease the energy con-

sumption. Several steps help to achieve this goal (see figures 6.1 and 6.2)
Firstly, the heat transmission loss can be reduced by an insulation 1 . To protect this
one from the vapour pressure gradient between inside and outside (which can induce
internal condensation), the use of a vapour barrier 2 or a vapour check 3 is required. The
cold bridging 4 should also be avoided.
The heat transmission loss is only a part of the losses: heat loss by infiltration/exfiltra-
tion 5 should be added. An air-tightness 6 (in fact combined with the water-tightness 7
in a vapour barrier or a vapour check can decrease this phenomenon.
But this airtight and insulated envelope does not allow sufficient air renewal to exhaust
the pollutants generated by internal occupants and a controlled ventilation 8 is required.
Among the available systems, the one organising mechanically supply and exhaust allows
to recover energy between the exhaust and the supply: it helps to decrease the heat loss
by ventilation.
Once those losses minimised, the heat (and maybe cooling) energy requirement is filled
with some available technologies (boiler, heat pump, air conditioning, etc.).
Therefore the following chapters present the case of the insulation and air-tightness
(chapter 7), then the ventilation (chapter 8), and finally the heating and the cooling
(chapter 9).
1. isolation
2. pare-vapeur
3. freine-vapeur
4. pont thermique
5. infiltration/exfiltration
6. étanchéité à l’air
7. étanchéité à la vapeur d’eau
8. ventilation contrôlée
81
Chapter 6. References in the Building Sector
7
6
9
4
10
8 11 12
13
14
15
16
1. Transmission heat loss

+ 2. Ventilation heat loss
+ 3. Heat loss by infiltration/exfiltration
- 4. Solar gain
- 5. Internal gain
= 6. Net energy requirement for heating
+ 7. Loss by the heating system
+ 8. Net energy requirement for domestic hot water
+ 9. Loss by the production of domestic hot water
- 10. Thermal solar production
+ 11. Energy consumption of the ancillary equipment
+ 12. Energy consumption for cooling
= 13. Final energy consumption
+ 14. Transformation energy loss
- 15. Self-generation of electricity (in primary energy)
= 16. Primary energy consumption of the EPB unit
Figure 6.1. – Energy balance of an EPB residential unit [8]
82
1
7
6
4
8
12 9 10 11
5
13
14 15
1. Transmission heat loss

+ 2. Heat loss by infiltration/exfiltration
+ 3. Ventilation heat loss
- 4. Solar gain
- 5. Internal gain
= 6. Net energy requirement for heating
+ 7. Loss by the heating system
+ 8. Final consumption of lighting
+ 9. Final consumption for cooling
+ 10. Final consumption of the ancillary equipment
+ 11. Final consumption for humidification
= 12. Final energy consumption
+ 13. Transformation energy loss
- 14. Self-generation of electricity (in primary energy)
= 15. Primary energy consumption of the EPB unit
Figure 6.2. – Energy balance of an EPB unit for offices, services or education[8]
83
Chapter 6. References in the Building Sector
6.1. Requirements of the energy performance of

buildings 9
The European directive 2010/31/EU [9] deals with the energy performance of buildings
(EPB 10 ). To decrease the energy consumption of buildings, some requirements have been
imposed to obtain a construction permit. They depends on:
— the type of work: new building, minor or major renovation, change of use;
— the type of building: individual and residential, non-residential or industry.
An extensive description is available in the EPB guide [8].
Six requirements are taken into account for a residential building in the EPB software
(they change regularly):
— the heat transfer coefficient 11 Umax or the thermal resistance 12 Rmin should be
observed for each type of building element;
— the degree of global thermal insulation 13 K should be lower than 35 (55 for indus-
trial buildings);
— the level of primary energy consumption 14 Ew should be lower than 65 (90 for some
non-residential buildings); it is defined as the ratio between the annual primary
energy consumption of the EPB unit and an annual reference consumption of
primary energy, multiplied by 100;
— the specific primary energy consumption 15 Espec of residential buildings should
be lower than 115 kWh/m2 · year ; it is defined as the ratio between the annual
primary energy consumption of the EPB unit and the total heated floor area 16 of
this unit. This one is defined by a Walloon Government Decree [10]: « Somme des
surfaces de planchers de chaque niveau de la construction situés dans le volume
protégé, mesurées entre les faces externes des murs extérieurs. Sont comptabilisées
les surfaces présentant une hauteur sous plafond minimale de 1m50, pour autant
que l’espace considéré présente au moins en un point une hauteur minimale de
2,20 m. »
— a ventilation is mandatory and should respect roughly the standards [11, 12] (see
chapter 8);
— the overheating indicator 17 S should be lower than 6500 K · h.
9. performance énergétique des bâtiments

10. PEB
11. coefficient de transmission thermique
12. résistance thermique
13. niveau d’isolation thermique globale
14. niveau de consommation d’énergie primaire
15. consommation spécifique en énergie primaire
16. surface totale de plancher chauffé
17. indicateur de surchauffe
84
6.2. Requirements of a passive building
6.2. Requirements of a passive building 18

The passive building technology was developed by the Passive House Institute (PHI)
to obtain buildings with a high energy efficiency during their use. The requirements
are different of the EPB requirements, but they are usually higher. Small differences
in the definition can be found between countries (and it depends also on the use of the
building). The building can obtain a certification.
Four requirement are taken into account in the PHPP software:
— the energy requirement for heating should be lower than 15 kWh/m2 · year;
— the energy requirement for cooling should be lower than 15 kWh/m2 · year;
— the primary energy requirement is limited for a tertiary building;
— the air change rate 19 n50 should be lower than 0.6 h−1 ;
— the overheating time is limited.
18. bâtiment passif

19. taux de renouvellement d’air
85
Chapter 7.
Building Envelope
7.1. Types of systems
A building envelope is made up of continuous parts, the building elements 1 and the
construction details 2 between them. Their are used for several services:
— the insulation 3 ,
— the wind-tightness 4 ,
— the air-tightness 5 , and
— the water-tightness 6 .
7.1.1. Building elements

The following systems exist:
— a warm flat roof 7 ,
— a cold flat roof 8 ,
— pitched roof insulated in the rafter section or in the truss section 9 ,
— warm pitched roof with a ”sarking” insulation 10 ,
— pitched roof with self-supporting pannels 11 ,
— light insulated attic floor 12 ,
— heavy insulated attic floor 13 ,
1. parois
2. nœuds constructifs
3. isolation
4. étanchéité au vent
6. étanchéité à la vapeur d’eau
7. toiture plate chaude
8. toiture plate inversée
9. toiture inclinée isolée entre chevrons ou fermettes
10. toiture sarking
11. toiture inclinée isolée avec panneaux auto-portants
12. plancher de comble léger isolé
13. plancher de comble lourd isolé
87
Chapter 7. Building Envelope
— outer wall insulated on the inside 14 ,

— outer wall insulated on the outside 15 ,
— insulated cavity wall 16 ,
— insulated subfloor 17 , and
— insulated floor on an underfloor space 18 .
Flat roof
A flat roof contains the following components:
— the weatherproof membrane 19 ,
— the bitumen felt 20
— the chippings 21 ,
— the firring 22 ,
— the insulation 23 ,
— the vapour control layer: the vapour barrier 24 or the vapour check 25 ,
— the plywood board 26 ,
— the OSB board 27 ,
— the ballast 28 ,
— the matting system 29 ,
— the plywood or OSB board deck 30 ,
— the joist 31 ,
— the ceiling 32 ,
— the wooden rafter 33 , and
— the slab 34 .
14. mur isolé par l’intérieur
15. mur isolé par l’extérieur
16. mur creux isolé dans la coulisse
17. plancher sur sol isolé
18. plancher sur vide ventilé isolé
19. membrane d’étanchéité
20. membrane bituminée
21. gravillons
22. coyau
23. isolant
24. pare-vapeur
25. freine-vapeur
26. panneau de contreplaqué
27. panneau OSB
28. lestage
29. natte de protection
30. panneau en contreplaqué ou OSB
31. solive
32. plafond
33. poutre en bois
34. dalle
88
Pitched roof
A pitched roof contains the following components:
— the roof covering 35 ,
— the tile 36 ,
— the slate 37 ,
— the counter batten 38 ,
— the batten 39 ,
— the underlay foil 40 ,
— the rafter 41 ,
— the interior finish 42 ,
— the finishing plaster or plastering 43 ,
— the plasterboard 44 ,
— the frame 45 , and
— the purlin 46 .
Attic floor
An attic floor contains the following components:
— the floor joist 47 , and
— the ledger board 48 .
Outer wall
An outer wall contains the following components:
— the lap siding 49 ,
— the building block 50 ,
— the parge 51 ,
35. couverture
36. tuile
37. ardoise
38. contre-latte ou contre-liteau
39. latte ou liteau
40. sous-toiture
41. chevron
42. finition intérieur
43. plafonnage
44. plaque de plâtre
45. charpente
46. panne
47. gîte ou solive de plancher
48. lambourde
49. parement
50. parpaing
51. crépi
89
— the frame construction 52 ,

— the wall stud 53 ,
— the breather membrane 54 ,
— the rainscreen 55 ,
— the cladding 56 ,
— the air space 57 ,
— the drainage gap 58 ,
— the anchor 59 ,
— the finish coat 60 ,
— the insulation board 61 ,
— the mechanical fixing 62 ,
— the shear wall 63 ,
— the joint finishing 64 ,
— the skirting board 65 ,
— the bead 66 ,
— the exterior sheathing 67 ,
— the metal furring channel 68 , and
— the exposed wall 69 .
Floor
A floor the following components:

— the screed 70 ,
— the flooring 71 ,
52. ossature
53. poteau mural
54. film perméable à l’air
55. pare-pluie
56. bardage
57. lame d’air ou coulisse
58. espace de drainage
59. ancrage
60. enduit de finition
61. panneau isolant
62. fixation mécanique
63. mur de refend
64. joint de finition
65. plinthe
66. bille
67. revêtement extérieur
68. fourrure métallique ou rail métallique
69. mur de parement
70. chape
71. revêtement de sol
90
— the floor joist 72 ,

— the supporting slab 73 ,
— the sill 74 ,
— the batt insulation 75 ,
— the caulk 76 ,
— the expansion joint 77 , and
— the ventilated crawl space 78 .
7.1.2. Construction details

The following junctions exist:
— junctions of membranes with other elements 79 ,
— junctions of wood panels with other elements 80 ,
— junctions in the masonry 81 ,
— junctions in the roof 82 (roof window 83 , chimney 84 , etc.), and
— junctions in the walls 85 (window, etc.).
The junctions can be made with the following elements:
— the sealing tape 86 ,
— the metal flashing 87 ,
— the chimney flashing 88 ,
— the sealing surface 89 ,
— the bead of sealant 90 , and
— the elastomer sleeve 91 .
72. solive de plancher

73. plancher portant ou dalle
74. sole
75. isolant en matelat
76. mastic
77. joint de dilatation
78. vide sanitaire ventilé
79. raccords des membranes d’étanchéité aux autres éléments
80. raccords des panneaux dérivés du bois aux autres éléments
81. raccords dans la construction maçonnée
82. raccords dans la toiture
83. fenêtre de toit
84. cheminée
85. raccords dans les murs
86. bande d’étanchéité
87. solin métallique
88. chapeau de cheminée
89. lé d’étanchéité
90. cordon de mastic d’étanchéité
91. manchette en élastomère
91
The insulation is applied between inside and outside. The inside that is protected
from the heat loss is called the protected volume 92 . The protected volume has thus
a surface that is exposed to the external environment, to the ground and to adjacent
non-heated spaces 93 . The following rules apply:
— The protected volume is measured on the basis of the external dimensions, so that
the complete envelope of the building can be considered as an enveloping closed
surface.
— The intermediate walls 94 of two protected volumes is half to each volume.
— The walls inside a protected volume are measured on the basis of the internal
dimensions.
7.2.1. Heat transfer coefficient

The heat transfer coefficient U of a building element [W/m2 · K] is defined as the
amount of heat that, in steady state, flows through the building element of 1 m2 , divided
by the temperature difference between inside and outside [10]. The following rules apply:
— It is calculated on the basis of the external dimensions for a building element
belonging to the envelope.
— It is calculated on the basis of the internal dimensions for an intermediate building
element between two protected volumes.
The thermal resistance is the reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient and is used usually
for building elements in contact with the ground.
The calculation of the heat transfer coefficient is defined in appendix B1 of the Walloon
Government Decree [10], based on a standard [13]. The general formula (that should be
adjusted for particular cases) is:
1
= RT = Rsi + R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn + Rse (7.1)
U
where RT = overall thermal resistance [m2 · K/W],
Rsi = thermal resistance at the internal surface [m2 · K/W],
R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn = thermal resistance of each layer [m2 · K/W], and
Rse = thermal resistance at the external surface [m2 · K/W].
The different cases explained by the decree are:
— the opaque building elements,
— the windows and the doors,
— the light façades 95 ,
92. volume protégé
93. espaces adjacents non-chauffés
94. parois mitoyennes
95. façades légères
92
— the other translucent building elements,

— the building elements in contact with the external environment,
— the building elements in contact with adjacent unheated spaces,
— the building elements in contact with the ground, unheated cellar or crawl space,
and
— the construction details (see section 7.2.3).
7.2.2. Degree of global thermal insulation

The average heat transfer coefficient 96 Um of a building is calculated by averaging the
coefficients of the different building elements, weighted by their area and by taking into
account the construction details.
The degree of global thermal insulation K is calculated as the ratio between the
average heat transfer coefficient Um and a reference value Um,ref , multiplied par 100 [10,
14]:
Um
K = 100 · (7.2)
Um,ref
The reference value depends on the compactness 97 C of the building, defined as follows
[10, 14]:
V
C= (7.3)
AT
where V = building volume on the basis of the external dimensions, and
At = heat loss area, on the basis of the external dimensions.
Um,ref = 1 W/m2 · K if C ≤ 1 m
C +2
Um,ref = if 1 m < C < 4 m
3
Um,ref = 2 W/m2 · K if C ≥ 4 m
7.2.3. Construction details

The construction details are defined as the locations of the envelope where additional
heat losses can happen. They occur where two insulations intersect or where the insula-
tion is not continuous. If heat losses are excessive, the previously used word is the cold
bridging.
An extensive list of construction details is given by the BBRI [15]; they can be sorted
into several types:
— the foundations
96. coefficient de transmission thermique moyen
97. compacité
93
— the connection with windows or doors,

— the inside corners 98 ,
— the outer corners 99 ,
— the structure node,
— the other construction details.
There are several ways to handle them:
— The heat flow is calculated with a numerical calculation.
— They fill rules and are called « consistent construction details 100 », and the level
K is increased by 3.
— They are not studied, and the level K is increased by 10.
The second way is usually used. In this case, it must be shown that the construction
detail fills one of the four following rules:
— there is a contact between the two insulations, with a minimum contact thickness;
— an insulating element is located between the two insulations;
— the inside is separated by at least 1 m of path of least resistance 101 ;
— the construction detail is more efficient than the consistent construction details.
7.2.4. Air-tightness
The air-tightness cannot be calculated, because it depends on the care applied during
the implementation. It is measured by a blower door test 102 , performed by following a
standard [16] and a legal directive [17].
The air-tightness is quantified by three parameters:
— The blower door test measures the mean air leakage 103 V̇50 [m3/h] at a given
building-to-outside pressure differential of 50 Pa.
— The EPB software requires the air permeability 104 v̇50 [m3/h · m2 ]: it is obtained
by dividing the airflow by the total building leakage area Atest , measured on the
basis of the external dimension in the Belgian case [8, 17]:
V̇50
v̇50 = (7.4)
Atest
The default value should not be used anymore in the EPB software [18], requiring
a blower door test.
The air permeability should not be mistaken with the permeability 105 q50 obtained
98. angles rentrants
99. angles sortants
100. nœuds conformes
101. chemin de moindre résistance
102. test d’inflitrométrie
103. débit de fuite d’air moyen
104. perméabilité à l’air
105. perméabilité
94
7.3. Design of the building envelope
by dividing the air leakage rate by the envelope area AE measured on the basis of
the internal dimensions in the standard [16]:
V̇50
q50 = (7.5)
AE
This definition is not used in Belgium.
— The passive criterion (see section 6.2) requires a maximal value fo the air change
rate 106 n50 [h−1 ]: it must be below 0.6 h−1 . It is defined as the ratio between the
mean air leakage rate and the internal volume:
V̇50
n50 = (7.6)
Vint
Without a blower door test, the regulation forces to used v̇50 = 12 m3/h · m2 , which
is disadvantageous, as a blower door test on a building without any care for the air-
tightness gives an average value of 6 m3/h · m2 . By taking some care for a new building,
it is easy to obtain values below 3 m3/h · m2 [8].
With present techniques, the CSTC considers that n50 = 3 h−1 is a mean performance,
and n50 = 1 h−1 , a high performance [19]. To vent a building with a double flow mechan-
ical ventilation 107 , the standard requires n50 < 2 h−1 for a low building, and n50 < 1 h−1
for a building with more than three floors [12]. With a design studied at the outset and
a meticulous implementation, it is possible to obtain n50 = 0.1 h−1 [20].
7.3. Design of the building envelope

To obtain a construction permit, all the requirements must be filled (see section 6.1);
if the passive criterion must be obtained, other requirements should be respected (see
section 6.2). Some of them deals directly with the envelope design; the other ones are
influenced by its implementation.
The first step is to know the dimensions of the building: volumes and area can be
calculated from the design of the architect, by taking account of the rules for the in-
ternal/external dimensions.
The composition of the building element (thickness and material of each layer) allows
to calculate the heat transfer coefficient by using equation 7.1. For doors and windows,
the values are given by the manufacturer. For each building element, a requirement is
given by the regulation and is filled by a sufficient increase of the insulation thickness
(which must be compatible with the other functions of the wall).
When all the building elements are defined, the degree of global thermal insulation
can be calculated as explained in section 7.2.2. The requirement is filled by modifying
107. ventilation mécanique double flux
95
the insulation characteristics of each wall. Usually, one tries to obtain an homogen-
eous distribution of the insulation, hence similar heat transfer coefficient, knowing that
windows and doors are less efficient.
— A strongly ventilated air space is a heat by-pass, meaning that the cladding is not
taken into account in the calculation of the heat transfer coefficient of the building
element.
— In case of a windows, the frame 108 and the glass 109 are sometimes distinguished by
the manufacturer, but the coefficient can be obtained through a weighted average:
Aw · Uw = Ag · Ug + Af · Uf (7.7)
where Aw = windows area,

Uw = heat transfer coefficient of the window,
Ag = glass area,
Ug = heat transfer coefficient of the glass,
Af = frame area, and
Uf = heat transfer coefficient of the frame.
— The case of the heat exchange with the ground is particular: in fact, the heat
exchange is performed with the air through the ground, and this one can be char-
acterised by a heat transfer coefficient.

system
7.4.1. Condensation
The building and the external environment do not have the same vapour pressure:
during summer, it is higher outside, and lower during winter. It induces steam diffusion
through material. If the dew point is reached somewhere, condensation occurs. It can
be external of internal.
External condensation occurs on cold walls with a humid environment, inducing
mould. For example, cold bridging are situations that helps condensation to occur.
This phenomenon can be countered by increasing the insulation of cold wall; for cold
bridging, the construction detail should be solved to be consistent.
Internal condensation occurs in the insulation and increases the thermal conductivity
of the insulation. A vapour barrier or a vapour check is used on the inner side. They
are characterised by a water vapour diffusion resistance factor 110 µ which compares the
108. chassis
109. vitrage
110. coefficient de résistance à la diffusion de vapeur
96
vapour diffusion through the material to the diffusion through the air. As the material
has a thickness d, commercial production are sold with a steam diffusion resistance 111
µ · d.
The inner side is chosen to obtain a low vapour pressure in the insulation during winter.
It can induce a risk of secondary condensation during summer or spring, when the partial
pressure gradient reverses and when the environment stays cold. It can be solved by the
use of a vapour check (steam diffusion resistance of some meters) instead of a vapour
barrier (steam diffusion resistance of tens of meter). Another solution is the use of
« smart » membrane, with a steam diffusion resistance that changes with the relative
humidity and thus with the season.
7.4.2. Infiltration et exfiltration

During winter, the wind tries to introduce cold air in the building; at the same time,
the chimney effect 112 tries to put out hot air. If it occurs, a heat loss is obtained.
The infiltration is avoided by placing a continuous wind-tightness on the outer side;
the exfiltration is avoided by placing a continuous air-tightness on the inner side. For
the last one, it plays also the role of water-tightness. Its efficiency can be checked with
a blower door test (see section 7.2.4). The following sections focus on several aspects of
the air-tightness [20, 21].
Building elements
The external building elements can use the following solutions:
— A continuous finish coat can be used for the inner side of a wall and for a ceiling.
— A screed can be used for the floor.
— A concrete shell 113 can be used for a wall.
— Vapour barriers or vapour checks can be used with tight seals 114 for a backbone
wall 115 .
— The plasterboards can be used with tight seals for a ceiling (attention should be
paid to cracks 116 ).
— The frame should use compression seals 117 between the sash 118 and the outer
frame 119 for an opening (attention should be paid to the adjustment of the hard-
111. résistance à la diffusion de vapeur

112. effet cheminée
113. voile en béton
114. joint étanches
115. paroi à ossature
116. fissures
117. joints de compression
118. ouvrant
119. dormant
97
ware 120 ).
Attention should be paid to the connection between these building elements and to
discontinuities in these building elements.
Case of a roof
For a roof, one should focus on:
— The ridge 121 and the eaves 122 : many problems are avoided with a system of bearing
truss beams 123 .
— The connection with the gable 124 : a vapour checking plaster sealing tape 125 is
used.
— The chimney: a fireproof joint adhesive glue 126 and a fibrous plasterboard are
used.
— The ventilation: a homogeneously weldable pipe grommet 127 can be used.
Case of a wall
For a wall, one should focus on:
— The piercing for ventilation: a homogeneously weldable pipe grommet can be used.
— The metal furring channel: they are placed after the finish coat.
— The frames: they are prepared with adhesive tape (and eventually vapour checking
plaster sealing tape) before fixing them.
— The bays 128 : they are prepared with a frame and required adhesive tapes, or tight
insulting foam.
— The electrical piercing: tight flush mount wall boxes 129 can be used.
— The expansion joints 130 : the air-tightness is placed before the lap siding.
Case of a floor
For the bearing 131 and the penetration of the floors 132 , one should focus on:
120. quincaillerie
121. faîte
122. pied de versant
123. arabalétrier porteur
124. pignon
125. ruban de raccord d’enduit frein-vapeur
126. colle de raccord ignifuge
127. manchette pour conduits
128. baies
129. boîtiers encastrables étanches ou blochets étanches
130. joints de mouvement ou d’expansion
131. appui
132. pénétration des planchers
98
— The joist floor 133 tightness: the airtightness membrane 134 is placed before the joist
floor.
— The connection between the precast 135 structural component: the ends of the
hollow core slabs 136 must be filled, a good contact with the bearing wall should
be obtained and the formwork 137 is insulated and airtight.
Case of concrete slab

The connection between the concrete slab and the base of the wall can be solved as
follows:
— A membrane with a adhesive joint can be used on the concrete side.
— A waterproofing membrane 138 can also be used for the air-tightness.
— For a backbone wall, an EPDM membrane can be integrated in the foundation
and the connection with the wall can be organised.
7.4.3. Overheating
The approach used to decrease the et energy requirement is (see figure 6.1):
— to decrease the heat loss,
— to increase the solar gain.
For a large solar gain (typically in summer), heat is stored in the building, meaning
that the temperature reaches uncomfortable levels. The overheating is obtained when
a threshold temperature is exceeded (23 ◦ C in the EPB software, 25 ◦ C for the passive
criterion). Different parameters can be checked:
— The EPB software integrates the overtaking by time. The obtained value should be
less than 1000 K·h (values up to 6500 K·h are allowed, but they have consequences
on the primary energy consumption).
— The PHPP software and the other thermodynamic simulation softwares compare
the times of overtaking with the occupation time limit (5 % for residential build-
ings).
In case of overheating, several solutions should be considered:
1. The internal gains should be lowered as small as possible. They come from:
Occupation: Sensible heat is decreased for an elderly person.
Equipment: A desktop computer consumes from 100 W to 120 W, whereas a
laptop consumes from 15 W to 35 W [22].
133. gîtage
134. membrane d’étanchéité
135. préfabriqué
136. hourdis
137. coffrage
138. membrane d’étanchéité à l’eau
99
Lighting: An automated light dimming system 139 decreases artificial lighting.

2. The solar gain can also be decreased:
— The orientation of the windows can be changed.
— The size of the windows can be changed [18].
— The solar factor g of the glass can be changed: it is defined as the ratio between
the energy going in the room and the incident solar radiation [8]. Attention
should be paid to have large enough light transmission.
— The windows can be placed so that a shadow 140 decreases the solar gain. The
real shadow should be a first step to implement in the EPB software to decrease
the overheating [18].
— A shading device 141 can be used: they can be fixed, adjustable or moveable,
located externally, internally or between the panes of a double or triple glazed
window, etc. The real data should be used in the EPB software, for example
using a data base (www.epbd.be) [18].
3. As heat is stored in the building, the thermal inertia can be increased to decrease
the heat variation during a cycle of 24 h. Thermal inertia is characterised by two
properties:
The thermal diffusivity: It shows how fast a material can change its temperature,
depending on the external load:
k
α= (7.8)
ρ·c
where α = thermal diffusivity [m2/s],

k = thermal conductivity [W/m2 · K],
ρ = density [kg/m3 ], and
c = specific heat capacity [J/kg · K].
The thermal effusivity: It shows the ability of a material to exchange heat with
its environment:
(7.9)
p
e= k·ρ·c
where e = thermal effusivity [J/K · m2 · s0.5 ].
The inertia can produce a good phase shift 142 with:
— a low diffusivity: the heat transmission is weak in case of a contact;
— a large effusivity: a lot of energy is stored in the material.
These conditions are filled for dense material with a large specific heat capacity.
But this material should be placed so that heat can reach it, meaning that it is in
contact with the air of the room: one should avoid suspended ceilings 143 , raised
139. système d’auto-dimmng
140. ombrage
141. protection solaire
142. déphasage
143. faux-plafonds
100
floors 144 , insulation on the inside, etc.

4. The stored head can be eliminated during the night through an intensive ventila-
tion 145 . The double flow mechanical ventilation should have a by-pass of its heat
exchanger. A free cooling effect may be obtained through an oversizing of the fan.
Another type of intensive ventilation can be obtained with enlarged openings [18].
5. An extra cooling can be obtained with a ground-coupled heat exchanger 146 . It
performs also a preheating of the air during winter.
6. If no appropriate solution is obtained, air-conditioning should be considered.
144. planchers surélevés

145. ventilation intensive
146. puits canadien
101
Chapter 8.
Ventilation and Air Conditioning
There are two types of systems handling the air, depending on the use of the building
where they are installed:
— ventilation 1 for residential buildings, and
— air conditioning 2 for non-residential buildings.
8.1.1. Ventilation
The systems can be of that type:
— a natural ventilation 3 , where the wind and the buoyancy move the air,
— a fan assisted supply air ventilation 4 or a fan assisted exhaust ventilation 5 , where
one fan moves the air, or
— a fan assisted balanced mechanical ventilation 6 , where two fans move the air.
The following components exist:
— the supply air terminal device 7 ,
— the extract air terminal device 8 ,
— the muffler 9 ,
— the ventilation grid 10 ,
— the recuperator 11 ,
— the transfer device 12 ,
1. ventilation contrôlée
2. climatisation
3. ventilation naturelle, système A
4. ventilation mécanique simple flux par insufflation, système B
5. ventilation mécanique simple flux par extraction, système C
6. ventilation mécanique double flux, système D
7. bouche d’alimentation
8. bouche d’évacuation
9. silencieux
10. grille de ventilation
11. récupérateur de chaleur
12. grille de transfert
103
Chapter 8. Ventilation and Air Conditioning
— the exhaust fan 13 ,

— the ventilator unit 14 ,
— the rain cap 15 ,
— the filter 16 ,
— the fresh air supply 17 ,
— the vent damper 18 , and
— the ground-coupled heat exchanger 19 .
8.1.2. Air conditioning

An air handling unit 20 uses the following components:
— the preheating coil 21 ,
— the cooling coil 22 ,
— the reheating coil 23 ,
— the spray mist humidifier 24 ,
— the evaporative humidifier 25 ,
— the vaporizer humidifier 26 ,
— the recirculation 27 ,
— the recuperator 28 ,
— the heat wheel 29 ,
— the heat pipe 30 ,
— the run-around coil 31 ,
— the fan or blower 32 ,
— the filter bank 33 ,
13. extracteur
14. caisson d’extraction
15. chapeau pare-pluie
16. filtre
17. prise d’air extérieur
18. volet motorisé
19. puits canadien
20. centrale de traitement d’air
21. batterie de préchauffage
22. batterie froide
23. batterie de réchauffage
24. humidificateur à pulvérisation d’eau froide
25. humidificateur à évaporation
26. humidificateur à vapeur
27. by-pass de recyclage
28. échangeur récupérateur de chaleur
29. échangeur rotatif
30. caloduc
31. boucle à eau glycolée
32. ventilateur
33. batterie de filtres
104
8.2. Comfort criteria
— the air register 34 ,

— the mixing section 35 ,
— the fresh air damper 36 ,
— the recirculation air damper 37 ,
— the supply air 38 ,
— the extract air 39 ,
— the exhaust air 40 , and
— the outdoor air 41 .

A ventilation pursues several objectives:
— to eliminate CO2 ,
— to eliminate humidity, and
— to eliminate pollutants and odours.
This is required for a large and air-tight building (n50 < 1 h−1 or 2 h−1 , depending on
the building [12]).
An air conditioning has a larger goal: to ensure a good quality of the internal climate
of the building. It is broken down by checking the following parameters [23]:
— the thermal environment,
— the indoor air quality and ventilation,
— the humidity,
— the lighting,
— the noise.
8.2.1. Human behaviour

An air conditioning system should ensure comfort for a large range of people. This
comfort is translated into indices in standards as follows [23, 24]:
The predicted mean vote 42 P M V : It gives the mean value of a vote of a large group
of persons on a seven-point thermal sensation scale (see table 8.1); satisfied people
are between +1 and -1. It depends on many parameters:
— the metabolic rate 43 ,
34. registre
35. caisson de mélange
36. volet ou clapet d’air neuf
37. volet ou clapet de recyclage
38. air fourni
39. air repris
40. air rejeté
41. air neuf
43. métabolisme énergétique
105
3 Hot
2 Warm
1 Slightly warm
0 Neutral
−1 Slightly cool
−2 Cool
−3 Cold
Table 8.1. – Seven-point thermal sensation scale [24]
— the effective mechanical power 44 ,

— the clothing insulation 45 ,
— the air temperature,
— the mean radiant temperature 46 ,
— the relative air velocity 47 , and
— the water vapour partial pressure 48 .
The predicted percentage dissatisfied 49 P P D: It establishes a quantitative predic-
tion of the percentage of thermally dissatisfied people who feel too cool of too warm.
It is linked to P M V (see figure 8.1).
100
80
60
P P D [%]
40
20
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
P MV
Figure 8.1. – PPD as a function of PMV [24]
44. puissance mécanique utile

45. l’isolement thermique du vêtement
46. température moyenne de rayonnement
47. vitesse relative de l’air
48. pression partielle de la vapeur d’eau
106
The category of the indoor air quality: The standards defines four category associ-
ated with several P M V ranges and P P D index and they give recommendations
for the category to obtain [23, 25]. Category II is usually enough [23]. Category
IV is not allowed by appendix C3 of the Walloon Government Decree [10].
8.2.2. Thermal environment

As show in the calculation of the P M V index, the thermal equilibrium of the human
body does not depend only on the air temperature. If the temperature of large room
surfaces does not differ significantly from the air temperature, this one can be used as
reference [12, 23]. In the other case, an operative temperature 50 is defined by a balance
of the convective and radiative exchanges:
hc · θa + hr · θr
θo = (8.1)
hc + hr
where hc =convective heat transfer coefficient,
θa =air temperature,
hr =linear radiative heat transfer coefficient, and
θr =mean radiant temperature of all surfaces with respect to the considered
location in the room 51 .
In the case of internal climate of buildings, the standard defines the coefficients as follows
[12]:
θa + θr
θo = (8.2)
2
Ranges of operative temperatures are recommended by standards for different categories,
rooms and seasons [23, 25].
A local thermal discomfort can be obtained in case of draught 52 , radiant temperature
asymmetry 53 , vertical air temperature differences 54 and too hot or cold floor temperat-
ures [23].
8.2.3. Indoor air quality

Indoor air quality depends on the filtration and the air change rate 55 . For the first
aspect, the types of filters to use are given by the standard [12]. For the second aspect,
50. température opéative

51. température radiante moyenne des surfaces en ce qui concerne l’emplacement considéré dans la
pièce
52. courant d’air
53. disymmétrie de la température radiante
54. gradients de température verticaux
107
the standard defines several categories of quality for indoor air [12]. The air change rate
can be calculated by three methods [12]:
— indirect classification by the rate of outdoor air per person,
— indirect classification by the air flow rate per floor area (for unoccupied rooms),
— classification by CO2 level.
For this last aspect, a royal decree requires a maximum CO2 concentration of 900 ppm 56
or a minimum flow rate of 40 m3/h per capita for workplace; in some specified cases,
the requirement can be a maximum CO2 concentration of 1200 ppm or a minimum flow
rate of 25 m3/h per capita [27]. The relationship between the standards and regulation
is explained in specialised articles [28].
The presence of volatile organic compounds 57 (VOC) should be taken into account
through a risk analysis performed by the employer [27, 28].
8.2.4. Humidity
The humidity can modify the thermal comfort, the indoor air quality and the physical
behaviour of the building [23]:
— Long term high humidity indoors will cause microbial growth.
— Very low humidity causes dryness and irritation of eyes and air ways.
— High humidity can generate condensation and mould.
Humidification or dehumidification are usually not required. The royal decree requires
a humidity between 40 % to 60 % for workplace [27] (or between 35 % to 70 % under
specified conditions). Recommended design values for dimensioning of dehumidification
and humidification systems are given by the standard for other locations [23].
8.2.5. Noise
Noise can be generated by turbulent flow and fan. Standards recommend values for
the sound pressure level, depending on the use of the rooms [12, 23].
8.3. Design of a fan assisted balanced mechanical

ventilation
Appendix C2 of the Walloon Government Decree [10] orders to use a standard [11]
(with some changes) to design a balanced mechanical ventilation for residential buildings.
8.3.1. Room characteristics

The first step requires to identify the rooms and their type:
56. Previously, it was 800 ppm [26].
57. composés organiques volatiles
108
8.3. Design of a fan assisted balanced mechanical ventilation
Dry rooms: living room, bedroom, playroom, offices, etc.; they get supply air.
Wet rooms: kitchen, toilets, bathroom, laundry, etc; they give relief air.
The hall can be considered either as a dry or a wet room, as it is used to balance the
flow rates.
8.3.2. Calculation of the flow rates

The general rule to obtain the flow rate required for a room is to multiply its area by
3.6 m3/h · m2 . Depending on the room, there is a minimum flow rate, and a large flow
rate can be limited. Some flows can also be recirculated.
As already mentioned, the hall is used to balance the flow rates between wet and dry
rooms. The rooms where a flow rate miss are rounded up so that the added flow rate is
well balanced between the rooms.
8.3.3. Devices
The transfer devices are devices allowing the air to pass from one room to another
with a difference of pressure of 2 Pa. It can be an undercut 58 of the door, a transfer grid
in the door or in the wall.
Such transfer devices should also be placed between inside and outside for devices
using inside air and exhausting it outside: hood, stove.
The supply and extract air terminal devices must be placed to obtain a good diffusion
of the air (good mixing, no dead zone): some advices are available in the a guide [29].
8.3.4. Choice of the ventilation unit

The unit is chosen as explained in section 1.3, by calculating the head loss of the
network. Hence the network is drawn and the flow rate of each section is known: it
allows to determine the standard diameter of the duct by applying a maximum speed
of 5 m/s (to avoid noise and excessive head loss); this speed is decreased to the range of
1 m/s to 2 m/s close to the muffler. Usually, for one house, only two diameters are used to
avoid a too complex puzzle. The diameters of the supply and extract air terminal devices
and of the openings of the ventilation unit can also direct the choice. A galvanized pipe
is preferred to a flexible one, as it produces less head loss.
The total head loss is calculated by taking account of the length of the pipes, of the
minor and major head losses, for the 4 sections (supply air, relief air, exhaust air, outside
air). The largest head loss between outside and inside and the nominal flow rate are
used to choose the ventilation unit.
The supply and extract air terminal devices should be set to create the same head loss
in each branch of the network; but this setting can generate too much noise. To avoid it,
58. détalonnage
109
the global flow rate is increased to the maximum flow rate of ventilation unit (obtained
for the maximum head loss previously calculated), and each flow rate is increased in the
same ratio. The setting can be then performed without generating excessive noise (it
can also be precalculated).
It should be mentioned that a demand controlled ventilation 59 should stay balanced
for every operation point, so that the heat exchanger allows a maximum recovery.
8.4. Design of an air handling unit

Appendix C3 of the Walloon Government Decree [10] orders to use a standard [12]
(with some changes) to design an air handling unit for non-residential buildings. A new
standard replacing the old one could be used in the next years [30].
8.4.1. Air conditioning

The first step is to choose the type of conditioning: humidity control (with steam or
water) or not, cooling or not, heat exchange or mixing. The heating and/or cooling can
be handled partly or totally with systems in the room (see chapter 9). The next steps
explain the general case.
It is also important to know the required quality of the air (see section 8.2): this
choice can be translated into a temperature range (see section 8.2.2), a humidity range
(see section 8.2.4), a CO2 concentration and hence an air flow rate (see section 8.2.3),
etc.
8.4.2. Room load calculation

Depending on the considered season, the sensible room load calculation can take
account of:
— the transmission heat loss, the ventilation heat loss, and the heat loss by infiltration
[13, 25],
— the internal loads (persons, lighting, equipment) [12],
— the solar gain.
In summer, a latent room load calculation can be required to determine the dehumidi-
fication.
8.4.3. Calculation of the operating points

The room loads can be applied to calculate the operating points:
Q̇ = ±ṁ · (hsu − hex ) (8.3)

59. ventilation régulée sur demande
110
8.4. Design of an air handling unit
ṁw = ±ṁ · (ωsu − ωex ) (8.4)

where Q̇ = sensible room load,
ṁ = mass flow rate of dry air,
hsu = enthalpy of supply air,
hex = enthalpy of exhaust air, equal to enthalpy of indoor air,
ṁw = latent room load,
ωsu = humidity ratio of supply air, and
ωex = humidity ratio of exhaust air, equal to enthalpy of indoor air.
Two operating points are obtained:
— In winter, a dry and cold air (as defined by standard [31]) must be heated and
humidified.
— In summer, a hot and wet air (30 and 22°C for the dry and wetbulb temperatures)
must be cooled and dried.
The standard gives information about the efficiency of ventilation and air diffusion [12].
If the operating points are not achievable by the air handling unit, this one must be
helped by another device in the room.
8.4.4. Choice of the air handling unit components

Eight different operations can occur in an air handling unit:
— the mixing,
— the heat exchange,
— the heating,
— the cooling,
— the humidification,
— the dehumidification,
— the filtering, and/or
— the soundproofing.
The two last ones do not change the thermodynamic characteristics of the air, but they
improve the comfort.
Mixing
The balance of the mixing is gives:
ṁex = ṁ1,su + ṁ2,su (8.5)
ṁex · hex = ṁ1,su · h1,su + ṁ2,su · h2,su (8.6)

ṁex · ωex = ṁ1,su · ω1,su + ṁ2,su · ω2,su (8.7)
where mex = mass flow rate of dry exhaust air,
msu = mass flow rate of dry supply air,
111
hex = specific enthalpy of exhaust air,

hsu = specific enthalpy of supply air,
ωex = humidity ratio of exhaust air, and
ωsu = humidity ratio of supply air.
Heat exchange
The balance of the heat exchanger gives:
ṁh · (hh,ex − hh,su ) = ṁc · (hc,su − hc,ex ) (8.8)
ωc,ex = ωc,su (8.9)
ωh,ex = ωh,su if th,ex > tdp,h,ex

ωh,ex = ωsat if th,ex = tdp,h,ex (8.10)
where mh = mass flow rate of dry hot air,

mc = mass flow rate of dry cold air,
tdp,h,ex = dewpoint temperature of hot exhaust air, and
ωsat = humidity ratio of saturated air.
The efficiency of the heat exchanger should be taken into account.
Heating
The balance of the heating coil gives:
Q̇h = ṁ · (hex − hsu ) (8.11)
ωex = ωsu (8.12)
Cooling with or without dehumidification
The balance of the cooling coil gives:
Q̇c = ṁ · (hsu − hex ) (8.13)
ωex = ωsu if tex > tdp,ex

ωex = ωsat if tex = tdp,ex (8.14)
112
8.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient ventilation system
Humidification
The balance of the evaporative humidifier gives:
ṁ · hex = ṁw · hw + ṁ · hsu (8.15)
ṁw = ṁ · (ωex − ωsu ) (8.16)

where ṁw = mass flow rate of water, and
hw = water specific enthalpy.
The efficiency of the humidifier should be taken into account.
The balance of the vaporizer humidifier gives:
ṁ · hex = ṁs · hs + ṁ · hsu (8.17)
ṁs = ṁ · (ωex − ωsu ) (8.18)

where ṁs = mass flow rate of steam, and
hs = steam specific enthalpy.
Other choices
The filters can be chosen with the help of the standard [12]. The pipes, the fans, and
many other devices are chosen by following a similar approach to the one presented in
section 8.3.4.
Some particular cases can be mentioned:
— An enthalpy heat exchanger 60 or a heat wheel allows to exchange vapour between
exhaust and supply air.
— Demand controlled ventilation 61 is useful to decrease the energy consumption, but
it requires motor dampers.
— Free-cooling 62 requires large flow rates.
Many details for the design of the whole systems are given in standards and literature.
8.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient ventilation

system
8.5.1. Fouling of filters
The fouling of filters increases the head loss and hence the energy consumption of the
fan; it can induce the death of the people in case of very important fouling. It can be
60. échangeur de chaleur enthalpique
61. ventilation régulée sur demande
62. ventilation intensive
113
controlled by a differential pressure control. It is avoided by a regular cleaning.
8.5.2. Condensation
Condensation can occur on the exhaust air side in and after the heat exchanger. The
drain of the ventilation unit should be connected to a sewer system.
8.5.3. Icing of the heat exchanger or of a coil

For negative outside temperature, the condensation can freeze in the heat exchanger:
it can be observed with a differential pressure measure. A by-pass is organised so that
the exhaust air remain above the icing temperature; it decreases the recovered energy.
It can also freeze the water inside a coil: introducing a recirculation or a heat exchanger
increases the temperature of the fresh air, avoiding this phenomenon.
8.5.4. Overheating during summer

The overheating during summer is tackled with a by-pass of the heat exchanger when
the inside temperature is higher than the outside temperature. A ground-coupled heat
exchanger is also a solution to obtain fresh air.
8.5.5. Noise
The noise can be disturbing, even if very small. The use of mufflers and flexible pipes
next to supply and extract air terminal devices decreases the noise. An acoustic study
can also be carry out to estimate the noise that will be produced.
8.5.6. Fire safety

The ventilation can fan the fire. To avoid it, the fire alarm system should stop the
functioning. Fire damper must also be introduced in the pipes.
8.5.7. Insulation of the pipes

All the pipes outside the protected volume should be insulated. For the pipes inside
the protected volume, it is not so important, but it can increase the comfort.
8.5.8. Legionellosis
Legionellosis expands in lukewarm water of humidifiers. Analyses are able to monitor
this development, and biocidal treatments should be regularly applied. Another solution
is to use steam to humidify.
114
8.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient ventilation system
8.5.9. Bleed
The mineral salts contained in the make-up water 63 of the humidifier remains inside
it. Their addition is decreased with demineralised water 64 . They are removed with a
bleed 65 , and this bleed is decreased with soft water 66 .
8.5.10. Radon
The radon emitted by the ground is radioactive. The ventilation of the cellar should
consider this aspect. Furthermore, a ground-coupled heat exchanger should be hydraulic
instead of using air if too much radon is generated in that area.
8.5.11. Control
The energy balance of a room could be characterised by the following equation:
d Tin
ρ·cp ·V · = ρ·cp ·V̇ ·(Tsu − Tin )−A·K·(Tin − Tout )−ρ·cp ·V̇inf ·(Tin − Tout )+Q̇ (8.19)
dt
where V = volume of the room,
Tin = room temperature (requiring a control),
V̇ = air flow rate of the ventilation,
ρ = air density,
cp = specific heat capacity of air,
Tsu = supply temperature of the air, which can be modified,
A = envelope area,
K = heat transfer coefficient through the envelope,
Tout = outside temperature,
V̇inf = air flow rate of the infiltration, and
Q̇ = internal gains and heating.
It is a first order equation, requiring a controller of type P (proportional) or PI (propor-
tional integral) [32].
In case of radiators and regulation of the heating with the ventilation, the setpoint of
the two systems must be different.
63. eau d’appoint

64. eau déminéralisée
65. purge de déconcentration
66. eau adoucie
115
Chapter 9.
Heating and Cooling
Most of the systems for cooling 1 and heating 2 work with a network: central-heating
systems 3 , district heating 4 , district cooling 5 , etc. Such networks use the following
components:
— a heat or cool generator 6 to transform the energy in an handling form;
— a heat transfer medium 7 to transport the energy;
— heat of cold emission systems 8 to deliver the energy.
Some local systems are not connected to a network and they transform themselves the
energy.
9.1.1. Heat or cold generators

— a gas boiler 9 ;
— an oil boiler 10 ,
— a wood pellet boiler 11 ,
— a wood chip boiler 12 ,
— a log boiler 13 ,
1. refroidissement
2. chauffage
3. systèmes de chauffage central
4. réseau de chaleur urbain
5. réseau de froid urbain
6. générateur de chaleur ou de froid
7. fluide caloporteur
8. systèmes d’émission de chaleur ou de froid
9. chaudière à gaz
10. chaudière à mazout
11. chaudière à pellets
12. chaudière à plaquettes
13. chaudière à bûches
117
Chapter 9. Heating and Cooling
— an air/air heat pump 14 ,

— an air/water heat pump 15 ,
— a geothermal heat pump 16 ,
— an air-cooled air conditioner 17 ,
— a package unit 18 ,
— a single split system 19 ,
— a multisplit system 20 ,
— a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) system 21 ,
— a chiller 22 ,
— a dry cooler 23 ,
— an open cooling tower 24 ,
— a closed cooling tower 25 , and
— a geocooling 26 .
Boilers
A boiler uses the following components:

— a premix burner 27 ,
— a burner 28 ,
— a heat exchanger 29 ,
— a Venturi 30 ,
— an ignition electrode or ignition element 31 ,
— an ionization electrode 32 ,
— an insulation 33 ,
14. pompe à chaleur air/air

15. pompe à chaleur air/eau, aérothermique
16. pompe à chaleur géothermique
17. pompe à chaleur air/air réversible
18. système monobloc
19. système à deux éléments séparés
20. système multi-split
21. climatisation à débit de réfrigérant variable
22. refroidisseur industriel
23. aérorefroidisseur
24. tour aéroréfrigérante ouverte
25. tour aéroréfrigérante fermée
26. geocooling
27. brûleur à prémélange
28. brûleur
29. échangeur de chaleur
30. venturi
31. électrode d’allumage
32. électrode d’ionisation
33. isolation
118
— a heat shield 34 ,
— an inspection glass 35 ,
— a induced-draft/flue gas fan 36 ,
— a convection blower 37 ,
— a burn put 38 ,
— an ash drawer 39 ,
— a fireplace 40 ,
— a combustion chamber 41 ,
— a lambda probe or lambda sensor 42 ,
— a hot gas temperature sensor 43 ,
— a water extinguisher 44 ,
— a feeding screw 45 ,
— a primary air fan 46 ,
— a secondary air fan 47 ,
— an ash remover 48 ,
— an ash pan 49 , and
— a vent or a chimney 50 .
Heat pump and chiller
A heat pump or a chiller uses the following components:

— a compressor 51 ,
— an evaporator 52 ,
— a condenser 53 , and
34. bouclier tehrmique

35. ragard
36. ventilateur de tirage/des gaz de fumées
37. ventilateur de convection
38. pot de combustion
39. bac à cendres
40. foyer
41. chambre de combustion
42. sonde lambda
43. capteur de température des fumées
44. extincteur à eau
45. vis d’alimentation
46. ventilateur d’air primaire
47. ventilateur d’air secondaire
48. vis de décendrage
49. tirour à cendre
50. évacuation ou cheminée
51. compresseur
52. évaporateur
53. condenseur
119
— a throttling vane 54 .
9.1.2. Heat transfer medium

The following fluids exist:
— the water,
— the steam 55 ,
— the glycoled water 56 , and
— the refrigerant fluid 57 .
The network can use the following components:
— a circulator pump 58 ,
— an expansion tank 59 ,
— an air trap 60 ,
— a check valve 61 ,
— a safety valve 62 ,
— a hydraulic balancing valve 63 ,
— a collecting pipe 64 ,
— a mixing valve 65 ,
— a storage tank 66 , and
— an insulation 67 .
9.1.3. Heat or cold emission systems

— a radiator 68 ,
— a fan coil unit 69 ,
— a floor heating system 70 ,
54. détendeur
55. vapeur
56. eau glycolée
57. fluide frigorigène
58. circulateur
59. vase d’expansion
60. purgeur d’air
61. clapet antithermosiphon
62. soupape de sécurité
63. vanne d’équilibrage hydraulique
64. collecteur
65. vanne mélangeuse
66. ballon de stockage
67. isolation
68. radiateur
69. ventilo-convecteur
70. plancher chauffant
120
— an electric heater 71 ,
— a gas burning radiant heater 72 ,
— an electrically powered radiant heater 73 ,
— an air heater 74 ,
— a destratifier 75 ,
— a chilled beam 76 ,
— a chilled ceiling 77 ,
— an air-conditioner 78 , and
— a climatic cabinet 79 .
9.2.1. Heat or cold emission systems
Each heat emission system generates a temperature profile in the room (see figure 9.1):
the comfort is hence influenced by the chosen technology.
Optimum profile
2, 5
Underfloor heating
Radiator
2
Hauteur [m]
1, 5
0, 5
0
14 16 18 20 22 24
Température [°C]
Figure 9.1. – Temperature profile
71. radiateur électrique

72. radiant à gaz
73. radiant électrique
74. aérotherme
75. déstratificateur
76. poutre froide
77. plafond froid
78. climatiseur
79. armoire de climatisation
121
Radiator
As a radiator is a heat exchanger, and the standard rated thermal output 80 is obtained
for a standard excess temperature 81 of 50 K [33]:
— inlet water temperature 82 of 75 ◦ C,
— outlet water temperature 83 of 65 ◦ C, and
— reference air temperature 84 of 20 ◦ C.
This regime is called 75/65/20.
The standard low temperature thermal output 85 is obtained for a standard excess low
temperature 86 [33]: excess temperature 87 of 30 K at standard flow rate 88 .
Thermal output Q̇ at another excess temperature ∆T is obtained through the standard
characteristic curve 89 [34]: n
∆T
Q̇ = Q̇n · (9.1)
50
where n = exponent of the characteristic equation.
Fan coil unit
The heating is similar to a radiator. For the cooling, the standard regime is 7/12/27
for a relative humidity of 50 % of the room, with a difference between the sensible effect
and the total effect.
Floor heating systems
An underfloor heating is an heat exchanger. Its specific thermal output 90 q is propor-

tional to the temperature difference between heating medium and room 91 ∆ϑH defined
as [35, 36]:
q = KH · ∆ϑH (9.2)
ϑV − ϑR
∆ϑH = (9.3)
ln ϑϑVR −ϑ
−ϑi
i
80. puissance thermique nominale

81. écart de température eau-air nominal
82. température d’entrée d’eau
83. température de sortie d’eau
84. température de référence de l’air
85. puissance thermique nominaleà basse température
86. écart de température eau-air à basse température
87. différence de température
88. débit nominal
89. équation caractéristique nominale
90. émission surfacique
91. écart de température entre le fluide caloporteur et l’air ambiant de la pièce
122
where KH = equivalent heat transfer coefficient 92 ,

ϑV = flow (supply) temperature of heating medium 93 ,
ϑR = return temperature of heating medium 94 , and
ϑi = standard indoor room temperature 95 .
In general case (refer to the standard for particular cases [37]), the dimensioning must
be made so that the maximum floor surface temperature 96 ϑF,max < 29 ◦ C (physiological
limit) with a temperature drop of heating medium 97 σ < 5 K [37].
9.2.2. Heat generators

Boiler
The performance of a boiler is described by its efficiency η, defined as the ratio of the
delivered heat Q̇ to the chemical energy contained in the fuel:
Q̇
η= (9.4)
ṁf · N CV
where ṁf = mass flow rate of fuel, and

N CV = net calorific value 98 .
As the boiler is a heat exchanger, its efficiency depends on the load and on the return
temperature 99 (see figure 9.2). A seasonal boiler efficiency can also be mentioned by the
manufacturer.
Heat pump
The performance of a heat pump is described by its coefficient of performance 100
COP , ratio of the heating capacity Q̇h to the effective power input of the unit Ẇt [38]:
Q̇h
COP = (9.5)
Ẇt
If used for the cooling, its performance is described by its energy efficiency ratio 101
EER, ratio of the total cooling capacity Q̇c to the effective power input of the unit Ẇt
92. coefficient de transmission thermique équivalent
93. température de départ du fluide caloporteur
94. température de retour du fluide caloporteur
95. température ambiante nominale
96. température maximale de la surface du sol
97. chute de température du fluide caloporteur
98. pouvoir calorifique inférieur
99. température de retour
100. coefficient de performance
101. efficacité frigorifique
123
110
Load of 10 %
Load of 40 %
Load of 100 %
105
η [%]
100
20 30 40 50 60 70
Return temperature [◦ C]
Figure 9.2. – Efficiency curves of a condensing boiler
[38]:
Q̇c
EER = (9.6)
Ẇt
Both depends on the temperature of the external environment and the temperature
regime (see figure 9.3). They are measured by following a standard [39]: the test con-
ditions depends on the type of heat pump; therefore they cannot usually be compared.
The seasonal performance factor 102 as defined in standard [40] can be used for such a
comparison: minimum and target values are given [40].
20
Input power for low temperature radiator
Heating capacity for low temperature radiator
Input power for underfloor heating
Heating capacity for underfloor heating
15
Power [kW]
10
0
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
External temperature [◦ C]
Figure 9.3. – Power curves of a heat pump
102. facteur de performance saisonnière
124
9.3. Sizing of a heating system
Heating curve
It can be seen in figure 9.2 and 9.3 that better performances are obtained with a low
temperature of the medium. Section 9.2.1 shows that the power of the locals systems
depends on the difference of temperature between the medium and the heated space:
lower is the temperature difference, lower is the heat.
The heating load (as calculated in section 9.3) is proportional to the temperature
between the room and the external temperature. Therefore, when the external tem-
perature is higher than the external design temperature, the heating load is lower than
the design heat load, allowing to decrease the medium temperature to increase the per-
formances of the central production. This is performed through a heating curve 103 that
changes the supply temperature as a function of the external temperature.

The sizing of a heating system is based on a standard [25, 31]. The national appendix
allows to used a simplified approach summarised here below.
9.3.1. External temperatures

Several external temperatures depend on the location of the building and are given in
the national annex of the standard [31]: the external design temperature 104 , the min-
imum mean temparuatre of the coldest month 105 , and the annual mean temperature 106 .
9.3.2. Description of the spaces

Five types of spaces require to be described:
— heated spaces 107 (design temperature [31], areas, volume, heating-up time, type
of space, heat emission system),
— the external 108 ,
— the ground,
— adjoining building entities 109 (temperature [31]), and
— unheated spaces 110 or neighbouring buildings 111 (temperature).
103. courbe de chauffe
104. température extérieure de base
105. température minimum moyenne du mois le plus froid
106. température moyenne annuelle
107. espaces chauffés
108. extérieur
109. entités de bâtiment adjacentes
110. espaces non chauffés
111. bâtiments voisins
125
The heating-up capacity 112 and the airtightness 113 of the building are also described;
the first one depends on: the building mass 114 , and the setback period 115 .
9.3.3. Description of the building elements

The building elements 116 are described by their heat transfer coefficient, their thermal
bridges and if it is a heating surface.
9.3.4. Description of the ventilation

The ventilation is divided into three types of ventilation:
— a minimum air flow rate 117 for hygiene (type of building [31]),
— an infiltration air flow rate 118 (air exchange rate per hour), and
— a ventilation air flow rate (flow rates and temperatures).
This last one is described room by room (temperatures, flow rates, heat exchanger
efficiency)
9.3.5. Description of the heated spaces

The transmission heat losses are described with the area of the building elements, the
space in contact with this element, and the mean ceiling height.
9.3.6. Design heat load

The design heat load is calculated for the building and for each heated space as the
sum of:
— the transmission heat loss calculated with data of sections 9.3.3 and 9.3.5,
— the ventilation heat loss calculated with data of section 9.3.4, and
— the heating-up capacity required to compensate for the effect of intermittent heat-
ing with data of section 9.3.2.
The waited annual consumption of the system can be evaluated by calculating the
transmission and ventilation heat loss for each hour of a typical year: the obtained load
factor is usually obtained around 2000 h.
112. surpuissance de relance

114. inertie du bâtiment
115. période d’abaissement
116. parois
117. débit d’air minimal
118. débit d’infiltration
126
9.3.7. Choice of the heating generator

The heating generators should cover the design heat load and other heating needs;
some of them are particular cases:
— domestic hot water: calculation by accumulation or for an instantaneous produc-
tion by following a standard [41, 42];
— hot water loop: a hot water loop has its own heat loss.
Case of a boiler
For a boiler, the choice of the number of heating can be made by following a standard
[43]:
— 1 for a heating load lower than 200 kW;
— 2 for a heating load from 200 kW to 600 kW;
— 3 for a heating load larger than 600 kW.
The oversizing is also described in the standard.
The room containing the boiler should be sufficiently vented to bring enough com-
bustion air, to evacuate pollutants and to avoid the overheating. Two standards can be
applied [44–46].
Case of a heat pump
Building heat load

Power curve of the heat pump
Power
−15 −10 −5 0 5 10 15 20
External temperature [◦ C]
Figure 9.4. – Balance point temperature of a bivalent mode
Several types of installation can be designed with a heat pump (see figure 9.4) [40]:
— monovalent mode 119 : operational mode in which the heat pump is designed to
cover the entire heat demand of the heating system (this type of installation is
designed as a boiler);
119. régime monoénergie
127
— bivalent-alternative mode 120 : operational mode in which an second heat generator

completely accounts for the heat demand of the heating systems if the external
temperature falls below the balance point temperature 121 ; and
— bivalent-parallel mode 122 : operational mode in which an second heat generator
accounts for the remaining heat demand of the heating system, which cannot be
supplied by the heat pump when the external temperature falls below the balance
point temperature.
The amount of energy produced by both bivalent modes are different (see figure 9.5).
100
Bivalent-parallel mode
Ratio of energy given by the heat pump [%]
Bivalent-alternative mode
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ratio of the power of the heat pump to the design heat load [%]
Figure 9.5. – Ratio of energy given by the heat pump as a function of the ratio of its
power to the design heat load
For a bivalent-parallel mode, the balance point temperature is obtained when the
heating power of the heat pump is equal to the heat load of the building (see figure 9.4).
For a bivalent-alternative mode, the balance point temperature can be defined by several
considerations:
— The heating curve is defined so that the heat pump cannot deliver the required
temperature for the medium below the balance point temperature.
— The coefficient of performance becomes so bad that it is not economically inter-
esting to run the heat pump.
— The coefficient of performance becomes so bad that the required seasonal perform-
ance factor is not reached [40].
120. régime alternatif-biénergie

121. température d’équilibre
122. régime parallèle-biénergie
128
9.4. Sizing of a cooling system
9.3.8. Heating elements

The heating elements 123 must be chosen to optimise the operation of the heating
generator: for example, lower the medium temperature, better coefficient of performance
of the heat pump or more condensation is obtained for a condensing boiler. The following
rule of thumb applies:
— floor heating systems for well insulated buildings,
— air handling units for airtight buildings,
— destratifier for tall rooms,
— air doors 124 for the accesses,
— radiant heaters for workshops or production halls,
— air heaters for industrial environments.
Many details for the design of the whole systems are given in standards and literature
[47].
9.4. Sizing of a cooling system

The sizing of a cooling system can be based on several methods [48, 49]. Only the
radiant time series (RTS) method is presented here [48].
9.4.1. Outdoor design conditions

The outdoor design conditions are described through a clear-sky solar radiation and
a daily temperature profile.
The first one is obtained by transforming the extraterrestrial radiant flux into clear-
sky solar radiation (beam and diffuse components). This result can be transposed for
any receiving surface by calculating the solar angles related to this surface: they allow
to calculated the beam, diffuse and ground-reflected components.
The daily temperature profile is a sequence of 24 temperatures (dry- and wet-bulb)
describing a hot day of the month. The monthly design dry-bulb temperature and the
mean coincident wet-bulb temperature are combined respectively to the mean coincident
daily dry-bulb temperature range and the mean coincident wet-bulb range to generate a
profile through a normalised temperature profile in fractions of daily temperature range.
For the wet-bulb, the saturation limits the profile. The RTS method assumes that this
profile repeats everyday (steady-periodic conditions).
123. corps de chauffe

124. rideaux d’air
129
9.4.2. Description of the building

All the surfaces must be described by their dimensions and composition. This com-
position allows to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient. Moreover, it allows to
calculate conduction time factors (combined in a conduction time series, CTS), that re-
flect the percentage of an earlier heat gain at the exterior of a wall or roof that becomes
heat fain indoors during the current hour: they take account of the thermal inertia of
the wall.
Likewise, an internal surface needs some time to transform radiant heat into convec-
tion: the radiant time factors (combined in a radiation time series, RTS) reflect the
percentage of an earlier radiant heat gain that becomes a cooling load during the cur-
rent hour. The solar radiant time series is applied to the floor for direct solar heat gain
(transmitted through the window), and the nonsolar radiant time series is applied for
all other types of radiant heat gain, assumed as uniformly distributed on all internal
surfaces.
9.4.3. Description of the heat gain for exterior surfaces

The solar intensities for each hour and for each exterior surface are used to calculate
the transmitted solar heat gain for each hour and each window, as well as the diffuse
solar heat gain for each hour and each window by applying the RTS. The conductive
heat gain for each hour and for each window is obtained through an usual calculation.
The solar intensities for each hour for each exterior surface are used to calculate
the sol-air temperature for each hour for each exterior surface: this one is defined as
the outdoor air temperature that, in the absence of all radiation changes, gives the
same rate of heat entry into the surface as would the combination of incident solar
radiation, radiant energy exchange with the sky and other outdoor surroundings, and
convective heat exchange with outdoor air. This one is then combined with the wall/roof
conduction time series to calculate the conductive heat gain for each hour and for each
non-transparent exterior surface.
For floors directly in contact with the ground or over an underground basement that
is neither ventilated nor conditioned, sensible heat transfer may be neglected for cooling
load estimates.
For an adjacent space with a different temperature, the heat transfer is obtained
through an usual calculation.
9.4.4. Description of the other gains

Three types of heat gain must be described through a 24 h profile:
— lighting heat gains;
— occupant heat gains;
— equipment heat gains.
130
9.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a heating system
9.4.5. Calculation of the hourly cooling loads

All the gains previously obtained must be split into radiant and convective portions
to apply the solar or nonsolar radiant series to the radiant portion.
The hourly cooling loads are the summation of the convective portions for each hour,
of the infiltration heat gains, and of the radiant heat gains processed through the RTS.
The maximum obtained during the day is the design cooling load.
This maximum is obtained for each room and for the whole building. So either the
local systems and the cooling generator can be chosen if applicable.
The latent heat must be taken into account for this calculation only if a recirculation
or a dehumidification can occur.
9.5. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a

heating system
9.5.1. Heating curve
As explained in section 9.2.2, the temperature of the medium should be as low as
possible. For the design, it is obtained with a sizing of the local systems allowing to run
with a low temperature. During the heating season, it is obtained with a heating curve.
9.5.2. Heat storage

For heat pumps, the numbers of starts per hour are limited if no inverter is implemen-
ted; for wood boilers, the inertia limits also the numbers of starts. So a heat storage is
required to fill the demand during off periods.
9.5.3. Condensing boilers

Condensing boilers generate condensation. This condensation requires a connection
to the sewer.
9.5.4. Thermal dilatation

The medium expands because of the temperature changes; it could induce a variation
of pressure in a closed network (as explained in section 1.4.5). An expansion tank is
introduced to absorb the volume variation.
9.5.5. Degassing
Air is dissolved in the water. With the increase of temperature, it can generate bubbles
and stay at high points of the network (as explained in section 1.4.1). So air traps are
131
required at these locations.
9.5.6. Freezing
When the building is unoccupied, the temperature should stay above 0 ◦ C to avoid
any pipe freezing. This is obtained with a minimum temperature for the heating. The
use of glycol can also solve this problem.
9.5.7. Hydraulic balancing

The hydraulic balancing is explained in section 1.4.4.
9.5.8. Monitoring
The monitoring of the heating consumption is usually performed through the heating
degree days 125 .
The heat loads of a building are:
— the transmission heat loss A · U · ∆T ;
— the solar gain Q̇s ;
— the internal loads Q̇occ ;
— the heating load Q̇H ;
— the ventilation load Ċ · ∆T .
For steady state operation, the following balance is obtained:
(9.7)
X
Q̇H + Q̇S + Q̇occ = A · U · ∆T + Ċ · ∆T
One can define the outdoor temperature for no heating 126 TN H as the external tem-
perature that requires no heating or cooling (i. e. for Q̇H + Q̇S = 0):
Q̇occ Q̇occ
TN H = Tin − P = Tin − (9.8)
A · U + Ċ K
The temperature without heating 127 TW H is defined as the temperature obtained in the
unoccupied building without any heating (i. e. for Q̇H + Q̇occ = 0):
Q̇S
TW H = Tout + (9.9)
K
125. degrés-jours de chauffage
126. température de non chauffage
127. température sans chauffage
132
9.6. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a cooling system
The difference between these two temperatures is a picture of the load:
Q̇H = K · (TN H − TW H ) (9.10)
The integration is a picture of the energy consumption:

Z Z
(9.11)
X
Q = Q̇H dt = K · (TN H − TW H ) dt ≈ K · ∆T · ∆t
To facilitate this comparison, the integration is replaced by the heating degree days,
measured by weather stations. The energy consumption should hence be proportional
to the heating degree days of the concerned period.
9.6. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of a

cooling system
9.6.1. Thermal shock
In case of heatwave, a set point drift 128 of the temperature must be implemented to
avoid any thermal shock for any incoming or outgoing people.
9.6.2. Limit to the number of starts

Machines performing mechanical vapour compression have a limit to the number of
starts to avoid any failure of the electrical motor. Furthermore, some minutes are re-
quired to obtain the target performances. Moreover, when no inverter is integrated, the
operation at partial load can generate bad performances. For all these reasons, a buffer
storage 129 must be integrated.
9.6.3. Condensation
If air is humid enough, condensation can occur on the heat exchanger. It must be
removed by a connection to the sewer.
9.6.4. Refrigerant fluid

The refrigerant fluid 130 is essential for the good operation of a conditioner. So a
control of the amount of fluid must be made to compensate and repair any leak.
128. dérive
129. ballon tampon
130. fluide frigorigène
133
9.6.5. Negative temperature

If the network use negative temperature, water cannot be used as coolant 131 . One
uses then usually glycoled water 132 . It decreases the specific heat and the diameter of
the ducts must be increased.
9.6.6. Icing of the evaporator

In case of use of an evaporator (for example in a cold room), the condensation can
freeze in the evaporator. The heat exchanger can be defrosted with an electrical resist-
ance placed on the evaporator, or with a four-way valve that transforms the evaporator
into a condenser during some minutes.
It can also freeze the water inside a coil: introducing a recirculation or a heat exchanger
increases the temperature of the fresh air, avoiding this phenomenon.
131. fluide frigoporteur

132. eau glycolée
134
Chapter 10.
Cogeneration
10.1. Type of systems
The following combined heat and power systems 1 can be met:
— steam turbine 2 :
— back pressure steam turbine 3 ,
— condensing steam turbine with bleeding 4 ,
— gas turbine 5 , with or without afterburning 6 ,
— combined cycle gas turbine 7 ,
— internal combustion engine 8 ,
— Stirling engine 9 ,
— organic Rankine cycle 10 , and
— fuel cell 11 .
They can use the following systems to prepare their fuel:
— a gasifier 12 ,
— a digester 13 , or
— a reformer 14 .
They can use the following systems to prepare provide cooling:
— a conventional chiller 15 , or
1. cogénérations
2. turbine à vapeur
3. turbine à vapeur à contrepression
4. turbine à vapeur à soutirage
5. turbine à gaz
6. postcombustion
7. centrale à cycle combiné
8. moteur à combustion interne
9. moteur Stirling
10. cycle organique de Rankine
11. pile à combustible
12. gazéificateur
13. digesteur
14. reformer
15. groupe frigorifique à compression mécanique de vapeur
135
Chapter 10. Cogeneration
— an absorption chiller 16 .
10.2.1. Sankey diagram
As shown in figure 10.1, the primary energy consumed by a combined heat and power
(CHP) is decreased compared to distinct systems: because of the Carnot limit and the
irreversibilities occurring during power cycles, their efficiency is low and they reject a
large part of heat. This heat can be partly recovered in case of a cogeneration. It induces
that:
— the electricity consumption of the site is decreased;
— the fuel consumption of the site is increased;
— the investment in a cogeneration is made profitable by the difference of the price
between heat and electricity, as the overall efficiency of the cogeneration is close
to 100 %;
— the primary energy consumed by the country decreases;
— the heat and electricity consumption must occur simultaneously;
— by consequence, the needs must be covered by a backup when it is required.
10.2.2. Fuels
Any type of cogeneration cannot run with any fuel. Table 10.1 shows which technology
can run with a specified fuel.
10.2.3. Other data

Each technology offers a range of characteristics described by:
— the electrical power (see figure 10.2),
— the thermal power,
— the ratio between heat and power (see figure 10.3),
— the delivered temperature of the heat (see figure 10.4), and
— the electrical, thermal and global yields (see figure 10.5); the global yield ηCHP is
defined as:
Q̇ + Ẇel
ηCHP = (10.1)
ṁf · N CV
where Q̇ = heat power,
Ẇel = electrical power
ṁf = mass flow rate of fuel, and
N CV = net calorific value.
16. groupe à absorption
136
Losses:
5.9
High efficiency
Heat: boiler:
53 58.9
Primary energy
Cogeneration:
of the cogeneration: Primary energy of
100
100 distinct systems:
122.5
Electricity:
35
Combined cycle
gas turbine:
63.6
Losses:
12
Losses:
28.6
Figure 10.1. – Primary energy saving with a cogeneration
137
Gas Fuel oil Wood Biogas Syngas Hydrogen Vegetable oil
Internal combustion engine x x x x (x) x
Gas turbine x x
Steam turbine x x x
Stirling engine x x
Organic Rankine cycle x x x
Fuel cell x (x) (x) x
Table 10.1. – Fuels for cogeneration
138
Internal combustion engine
Gas turbine
Steam turbine
Stirling engine
Organic Rankine cycle
Fuel cell
100 W 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW

Power
Figure 10.2. – Range of electrical power of several types of cogeneration [50, 51]
Gas turbine
Steam turbine
Stirling engine
Fuel cell
0 2 4 6 8
Ratio between heat and power
Figure 10.3. – Ratio of heat and power of several types of cogeneration
139
Gas turbine
Steam turbine
Stirling engine
Fuel cell
100 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature [◦ C]
Figure 10.4. – Range of delivered temperature of the heat for several types of cogener-
ation
Gas turbine
Steam turbine
Stirling engine
Fuel cell
0 20 40 60 80 100
Yield [%]
Figure 10.5. – Range of electrical (red) and global (blue) yields of several types of co-
generation [50, 51]
140
10.3. Sizing
10.3. Sizing
The first step is to obtain the profile of electricity and heat consumption over at least
one year. They can be obtained through measurements or simulation (see figure 10.6).
30
20
Power [kW]
10
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time [h]
Figure 10.6. – Heat profile over one year
The investment into a cogeneration is usually profitable when the cogeneration runs
enough at full charge over the year: usually 5000 h to 6000 h (typical load factor for
fossil fuels). Indeed, the incomes depend on the energy released, which is the product
between the time and the power. To find this power easily, the power of heat and
electricity are sorted into monotonous curves (see figure 10.7). It gives two results: one
of the electricity and one for the heat.
30
20
Power[kW]
10
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time [h]
Figure 10.7. – Monotonous curve of the power of figure 10.6
141
The next step is to choose the technology. Several considerations should be taken into
account, like the availability of the chosen fuel, the required temperature for the heat or
the range of power.
When comparing the results previously obtained for the heat and the power required
during 75 % of the year for the considered site with the ratio between heat and power of
the chosen technology, a limit occurs. It can be:
— the heat required by the site induces, for that technology, that the cogeneration
produces less electricity than the amount that the site could consume; as the heat
cannot be easily transported, the electrical power of the cogeneration is reduced
to corresponds to this limit.
— the electricity required by the site induces, for that technology, that the cogener-
ation produces less heat than the amount that the site could consume:
— the heat power of the cogeneration can be reduced to corresponds to this limit;
— if the excess production of electricity can be re-injected onto the grid with
interesting financial conditions then the electrical power of the cogeneration
can be increased to correspond to the limit of the heat.
Once this choice performed, it can be improved by a simulation hour by hour to
determine the size of a heat storage: this one allows to meet some heating needs lower
that the nominal power without running at partial load. It verifies also the simultaneity
of the needs.
After that, the auxiliary boiler 17 can be sized by taking into account that it works
also the back up.
Some particular cases can be mentioned:
— The rule of thumb of 5000 h to 6000 h should not be respected for a fuel which
is not fossil (waste, wood, biogas): in this case, the difference of price with the
electricity is larger and this running time at full charge can be decreased.
— If the electrical connection does not allow to feed electricity to the grid, a storage
of the electricity should be designed.
— In case of a trigeneration, the power of the limiting energy can be increased:
— A refrigerating machine compressing mechanically the vapour increases the
electricity consumption.
— A refrigerating machine compressing thermally the vapour increases the heat
consumption.
In any case, it adds a third monotonous curve.
17. chaudière d’appoint
142
10.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of an internal combustion engine
10.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient functioning of

an internal combustion engine
10.4.1. Cooling
In case of the engine, heat is recovered from its cooling. Back-up air coolers must be
provided to prevent any damage due to a failure of the heat consumers.
10.4.2. Regulation of the needs

A change of the heating needs should be absorbed through a heat storage or a mixing
bottle to prevent any variation of the cooling flow of the engine.
10.4.3. Cold return

A too cold return temperature can damage the engine. A return temperature raising 18
can be obtained with a mixing valve.
10.4.4. Exhaust gas

The exhaust gas must be removed in an efficient way: usually, in ducts in stainless
steel, with eventually a muffler.
10.4.5. Room ventilation

The local must be vented or bring enough air for the combustion and to cool the room.
18. rehausse de la température de retour
143
Appendices
xiii
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École d'Ingénieurs

1.5.6. Control of a rotodynamic pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2. Compressors, Fans and Blowers 37

4.2.2. Turbine performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

II. Building Envelope and Technical Installations 79

7.1.2. Construction details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

8. Ventilation and Air Conditioning 103

8.5.10. Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

9. Heating and Cooling 117

Rapport de bureau d’études

— reconnaître deux éléments de l’équipement, choisis par l’enseignant,

12. turbomachine de détente

1.1. Types of machines

1.1.1. Positive displacement pumps

— external gear pump 15 ,

A piston pump uses the following components:

15. pompe à engrenage extérieur

— the inlet check valve 35 ,

35. soupape ou clapet d’aspiration

A gear pump uses the following components:

— the axial disc 78 ,

Pump with a rotor with a constant and special shape

78. disque axial

— a single mechanical seal 97 with or without flushing 98 , back-to-back or tandem

Rotary vane pump

Pump without sealing

97. garniture mécanique simple

1.1.2. Rotodynamic pumps

— the balancing chamber 135 ,

An axial-flow pump uses the following components:

135. chambre d’équilibre

1.2.1. Positive displacement pumps

The mechanical power is thus:

figures 1.1 and 1.2:

1.2.2. Rotodynamic pumps

H = f (V̇ ) Ẇt = f (V̇ ) η = f (V̇ ) (1.8)

(a) Power Ẇt for V = 4 cm3/rev

(b) Torque M for V = 4 cm3/rev

(a) Head curve (b) Power curve

(c) Efficiency curve (d) Net pressure suction head required

Figure 1.3. – Characteristic curves of a rotodynamic pump at a constant rotation speed

With equation 1.10, one knows that:

Figure 1.4. – Speed affinity law for a pump

1.3. Design of a fluid circuit

— open or closed circuit;

1.3.2. Study of the circuit

162. pertes de charge régulières

Figure 1.5. – Process flow diagram of a pump

1.3.3. Choice of the pump

Positive displacement pump

167. vitesse spécifique

N P SHa > N P SHr (1.20)

where N P SHa = available net positive suction head 169 , and

Special case: series association

Special case: parallel association

The connection in parallel is characterised by the following relationships:

The characteristic curve is obtained by adding horizontally the characteristic curve of

1.4. Actions to be taken for an efficient circuit design

170. amortisseur de pulsation

1.4.3. Water hammer

Figure 1.6. – Piece of duct

— the pressing force upstream: p · A

— by smoothly opening the delivery valve 179 ;

1.4.4. Hydraulic balancing [2]