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Managing Technologies, Information Resources and Operations

 An IT architecture - is a blueprint.
 An IT infrastructure is the implementation of an architecture.
 Includes the software, databases, electronic links, and data centres etc.
Managing Essential technologies
1. Managing Distributed Systems
Distributed Systems - Is a collection of independent computers that appear to the users of the
system as a single system. Components located at networked computers communicate and
coordinate their actions only by passing messages.

It is a collection of autonomous/independent computers linked by a computer network and

equipped with distributed system software.
 Enables computers to coordinate their activities and to share resources of systems
(HW, SW, data).
Why distributed systems these days?
- Nowadays, microprocessors are powerful and again cheap.
- Continuing advances in communication technology
A distributed processing: it is the ability for more than one interconnected processor to be
operating at the same time, typically for processing an application on more than one
computer. The goal in DP is to move the appropriate processing as close to the user as
possible and to let other machines handle the work they do best.
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It permits interoperability (i.e. information exchange in standard ways) without requiring

changes in functionality or physical intervention.
Characteristics of distributed systems
 Resource Sharing – ability to share any HW, SW or data anywhere in the system
 Concurrency of components – two or more events happening or existing at the same time
 Openness – concerned with extensions and improvements of distributed systems
 Scalability – increase the scale of the system
 Fault tolerance – cares the reliability of the system
 Transparency – hides the complexity of DSs to the users and application programs
 Independent failures of components
2. Managing telecommunications and Networks
Telecommunications is all about connecting.
The three roles of IS with respect to telecommunications
 Create the network/telecom design
 Run it (i.e., infrastructure) and
 Stay close to the forefront of the field.
3. Managing Information Resources
The job of managing information resources is widening significantly. IS departments must
get corporate data in shape. IS department must also create and build an infrastructure for
managing the full range of information types. In some ways internet helps companies and
individuals to store info, on the other hand internet contributes extremely to info flood.
4. Managing Operations
System operations must professionally run (and backed up properly) because a company
could suffer a computer and network crash that could shut down its business for some period
of time. Thus computer operations require daily attention due to internet, mergers, e-
commerce, attacks on nets and etc.
The main change in operations is a shift in view point: Shifting from managing inward to
managing outward on all fronts.
Traditionally, managing operations meant managing inward; that is, managing one’s own
operations staff, including those who work in the data centre, data administration, network
administration, and programming.
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Today, managing operations is just as likely to mean managing outward; that is, managing
the company’s relationships with IT service providers who have taken over the day-to-day
operational work.

Major operational issues:

 Outsourcing IS functions;
 Planning for Business continuity; and
 Information Security in the Internet age.
Information System Development: Leadership Perspective

What is Project?
Google Defn: A project is defined as a specific, finite activity that produces an
observable and measurable result under certain present requirements. A Project is a
temporary, unique and progressive attempt or endeavour made to produce some kind of a
tangible or intangible result (a unique product, service, benefit, competitive advantage, etc.).
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It usually includes a series of interrelated tasks that are planned for execution over a fixed
period of time and within certain requirements and limitations such as cost, quality,
performance, others.
Lemmas Defn: A project is a temporary endeavour undertaken to accomplish a unique
product or service.
IT/IS projects refers to projects involving hardware, software, and networks. Creating new
system or upgrading existing one.
Examples of IT/IS projects: Examples of an IT project include web development, SW
development, mobile app development, network configuration, SW implementation, HW
installation, DB management, and IT emergency recovery.
RA1: Leading an information systems development project is a challenging task.
Agree/Disagree?
Agree: There are five key management challenges in building and using information
systems:
1. Designing systems that are competitive and efficient;
2. Understanding the system requirements of a global business environment;
3. Creating an information architecture that supports the organization's goals;
4. Determining the business value of information systems; and
5. Designing systems that people can control, understand, and use in a socially and
ethically responsible manner.
Why do information system development projects fail?
According to the analysis, the top five factors causing failure are
 Underestimated timeline
 Weak definitions of requirements and scope
 Inadequate project risk analysis
 Incorrect assumptions regarding risk analysis and
 Ambiguous business needs and unclear vision' (Yeo, 2002: 245).
RA2: Define IS/IT project success
Traditional definition of IT project success is ‘the project met scope, time, and cost goals.
Nowadays IT project success is all about value centric rather than product centric.
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What makes an IT project successful?

Successful projects are those that
1. Meet business requirements
2. Are delivered and maintained on schedule -time
3. Are delivered and maintained within budget, and
4. Deliver the expected business value and return on investment.
What is the most common reason IT projects fail? Unclear Requirements
One of the most common reasons software projects fail is unclear requirements and the lack
of a detailed explanation. Very often clients themselves are not sure exactly what they want
to see, and as a result, the project cannot move forward.
IS Project Critical Success Factors:
1. Clear scope - Clear Requirements and Specification
- Requirements are critical for scoping, defining, estimating, and managing the
project.
- The true goal of requirements engineering is not to create documentation; it is
to convey ideas from project stakeholders to developers.
2. Proper planning – realistic budget and schedule, realistic means faithful, accurate…
3. User/client involvement – effective communication and feedback
4. Skilled and sufficient staff – Committed and motivated staffs
Here sometimes teams dysfunction. Dysfunction means abnormality or impairment in the
operation of a team.
RA3: Possible reasons why teams dysfunction?
1) Absence of trust – Fearing to be vulnerable. Protecting one’s sense of invulnerability,
individuals don’t let the team develop, engage in meaningful work conflict, and reach
better outcomes. Leaders who don’t model humility, or refuse to admit what they
don’t know, generally don’t engender trust among their team members.
2) Fear of conflict - Trust enables healthy conflict. Teams that establish a baseline of
trust can engage in conflict because they assume positive intent—they understand
each other, and that everyone is working toward and supporting the same team goals.
Hesitate to voice opinions and concerns
3) Lack of commitment - The lack of clarity and/or buy-in prevents team members from
making decisions they stick to.
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4) Avoidance of accountability - an inattention to accountability—that is, no one

determines who’s accountable for a task, and therefore no one is held to it.
5) Inattention to results – The pursuit of individual goals and personal status erodes the
team's focus on collective success.

5. Effective project management skills

Unique nature of projects
 Unique purpose: delivering a product or services
 Temporary: a defined start and end time
 Requires resource, often from various areas: any combination of time, funds, talent,
knowledge, services, personnel, space, facilities, equipment, materials, and so on
 Should have a primary sponsor and/or customer
 Involves uncertainty
Project management
 The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities in
order to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and expectations from a project.
 Focus on how to ensure project success through optimal/best use of resources.
Constraints of project
 Projects executed under multiple constraints. The most commonly cited constraints
are: Scope, schedule, quality, budget, resource, and risk. (PMBOK 5th ed.)
 The prime role of project manager is to balance these competing goals.
Project management frameworks
The FW has 10 knowledge areas, including stakeholders management w/c identified recently.
1. Project scope management
 Includes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work
required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
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 It is a process that helps in determining and documenting the list of all the
project goals, tasks, deliverables, deadlines, and budgets as a part of the
planning process. (Google)
 Managing the project scope is primarily concerned with defining and controlling
what is and is not included in the project.
2. Project time management
 Includes the processes required to manage the timely completion of the project.
 Involves analysing and developing a schedule and timeline for project
completion. (Google)
 Refers to a component of overall project management in which a timeline is analysed
and developed for the completion of a project or deliverable. (Google)
3. Project cost management
 Includes the processes involved in planning, estimating, budgeting, financing,
funding, managing, and controlling costs so that the project can be completed within
the approved budget.
 It is the process of planning, estimating, budgeting, and controlling project
costs.(Google)
4. Project quality management
 Includes the processes and activities of the performing organization that determine
quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the
needs for which it was undertaken
 Includes creating and following policies and procedures in order to ensure that a
project meets the defined needs it was intended to meet from the customer’s
perspective. (Google)
 It is the process through which quality is managed and maintained throughout a
project. It is ensuring quality consistency throughout a project. (Google)
5. Project HR Management
 Concerned with organizing, managing, and leading a project team.
 Making the most effective use of the people involved with a project.
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6. Project Communications Management

 Includes the processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation,
collection, distribution, storage, retrieval, and ultimate disposition of project
information.
 It is a collection of processes that help make sure the right messages are sent,
received, and understood by the right people.
7. Project Risk management
 Project risk management is the process that project managers use to manage potential
risks that may affect a project in any way, both positively and negatively. The goal is
to minimise the impact of these risks.
 Risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative
effect on one or more of the project objectives such as scope, schedule, cost, and
quality.
 It is a task of:
 Identifying and assessing risks, and then
 Planning and implementing risk responses.
8. Project procurement management
 Processes necessary to purchase or acquire products, services, or results needed from
outside the project team.
 The organization can be either the buyer or seller of the products, services, or results
of a project.
 Project procurement management is the creation and maintenance of relationships
with external resources needed to complete a project. A project procurement manager
communicates with vendors to buy, rent or contract products and services needed to
achieve project objectives.
9. Project stakeholders management
Stakeholders are individuals who get impacted by the project. A stakeholder can be a
supporter and a resistor.
PSHM includes the processes required to:
 Identify the people, groups, or organizations that could impact or be impacted by the
project,
 Analyse stakeholder expectations and their impact on the project, and
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 Develop appropriate management strategies for effectively engaging stakeholders in

project decisions and execution.
 Focuses on continuous communication with stakeholders.
It is a process that consists in managing the expectations and requirements of all the internal
and external stakeholders that are involved with a project.
10. Project Integration Management
 Includes processes and activities needed to identify, define, combine, unify, and
coordinate various processes and project management activities within project
management process groups.
 It is the coordination of all elements of a project. This includes coordinating tasks,
resources, stakeholders, and any other project elements. (Google)
 Project integration management is a project management knowledge area that helps
teams work together more seamlessly.
 Integration management takes various processes, systems, and methodologies and
brings them together to form a cohesive strategy.

Pareto principle (80/20 Rule)

- By doing 20% of the work you can generate 80% of the benefit of doing the entire job
- Vilfredo Pareto specifies that 80% of consequences come from 20% of the causes,
asserting an unequal relationship between inputs and outputs.
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- This principle serves as a general reminder that the relationship between inputs and
outputs is not balanced. The Pareto Principle is also known as the Pareto Rule or the
80/20 Rule.
- In business, a goal of the 80-20 rule is to identify inputs that are potentially the most
productive and make them the priority. For instance, once managers identify factors
that are critical to their company's success, they should give those factors the most
focus.
- The 80-20 rule maintains that 80% of outcomes (outputs) come from 20% of causes
(inputs).
- In the 80-20 rule, you prioritize the 20% of factors that will produce the best results.
- A principle of the 80-20 rule is to identify an entity's best assets and use them
efficiently to create maximum value.
 Ex: 20 percent of software bugs cause 80 percent of the software’s failures.
 20 percent of employees produce 80 percent of a company’s results.

Software Development Myths (false beliefs)

 Common beliefs or myths that software managers, customers, and developers believe
falsely. That’s Myths are ―misleading attitudes that have caused serious problems.''
1. Software Management Myths: Managers think that
i. When schedules slip, just add more people – This solution seems intuitive: that’s
if there is too much work for the current project team, just enlarge it.
This misleading attitudes causes the following issues
 Increasing team size increases communication overhead.
 New workers must learn project details taking up the time of those who are
already immersed in the project.
 Also, a larger team has many more communication links, which slows progress.
 Adding people to a late project makes it later.
 Adding more people can also lead to more confusion.
ii. We have all the standards and procedures available for software development
2. Software Customer Myths: They think that:
i. Customers/users of the SW often vastly underestimate the difficulty of developing
software.
 Change is easily accommodated, since software is flexible.
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o Software can certainly be changed, but often changes after release can require
an enormous amount of labour.
3. Developer Myths – their myths: You can't assess software quality until the program is
running.
 There are static ways to evaluate quality without running a program.
 Software reviews can effectively determine the quality of requirements
documents, design documents, test plans, and code.
Solutions for SW Management Myths
A. Development problems can be solved by developing and documenting standards.
 Standards have been developed by companies and standards organizations. They
can be very useful. However, they are frequently ignored by developers because
they are incomplete, and sometimes incomprehensible.
B. Development problems can be solved by using state-of-the art tools.
 Tools may help, but there is no magic. Problem solving requires more than tools,
it requires great understanding. There is no silver bullet to eliminate the software
development problems.
Solution for SW Customer Myths
A. A general statement of need is sufficient to start coding
 For developers to have a chance to satisfy the customers’ requirements, they need
detailed descriptions of these requirements. Developers cannot read the minds of
customers.
Solution for SW developer myths: their myth - The job is done when the code is delivered.
A. Commercially successful software may be used for decades. Thus:
 Developers must continually maintain such software: They have to add features
and repair bugs.
 Maintenance costs predominate over all other costs; maintenance may be 70% of
the development costs.
Their other myth: Project success depends solely on the quality of the delivered program.
However:
 Documentation and software configuration information is very important to the quality.
 After functionality, maintainability is of critical importance.
 Developers must maintain the software and they need good design documents, test data,
etc. to do their job.