NOTES ON ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP)

Compiled by Dr. Raymund B. Gemora, Course Facilitator

The Role of English in the 21st Century

Arthur C. Clarke

I don't think that we English can take much credit for the fact that our language has become the chief medium of
international communication. It merely proves that we were the world's most successful pirates, and beat out all the
others. It's pure luck that we aren't speaking French, Spanish or Dutch right now. It's very bad luck that we aren't all
speaking Latin, but you can blame Luther and Henry VIII for that.

I'm not quite sure whether it's good or bad luck that our biggest colony, after it threw us out, stuck to English more
or less as its official language. Though even so it's now rapidly switching to Spanish in some of its major cities, like
Miami and New York…

However and I feel rather sad about this spoken English may become less and less important in the future, with the
explosive development of communications networks and computerised data banks. Well before the 21st century
only 15 years away the information revolution made possible by the ubiquitous microchip will have transformed
our lives. Already it is possible for anyone sitting at a video display unit to gain access to gigantic electronic
libraries, and to request automatic searches for any specific subject.

The other day I came across the case of a scholar who'd spent his entire working life prowling along the dusty
shelves of the British Museum Library, digging out all the references to some obscure subject like Attila the Hun's
laundry lists, or Gladstone's winning poker hands. When the electronic index was available, the search was
repeated. In fifteen minutes, the computer had located twice as many references as the poor scholar had found in
his whole lifetime.

There are now thousands of electronic data banks in existence, covering every field of human knowledge. Indeed
it's difficult to see how some professions like Law and Medicine can possibly continue to function without
computerised storage and search facilities. I've not seen the statistics, but I strongly suspect that most of the
megabytes entered every day maybe every hour will be coded in English. This alone may determine the linguistic
pattern of the next century.

At the moment, these data banks are only accessible through the telephone system, and hence at considerable
expense when intercontinental connections are involved. But the cost will decrease rapidly as global
communications develop; anyone in the United States can already operate independently of the telephone system,
using only a computer and a satellite dish about two feet in diameter.

For many years I've been talking about electronic educators the successors to the pocket calculator. The first
primitive versions are now coming on the market, and these new instrumentalities for want of a better word do not
concern only specialists. Soon everyone will be using these for such humdrum activities as looking up flight
schedules and movie times, announcing births, weddings and deaths, checking facts from encyclopaedias and
Who's Who (which will always be up to date) and exchanging instantaneous electronic mail. This sort of thing will
require the ability to read English, and to type or rather keystroke it accurately. Spoken English may become less
essential.

But it will always be highly desirable, and let me close with a story from the early days of the telephone. It's a
famous legend in the prehistory of the Bell System.

1|P age
A linesman had just installed the first telephone ever seen in a remote area of New Jersey, and when he'd finished, a
farmer came up to him and asked anxiously, 'Can I talk through it in Italian?'

The linesman looked at him with annoyance. 'You should have asked me that before', he said. 'Now I'll have to put
in a third wire and it will cost you another fifty bucks'.

I think the lesson is obvious. If you know English, you won't have to pay extra.

Learning 21st Century Skills in English

Technology is changing our world. Routine knowledge and skills are being automated, digitised and outsourced.
Universities, governments and businesses from around the world have worked together to understand the skills that
learners will need to succeed in the 21st century.

Collaboration
Learning how to work effectively and respectfully with other people is an important life skill. Collaborative
activities are also excellent for English language learners because they encourage speaking and listening skills.

Learning tip
Put books, chairs and other objects in places where people might bump into them. Choose one student to walk
through the obstacle course while blindfolded.

Ask another student to guide them through the obstacle course, by saying directions in English (e.g. left, right, stop,
take one step back).

Responsibility
Responsibility is about encouraging learners to make a difference to the world in which they live. They learn that
they can inspire and motivate others when they lead by example.

Learning tip
Ask your student to be responsible for teaching another student some English. For example, this might involve
teaching them three new English words a day and testing them at the end of each week.
This is a great activity for language learners. Teaching someone else is one of the best ways to learn.

Critical thinking
Critical thinking is about having logical reasons and evidence for your conclusions. It is an important skill in
academic subjects and for everyday decision-making.

Learning tip for 5–12 year olds

Look at some pictures together. For example, here‘s a picture called At the doctor’s. Try using a mixture of closed
questions, which assess quick facts (e.g. Where is the doctor?), and open questions, which assess reasoning (e.g.
Why do you think the doctor is looking surprised?).

2|P age
Learning tip for 13–18 year olds
Encourage your learners to read texts with different people‘s opinions, such as newspaper or magazine articles. Ask
your student to question what they read. What are the facts? What are the opinions? Does the author give any
evidence to support their opinions?

Creativity
We often focus on analytical, logical thinking. However, imaginative and creative thinking – the process of playing
with ideas and being open to new possibilities – has been just as important in the history of human development
and achievement.

Learning tip
Ask your student to design their dream home, car, clothes or toy and label some of the parts.

Problem-solving
We all face problems every day at school, at work and at home. To solve problems, we need to think in both
analytical and creative ways. We also need to develop resilience – the ability to handle a challenge, deal with
pressure and persist until a problem is resolved.

Learning tip
Find a funny short story. Cut it up and ask your student to use sticky tape to stick it back together again. You can
make it more difficult by having a couple of cards that don‘t match so the task isn‘t completed by luck towards the
end.

Initiative and self-direction

Self-direction is about having the motivation to achieve and the discipline to complete tasks to a deadline. Research
has found that initiative is even more important for academic success than intelligence.

Learning tip
Let your student take part in choosing what to do. For example, choose English books together at the library. This
will help with motivation, as they can pick topics/characters they are interested in.

ICT and information literacy

Learners today have access to so many different technologies and so much information. It‘s important to
teach them how to make the most of it.

Learning tip
Check out our digital learning tips in our article: Practising English using digital technology.

Practising English using digital technology

3|P age
Digital technology provides children with a great number of opportunities to practise their English.

Students growing up in a supportive digital environment are learning the skills that they will need for their future
studies and careers. Here are some fantastic ways you and your students can use technology together to practise
English.

Videos
Videos are a great way to see different cultures and hear real-life English. But the really fantastic thing about video
technology is that learners can make their own. Get creative and have fun!

Learning tip
Ask each student to shoot a silent video (your student is not allowed to talk!). Keep the videos short – 1 minute at
the most. You might like to have a theme. For example, my favourite place, my favourite things. Ask each person
to write 10–20 English words to describe their video. You could ask each person to record a voiceover to their
video, using as many of the words as possible from their list.

Using the internet

Learners have access to so much information. It can be hard to know which sources of information are reliable and
high quality. Encourage your students to think carefully about what they read online. For example, do I trust this
website? Why/why not?

Learning tip
Give each student a trivia quiz. Students who don‘t speak English can do the quiz in their native language. Ask
everyone to search for answers on the web. Do you all get the same answers?
Example quiz questions:

 Who was the first person in space?

 What is the time in Tokyo? How many hours ahead/behind?
 What is the weather tomorrow afternoon in Cape Town?
 How do you say ‘hello’ in Swahili?
 What is the biggest city in the world (by population)?
 How long does it take to drive from Sydney to Melbourne? Which road should you take?

To make it harder you could ask your students to prepare their own quiz.

Online translation tools

Language students are using online translation tools more and more (often as a homework shortcut!). Translation
tools are getting better, but they are not always accurate. We know learners will continue to use these tools. So it‘s
important to teach them how to use online translation tools – in the right way – and how they need to check their
work.

Learning tip
Take a short English text that your student is familiar with. This could be something they‘ve studied in class, a
passage from their favourite English storybook, or lyrics from a favourite English song.

Translate it into your own language, using two different online translation tools. Ask your child to compare the
original text with the translations. Are there any differences? Are there any errors? Can they suggest a better
translation?

Digital storytelling
Digital tools can be a great way for learners to use their language in fun and creative ways. It gives them some
control over their own learning, by giving them a chance to be in the director‘s chair!

Learning tip
Help your students bring their stories to life. There are loads of great storytelling tools where they can create their
own fairy tales, comic strips, puppet shows, 3D popup books or cartoons.

4|P age
Here are some apps you could try:
 Make your own e-book: Create your own drawings, record your voice, add photos, music, video and text
(Book Creator for iOS, Android and Windows).
 Make your own cartoon: Choose your characters and your setting, then move the characters around and voice
your own cartoon (Toontastic for iOS and Android).

Games and apps

Games and apps are designed to help learners improve their English in a fun way. The games industry is huge –
it‘s bigger now than the music industry or the movie box office! There are all sorts of different types of games and
apps, from puzzles and quizzes, to action games, to solitaire and Sudoku.

Learning tip
Encourage the whole class to take part in an app challenge. Ask each student to download one free language-
learning app onto their tablet or phone.

You may want to provide a few key search words. For example: ‗Learn English kids‘, ‗English speaking practice‘.
Ask each student to talk about their app. They could show how it works and say what they like about it. Then have
a vote to decide which app is the class favourite.

Social media
Social media provides lots of opportunities to interact in English.
Learning tip for 13–18 year olds
Encourage your students to create blogs and vlogs. Likewise, the Cambridge Assessment English Facebook
page has daily tips, quizzes, activities and advice for learning English. It supports students from all over the world
to discuss things in English.

ESP and Non-Native Varieties of English: Toward a Shift in Paradigm

Braj B. Kachru

This paper focuses on the non-native institutionalized varieties of English and their relevance to the methodology
and materials on ESP. The presuppositions of current ESP texts and contexts are critically discussed from the
perspective of the localized uses of non-native Englishes and their registers. An attempt is made to answer
questions concerning issues such as: acceptability, norms and functions of nonnative varieties (e.g. Sri Lankan,
Singaporean, Indian); pragmatic success and ESP; ESP and localized 'verbal repertoire'; the use of nativized
features of English in the instructional materials. A number of suggestions are given for shifting the current
paradigms of ELT/ESP. It is claimed that the present research on pragmatic success and failure of ESP has ignored
important context-bound and code-bound variables of the institutionalized varieties. Some fresh data is provided to
support the above claims. The paper also raises several linguistic, methodological and pedagogical issues.

Introduction

At the outset this paper warrants a cautionary note concerning the issues I propose to address. I shall essentially
focus on those issues related to English for Specific Purposes (ESP, see Strevens 1977a) which concern us, for
instance, as Sri Lankan, Indian, Nigerian, and Singaporean users of institutionalized non-native varieties of
English. I shall, therefore, approach the concept of ESP from a perspective which to my knowledge has so far been
ignored.

However, I shall begin with a digression concerning my understanding of the concept ESP In ESP texts generally
three basic assumptions are made. These relate to the appropriateness of language corpus; formal organization of
the corpus at various linguistic levels: phonetic, phonological (e.g. Flood and West 1952): lexical (e.g. Anthony
1976; Cowan 1974; Flood 1957), syntactic (e.g. Dubois 1982; Huddleston 1971; Lackstrom et al. 1972), and
discoursal (e.g. Widdowson 1971); and the relationship between the formal features and the functions of the texts
in terms of the profession, participants, and so on. Thus we have courses on English for academic purposes, English

5|P age
for science and technology, English for business and economics, and English for vocational purposes, to give a few
examples. The 'specific purpose' of such materials, we are told, determines the type of texts, the organization of the
features of the text and contextual appropriateness of the texts. The list of such text materials is overwhelming. 1
One can hardly quibble about the pedagogical usefulness of this concept. However, pedagogical acceptance does
not mean that all the descriptive and methodological (and if I might add, functional) issues have been answered.
These issues are being discussed and questioned in the fast-growing literature on ESP. Robinson (1980), for
example, presents 'the present position' of the field, and in a provoking paper Swales (1985) raises some basic
ethnomethodological and attitudinal questions. However, the conceptual (I would like to avoid the term 'theoretical'
here) and applied research on ESP seems to have avoided addressing issues vital for understanding the uses of
English across cultures (Swales (1985) is an exception). And even in studies which present 'common sense about
ESP' (e.g. Brumfit 1977), the vital methodological and pragmatic issues concerning the non-native varieties of
English and their relevance to ESP are left untouched.

ESP: some presuppositions

In available literature on ESP, and in resultant pedagogical materials from the Western countries, two basic
presuppositions are made. These concern the text and the uses and users of the text. These presuppositions
determine the conceptualization of the field of investigation and its methodology in several ways: the selected texts
are typically those written by native speakers of English. In terms of the users of the texts, it is believed that the
interlocutors are primarily of two types: native speaker-native speaker, and native speaker-non-native speaker. The
typology of the ESP contexts is highly restricted. It includes, for example: native interactional contexts, native
register-types, native speech functions, and native pragmatic settings. Finally, in terms of the language use, there is
a certain attitude about the varities and subvarieties of English, specifically about the nonnative varieties,
institutionalized or non-institutionalized. In this paper, I propose to bring the dimension of the institutionalized
varieties to the deliberations on this topic.

Non-native varieties and ESP

What do I mean by the institutionalized non-native varieties of English? In several earlier studies a distinction has
been made between the institutionalized and performance varieties of English.This distinction becomes clearer if
the diffusion of English is viewed in terms of three Concentric Circles: the inner circle, the outer (or extended)
circle, and the expanding circle. The first circle represents the native varieties (e.g. American, British, New
Zealand); the second circle represents the institutionalized varieties (e.g. Indian English, Nigerian English,
Philippine English, Sri Lankan English); and the last circle represents the non-native performance varieties (e.g.
Egyptian English, Japanese English).

By introducing the non-native Englishes into this discussion one is opening, as it were, a Pandora's box. A number
of daunting questions must be answered before the non-native Englishes are recognized as areas of research for
ESP, and before suggestions are made for appropriate texts for teaching. As an initial step, one has to answer
questions such as the following.

First, the ontological question: What is the status of the institutionalized varieties and how acceptable are these
varieties as 'standard' varieties of English? Second, the attitudinal question: Have the localized varieties been
recognized in the language policies of nonnative English-using countries? Third, a functional question: What is the
role of such varieties as codes of communication? Fourth, a pedagogical question: What, if any, are current uses of
such varieties in the instructional materials for the teaching of English? Fifth (a question concerning linguistic
creativity: What do we mean by localized linguistic innovations, and what criteria may be used for determining
whether such innovations should actually be incorporated in the pedagogical texts? The sixth question takes us to
the contextualization of such innovations: What are the pragmatics of such innovations, and what are the functions
of such innovations in various sociocultural contexts? And, finally, an often asked vital question with wider
attitudinal and linguistic implications: What will happen to English as an international language if divergent

6|P age
varieties are accepted, encouraged, and recognized as viable models for teaching?3 I shall attempt to address these
questions in turn.

Acceptability and non-native Englishes

The term 'acceptability' is very elusive; it does not always entail a formal criterion for language acceptance or use.
If used in a formal sense, the term conveys the meaning of correctness according to a certain standard, that of a
dictionary, of a manual or of a prescriptive grammar. But that is not the only use of this term. In its general use, it
expresses a language attitude, and implies various types of appropriateness.

With respect to innovations in non-native Englishes, the attitudinal response often determines the acceptance by the
users of each variety in the Inner Circle. Without pondering on any formal or functional reasons for non-native
innovations, the reaction often is 'as a native speaker I would not use this' (lexical item, construction or whatever).

This attitude is even shown toward some sub-varieties of native Englishes, for example toward Black English in the
USA, or toward regional and some class-based varieties in Britain (see, e.g., relevant sections in Ferguson and
Heath 1981, Trudgill 1984).

How is acceptability determined? The following seem to play an important part in determining acceptability: one's
own attitude toward a variety; the perception of others toward one's variety, and attitudinally-determined functional
allocations of a variety, (for example, the reactions toward the use of basilect in Singapore, bazaar or Babu English
in India, and Nigerian pidgin in Nigeria.)

Now, returning to the non-native varieties, the issue of 'acceptance' seems to have been divorced from the
pragmatic and functional contexts. That English has localized uses, and English has interactional uses with (mostly)
other non-native speakers, these two important facts of language use are not well-recognized. In my view this
nonrecognition of pragmatic context has created a serious gap between the researcher's concept of language use and
linguistic behavior, and the language needs of the users of institutionalized varieties of English.

National language policies and non-native Englishes

The lack of pragmatism in methodology and the evangelical zeal of the specialists is not restricted to the 'outsiders'
who are either indifferent to, or not familiar with, local situations (see Maley 1984). It is surprising that the national
language policies and educational policies of the nations with institutionalized varieties of English have not, until
recently, recognized the uses of English for intranational purposes. This pragmatic fact is not, therefore, reflected in
language planning, teacher training, and curriculum design. The Anglophone nations (e.g. India, Kenya, Malaysia,
Nigeria, Singapore, Sri Lanka) have, until very recently, adhered attitudinally to an external norm of English
English. The nations which were under the American influence (e.g. the Philippines, Japan) have generally
followed the educated American model.

But, having said this, one must add an important caveat here. The language policies and the actual language
performance show a serious conflict. The perceived norm rarely matches the language behavior. In Sri Lanka,
where traditionally the standard of English teaching was very high, certainly before 1950 this preference for an
imitation model of English English was questioned (see Passe 1947). During the post independence period, this
view has been well articulated by Fernando (1977) and Kandiah (1981). Dissanayake in his several papers
(particularly in Dissanayake and Nichter (forthcoming)), focuses on this question from a literary perspective.

It is encouraging, however, that recently in the minds of some educators this conflict between an endonormative
and exonormative model is being resolved, and the earlier 'linguistic insecurity' is now in less evidence (see
Kachru, e.g. 1985:215-216). This shift toward the realization of actual language behavior is evident in the
following ways: 1. the identification of a variety with regional modifiers such as Sri Lankan English, Indian
English, Nigerian English, or Singaporean English without serious connotations of stigma; 2. the recognition of
reasons for such identification in terms of national identity, educational realism, and localized functions of English;
7|P age
3. the recognition of English in the language policy of a given country such as Sri Lanka or India as a 'link'
language for intranational purposes.

Non-native Englishes as codes of communication

A functionally and pragmatically important aside is appropriate here. Whatever external (or even internal) attitudes
are present about the institutionalized varieties, and whatever descriptive labels are used for them, in reality the
localized varieties of English are actually used by most of the users of English in these nations. The segment of
population that uses external models comprises such a small percentage of the total population that for our
discussion we might as well ignore it. If I might take an extreme case, the administrative network of the Indian
subcontinent has been held together by the users of various types of Babu English (Widdowson 1979), and in
Nigeria by Nigerian Pidgin. The code of the elite has generally been the localized educated variety.

In the functional network, the localized varieties of Indian English or African English have developed typically
local registers, for instance, for agriculture, for the legal system, and for the localized speech functions. This
linguistic (and pragmatic) fact was recognized, for example, by Wilson over thirteen decades ago (Wilson 1855:i)
concerning the use of what may be called ESP in agriculture in the Indian subcontinent. He observed

Ryot and Ryotwar, for instance, suggests more precise and positive notions in connection with the subject of the
land revenue in the South of India, than would be conveyed by cultivator, or peasant, or agriculturist, or by an
agreement for rent or revenue with the individual members of the agriculture classes.

Three decades later, suggesting an 'Indian supplement to the English dictionary', Whitworth (1885: vii viii)
remarks:

The words of Indian origin will be by far the most numerous, as it is usual, when new objects and ideas are met
with to call them by the names they already possess. But this is not always done, and no one can make much
acquaintance with India without hearing of alienated and unalienated land, permanent and annual settlements,
inferior and superior holders, twice-born classes, right-hand and left-hand castes, village headmen and village
accountants, governors and district officers; then references are frequently made to the solar race, the lunar race,
the serpent race, even such words as 'month' and 'year' have different meanings in India and in England; and there
are many names which, though their component parts are familiar English, yet express things unknown in England
such as 'bell music', 'black buck', 'carpet snake', 'dancing girl', 'egg-plant', 'fire-temple', 'prayer-wheel', 'slave-
king', 'sacred thread' . ..

Before I provide further examples of these registers and styles, let me go back to the question of localized 'verbal
repertoire' in English, and the uses of such repertoire in the intranational contexts. The uses of English for
intranational communication raises a host of complex issues which have generally been left unanswered in
methodological literature on ESP. One can, for example, think of questions such as the following:

1. What is meant by communication, and the levels of communicability?

2. What determines pragmatic success and pragmatic failure of English in its international uses?
3. What role do the varieties within a variety play in local/ national/regional communication?
4. What role does the context of situation play in communication, and what role should localized context-
dependent innovations play in the pedagogical materials?
5. What accommodation does a native speaker of English have to make for participation in communication
with those speech fellowships which use localized varieties of English?
6. What insights have we gained by research on intelligibility and comprehensibility concerning intranational
and international uses of English?
7. What attitudinal and linguistic adjustments are desirable for effective teaching of localized varieties?

8|P age
These questions may sound rather broad, but it seems to me that they are directly related to any serious discussion
on ESP in the international context, particularly since they have been swept under the rug in the prolific literature
that has been published on this topic during the last twenty years. Unfortunately, a large body of such publications
is primarily motivated by commercial goals whose proponents have found it convenient not to encourage
discussion of these more basic issues.

Pragmatic success and ESP

The underlying assumption for ESP is that, ideally, it contributes to maximum pragmatic success in the contexts of
language use. It entails a hierarchy of encounter-types in which linguistic interaction has been observed and
described. The research (see Smith [forthcoming], particularly the chapter by Candlin) on what may be termed
interactional aspects of language has as yet been given very limited attention.

In such research there still is no awareness of the non-native contexts in which varieties of English have been used
for at least a century in distinctly localized encounter-types. The competence of such users of English varies from
local educated varieties to a form of pidgin. Such localized interactional contexts also show an extensive use of
'mixing', and use of discourse types which presupposes bilingual or multilingual competence.

The concepts situation, context, and attitudes are vital for understanding the issues and variables related to
pragmatic failure or pragmatic success in the use of a variety of English as has been shown, e.g. in Chishimba
(1983). In ESP-oriented research we find two problems: ethnocentricism in approach and neglect of intranational
motivations for the uses of English. In functional terms, there is something wrong with such an approach. In the
Outer Circle, the international roles of English are highly restricted: the domesticated (or localized) roles are more
extensive. There is, of course, nothing wrong with high proficiency goals. But with such goals we unconsciously
cultivate language attitudes which have psychological, social, and educational implications. And, in some cases,
such goals take us away from linguistic and functional realism.

Pragmatic success, then, is determined by the context of encounter, and the participants in the encounter. We
should, of course, expect maximal pragmatic success in 'survival registers' or 'survival ESP': e.g. seaspeak, aviation,
diplomacy, and so on. In registers of law or medicine, we must investigate the localized strategies of lexicalization,
mixing, switching, and lectal change.

This pragmatism and shift in the paradigm is well articulated in Swales (1985:223) who, like J. R. Firth, argues for
'local knowledge' and '. . . for renewal of connection with the textual environment, and for greater attention to the
tasks that specialized environments require of their occupants'. He rightly feels, that 'we have given text too great a
place in nature and believed a thick description of a text is the thickest description of them all'. The question is, in
doing so, and by ignoring the 'conventions of conduct' and 'localized pragmatic needs', are we actually producing,
to use Clifford Geertz' term, 'thin descriptions' which have less pragmatic validity?

The phenomenal spread of English, the diverse users of the language in world cultures, and the development of
world Englishes make it imperative to view concepts like 'communicative competence', 'pragmatic success', and
'pragmatic failure' and ESP from a realistic perspective of current world uses of English. One has to consider
several aspects in order to provide functional bases to such concepts. These aspects include, for example,

(1) Variety specific ESP: The formal characteristics of ESP can be distinguished in terms of their uses in the three
Concentric Circles. The pragmatic success or failure in, for example, doctor/patient interaction, or teacher/student
interaction is determined by the cultural background and linguistic repertoire of the participants. When we talk of
legal English and the discoursal and other strategies associated with it, we seem to use an idealized notion of 'legal
English'. In reality the situation is different. In South Asia, legal English has localized subvarieties which may be
distinguished in terms of the hierarchy of courts and lawyers who practice in such courts, the supreme court, the
high court, the lower courts, the district court, the moufusil court, and so on. At each level, a specific type of
language is used with its characteristic lexicalization and other features. An idealized variety of legal English does

9|P age
not guarantee pragmatic success, nor does research on the legal English of the USA or the UK provide useful
insights for understanding the legal Englishes of South Asia, South-east Asia, or West Africa.

Let us consider the South Asian situation: South Asia gives us a repertoire of legal Englishes, which have distinct
characteristics in the following respects: the level of the court, the type of legal document, and the participants in
the legal interaction.

This concept does not apply only to legal English, but also to other ESP types (e.g. administration, banking,
newspapers).

(2) Typology of ESP: A typology for ESP should take into consideration parameters such as the following:
1. What is the functional range of the ESP types with reference to intranational and international uses?
2. Who are the participants in the situations?: (a) users of one variety and/or (b) users of several varieties?
3. What is the language competence of the users on the cline of bilingualism?
4. What are the distinctive characteristics of the verbal repertoire for the participation in the interaction?: (a) H(igh)
varieties, (b) L(ow) varieties, (c) mixing of varieties, (d) bi- or multi-dialectism or multilingualism?
5. How are the codes used in the interaction viewed by those who are 'outside' the speech fellowship, and by those
who are 'within' the speech fellowship?
6. What formal features of the ESP must be learned by the members of the speech fellowships who are essentially
'outsiders'?
7. What-are the implications of the formal innovations on the materials production and the curriculum?

The repertoire of a specific ESP (e.g. legal English) clearly shows that the burden of pragmatic success and
pragmatic failure does not rest only on the non-native learner; it rests on the native speakers of English, too.
Particularly, those users who desire to establish successful communication with the users of other varieties, native
or non-native.

If the international uses of English are viewed within this context, it has several consequences: theoretical, applied,
methodological, and pedagogical. In theoretical terms, one has to reconsider the notion 'speech community' for
English, as I have stated elsewhere (Kachru 1985). One has to view the world Englishes in terms of speech
fellowships. The defining context and acceptance of linguistic innovations must be related to the pragmatic context
of each speech fellowship. This is particularly important in the case of institutionalized varieties of English. The
applied aspects include, for example, research on lexicography, discourse strategies, interactional sociolinguistics,
and attitude studies.

The methodological aspect becomes important since one has to raise questions about the universal validity claimed
for language teaching or language learning methods. The present tendency that the Western methods should be sold
to the non-native users with an evangelical zeal is suspect (for a stimulating discussion, see Maley (1984) and
Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (1986)). It is particularly suspect since commercialism and ethnocentricism seem
to determine such hard sell. What is more frustrating is that the survival rate of such 'methods' does not seem to be
more than a decade. It is sad that often these methods are promoted without much familiarity with the intranational
contexts in which the non-native varieties of English are actually used.

Finally, the pedagogical aspects. This takes us to the educational policies, teacher training programs, and language
in the classroom, and language use out of the classroom. One can develop each category into a full paper. The
above discussion is just to provide a bird's-eye view of the issues involved.

Let me now turn to two issues specifically related to one localized variety. First, the question of the use of nativized
linguistic features in instructional materials, and second, the divergence of nativized varieties and the future of
English as an international language. I shall discuss these in the two following sections.

Localized linguistic characteristics and instructional resources

10 | P a g e
I will interpret the term 'instructional resources' in a broader sense: both for pedagogical materials and other
supplementary published resources to which a student may be exposed. At the lexical and collocational levels, let
us consider the localized characteristics of ESP in the caste system in intercommunal (Muslim vs. Hindu)
interactions and in politics. Consider the following lexical sets:

Lexis related to caste

The lexical item 'caste' may be followed by basis, -brotherhood, -dinner, distinction, domination, -elders, -feast, -
feeling, -following, -less, mark, -proud, -sanctity, -union, -vermin, -waif, -well. The lexical item 'caste' may be
preceded by high, inter-, low-, lowest-, out-, professional-, sub-, upper-.

Note also the following modes of address and reference used in the context of caste: highborn, high caste, twice
born, upper caste, casteless, low-caste, lower caste, untouchable.

Lexis related to local rituals

Rice eating ceremony, turmeric ceremony, naming ceremony, arotitime, bath milk, car festival, shagan ceremony,
brother-anointing ceremony, rain bringing ritual, vinayaka-festival.

The localized innovations at other levels have been illustrated in several studies. I will not elaborate on this point
here due to the limitations of space. However, the localized innovations must be distinguished with reference to the
cline of bilingualism and the sociocultural contexts of use as has been done, for instance, in the case of Singapore,
Malaysia, India, and parts of Africa which use English.

In the case of Sri Lankan English, the need for such distinctions has been well illustrated in Kandiah (1981).
Consider, for example, the illustrations given by him: sil (a Buddhist religious observance); asweddumize (a
process used by farmers in paddy fields); basket woman (a woman whose behavior is rough); rice puller (an
appetizer, eaten with rice). The items 'junction', 'under', 'is too much', 'put a telephone call', and 'put a catch to' are
used with typically local meanings. The localized innovations, then, have a code related dimension and a context
related dimension. These are two basic aspects which any research on ESP cannot neglect.

There is also the question of motivation. One distinguishing feature of the institutional varieties, as opposed to that
of performance varieties, is that English is not used with an integrative motivation with the native speakers of
English, but essentially with an instrumental motivation. The instructional materials clearly show such
contextualization of English in the local sociocultural context.

However, a point which has not generally been well appreciated is that the integrative motivation is of a different
type: the integration is not necessarily sought with the native users of English, but English is seen as a vehicle of
integration within the sociopolitical context of the nation, or a wider region comprising several nations (e.g. South
Asia, West Africa). In other words, English provides a link among the culturally and linguistically diverse groups.
This is clearly evident in Singapore, Nigeria, India, and other nations. English thus becomes a language of national
integration, political awakening, and cultural unification, and the linguistic code is turned against the native
speaker; a colonial language is nurtured and retained as a tool for emancipation, and more important for national
resurgence. The native (localized) linguistic resources are additionally used for an approximation of localized
discoursal strategies of various types (see Kachru 1982a and 1983b); for lexicalization from local languages see
Kachru (1983a); and for creative texts (e.g. short stories, poems) by local creative writers in English (see relevant
sections in Bailey and Gorlach 1982 and Kachru 1982b).

Localized varieties and English as an international language

I will indulge here in self-plagiarism and repeat some points which I have discussed in earlier papers. The question
is: Does the recognition (and the use of) localized varieties of English necessarily mean that such recognition will

11 | P a g e
have adverse effects on the international intelligibility of English? If that happens, the argument that English is an
international (or universal) language is defeated.

The question has three aspects. First, the pragmatic aspect: We need international intelligibility for those users of
English whose linguistic encounters entail international interaction and communication. The need for such
communication is generally combined with adequate motivation for achieving intelligibility, comprehensibility,
and pragmatic success. Those users of English whose functions do not entail such encounters need not, functionally
speaking, aspire to proficiency in exonormative models. Equally important, native speakers of American or British
English, who have extensive encounters with the users of a particular non-native variety should be encouraged to
familiarize themselves with the characteristic features of the variety, and should show some awareness about its
repertoire range. It is difficult to imagine an expatriate to be linguistically comfortable, for example, in Singapore
without some familiarity with the basilect and its uses, interactional and creative. The same applies to the varieties
of Indian English and Nigerian English.

The second aspect is that of implementation. I will not discuss this aspect here since this discussion forms part of
several earlier studies, particularly Kachru (1985). However, one should point out that, unlike French,
standardization and codification have very complex implications for English. Even if one recognizes the need for
such international standards, one is at a loss to provide practical steps for such codification, other than the ones I
have briefly discussed above in the context of acceptability.

The third aspect brings to the debate a variety of interrelated issues. Let me consider some of these here. In most of
the nations of South Asia or South-east Asia, English has a long tradition of use as a language of politics,
education, administration, and literary creativity. The identity with the language is deep, and its functional range
and depth is considerable (see Kachru 1982). It would be unnatural to expect that the language would not be
'shaped' and 'moulded' according to the local needs, and develop its variation due to the influence of local
languages and literatures, culture, and uses. The result of such deep-rooted local functions is that the intranational
uses have been institutionalized. Additionally, in regional writing in English, the nativization is consciously used
for creative purposes, as as been shown in, for example, Chishimba (1983), Lowenberg (1984), Nelson (1984 and
1985), and Magura (1984).

The intranational roles show a cline in use and a large number of users seem to engage in constant lectal shift,
involving acrolects, masolects, and basilects, depending on the participants in a linguistic interaction. Again,
evidence of this is found in Singapore, Nigeria, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka, to give just four examples.

Toward a shift in paradigm

The pragmatics of world Englishes clearly show that in research on ESP, particularly for relevance in the Outer
Circle, there is a need for a shift in the paradigm. There is also a need for change in the methodology and in the
collection of appropriate empirical data. One also has to change the attitude toward the varieties of English and
their users. What types of change can one suggest? The following are illustrative.

1. Recognition of the functional usefulness of the concept of verbal repertoire, and a description of such a repertoire
with reference to its societal meaning;

2. Recognition of the levels of pragmatic failure due to the inappropriate selection of the code. The non-recognition
of localized lectal range has already resulted in various types of problems in English using countries such as
Singapore, Nigeria, and India;

3. Acceptance of localized innovations in ESP and the subvarieties within ESP (e.g. legal, administrative,
advertising) as part of the pragmatic needs of the users;

4. Recognizing the creativity in regional literatures in English as an extension of the local literatures and of
'literatures in English'. Such recognition will make it easier to select local texts for instructional purposes.
12 | P a g e
This recognition is not desirable only for functional reasons. It is also vital for several psychological and
sociological reasons. This attitudinal change means accepting a hypothesis of code difference as opposed to one of
code deficit. This is an important distinction since as teachers we are concerned with language-using human beings,
and not merely with figures and percentages.

The last point brings in another dimension of non-native varieties of English which has traditionally not been
considered as one of the concerns of ESP methodologists: the literary creativity in localized Englishes. Such
contact literatures have certain textual and functional characteristics which set them apart as a body of writing in
English. These texts need both linguistic and contextual explanations for a person who does not belong to the
speech fellowship. Does this entail expanding the boundaries of ESP research? Perhaps it does. Contact literatures
raise many theoretical and descriptive questions which are only recently being considered (see Kachru 1983b and
1986; Smith forthcoming; and Thumboo 1985). The writers of such texts are bilingual or multilingual, but not
necessarily bi- or multi-cultural. They are using English in contexts which give it new linguistic and cultural
identities (see Nelson 1985). In this non-native creative use of English a distinctive ESP has developed which is not
identical to British, American, or Australian writing in English. Consider, for instance, the creative writing of
Singapore writers, Kripal Singh, Arthur Yap, and Cathrine Lim, or Sri Lankan writer Punyakante Wijenaike, or
Indian writer Raja Rao.

In Kripal Singh's poem Voices, Arthur Yap's poem 2 mothers in HBD playground, and Cathrine Lim's short stories
The Taximan and The Mother in Law's Curse various linguistic devices are exploited to maximize pragmatic
success in textual terms. Voices essentially uses mixing of codes, and Yap contextually 'legitimizes' the use of
mixing and the strategies of basilect. The lexicalization and basilectal constructions nativizes the text beyond the
scope of a reader not familiar with the linguistic reality of Singapore. Consider, for example, the following
linguistic features: jamban ('toilet bowl' in Malay), toa soh ('drive in a car' in Hokkien), ah pah ('father' in
Hokkien), what boy is he in the exam?, I scold like mad but what for, sit like don't want to get up, and so on. Lim
provides convincing examples of code alteration appropriate to the functions and roles in Singapore.

The Sri Lankanness of Wijenaike's English, as Dissanayake and Nichter (forthcoming) have shown, is expressed
through various linguistic and cultural exponents; her 'food idioms', her 'hot/cold dichotomy' and her use of silence
as a speech act, are potential means for conveying cultural and linguistic meaning. This meaning is missed if the
text is divorced from the context in which it functions. We see the same stylistic experimentation in Raja Rao's
novels Kanthapura and The Serpent and the Rope (see Parthasarathy (forthcoming), Kachru (1983b) and
Dissanayake (1985)).

It is through such devices and experimentation that in non-native literatures the H(igh) variety and L(ow) varieties
are used as resources for creativity in English. There is, of course, a linguistic dilemma in this. If we evaluate such
creativity in terms of the contexts and models of the Inner Circle, the innovations in the Outer Circle are considered
'deviant', therefore resulting in pragmatic failure. If we view such experimentation from the perspective of a
Singaporean, Sri Lankan, and Indian creative writer, it is clearly an appropriate use of the stylistic devices, it
maximizes pragmatic success.

What we need, then, is to extend the monolingual (traditional) stylistic norms of creativity in English, and to
evaluate such Singaporean, Sri Lankan, and Indian texts with reference to new norms, and extended, linguistic,
cultural, and interpretive contexts. In other words, recognize that functionally these non-native users of English
have evolved a culturally and linguistically appropriate ESP.

Let me provide an illustration from English in advertising in Japan, which according to the three Concentric Circles
belongs to the Expanding Circle of English. The pragmatic success of the Japanese innovations in this register must
be seen within the context of Japanese attitudes to English, and their 'consuming passion' for English vocabulary
(see Asiaweek, October 5, 1984:49). There is, therefore, a 'social meaning' in the following 'deviations'
(innovations):

13 | P a g e
1. Kanebo cosmetics: 'for beautiful human life'

2. Tokyo Utility Company: 'my life, my gas'

3. Shinjuku Station Concourse: 'nice guy making'; 'multiple days autumn fair'; 'planning and creative'; 'let's
communicate'.

Now, it is rightly said that 'to the English speaker they [vocabulary items] may be silly, childish, or annoying.
Sometimes a double meaning makes them unintentionally funny. But the ubiquitous English of Japanese ads
convey a feeling to a Japanese' (p. 49).

More important is the following observation concerning the psychological effects and commercial motivations of
these phrases. I cannot resist the temptation of presenting the original quote here.

To produce one such phrase requires the expensive services of an ad agency as sophisticated as anywhere. A
creative director gathers the team and concepts are tossed about, a first-rate copywriter works on the theme, a
lengthy rationalisation is prepared for the client, a decision eventually made to launch. Cost: maybe millions of yen.
Everyone understands that it is substandard English. Explains a copywriter at Dentsu: 'yes, of course we know it
sounds corny to an American, even objectionable to some. But what the foreigner thinks of it is immaterial. The ad
is purely domestic, a lot of market research has gone into it. It evokes the right images. It sells.' For product names,
English words that seem dismayingly inappropriate to the foreign listener are sometimes chosen. The most
frequently quoted example is a very popular soft drink called 'Sweat'. The idea of using a body secretion as an
enticing name for a fluid to drink out of a can is just as unpleasant to a Japanese as to an Englishman, but 'sweat'
conjures a different image: hot and thirsty after vigorous activity on the sporting field. The drink's Tocari' in
Hongkong. Some English words enjoy a fad season. Currently very much in are 'life', 'my', 'be', and 'city', the last-
named suffering from the phonetic necessity to render the 's' before T as 'sh'. My City is a multi-storeyed shopping
complex in Shinjuku where you can shop for my-sports things to take to your my-house in your my-car. 'New'
remains popular. If no suitable English word exists, nothing is lost, coin one. Some, indeed, are accidentally rather
catchy: 'magineer'. Others elicit only sighs. 'Creap' is a big selling cream powder for coffee. 'Facom' was perhaps
not such a felicitous choice considering the open back vowel for Japanese. Currently in season are words ending in
'- topia', presumably from 'utopia'. There was a Tortopia', a 'Computopia' and a 'Sportstopia'. The brand new Hilton
Hotel boasts a splendid shopping annexe called the 'Hiltopia'. (Emphasis added; Asiaweek, October 5, 1984).

This is a very pragmatic statement, and clearly demonstrates that the norms for 'English in advertising' are context
bound and variety dependent. This fact about non-native uses of English has yet to be recognized by the specialists
in ESP. The advertising agencies in Japan seem to have seen the linguistic light.

There is another aspect of the use of multi-codes (or lectal range) which touches us all as parents, teachers,
students, and academic administrators. I am thinking of the varieties of English and their use in the classroom. The
primary focus of such research on English, has been the linguistic behavior of the speech fellowships in the Inner
Circle. It is the native context of the language functions, complexities of linguistic interaction, language attitudes,
and interpretation of language use in the professions that has been the focus of attention. The Englishes of the Outer
Circle, unfortunately, are still not part of this research activity.

The paradigm must change in another sense, too. We have to discard the exclusive use of the deviational approach
and evaluate the pragmatic success (or failure) of various codes with reference to the types of interaction and
encounter within the intranational uses of English. The deficiency hypothesis, interlanguage hypothesis, and
exclusively errororiented approaches do not capture the sociolinguistic realism of the Outer Circle.

All the bees are not out of my bonnet yet. A number of points remain which are specific to ESP. In developing ESP
we must adopt a pluralistic approach since English functions in pluralistic sociolinguistic contexts. This means a
shift from the monomodel approaches to a polymodel approach. As a result one would have to significantly modify
one's approach to teacher training, curriculum development, and materials production.
14 | P a g e
Conclusion

The issues I have raised have wider and deeper implications. They touch delicate attitudinal chords of users of
English internationally, and do not necessarily conform to traditional ESL/ELT paradigms. It seems to me that the
consequences of not facing the pragmatic context of international Englishes are serious. The issues involved are
linguistic, sociocultural, psychological, and educational. In his Presidential Address, delivered to the Linguistic
Society of America in 1973, Dwight Bollinger emphatically told us that 'truth is a linguistic question' (1973:539-
550). The research of the last two decades has shown that linguistic issues do have educational, social, and
psychological implications. And having seen that, we must pay heed to Bollinger's warning that 'a taste of truth is
like a taste of blood'. Once the issues have been raised, it is the responsibility of the profession to explore their
implications.

What is needed in research on ESP, then, is to provide a pragmatic basis to such research in terms of the world-
wide uses of English, both internationally and intranationally. Swales (1985) has drawn our attention to these
issues. It is essential that the professionals in ESP/ ELT reconsider the earlier paradigms of methodology, and their
applications to the regions where institutionalized non-native varieties of English are in use.

Activities:

1. Based on the anecdotal narrative, what do you think must be the role of English in the 21 st Century? You
may also do research on this as bases.
2. Identify the 21st Century skills in English and how these can be delivered to your learners. What other skills
can you find that are also important?
3. Is digital technology relevant in teaching and practising English? How? Further support your answer from
other sources.
4. Tell something about the background of ESP as against the non-native Englishes. Compare and contrast.
5. What is ESP typology?
6. Why was there a shift in paradigm about ESP? Was it necessary?
7. Summarize your learnings in simple narrative outline.

The Learner and Teacher of ESP

Peter Strevens
The Bell Educational Trust

Introduction

The introduction of courses in English for Specific Purposes produces problems for learners, problems for teachers,
problems of methodology and materials, and problems of assessment and testing. These problems can be solved,
but to solve them requires more teachers, better teachers, better training, new materials and new tests.

In order to make a success of ESP, the teachers have to view ESP as a normal, acceptable challenge; they have to
understand as fully as possible the nature of the language teaching and learning process; they have to be able to
observe and recognize the learner's progress and to diagnose his problems; they have to be familiar with the widest
possible range of alternative teaching techniques; they have to know which response to select at any particular time
in order to meet the particular learning requirements of a given student. Above all, they have to possess an
informed optimism and to know that success is possible; the teachers need to exercise professionalism based on
training and experience.

15 | P a g e
The ESP learner and his needs

The two main dimensions of ESP are for study, and for an occupation; learners for whom ESP is appropriate are
either engaged in studying a particular subject in English, or are following a particular occupation for which they
need English, or both. But there is a further distinction to be made between on the one hand those who already
know the subject in their own language or who are already employed in their occupation but use only their own
language, and on the other hand those whose learning of English is part of, or parallel with, their academic studies
or part of their occupational training. In short, the distinction is between English which is instructional and English
which is operational.

The difference is an important one, especially when it comes to the preparation of ESP teaching materials. It is
obvious that providing instructional ESP materials about the chemistry of dye stuffs, for example, or about the
control of flame temperature in gas welding, or about the communication by ship's radio to helicopters of messages
concerning search and rescue activities is appropriate when the learner is a student of colour chemistry, a trainee
welder, or a trainee ship's officer. But those same instructional materials will appear quite different, and altogether
too elementary, to a student who is already an industrial chemist, a master welder, or a ship's captain. What such
experienced students require is operational ESP materials, where the knowledge, the concepts, the instruction and
the training are taken for granted, and where it is the ability to function in English which is being imparted.

The learner comes to an ESP course with at least three kinds of expectations: cultural-educational; personal and
individual; academic/occupational.

The first of these is the product of the learner's own background. He will usually assume that the way in which
people learn and are taught in his society, and particularly the way in which he himself learned and was taught, is
the way in which he will now learn and be taught in English and indeed that this is the way in which anyone ought
to learn and be taught. Therefore if the ESP course is different from the learner's past experience, the ESP teacher
may have to educate the learner into accepting a novel experience.

The second kind of expectation concerns the learner's view of himself as a learner, his expectations of success, his
optimism or pessimism about the ESP course in terms of what he expects to learn. Here there is often a great
difference between ESP as part of study or occupational training, where the learner is geared to being in the process
of obtaining his education, and ESP for those who are already subject specialists or are experienced in a particular
job; such students, often returning to the task of learning after a break of some years, tend to have a low opinion of
their chances of learning English. Part of the task of the teacher is to change the learner's expectations and above all
to encourage the learner by providing him with a touch of success.

The third set of expectations, those which are academic or occupational, are the ones most commonly expressed in
advance, when a needs-analysis is carried out. The learner usually has at least a rough idea of what he wishes to be
able to do in English. Often this rough idea is accurate; but it can also be quite wrong. The error can be in either
direction either grossly inflated, as in the case of the businessman who hopes to achieve skill in negotiating
contracts in English but will devote only 100 hours to the English course, or grossly inadequate, as in the case of
the middle-aged oil tanker captain who does not believe that he will learn English at all, and is staggered to observe
his own success when he begins the unfamiliar task.

The least difficult conditions, then, are probably for those young students whose English is being learned at the
same time as they are receiving their academic or occupational training and who are still in the unbroken stream of
their personal education; the most difficult conditions are for those middle-aged learners, already competent in their
own subject or occupation, who have to return, perhaps unwillingly, to become a student of a language, a role in
which they have no expectations of success. But success is possible, right across the spectrum, if the teachers
approach these problems correctly.

The following list illustrates the range of possible ESP courses; there are hundreds of other potential needs.

16 | P a g e
1. German physicists, specializing in the physics of low temperatures, who wish to learn English solely in order to
read the papers (published in English) of an international conference on low temperature physics. (No speaking or
writing required.)

2. Fire brigade officers from Afghanistan who wish to be able to attend a course in Britain on advanced techniques
of fire fighting. (Little reading or writing required.)

3. Fishing boat crews from Bahrain (particularly the mechanics or 'engine-minders') who spend time in Britain
observing the construction of the fishing vessels in which they will work on their return.

4. Norwegian secretaries who need to be able to deal with telephone enquiries and correspondence in English.

5. World Health Organization medical officers from many countries who are preparing to work in tropical Africa,
where English will be the language of their contact with nurses, technicians and perhaps their patients.

6. French aircraft engineers from the Concorde supersonic aircraft factory who are working in an Anglo-French
partnership, shuttling between Toulouse and Bristol.

7. Algerian specialists in artificial insemination who need English to work with cattle breeders and agriculturalists
from many countries.

8. Immigrants to Britain who get jobs in a bus factory and find that all the working and safety instructions are in
English, as are the fire regulations, the trade union arrangements etc.

9. The managing director of a Greek shipping firm who opens an office in London and becomes involved in
commercial and legal negotiations in English.

The ESP teacher

Who is the ESP teacher? Almost always he or she is a teacher of General English who has unexpectedly found
him/herself required to teach students with special needs. The experience is often a shock! Sometimes the shock is
unpleasant, because so many elements are unfamiliar or puzzling. Sometimes the shock is a pleasant one, because
the teaching is so directly relevant to the needs of well-motivated learners. Most often the shock is a mixture of the
welcome and the unwelcome.

Two areas in particular can cause real difficulties for teachers unaccustomed to ESP. The first and most serious
difficulty is one of different attitudes, particularly between those of literature and science, (C. P. Snow, the novelist,
referred to this distinction as 'The Two Cultures', and there is no doubt that for a few literary people it is a matter
almost of conscientious objection to being involved with science). The difficulty is one-sided; teachers of maths
and science, engineers and biologists, do not complain of the attitudes of teachers of literature, and they certainly
do not fear them. But some teachers of literature actually object to the outlook and attitudes of science.

That view of literature which concentrates on the reader's emotional response to a poem or a novel and which
regards analysis as likely to destroy the very cause of the response itself this view does not fit easily with a
pragmatic, objective, analytical, unemotional outlook upon science and technology. A teacher of ESP must be able
to suspend and overcome anti-scientific attitudes, since he is neither being prevented from appreciating literature in
his personal life, nor being required to become a scientist in his work. Rather he is being required to extend the
range of his professional activities into a new kind of language teaching.

The second area of difficulty for teachers lies in the gap between the learner's knowledge of the special subject and
the teacher's ignorance of it. Except in the rare and fortunate case where the ESP teacher actually does have
specialist knowledge of the subject, there is no escaping this gap, so that the teacher has to accept it and come to
terms with it. Three techniques can be recommended to the ESP teacher:

17 | P a g e
1. Become familiar with the ESP course materials. Of course every teacher should always be familiar with the
materials to be used in class. But in this instance the familiarity must extend also to understanding exactly the ESP
intention of each text and exercise. The course-books will have been written, almost certainly, in a collaboration
between a teacher of English and a subject specialist. The course writer will thus have been aware of the main
difficulties and unfamiliarities facing the teacher, and will have dealt with most of them in the accompanying
teacher's notes.

2. Become familiar with the language of the subject. Remember the experience of the professor's secretary, the
hospital almoner, the reader of Scientific American or of the New Scientist — in short, the educated layman who
from interest or necessity accepts and becomes familiar with the language of a subject, though without pretending
or seeking to become a specialist in the subject itself.

3. Allow students to put you right! Do not be above letting the students correct your solecisms in the subject (not
errors in English; the teacher will not normally commit errors of grammar, for example). Then you will be in a
stronger position to help the students with their mistakes in the language.

The most important requirement is that the teacher should regard success with teaching an ESP course as a
professional challenge. There are today a number of specialized schools of English which concentrate on ESP and
which may have to deal with twenty or thirty different ESP subjects in a year. The staff of these schools take pride
in conducting the necessary needs-analysis, designing an appropriate syllabus, preparing suitable materials,
meeting and getting to know the students, teaching the course and devising and administering appropriate tests.

Such professionalism is not easily achieved. While every good teacher of English is potentially a good teacher of
ESP, he or she needs special help and training. The teacher who is new to ESP needs advice, help and support from
those teachers who already have the necessary experience. Ideally, ESP flourishes on the concept of a team of
teachers, and with a collaboration between them and subject specialists. But the essential point is that becoming an
effective teacher of ESP requires more experience, additional training, extra effort, a fresh commitment, compared
with being a teacher of General English.

Methodology and materials

The greatest single difficulty in this regard is that there are not enough suitable ESP materials. This is true partly
because ESP is young, compared with General English; but it reflects also the experience of most ESP teachers,
who find that almost every fresh group of students requires fresh materials, or at least some re-alignment of
materials previously used for broadly similar students.

The question 'What kind of methods and materials should be used in ESP?' has no direct answer. For one thing,
there are a great many different kinds of ESP and the methods and materials in use for a particular kind of ESP
must be appropriate to that kind. For another, any given ESP course might suitably be taught with a wide range of
methods and materials. There is here an important point to be made about language teaching in general; great
variety and interest in the presentation of the teaching improves the effectiveness of learning. EFL today possesses
a vast array of different methodological possibilities. So ESP being relatively young and not burdened with a
tradition or narrow orthodoxy, such as that which often stifles General English can and does select its own methods
and techniques as it needs. Just as important, ESP does not have to employ any particular method or technique that
already exists, if the requirements do not point in that direction. Consequently the conventional school classroom
categories of dictation, essay, translation, precis, grammatical explanation, etc. do not necessarily have to appear in
an ESP course although any of them may appear, if they are suitable.

The methodologies of ESP conform to the same model of the language learning/teaching process as does any other
form of language teaching. That is to say, the basic teaching activities are these: Shaping the input; Encouraging
the learner's intention to learn; Managing the learning strategies; and Promoting practice and use.

18 | P a g e
Shaping the input, for ESP, means that the learner's experience of English is the English of his special purposes. In
principle, no English needs to be presented to the learner which is not part of the English of his special purposes.
But equally, English that is part of his special purposes needs to be provided in profusion.

What is English for Specific Purposes?

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) refers to the teaching and learning of English as a second or foreign language
where the goal of the learners is to use English in a particular domain. The teaching of English for specific
purposes, in its early days, was largely motivated by the need to communicate across languages in areas such as
commerce and technology (see Benesch 2001, Johns, this volume, Starfield 2012 for reviews of these
developments).

This has now expanded to include other areas such as English for academic purposes (EAP), English for
occupational purposes (EOP), English for vocational purposes (EVP), English for medical purposes (EMP),
English for business purposes (EBP), English for legal purposes (ELP), and English for sociocultural purposes
(ESCP) (Belcher 2009). Further, sub-divisions of EOP are sometimes made into business English,
professional English (e.g. English for doctors, lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism,
nursing, aviation, bricklaying).

A key feature of an ESP course is that the content and aims of the course are oriented to the specific needs of the
learners. ESP courses, then, focus on the language, skills, and genres appropriate to the specific activities the
learners need to carry out in English.

Typically (although not always) ESP students are adult learners. They are also often a homogeneous group in terms
of learning goals, although not always in terms of language proficiency. Key issues in the teaching of English for
specific purposes are how to identify learner needs, the nature of the genres that learners need to be able to
produce as well as participate in, and how we can know that our learners have been able to do this successfully,
and, if not, what we can do to help them to do this.

ESP Characteristics

According to Dudley-Evans (2001) the absolute characteristics of ESP are:

1. ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners.
2. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves.
3. It is centred not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses and genres
appropriate to those activities.

ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and
the development of intercultural competence. For Dudley-Evans (2001) the defining characteristic of ESP is that
teaching and materials are based on the results of a needs analysis. The key questions are:

1. What do students need to do with English?

2. Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?
3. Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?

Traditionally ESP courses were typically designed for intermediate or advanced adult learners.
Nowadays, many students can start to learn academic or vocational English at an earlier age and
at a lower level of proficiency.

Why is ESP important?

ESP has become increasingly important as:

1. There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world.

19 | P a g e
2. With the spread of globalization has come the increasing use of English as the language of
international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of
occupational contexts.
3. Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so move on to
ESP at an earlier age.

An increasing number of learners are taught in English medium schools using approaches such
as CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In some English speaking countries, governments
are launching initiatives to help economic migrants obtain the practical English skills necessary to
function in the workplace. For example, the new ESOL for Work Qualifications in the UK are designed to
help employers and employees access courses which offer them the functional language skills demanded
across a variety of employment sectors. Content includes topics such as customer care and health and
safety. Some teachers are afraid of making the transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP.
There is also the danger that the novice ESP teacher will only use materials that they feel
comfortable with and will not stretch their learners.

ESP Teacher’s Competence

Bell (2002) argues that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on a
number of variables which include:

1. How much do the learners know about their specialism?

2. Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners?
3. How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn?

Although you perhaps don't need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some awareness and feel
for a particular vocational area. Bell (2002) advocates the three Cs for helping teachers to improve their knowledge
and skills in a particular area of ESP:

1. Curiosity
The teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more.

2. Collaboration
Teachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback.

3. Confidence
Confidence will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and learn from
their learners.

ESP Teaching Material

Harding (2007) stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses e.g. being communicative, using
authentic materials and analysing English in a practical way are also applicable to ESP. He also suggests that
teachers should:

1. Think about what is needed and don't just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book.
2. Understand the nature of their students' subject area.
3. Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism.
4. Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area.
5. Use authentic materials.

20 | P a g e
6. Make the tasks as authentic as possible.
7. Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun.
8. Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom.

Like it or not, the days of the EFL generalist teacher may be numbered, so it might just be time to explore the
possibility of working in ESP!

Acronyms in ESP:

CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)

EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
EBP (English for Business Purposes)
ESAP (English for Specific Academic Purposes)
EGAP (English for General Academic Purposes)
EMP (English for Medical Purposes)
EOP (English for Occupational Purposes)
EPP (English for Professional Purposes)
EST (English for Science and Technology)
EVP (English for Vocational Purposes)
EWP (English for/in the Workplace

Activities:

1. What is ESP? Its characteristics? Its relevance?

2. What is the relevance of ESP to global workplaces? How can it provide answer to the learner and
his needs?
3. What is ESP to an English teacher? His difficulties and techniques in teaching ESP? His
methodology and materials in ESP?
4. What are the variables that affect teacher‘s competence? In his choice of teaching materials?
5. Identify the meaning of ESP acronyms and their purposes. You may do research on these.
6. Summarize your learnings in a narrative outline.

English for Specific Purposes versus English as a Second Language

How is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) different from English as a Second Language (ESL), also known as
general English? The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English.

ESP students are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and are learning the language in
order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular job related functions. An ESP program
is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required.

ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures. It covers
subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management. The ESP focal point is
that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated
into a subject matter area important to the learners.

However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim of instruction. In fact, as a
general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in
ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed by the students, and the syllabus is
designed accordingly.

An ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are preparing
for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the development of spoken skills in students who
are studying English in order to become tourist guides. As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and
21 | P a g e
English language teaching. Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they
learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management,
economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a
meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. The students' abilities in their subject-
matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context
they need to understand the English of the classroom.

In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content is expressed in English. The teacher can make
the most of the students' knowledge of the subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster.

The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students approach the study of
English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they
learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what
the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their
interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts. ESP assesses needs and integrates
motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of relevant skills.

The responsibility of the teacher

A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a Second Language (ESL), can exploit her background
in language teaching. She should recognize the ways in which her teaching skills can be adapted for the teaching of
English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she will need to look for content specialists for help in designing
appropriate lessons in the subject matter field she is teaching.

As an ESP teacher, you must play many roles. You may be asked to organize courses, to set learning objectives, to
establish a positive learning environment in the classroom, and to evaluate students progress.

Organizing Courses
You have to set learning goals and then transform them into an instructional program with the timing of
activities. One of your main tasks will be selecting, designing and organizing course materials, supporting
the students in their efforts, and providing them with feedback on their progress.

Setting Goals and Objectives

You arrange the conditions for learning in the classroom and set long-term goals and short-term
objectives for students achievement. Your knowledge of students' potential is central in designing a
syllabus with realistic goals that takes into account the students' concern in the learning situation.

Creating a Learning Environment

Your skills for communication and mediation create the classroom atmosphere. Students acquire language
when they have opportunities to use the language in interaction with other speakers. Being their teacher,
you may be the only English speaking person available to students, and although your time with any of
them is limited, you can structure effective communication skills in the classroom. In order to do so, in
your interactions with students try to listen carefully to what they are saying and give your understanding
or misunderstanding back at them through your replies. Good language learners are also great risk-takers ,
since they must make many errors in order to succeed: however, in ESP classes, they are handicapped
because they are unable to use their native language competence to present themselves as well-informed
adults. That‘s why the teacher should create an atmosphere in the language classroom which supports the
students. Learners must be self-confident in order to communicate, and you have the
responsibility to help build the learner's confidence.

Evaluating Students
The teacher is a resource that helps students identify their language learning problems and find solutions
to them, find out the skills they need to focus on, and take responsibility for making choices which

22 | P a g e
determine what and how to learn. You will serve as a source of information to the students about how
they are progressing in their language learning.

The responsibility of the student

What is the role of the learner and what is the task he/she faces? The learners come to the ESP class with a specific
interest for learning, subject matter knowledge, and well-built adult learning strategies. They are in charge of
developing English language skills to reflect their native language knowledge and skills.

Interest for Learning

People learn languages when they have opportunities to understand and work with language in a context that they
comprehend and find interesting. In this view, ESP is a powerful means for such opportunities. Students will
acquire English as they work with materials which they find interesting and relevant and which they can use in
their professional work or further studies. The more learners pay attention to the meaning of the language they hear
or read, the more they are successful; the more they have to focus on the linguistic input or isolated language
structures, the less they are motivated to attend their classes. The ESP student is particularly well disposed to focus
on meaning in the subject-matter field. In ESP, English should be presented not as a subject to be learned in
isolation from real use, nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be developed. On the contrary, English should be
presented in authentic contexts to make the learners acquainted with the particular ways in which the language is
used in functions that they will need to perform in their fields of specialty or jobs.

Subject-Content Knowledge
Learners in the ESP classes are generally aware of the purposes for which they will need to use English. Having
already oriented their education toward a specific field, they see their English training as complementing this
orientation. Knowledge of the subject area enables the students to identify a real context for the vocabulary and
structures of the ESP classroom. In such way, the learners can take advantage of what they already know about the
subject matter to learn English.

Learning Strategies
Adults must work harder than children in order to learn a new language, but the learning skills they bring to the
task permit them to learn faster and more efficiently. The skills they have already developed in using their native
languages will make learning English easier. Although you will be working with students whose English will
probably be quite limited, the language learning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom are potentially immense.
Educated adults are continually learning new language behaviour in their native languages, since language learning
continues naturally throughout our lives. They are constantly expanding vocabulary, become more fluent in their
fields, and adjusting their linguistic behaviour to new situations or new roles. ESP students can exploit these innate
competencies in learning English.

ESP Vocabulary Teaching at the Vocational Secondary

School of Furniture Industry
Ing. Oskar Kravaček

Introduction

English has become the language of the multicultural world and plays a key role in human lives. At present it is
considered to be an inevitable part of general and specific education for people all over the world. People need
English for different purposes: to deal with the foreign business partners in their jobs, to know it for their studies, to
travel abroad to meet other cultures or on holiday. English has become not only an international language but also a
global language, an Esperanto of nowadays, a language which is communicated in every part of the world.
Moreover, one of the most important impacts of globalization is the broader opportunity to live and work abroad.
To live contently and work successfully in another culture, in our case in an English-speaking country, means to
manage not only the basics of the language but also the terminology of the relevant field of occupation.

The aim of this thesis is to display how to teach English Vocabulary for Specific Purposes (ESP) at the technical
secondary school of furniture industry. This topic was not chosen by chance. Some students will be specialized in
23 | P a g e
wood/furniture processing industry as joiners, carpenters, folk-art joiners and wood/furniture processing
supervisors and managers. At the end of each term they are taught vocabulary from their branch. But there are only
the words/special terms in isolation. The intention of this work is to demonstrate teaching vocabulary in a dynamic
form, in practical use, in the form of practical exercises to remember the new words actively.

The thesis reflects a revival of interest in vocabulary teaching in recent years. This is partly due to the development
of new approaches to language teaching which are much more word-centred, partly due to a long-term practical
teaching experience and students´ results in managing language skills. Moreover, vocational classrooms are viewed
as potentially good environment for language learning because of the work carried out in small groups, using
authentic materials and equipment, and requiring close interpersonal communication. Another important aim of this
work is to suggest how vocational teachers can enhance learning opportunities for
students/apprentices with limited English proficiency in order to improve their English language skills as they
master vocational content. The focus of this thesis is to find out the best way how to motivate mostly teenage
students for learning special wood/furniture industry vocabulary and how to teach them with the best effect.

The theoretical part of this thesis is devoted to the short summary of basic principles of vocabulary teaching, and it
also underlines the specific factors in teaching special terminology that the teachers at vocational secondary school
should take into consideration. In the practical part, the examples of the lessons/topics aimed at practising ESP
vocabulary are presented. Consequently, the students of furniture industry should have basic knowledge of
vocabulary regarding their field. This knowledge might help them to adapt quite easily to the new working
environment and fulfil the requirements of a foreign employer.

Theoretical part

Characteristics of the target group

The target group discussed in this thesis includes adolescent vocational students between 15 and 20. It is not easy to
learn English in this problematic age. Some students have negative attitudes to studying theoretical subjects at all.
They may suppose a foreign language not to be necessary for their future career. They often argue that they will not
need to use English language as cabinet makers or carpenters. Moreover, there is a lack of English textbooks for
vocational schools. The materials should be adequate to their needs and ability to acquire the language.

This thesis is focused on vocational students with the lack of motivation and some learning difficulties with
acquiring English. There is an increasing amount of students with different disabilities nowadays, e.g. dyslexia,
dysgraphia, mental problems or psychological barriers, which can negatively influence the process of learning. To
avoid these factors it is necessary to choose the efficient teaching strategy for learners, taking into consideration
various aspects resulting from their specific needs. One of the ways is incorporation of the special terminology,
English for Specific Purposes (ESP), into the normal English lessons. It is an excellent way for reinforcing
vocabulary in connection with practice of students at the school workshops, supporting the naturalness of learning
English by enriching the conditions in which the students live, learn and work. This type of purposeful learning
closely connected with the practical work can encourage their interest in English. ―ESP must be seen as an
approach not as a product. ESP, then, is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner‘s reason for learning‖ (Hutchinson and Waters 19). On the other hand, it is
necessary to realize that it is hard work to use additional teaching/learning materials in the normal lessons, and
what is more at the technical secondary schools, where the learners struggle with the basics of English language.
Because of population reduction, contemporary technical secondary schools concentrate the worst educated pupils
from primary schools.

Motivation of vocational students

The aim is to make learning English terminology in the field of wood/furniture industry more stimulating and
motivating. It is necessary to realize that students learning a foreign language may only learn well if you find a way
to activate and encourage their desire to invest effort in the learning activity. The main point is to find the best way
how to motivate vocational students for learning English. The age of the students is between 15 and 20 so it can be
difficult to connect fun and studying drill. The teaching should be based on friendly but demanding atmosphere
with the appropriate space for games and talking.

Sources of motivation
Students are influenced by many attitudes of different participants in the learning process (Dörnyei 34, 39):
24 | P a g e
Teacher – is the key factor in student‘s motivation. He or she must have a positive attitude and enthusiasm for
teaching English. If the teacher makes lessons interesting, the students like learning English and they appreciate it.

Parents – if parents have positive attitudes to learning, it is easier for the student to study.
If family members do not accept the importance of learning a foreign language and emphasize it by unreasonable
comments, frequent disturbing or not paying attention, then such atmosphere could be very demotivating.

Environment – it depends on what social background children come from. If they are brought up in a positive
society it is good for their school results. A positive classroom atmosphere should be created to enhance a good
school environment.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

As it has been said one of the factors that have a strong impact on success or failure in learning English is
motivation. If students miss motivation for studying English, it will be very hard to make them cooperate. It can
simply be said that without motivation students would not do some activities and consequently there would not be
any effort to acquire a language (Uhr 274). In other words, students must be motivated by some basic kinds of
motivation, which include intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Harmer 3-4).

According to Harmer (3-4) intrinsic motivation is commonly defined as an internal drive. This is something that
students want to do themselves because they are personally interested in it (e.g. acquiring the knowledge of
language). A typical example of intrinsic motivation is an interest or a hobby, i.e. an activity carried out for its own
sake. On the contrary, extrinsic motivation is influenced from outside. Students carry out activities because they are
expected or forced to do them. It may be the compulsory subjects in school curriculum, a need to satisfy parents‘
expectations, longing to be praised or an idea of a better career. The ordinary motives are tangible rewards.

As Jeremy Harmer (4) states, intrinsic motivation is concerned with the factors taking place inside the classroom
while extrinsic motivation is concerned with factors outside the classroom. Harmer points out that intrinsic
motivation is very important in students‘ success or failure. What happens in the classroom is very important in
establishing students´ attitude to a language. In his opinion (4) extrinsic motivation includes situations in which
students believe that managing of the target language will be a means for getting a better job, position or status
(instrumental motivation) or it will help them to integrate into a particular culture environment (integrative
motivation). This stresses the fact that students‘ attitude to learning can be predominantly affected by members of a
community. But other factors participating in the learning process can also essentially affect it. They are physical
conditions, teaching methods, success/failure and especially a teacher. All of them have an important impact on
learning a foreign language.

Instrumental and integrative motivation

As it has been mentioned above, there are also other two types of motivation identified by Gardner and Lambert
(Eyildirim, Ashton 3): instrumental and integrative motivation. People who acquire language for reasons such as to
obtain a good and well-paid job, to be able to read and understand instructions for equipment needed in their
profession, or study in the foreign country, have instrumental motivation. ―Instrumental values are consequences
and benefits of having learnt the target language‖ (Dornyei 51). The knowledge is exploited as an instrument to
achieve something in life.

Integrative motivation is applied by people who want to get in touch with ―the culture of the second language group
and become involved in social interchange in that group‖ (Brown qtd. in Eyildirim, Ashton 3). Integrative
motivation may apply to students who want to read magazines/journals, understand foreign music, if they come to a
foreign country they want to speak in shops and ask for directions, simply they have to communicate. They want to
integrate into the society. The main point, regarding teaching special terminology, is to find the best way how to
motivate students for studying English vocabulary in the strict but at the same time friendly atmosphere.

Teaching methods

25 | P a g e
Vocabulary has not always been considered as an important part of second language teaching because much more
attention has been paid to teaching grammatical and phonological structures. There is a short review of some
linguistics approaches that appeared during the 20th century.

Grammar-translation method
Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) was frequently used in the past for teaching the classical languages. It is
logically based on translation from one language into another. Students translate independently, student-student
interaction is nearly missing. Students are given grammar rules/patterns and they memorize them. Teachers often
teach in the mother tongue with little use of the target language. Correcting mistakes is considered to be highly
important. The primary aim is to be able to read different texts written in the target language. Vocabulary is
presented in the form of isolated words. Grammatical accuracy is more important than the ability to communicate.
However, this method can work quite well for ESP and EST students who need to be able to read technical texts,
journals or manuals in a foreign language without intention to communicate or write.

Direct method
The aim of Direct Method (DM) is to think in the target language and, as a result of this, to develop a good
communication ability. Spoken word is emphasized and is considered to be the primary form of language.
Vocabulary and grammar are learnt through examples and associations. Teacher presents the subject by acting or
demonstrations. Vocabulary is studied in a natural conversational context whereas textbook explanations are
presented later. Vocabulary is preferred to grammar, but only everyday vocabulary is taught. Students learn to talk
by listening and interacting with their classmates. Emphasis is put on speaking in the form of sentences rather than
on using words in isolation.

Audio-lingual method
Learning through Audio-lingual method (ALM) means forming habits. The method is based on teaching drills of
sentence patterns and their pronunciation. ALM was thought out during the World War II for military objectives.
The main aim was to create communicative ability of learners in a short time and make responses habitual and
mostly automatic. The only language used during lessons is the target language, special importance is given to
pronunciation, and memorizing of phrases plays the key role. Teacher has the central and leading role, his/her work
is very demanding because of accuracy, activity and control. Except for automatic responses, there is a great effort
to produce mistake-free utterances. Language is displayed through conversations divided into lines that are drilled
repetitively. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned only in context.

Task-based learning
Tasks are often the central part of the practical learning activity. The main idea of Task- -Based Learning (TBL) is
that students study more effectively when their brain is occupied with a specific task or topic offering, besides
concentration on language, its grammar or vocabulary, also another practical experience, e.g. solving problems or
making decisions. In this way, students are forced to communicate in the target language and therefore they use a
wider range of language items, not only a particular pattern or vocabulary group. Tasks may include projects for
producing pictures, presentations, dramatic performances, films etc. Teacher helps to choose topics, encourages,
regulates and monitors. These activities improved above all students‘ communication ability, and solving real
problems is highly motivating and offer students actual reasons for learning a language.

Total physical response method

The Total Physical Response method (TPR) is based on the fact that a foreign language should be learnt in a similar
way as children learn their mother tongue: firstly they only listen to it and do what they are asked for. Therefore,
the main skill in TPR is listening with concentration on listening comprehension. Mother tongue is rarely used in
lessons. All explanations are done through voice, body language, gestures and actions. Students can listen to a
recording while looking at additional materials that help to understand the meaning from context. The main aim is
to decrease stress in speaking, make lessons more enjoyable and encourage students to feel more confident and
successful. This method is convenient for beginners of all ages but generally it is rather supportive and requires
cooperation with other methods.

Suggestopedia
This method belongs to Accelerated Language Learning developed on the theories of Georgi Lozanov, based on the
power of suggestion in learning. It is supported by the use of mostly Baroque music and comfortable environment

26 | P a g e
(decorations and classroom arrangement) that create relaxed but focused state (it is called the alpha state). Various
colours and tones of presented materials help to avoid monotony of learning process, emotionalize meaning of
language materials and evoke positive mood. Relaxed students can acquire new language naturally and easily, their
mind is clear, receptive to information, and rapidly makes connections. The main aim of Suggestopedia is to
overcome psychological barriers and to increase confidence. Stress is put on memorization of vocabulary pair – a
target item and its translation into a mother tongue. It is good for acquiring language but predominantly for
building vocabulary in respect of displaying the right context for usage of certain words. This method is specific
and rather supportive, suitable for a certain group of students.

Teaching approaches
Teaching methods discussed above are closely linked with teaching approaches. Whereas teaching methods are
collections of individual teaching techniques, systematic sets of teaching practices based on the appropriate theory
of language learning, teaching approaches are the ways through which the teaching methods are achieved. The
examples of some approaches are above all the Lexical approach (Lewis, 3), Communicative approach (Harmer,
41-42) and Eclectic approach (Halvorson, 11).

Lexical approach
Lexical approach is based on the idea that a significant part of language acquisition is the ability to make lexical
phrases in chunks (pairs or groups of words which are usually found together or in a close proximity). In this way
language consists of chunks and they, in the form of combinations, make up a coherent text. Language is viewed
predominantly as lexis rather than a combination of grammar structures and vocabulary. Stress is put on vocabulary
as the main carrier of meaning, but this concept is moved from words to lexis. The goal is to achieve fluency and
accuracy through acquisition of a large storage of fixed or semi-fixed prefabricated items. Lexical approach puts a
big stress on spoken language rather than on writing. Activities are based on target language / mother tongue
comparison and translation with looking for equivalents from mother tongue. Meaning of vocabulary might be
guessed from context. Language patterns/collocations are noticed and noted into systematically organized
notebooks. Students are supported to work with monolingual dictionaries, which provide good base for active
manage of a language. Listening skill is stressed and developed at lower levels while at higher levels it is
predominantly reading: mostly short texts read in class and extensive reading (articles chosen because of personal
interest or for pleasure). Various texts are used for different purposes. The motto of this approach according to
Thornbury (13) may be: ―Without grammar little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.‖

Communicative approach
The teaching methods as TPR and Suggestopedia have brought new thoughts that originated in the nowadays most
widely used Communicative approach which emphasizes usage of the target language. Harmer (41) states the
following characteristics: ―Because of the focus of communicative activities and the concentration on language as a
means of communication such an approach has been called the communicative approach.‖ As Thornbury points
out, the introduction of Communicative approach in the 1970s helped to emphasize the role of vocabulary. The
communicative value of a core vocabulary has been recognized, especially by tourists. Communicative sources
provided by phrase books are more valuable than those in grammar-organized textbooks. Acknowledgment of the
meaning-making potential of words means that vocabulary has become again the main learning objective (14).
Vocabulary acquisition is the most important and at the same time the largest task facing the language learner. The
recent trend has proven that course books include more activities than specifically targeted vocabulary. More
attention is given to a collection of vocabulary items, the grammar of words, to collocations, semantic relations
between lexical items and to word frequency.

Eclectic approach
According to a definition found in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (367), eclectic means: ―not following
only one style, etc. set of ideas but choosing from or using a wide range.‖ It means that Eclectic Approach includes
valuable techniques and procedures of other different approaches and benefits from them. The biggest advantage is
flexibility. Teachers can make experiments with techniques and activities of different approaches and methods to
find out the one that might be the most suitable for their target group. It should allow teachers to choose the most
appropriate teaching methods and incorporate them into their lessons. It also gives great opportunities to
concentrate on individuals‘ needs.

27 | P a g e
The important fact follows from the above-mentioned: teachers have to make compromises in using teaching
approaches and methods because the completely effective teaching method does not exist. There are some effective
methods for a certain usage, but they do not function in other circumstances. But one tendency is transparent:
Vocabulary, not grammar, is put to the centre of the classroom in order to help learners develop their ability to use
English for real communication. In my opinion, the best way is when neither grammar nor lexis is underestimated
and the attention is paid to both approximately in the same extent. But then teachers have to deal with the problem
how also an effective way of teaching vocabulary can be incorporated into lessons, besides the stress put on
teaching grammar.

Vocabulary teaching
All languages contain words. Most learners acknowledge the importance of vocabulary acquisition. According to
Thornbury ―the acquisition of new words is the process which never stops‖ (1). To build a good storage of
vocabulary is the first and one of the most important steps when starting to learn a new language. People learn new
words permanently and identify their meaning. Vocabulary learning does not officially belong to the language
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) but there is no way of making advance in language without building
vocabulary that can be applied into grammar structures and make meaningful utterances. It is difficult for students
to communicate without creation and developing their own lexicon.

ESP vocabulary teaching

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) represents a spesific reason for learning a foreign language. There are
distinguished two types of ESP: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP - learning English for a job) and English
for Academic Purposes (EAP - learning English for a study specialization). At present these streams include a lot of
other fields, e.g. English for Technicians.

The students at the vocational secondary school of furniture industry should study ESP vocabulary, especially
English for Technicians. According to Hatch and Brown (312), ―special lexical items are present in nearly all
professions, and each branch has special vocabulary to cover abstract concepts.‖ Kennedy and Bolitho (56-58)
distinguish these word categories for teaching technical vocabulary:

 Technical Abbreviations, Symbols and Formulae – they partly cause the problems. Teachers´ role is to
explain patiently their form and meaning, and students should practise them in spoken and written
exercises.
 Sub-technical vocabulary – words which are not directly a part of specific technical branch, but they occur
generally in scientific and technical texts – e.g. derivation, conversion, dense and isolation.
 Highly technical vocabulary – words that have a close thematic relationship and belong to the specific
technical field.

The fundamental problem which has to be solved by authors designing technical teaching materials is:
contemporary students at the vocational secondary school have little knowledge not only English, but also their
profession. This fact reflects in these two factors: teaching material should be managed by students in both the
language and specialization. Hatch and Brown (370) stress that ―the specificity of any individual‘s knowledge
about a word depends on the person and his or her motivation, desires, and needs for the word.‖ There is also an
important role of teachers to facilitate learning of technical vocabulary with the favourable secondary impact on the
good general knowledge of English.

Selecting vocabulary
The initial step in teaching ESP vocabulary is to determine which words and special terms in fact to teach. Gairns
and Redman (59) emphasize especially cultural reasons and the principles of need and level. Authors of teaching
materials and teachers should take into account also the criteria of learnability and teachability. According to
Harmer (154), one of the most common principles of vocabulary selection is to teach at first concrete words and
gradually abstract words. Words like chair, table, sofa and wardrobe are easily presented and explained, because
students can see or imagine the real things which the words represent. On the contrary, abstract words like density,
qualifications, safety are more difficult to explain. There are a number of words that are connected with the idea of
furniture (chair, table, sofa and wardrobe). Words that have this kind of thematic relationship are said to belong to
the same lexical field. The texts of practical part also contain the lexical field of tool-related words that partly

28 | P a g e
overlap with furniture words (hammer, screwdriver and saw) as well as terminology connected with trees
(hardwood and softwood).

After selection words for teaching purpose it is also indispensable to decide what to teach about each naming unit.
According to Harmer (158) and Thornbury (15), knowledge of a word involves knowing its:
 Meaning - meanings in context, sense of relation (synonyms/antonyms),
 Form – spelling and pronunciation, affixes, parts of speech,
 Grammar – plurals, countability, past simple/participle forms,
 Usage – collocations and appropriate register.

Presenting vocabulary
The main aim of presenting vocabulary is to insert the meaning, the correct form and appropriate usage of the new
word into the student´s memory. There are quite lots of methods and techniques how to present the form and
meaning of new lexical items. It depends on teachers, which form of presentation is the most suitable for the
particular topic. According to Gairns and Redman (73), there are some traditional methods and techniques used to
present new vocabulary:

Visual techniques:
Visuals – photographs, flashcards, blackboard drawings, pictures, videos, wallcharts, pictograms and real objects;
they are useful for teaching concrete words.
Demonstrating: mime/facial expression and gesture – useful for teaching action verbs.
Verbal techniques:
Illustrative situations (oral or written) – this technique is helpful when the words are more abstract.
Synonyms and antonyms – using the words students have already known to teach them similar words.
Definitions and explanations – appropriate for intermediate learners. To make definition of words can be difficult,
especially at elementary levels.
Scales – if students know 'big' and 'small', for example, other steps could be to teach 'short' and 'long' etc.
Examples of the type – give examples of words you want to introduce.
Translation – it has been the most widespread activity used for presenting the meaning of a word in classes.
Guessing from the context, matching/labelling – learners match words to words or sentences or pictures. It
belongs to so called discovery techniques: they activate the learner‘s previous knowledge of a language and initiate
the work with the new vocabulary. Discovery techniques demand the autonomous students with higher knowledge
of English.

Taking into consideration the specific factors of ESP vocabulary teaching ―many of the techniques traditionally
used in ELT work can be exploited in ESP vocabulary teaching especially at the early stages when both subject and
linguistic content are at an elementary level‖ (Kennedy and Bolitho 59). Consequently, presenting ESP vocabulary
can be fully realised by methods and techniques mentioned above. Often even translation may be useful, necessary
and appropriate because of the level of students at the vocational secondary schools and to avoid the fatal
misunderstanding. During presentation wood/furniture vocabulary, teachers have a great opportunity to explain the
purposeful meaning of a word in the context of the real life and work at the school workshops. However, this kind
of presentation should be simple, interesting and amusing to motivate and encourage students´ interest.

Vocabulary consolidation
As Thornbury (23) states, ―in fact, learning is remembering. Unlike the learning of grammar, which is essentially a
rule-based system, vocabulary knowledge is largely a question of accumulating individual items.‖ He distinguishes
three basic types of memory (23):
Short-term store – some information is held in memory for a very short time (a few seconds). Students are able to
repeat a word that they have just heard from their teacher.
Working memory – it is a space, where a student first places information for later usage to recall a word
repeatedly. It lasts about 20 seconds.
Long-term memory – to compare working memory, where the capacity is limited with long-term
memory, where the capacity is wide and its contents are lasted over time.

The great challenge for learners is to transform vocabulary from the quickly forgotten (short-term store) to the
never forgotten (long-term store), and to turn passive knowledge of vocabulary into an active form. Research into
29 | P a g e
memory suggests that, in order to ensure that information moves into permanent long-term memory, a number of
principles must to be followed. One of them is use. ―Putting words to use, preferably in some interesting way, is the
best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory. It is the principle well-known as Use it or lose it
(Thornbury 24). For this reason, words must be presented in their usual contexts, so that learners can get a sense for
their meaning, their register and collocations. In separated vocabulary activities, words are often presented in the
form of lexical sets. It is highly recognised that it is easier to learn the words that are thematically arranged but
have looser relation than lexical sets. The system of practical exercises should be thoroughly organized so that the
amount of new words does not discourage the student.

Vocabulary practice
Presenting a word in the class does not secure that it will be remembered for a long time. There are many practice
activities that include repeating of the new vocabulary to fix the new words in the learners´ memory. The practice
activities are divided into two main groups: receptive and productive. Receptive practice (the learner does not
really produce the target words) includes these types (Thornbury 94-99):

1) Identifying – means finding words in a text or listening, e.g. underline specific words or expressions in the text,
or tick, put in the correct column or list items that you hear.
2) Selecting – means recognizing words and making choices among them, e.g. circle the odd word in the line.
3) Matching – includes recognizing words and than pairing them with their synonym, antonym, definition, pictures
to words etc. It can be intended to matching parts of lexical items to create collocations (there is a very popular
memory game based on matching called Pelmanism).
4) Sorting – putting the lexical items into different categories, e.g. put these adjectives in two groups – positive and
negative.
5) Ranking and sequencing – putting the lexical items in some kind of order, e.g. ordering items chronologically,
ranking items according to personal preference etc. Productive practice (the productive skills – writing or speaking
– are incorporated in the vocabulary teaching,) includes these types (Thornbury 100): completion and creation.
- Completion tasks (context is given), often called gap-fills, are widely used not only in practice but also in revision
stages. They include open gap-fills or closed gap-fills (multiple choice activities), crosswords,
- Creation tasks: the learner use the word in a sentence or a story, in writing, speaking or both forms, use affixes to
build new naming units from given words.

Generally speaking, vocabulary practice is divided into controlled and free. Controlled practice has to come first,
because controlled activities require the student to produce a certain structure, they practice accuracy and fix the
pattern. The second phase, which demands productive use of vocabulary, is free practice. The specialists point out
the usage of free practice in the class, because according to Lewis (151-152) ―to know a word means how to use it
in the real life to be able to communicate.‖ This is a typical example of the lexical approach where is a primary role
of words which determine grammar. Free practice is aimed at fluency and is productive. However, Gairns and
Redman warn against ―a certain degree of stress involved in productive practice‖ (137). According to them,
practice should be challenging, but not frustrating or stressful for the learner. They give several arguments in
favour of productive practice of vocabulary in the classroom (137), above all, it promotes fluency and improves
pronunciation, it helps the memory to store words, and retrieve them later, conversation in English is very
motivating and it builds learner‘s confidence, learners expect to get the opportunity to practise new language.

Another division includes spoken and written practice. Many vocabulary activities used in the class are
based on discussions, dialogues, descriptions, role-play activities, or different written tasks. It has become
a part of communicative classes, e.g. in the form of an activity well-known as ´Find someone who…`,
memory games and funny games (hot seat) etc.

ESP vocabulary practice and consolidation

The students should be encouraged to think about the importance of the word, therefore the examples in context are
highly useful. Moreover, this approach must be focused predominantly on learners, each unit has to have clear
aims, motivating topics and challenging practical activities. The appropriate issues must be presented in the context
of the real life, in this case, of the present vocational school, where ―young people are given numerous
opportunities to follow purposeful learning‖ (Buchanan 6). As Maehr points out, in this way, teachers can support
the naturalness of learning vocabulary, and in such an enriched atmosphere, learners find ideal authentic reasons for
learning a foreign language (1).

30 | P a g e
According to Morgan and Rinvolucri (7) the new words are not learned mechanically, but associatively. Therefore
the most progressive methods in ESP vocabulary teaching should be sorting words by process or activity, by
categories (materials: hard and soft wood), by word families (to join, joiner, joinery), by theme/topic (types of
furniture) and synonyms/ antonyms. Contemporary supplementary vocabulary books are typically organised
thematically like in this thesis. Moreover, it allows learners to work independently on vocabulary areas that they
are interested in.

ESP vocabulary can be practised and consolidated by similar methods and techniques used for practising and
consolidation of general vocabulary (See sub-section 1.5.4.). Writing tasks can include reports and different
instructions for wood/furniture processing, making summaries from technical journals, describing processes and
techniques, labelling diagrams and pictures, describing graphs and comments on charts etc. Nowadays a lot of
students take part in various competitions where they display their projects and so they may create a short English
summary of their presentations. There are different exchange practices with other vocational/technical secondary
schools within the European Union, school trips, e-learning activities and participations in Comenius and Socrates
programmes, where students can improve their ESP vocabulary in practical circumstances.

Practical part
In this part of the thesis there is a comment on the hand-out (see Appendix) which reflects the theoretical part about
the ESP vocabulary teaching. The hand-out called Furniture Industry Vocabulary in Use is intended for the pre-
intermediate (B1) students of the vocational secondary school of furniture industry. The overall aims, hand-out
design and its using are based on introduction in Basic Technical English, Teacher´s Book (1-9).

Target students
Furniture Industry Vocabulary in Use is aimed at students requiring English for practical use in technical fields
who have pre-intermediate knowledge of general English. It regards the group of about 15 students aged 17-18
attending the third and forth grade of the vocational secondary school of furniture industry, the branch of supervisor
of wood/furniture processing industry. They are timetabled for 2x45minutes of ESP English a month. It aims to
develop students´ competence in processing the kind of technical information found in manuals and handbooks so
that they will approach the reading and understanding of technical material with some confidence in the course of
their vocational or occupational training. Furniture Industry Vocabulary in Use constitutes a teaching programme
of some 20 lessons. It is logical that it might be used as a complement to a compulsory language teaching
programme involving spoken technical English. It can be also ideal for the new school curriculum – RVP and ŠVP
at the vocational secondary school. On the other hand, it is necessary to realize that students at
technical schools are a mixed ability group, most of them have only a basic knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.
They have problems with reading and it is difficult to make them speak.

Linguistic objectives
Furniture Industry Vocabulary in Use is a combination thematic/topic-based and semantic syllabus. The aim is to
present technical material in the topics which are chosen as the most important for students specialized in the
branch of wood/furniture industry. System of the practical exercises support the learning new vocabulary – it
provides the better understanding the basic meaning of unfamiliar new words and using them in appropriate
contexts and collocations. This additional teaching/learning material displays systematic vocabulary syllabus,
collocations, and easy-to-understand definitions. New vocabulary is presented in context to stress the fact that the
language is used to express relationship between information. Visual devices (tables, pictures and drawings) which
are common in technical books are used with the aim to familiarize the learners with them and use these devices as
a means of vocabulary presentation.

Target skills and materials

The hand-out is based on technical texts and pictures adopted from http://www.taunton.com/finewoodworking.
Original texts were shortened and simplified to be appropriate for teaching/learning purpose and language abilities
of young learners. The key information was left in the texts, the redundant one was removed. The basic range of
topic areas creates the logical order following the wood/furniture processing. The ability to extract information
from written text includes a variety of skills connected, above all, with the content of a reading course. Among the
most important is the capability to understand the main idea of a passage (skimming). Further skills involve the
ability to find quickly specific information (scanning) and intensive reading to get details.

31 | P a g e
Language functions
There are three functional areas in the hand-out: Static description includes the use of language to describe
properties, characteristics or attributes of materials, devices, technologies and systems: ―Drill presses are precision
tools, capable of boring holes in exact locations at carefully controlled depths.‖

Dynamic description involves the description of relationships between a series of events or processes: ―It does not
matter how many screws you use, or how much glue you put into a joint. If a piece of furniture is constructed
without taking wood movement into consideration, it finally might break.‖

Instructions entails mostly language to describe the correct order of furniture processing: ―Lift the part off the bit
after it touches the far stop.‖

Within the above described categories, the occurrence of certain language functions in written technical materials
deserves special linguistic attention. The following survey provides examples of some functions (types of
exercises) covered in the topics/lessons:

Classifying: ―There are two basic types of drying wood: kiln-dried and air-dried.‖
Comparing: ―Files produce a finer finish than rasps.‖
Defining: ―Vessels are wood cells that extend parallel to the grain.‖
Recommending: ―Rough lumber should be purchased oversized in thickness and length.‖

Exemplifying: ―For example, 4/4 lumber is approximately 1 inch thick, and 8/4 lumber is about 2 inches thick.‖
Warning: ―Protect your eyes, ears, and lungs.‖
Expressing priority/degree: ―Ensuring the integrity of a piece of furniture is the number one priority in furniture
construction.‖
Expressing function: ―Band saw provides cutting curves and re-sawing thick planks into thinner ones.‖
Expressing purpose: ―Whereas solid wood shrinks and expands with changes in humidity affecting its dimensions,
the panel is able to expand and contract freely inside an unchanged frame.‖
Describing measurements: ―Most rough lumber is delivered up to 12/4.‖
Expressing possibility: ―Workshops offer plenty of ways to get hurt, from airborne dust and chemicals that may
lead to chronic health problems to flying chunks of wood or metal that may damage your body.‖

Different types of exercises were chosen intentionally for practising vocabulary to demonstrate the ability to
prepare broad variety of exercises which might be highly interesting for learners. The types of exercise students
will usually do are matching expressions, definitions or words/meanings (1.2., 2.2.), gap-filling with supplied
words/expressions (2.1.), finishing sentences with multi-choice words (2.5., 3.2.), correct/incorrect exercise for
checking vocabulary used in given sentences (5.1.), translations the given sentences (8.2.), labelling of pictures
(1.1., 4.3.), the crossword puzzle (3.1.), word formation exercises (4.2)., identification of a word according to its
meaning or grammar (4.1., 9.4.), rearranging word exercises (6.1.) and rearranging of actions/procedures (8.1).

Unit organization and layout

The hand-out consists of 9 units. With taking into account a class of about 15 students at pre-intermediate level, it
will be worked on the basis of approximately two teaching hours per unit. Units are organized around the topics
arranged in the logical order following the wood/furniture processing. Each unit/topic is divided into two parts:
Presentation (text, vocabulary, drawings, pictures and tables) and
Practice/Revision (exercises).

The units begin with a presentation of vocabulary from a given topic in the form of a technical text. The important
words are selected and identified by bold type. Under the text or a part of the text (according to the text length)
there is a vocabulary list with English-Czech meaning. In the list there is not pronunciation of English words,
because it is supposed that students with pre-intermediate level English will take notes about pronunciation
according to the teacher´s instructions. Wood/furniture vocabulary logically contains a lot of the other technical
vocabulary. Students should be encouraged to make notes of vocabulary relevant to their technical area. In this way
a student is actively involved at this presentation phase.

32 | P a g e
Practical exercises revise, consolidate, exploit and reinforce the main features from the presentation. The types of
exercises vary from gap completion exercises to labelling pictures (see section 2.4.). Where completion exercises
occur, it is important to realize that mostly a word or a compound is missing. The intention was to give simpler
types of tasks to complicated to be managed by students at the vocational secondary school. At the end of the hand-
out there is a key that provides the solution to the problems presented by the particular exercise.

The teacher´s role

The teacher´s role should be seen, in an ideal way, as a guide through the teaching/learning material and as an
initiator of activities, deciding when to facilitate through answers and explanations. However, because of the target
group, there are mostly expected the situations when teacher-centered learning will occur. Firstly, in situations
when the new vocabulary is expected to be extremely difficult for students, or when the meaning of key words
cannot be deduced from the context. Selected items should be presented and explained through the pre-teaching
activities before students start to read the given technical text. Secondly, it is important task of the teacher to do the
summary/revision of a unit, drawing attention to the main vocabulary or other main points from a unit (e.g.
technical meaning or definition), checking understanding and discussing problems according to the feedback. In
addition, teachers can think out further examples or exercises to explain some problems or practise vocabulary.

Particularly, in the early stages and in some complicated occasions, the mother tongue can be used to avoid the
fatal misunderstanding. As regards translation, while translation of individual words may be beneficial in the terms
of accuracy and time saving, translation the whole sentences of the text might be detrimental to the lessons/course
objectives. For this reason there is only one translation exercise in practical part.

The student´s role

Not all students would receive the idea of the teacher´s role as the guides or moderators of the lessons. However,
the teacher should do everything possible to lead students on the way of self-studying learning. Since students will
not be familiar with all of the topics, an effort has to be focused on understanding of both: new vocabulary and new
technical information. The secondary aim is to stimulate curiosity and interest about information from the branch of
wood/furniture processing industry. The tasks are designed to involve the students actively in the process of
gaining the new information. This corresponds with the idea of reading as an active skill in learning technical
terminology. The intention is also to learn students to work with the technical texts to achieve a satisfactory level of
understanding and to manage different tasks in their future careers.

Activities:

1. Differences between ESP and ESL? Comparison and contrast.

2. What are the roles of the teacher in teaching ESP? Explain further.
3. What are the roles and the tasks of the learner in an ESP class?
4. In ESP vocabulary teaching, what are the procedures/steps/methods? Identify and elaborate.
5. Summarize your learnings in a narrative outline.

References:
 English for Specific Purposes and Syllabus Design, Mohammed Mizel Tahir, 2016
 Developments in ESP: from register analysis to a genre-based and CLIL-based approach, Isabel Negro
Alousque, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 2016
 Teaching Module compiled by Bertaria Sohnata Hutauruk, 2015
 Syllabus of Vocational High School Based on ESP Approach, Sri Utami Dewi, 2015
 The Handbook of English for Specific Purposes, edited by Brian Paltridge and Sue Starfield, 2013
 ESP in the Classroom: Practice and Evaluation, 1985

33 | P a g e