Basic anatomy of a computer Computer hardware components include the processor (CPU), memory, address and data bus, and input/output devices. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The part of a computer that sequences and executes instructions. Memory: A component of the computer that provides the processor with a working storage area to hold program instructions and data. Input/Output Device: A computer component that provides data and instructions to the computer and receives results from it. Bus: A set of electronic circuits used to route data and instructions to and from the various components of a computer. + Instruction phase: Y Fetch instruction. The computer reads the next Processing device ‘ © ‘ALU program instruction to be executed along with | “Psy sacuaie (a) Execute any necessary data into the processor. t-time | E:Time (Fetch / Y Decode instruction. ‘The instruction is decoded and passed to the appropriate processor execution unit + Execution phase: Y Execute instruction. The computer executes the ‘ Resisters \(4! Store instruction by making an arithmetic computation logical comparison, bit shift, or vector operation. Y Store results, The results are stored in temporary storage locations called registers or in memory.Each processor produces a series of electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the clock speed, Which governs the speed at which these steps are completed. Clock speed is measured in Gigahertz (GHz) Unfortunately, the faster the clock speed of the processor, the more heat the processor generates. This heat must be dissipated to avoid corrupting the data and instructions the computer is trying to process. Thus, processors that run at higher temperatures need bigger heat sinks (a device or substance for absorbing excessive heat), fans, and other components to eliminate the excess heat. This increases the size and weight of the computing device Processor Families Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): A basic set of commands (opcodes) that the proc! execule x86 family. Intel, AMD, and VIA Technologies are the largest manufacturers of x86 (Intel Atom, ARM (RISC), CISC ‘or can Multiprocessing Multiprocessing involves the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the same time, One form of multiprocessing uses coprocessors ‘A coprocessor speeds processing by executing specific types of instructions while the CPU works on another processing activity. Coprocessors can be internal or external to the CPU and can have different clock speeds than the CPU. Each type of coprocessor performs a specific function, For example, a math coprocessor chip speeds mathematical calculations, while a graphics coprocessor chip decreases the time it takes to manipulate graphics. ‘A multicore processor has two or more independent processing units, called cores, which are capable of sequencing and executing instructions. The multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, thereby increasing the amount of processing that can be completed ina given amount of time.Parallel Computing Parallel computing is the simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple processors to obtain results more quickly, Systems with thousands of such processors are known as massively parallel processing systems, a form of multiprocessing that speeds processing by linking hundreds or even thousands of processors to operate at the same time, or in parallel, with each processor having its own bus, memory, disks, copy of the operating system, and applications. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California is home to the Sequoia supercomputer, an impressive example of a massively parallel processing system. Sequoia is consistently ranked as one of the fastest computers in the world, with over 1.5 million processing cores that allow it to process over 17 quadrillion computations per second. Grid computing: The use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or organizations, that work in a coordinated manner to solve a common problem. Main Memory: The component of a computer that provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and data. Random Access Memory (RAM) Static (SRAM) Dynamic (DRAM) Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM memory (DDR SDRAM) DDR2, DDR3, DDR4‘Cache Memory: A type of high speed memory that a processor can access more rapidly than main memory. L1, L2, L3 Cache Memory Read-only memory (ROM), another type of memory, is nonvolatile, meaning that its contents are not lost if the power is tuned off or interrupted. ROM provides permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change, such as programs and data from the computer manufacturer, including the instructions that tell the computer how to start up when power is tuned on. ROM memory also comes in a couple varieties. Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is used to hold data and instructions that can never be changed. Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is. user modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly through the application of higher-than-normal electrical voltage. EEPROM requires data to be written or erased 1 byte at a time. Secondary Data Storage Devices Socondlary Store: A deviee tha stores large amounts of data, instructions, and information more permanently than allowed with main memory. + Magnetic tape: A type of sequential secondary storage medium, now used primarily for storing backups of critical organizational data in the event of a disaster. Hard Disk Drive (HDD): A direct access storage device used to store and retrieve data ftom rapidly rotating disks coated with magnetic material + Redundant Array of Independent/inexpensive Disks (RAID): A method of storing data that generates extra bits of data from existing data, allowing the system to create a“reconstruction map” so that ifa hard drive fails, the system can rebuild lost data Optical Storage Device: A form of data storage that uses lasers to read and write data, ¥ Compact Dise Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM), CD-R, CD-RW, ¥ Digital Video Dise (DVD) , DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, Blueray high-definition video dise. Solid state storage device (SSD): A storage device that stores data in memory chips rather than on hard disk drives or optical media, A universal serial bus (USB) flash drive is one example of a commonly used SSD.Enterprise Storage Options Businesses need to store the large amounts of data created throughout an organization, Such large- scale secondary storage is called enterprise storage and comes in four forms: attached storage, network-attached storage (NAS), storage area networks (SANs), and cloud computing storage. ‘Network-Attached Storage (NAS): A hard disk drive storage device that is set up with its own network address and provides file-based storage services to other devices on the network Storage Area Network (SAN): A highspeed, spet purpose network that integrates different types of data storage devices (¢.g,, hard disk drives, magnetic tape, solid state secondary storage devices) into a single storage system and connects that to computing resources across an entire organization, Storage as a Service: A data storage model where a data storage service provider rents space to individuals and organizations. Amazon’s Simple Storage Service allows subscribers to upload, store, and download data. Input and Output Devices Data Entry and Input : Data entry: Converting human readable data into a machine-readable form. Data input: Transferring machine readable data into the system. Today, many companies use online data entry and input: They communicate and transfer data to computer devices directly connected to the computer system. Online data entry and input place data into the computer system in a matter of seconds. Source Data Automation: Capturing and editing data where it is initially created and in a form that can be directly entered into a computer, thus ensuring accuracy and timeliness.Computer System Types Computers can be classified as: * Special purpose computers : Used for limited applications, for example, by military, government, and scientific research groups such as the CIA and NASA. Other applications include specialized processors found in appliances, cars, and other products. For example, automobile repair shops connect special-purpose computers to your car’s engine to identify specific performance problems + General purpose computers : Used for a variety of applications, including the business applications. General-purpose computer systems can be divided into two major groups: Y Systems used by one user at a time ¥ Systems used by multiple concurrent users. + Servers, Mainframes, and Supercomputers ¥ Servers: A computer employed by many users to perform a specific task, such as running network or Internet applications. Scalability: The ability to increase the processing capability of a computer system so that it can handle more users, more data, or more transactions in a given period.Y Mainframe Computer: A large, powerful computer often shared by hundreds of concurrent users connected to the machine over a network. V Supercomputers: The most powerful computer systems with the fastest processing speeds. Data Center: A climate and-access- controlled building or a set of buildings that houses the computer hardware that delivers an organization’s data and information services