Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

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Carbohydrate Polymers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/carbpol

Effects of amylose and amylopectin fine structure on sugar-snap cookie T

dough rheology and cookie quality
Zhongwei Zhanga,b,e, Xiangyun Fanc, Xiaoyan Yanga, Cheng Lid, Robert G. Gilberta,b,e,f,
Enpeng Lia,b,e,*
a
Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics of the Ministry of the Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology, College of Agriculture,
Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province, China
b
Co-Innovation Center for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
c
Institute of Food Crops, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Crop Production, Nanjing 210014, China
d
School of Medical Instrument and Food Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
e
Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu Province,
China
f
Centre for Nutrition & Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture & Food Innovations, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Starch, the most abundant component of wheat flour, has a significant influence on sugar-snap cookie quality,
Starch but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In this study, the solvent retention capacity and
Structural characterization rheological properties of sugar-snap cookie dough, and cookie physical characteristics and textural properties,
Dough rheology were analyzed. Starch molecular structures were measured by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and the
Cookie quality
results parameterized using two biosynthesis-based mathematical models to obtain structure-property correla-
tions. The results show that the viscoelasticity of sugar-snap cookie dough is positively correlated with the length
of amylopectin short chains. In addition, the length of amylose short chains is positively correlated with cookie
thickness and negatively correlated with its spread ratio. Starch molecular structure shows no influence on
cookie hardness and fracturability. Mechanisms are proposed for these results, which could lead to new ways to
improve sugar-snap cookie quality by choosing starches with appropriate structural features.

1. Introduction structure (especially amylose and amylopectin chain length distribu-

Starch is the major component of flour and affects the quality of
cookies (Lineback & Wongsrikasem, 1980). Starch mainly comprises
two types of molecules: amylopectin and amylose. Amylopectin mole-
cules are highly branched with a vast number of short branches, while
amylose molecules have only a small number of long-chain branches.
Starch granules contain mainly amylopectin and amylose, plus trace
amounts of minor components such as proteins, non-starch poly-
saccharides and lipids. Some studies have proved that starch has an
influence on the quality of wheat flour products like cookies. Donelson
(1990) found that the cookie diameter would be increased by sub-
stituting starch for gluten, and Donelson and Gaines (1998) observed
that the diameter of cookies produced from soft wheat flour were larger
than from hard wheat four, which is probably because soft wheat starch
has a greater affinity for water. However, the role of starch molecular
tions) in controlling cookie functional properties is not well understood.
While aspects of the native starch structure such as crystallinity, and to
a lesser extent the chain-length distributions, will be changed after
baking at high temperature, the starch parent structure is what gives
rise to that of the cooked starch, and thus will indirectly be a major
determinant of properties of interest.
Solvent retention capacity (SRC) is the weight of solvent held by
flour after mixing with water and then centrifuging. SRC is expressed as
percent of flour weight, on a 14 % moisture basis (Kweon, Slade, &
Levine, 2011). Flour SRC is determined by the flour’s behaviour in four
“diagnostic” solvents: water, and solutions of sodium carbonate, su-
crose and lactic acid (Kweon et al., 2011). The water SRC is associated
with the water binding capacity of the whole flour constituents; sodium
carbonate SRC is for analyzing the level of damaged starch; sucrose SRC
is for analyzing arabinoxylan and partially hydrated gliadin content,

Abbreviations: CLD, chain-length distribution; DP, degree of polymerization; SEC, size-exclusion chromatography; SRC, solvent retention capacity
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lep@yzu.edu.cn (E. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116371
Received 23 December 2019; Received in revised form 7 April 2020; Accepted 23 April 2020
Available online 29 April 2020
0144-8617/ © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Z. Zhang, et al.
and lactic acid SRC is a measure of gluten strength (Souza et al., 2012).
SRC is commonly used in the noodle industry and is thus used here,
although better specialized methods are available for each of these
properties individually (e.g. enzyme-based analysis for damaged
starch). Different SRC patterns correlate with flours optimally suited for
different products. Sugar-snap cookies require soft wheat flour with
minimal gluten strength but low damaged starch and low arabinoxylan,
because these two factors could increase the flour water-retention ca-
pacity, resulting in a less tender texture of the cookie. However, little is
known about the contributions of starch structure to SRC, although this
is probably important for the quality of sugar-snap cookies and the
optimal selection of flour.
Flour, sugar, fat and water are the major ingredients for sugar-snap
cookie dough. Sugar-snap cookie dough can be treated as a suspension
of proteins, and isolated starch granules, involving starch-protein as-
sociations in a liquid continuous-phase sugar solution wherein lipids
are emulsified (Chevallier, Colonna, Buleon, & Della Valle, 2000). As
the rheological properties of cookie dough have been shown to influ-
ence the processability and quality of cookies (Piteira, Maia,
Raymundo, & Sousa, 2006), cookie quality can be evaluated in terms of
two major properties. One is the physical characteristics of the cookie,
including the diameter, thickness and spread ratio; e.g. food producers
prefer flat cookies for easy stacking, and flatness depends on the flow of
the cookie dough during baking (Duyvejonck, Lagrain, Dornez, Delcour,
& Courtin, 2012). Cookie textural properties are also important, in-
cluding hardness and fracturability; e.g. tough but crunchy cookies are
less prone to breakage, a property which is generally considered to
impart good quality (Bettge & Kweon, 2009). The three-point bending
test, also termed a rupture bridge, is commonly used to evaluate the
textural properties of biscuits, chocolate bars and cookies (Baltsavias,
Jurgens, & Vliet, 1997).
The objective of the present study is to understand the relationship
between starch fine structure and the quality of sugar-snap cookies, in
terms of dough rheology and instrumental measurements of final pro-
duct. The fine structure considered here is the chain-length distribu-
tions of the debranched starch, analyzed using size-exclusion chroma-
tography (SEC, a type of gel-permeation chromatography, GPC). The
data are fitted to appropriate models to enable them to be represented
in terms of a small number of parameters.
It is noted that higher-order structural features, such as the crys-
talline and granular structures of starch, are totally or partially lost
during the baking process and so are not discussed in this study. Wheat
flour dough comprises two main polymers: starch and protein (mainly
gluten); these are partially bound together both physically (protein
partially blocking starch dissolution) and chemically (through hy-
drogen bonding). The strong correlation between the rheology of wheat
flour dough and protein has been extensively explored (Delcour et al.,
2000, 2012; Kaldy, Rubenthaler, Kereliuk, Berhow, & Vandercook,
1991) and is not discussed further here. It is likely that starch/protein
binding will hinder starch dissolution, and thus the structures of starch
in both the water and solid phases will not be the same as that of the
parent native starch. However, the structures of the leached and rem-
nant starch will be controlled by that of the parent starch, and thus a
detailed analysis of the structural features of the parent starch will
contain the same information as in the remnant and leached starches.
The baking process might degrade starch molecules to some extent,
although this would change such a small proportion of glycosidic links
in the whole molecule that the change in the CLDs would be un-
detectable. The observation of the dynamic evolution of starch mole-
cular structures during the whole baking and cooling process would
thus offer more direct explanations for the textural attributes of baked
cookies. The difficulty is that it is almost impossible to extract starches
from the baked products without significant starch degradation: in this
system, the starch in the cookie is partially gelatinized and will form a
gel network by starch-starch or starch-protein interactions. The char-
acterization of the structure of the parent raw starch (easily extracted
2
Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371
from the flour) is of significance in terms of explaining the baked cookie
texture, as this structure largely determines the degradation pattern
during baking and thus the resulting starch molecular structures in
baked cookies. It also supplies direct information to help the selection
of wheat varieties for producing cookies with desirable textural prop-
erties, which is the main focus of the current study.
The hardness and fracturability of sugar-snap cookies are de-
termined from texture profile analysis using a texture analyzer.
Correlations between model fitting parameters of starch structure and
cookie quality parameters are used to understand the mechanism(s)
behind the structure-quality relations. The results can provide poten-
tially helpful information for choosing and breeding the soft wheat
grain that is preferred for cookie production.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
All the wheat varieties were provided by Jiangsu Academy of
Agricultural Sciences (Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China), and planted
in Nanjing, China; they are suitable for making cookies. Protein content
and grain hardness are shown in Table S1 in the Supporting
Information. All wheat grains were equilibrated to 14 % moisture for
24 h (AACC 26-21), milled using a Brabender Quadramatic Senior mill,
and the flour was sifted through a 100-mesh sieve. Protease was pur-
chased from Beijing Solarbio Science & Technology Co. Ltd. (Beijing,
China). Isoamylase from Pseudomonas sp. was purchased from
Megazyme International Ltd. (Bray, Co. Wicklow, Ireland). Pullulan
standards with known peak molecular weights, from 342 to 2.35 × 106
Da, were from Polymer Standards Service (PSS) GmbH (Mainz,
Germany).
2.2. Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC)
Starch was extracted and dissolved in a dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)
solution with 0.5 % (w/w) LiBr (DMSO/LiBr) at a concentration of
2 mg/mL, following a method described elsewhere (Syahariza, Li, &
Hasjim, 2010). The structure of extracted whole starch molecules was
characterized using an Agilent 1100 Series SEC system (Agilent Tech-
nologies, Waldbronn, Germany) equipped with GRAM 30 and 3000
analytical columns (PSS) and a refractive index (RI) detector (RID-10A,
Shimadzu Corp, Kyoto, Japan) following a method described elsewhere
(Cave, Seabrook, Gidley, & Gilbert, 2009). The fully branched dis-
tributions are reported as the SEC weight distribution as functions of
the SEC separation parameter, the hydrodynamic radius Rh.
To characterize the chain-length distributions (CLDs) of amylose
and amylopectin, the isolated starch (∼4 mg) was debranched using
isoamylase solution, as described elsewhere (Cave et al., 2009). To
obtain SEC distributions of debranched starch, GRAM 100 and GRAM
1000 columns (PSS) were used, with the same pullulan standards and
procedure used to calibrate the SEC as for whole branched molecules.
The SEC weight distribution, w(logX), obtained from the DRI signal was
plotted against degree of polymerization (DP) X, and the corresponding
number distribution Nde(X) calculated from the SEC distribution using
w(logX) = X2 Nde(X) (Castro, Ward, Gilbert, & Fitzgerald, 2005).
2.3. Amylose content
The amylose content of wheat starch was determined from the SEC
weight distributions of debranched starch, as the ratio of the area under
the curve (AUC) for 100 < X < 10,000 to the entire weight dis-
tribution of whole starch molecules (Vilaplana, Hasjim, & Gilbert,
2012).
Z. Zhang, et al.
2.4. Amylopectin fitting
Although it is common to divide CLDs into different, but arbitrarily
chosen, regions, the approach here is quite different, and avoids em-
pirical assumptions. Amylopectin CLDs were fitted with a biosynthesis-
based mathematical model (Wu, Morell, & Gilbert, 2013). In brief, the
model assumes that different DP regions are each dominated by one
“enzyme set”, which are sets of one or two each of starch synthases
(SSs), starch branching enzymes (SBEs) and starch debranching en-
zymes (DBEs); each set is responsible for most, but not all, the chains in
these ranges, with smaller contributions from neighboring sets. This
approach includes the possibility that there are bimodal distributions of
starch granules, as this is incorporated as multiple enzyme sets. This
results in each of the components of the CLD being expressed in terms of
two parameters for each set: β, which is the ratio of the activity of the
starch branching enzyme in that set to that of the starch synthase, and
h, which is proportional to the activity of the starch synthase. Here, the
amylopectin CLD was divided into short chains (set 1), medium chains
(set 2) and long chains (set 3); the model fitting is in terms of two
parameters for each set, βAp,i and hAp,i for the ith amylopectin enzyme
set. A larger β value means shorter chains in that set, which are fitted to
the data by an iterative least-squares process. The treatment reproduces
all the features of the CLDs.
2.5. Amylose fitting
A relatively new biosynthesis-based model (Nada, Zou, Li, & Gilbert,
2017) was used to fit the amylose CLDs with biologically meaningful
and empirical parameters. This parameterization reduces a complex set
of data to a small number of parameters, which can then be used to
determine statistically valid relations between the structure and prop-
erties of interest. An amylose weight CLD typically presents two or
more distinct features, including at least one maximum and one or more
shoulders correspond to different enzymatic environments in the bio-
synthesis process (Yu et al., 2019). The chain-length distribution (CLD)
of amylose after treatment with debranching enzyme, w(logX), is a
common and useful method of characterizing the abundance of chains
present in a sample of starch as a function of their degree of poly-
merization (DP, X). The fitting parameters obtained for each amylose
feature are the slope and intercept of a plot of log w(logX) against X.
The negative of the slope for the ith feature, βAm,i, is the ratio of ac-
tivities of the chain-stoppage event (presumably by an SBE) and chain
growth (usually by granule-bound starch synthase, GBSS), while the
intercept is related to the amount of each component, and the final
parameter is the relative starch synthase activity in that region, hAm,i
(Yu et al., 2019). As amylopectin, larger β value means shorter chains in
each region.
2.6. Solvent retention capacity (SRC)
Flour SRC was represented by water SRC, 50 % sucrose SRC, 5%
sodium carbonate SRC, and 5% lactic acid SRC, which were measured
according to AACC 56-11 (Gaines, 2000).
2.7. Cookie preparation and textural characteristics
Sugar-snap cookies were prepared as described by AACC 10-52
(Bettge & Kweon, 2009). The cookie dough formulation was as follows:
24 g sugar, 1.2 g nonfat dry milk and 0.4 g sodium hydrogencarbonate
were sifted together and creamed with 12 g Crisco® all-vegetable
shortening in a micro-mixer (Kitchen Aid, St. Joseph, MI, USA) on the
lowest speed for 1 min, on medium speed for 1 min and on the highest
speed for 30 s; the mixing blades were scraped after every step. Then
37.6 g of the creamed mass were weighed, and 4 mL of solution A
(79.8 g sodium hydrogencarbonate dissolved in distilled water and
made to 1 L) and 2 mL of solution B (101.6 g ammonium chloride and
3
Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371
88.8 g sodium chloride dissolved in distilled water and made to 1 L)
were added. Sufficient water was then added to achieve an appropriate
flour moisture (8.7 g total water per pair of cookies), the mass was
mixed for 3 min and 40 g flour (14 % moisture content) was added and
then mixed for 20 s. The cookie dough was gently scraped from the
bowl, cut into two equal portions and transferred to a lightly greased
cookie baking sheet. The prepared cookie dough was sheeted to a
thickness of 7 mm using a rolling pin then cut by a 62 mm diameter
circular cutter and baked at 205 °C for 11 min. After baking, cookies
were cooled for 30 min and stored in sealed plastic bags for further
analysis. The diameter, thickness and spread ratio of cookie were de-
termined following methods described elsewhere (Sarabhai, Indrani,
Vijaykrishnaraj, Milind Kumar, & Prabhasankar, 2015).
Textural properties of sugar-snap cookies were measured after 24 h
storage with a texture analyzer (TMS-TOUCH; Food Technology
Corporation, USA) equipped with a three-point bend rig probe (HDP/
3PB). The experimental conditions were: a 20 mm probe travel dis-
tance, a trigger force of 5 g and a test speed of 1.0 mm s−1. The hard-
ness, calculated as the maximum force (N) at the point of break and the
fracturability, termed the displacement at rupture (mm), were mea-
sured in four cookies per batch.
2.8. Dynamic rheological property of cookie dough
The viscoelasticity of sugar-snap cookie dough was determined by
using a Discovery Hybrid Rheometer (HR1, TA Instruments, USA),
equipped with parallel plate geometry (40 mm diameter). Cookie dough
was loaded between the parallel plates and compressed to obtain a gap
of 1.5 mm. The edges of the dough were covered by the machine’s cover
to prevent the moisture loss. Cookie dough was left to rest for 5 min in
order to relax normal stresses induced during loading before measure-
ment. The linear viscoelastic region of the cookie dough was de-
termined with a strain sweep (0.01 %∼100 %) at a fixed frequency of
1 Hz. Rheological measurements were performed at 25 ℃, and G′, G″
and tan δ were measured over a frequency range of 0.1–10 Hz at 1.5 %
strain within the linear viscoelastic region. G′ and G″ were fitted to
power-law equations (Saric et al., 2019):
G′ = K ′f n’ (1)
G " = K "f n " (2)
K′ and K″ are the coefficients representing the storage and loss
modulus respectively at 1 Hz (Pedersen, Kaack, Bergsøe, & Adler-
Nissen, 2005; Peressini, Sensidoni, Pollini, & De Cindio, 2000) and f is
the frequency (Hz). The dynamic rheology experiment was conducted
in triplicate.
2.9. Statistical analysis
Most analyses were carried out in duplicate were reported as
mean ± standard deviation (SD) using analysis of variance (ANOVA)
with Turkey’s pairwise comparisons at p < 0.05. Correlation coeffi-
cients were analyzed using a two-tailed test; p < 0.05 and p < 0.01
represent significance and extreme significance, respectively. All the
statistical analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics 25.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Starch molecular structure
SEC weight distributions, wbr(logRh), of whole branched starch are
shown in Fig. 1. One sees amylose (Rh ≲ 100 nm) and amylopectin
(100 < Rh < 4000 nm) components, as commonly seen, e.g. (Li,
Prakesh, Nicholson, Fitzgerald, & Gilbert, 2016). Rh,Am and Rh,Ap are
defined as the value of Rh at the amylose and amylopectin peak
maxima, respectively. Average Rh is defined as the average
Z. Zhang, et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

Fig. 1. SEC weight distributions, wbrlog (Rh), of whole branched starch molecules. All distributions are normalized to the same global maximum.

Table 1 amylose CLDs have DPs ranging from 102 to 104. Amylose content is
a,b
Structural parameters of whole branched starch molecules for all varieties . calculated from the fraction of debranched chains with DP > 100, and
Varieties Average Rh(nm) Rh,Am(nm) Rh,Ap(nm)
these samples have amylose contents ranging from 25.9% to 30.9%
(Table 1), which are typical for normal wheat starch.
Y14-179 86.9 ± 0.8 b-d 21.4 ± 0.7 ab 159 ± 4 a-f
YFM5162 86.4 ± 1.4 b-d 21.0 ± 1.2 a 152 ± 1 ab
3.2. Fitting amylose and amylopectin CLDs
Y14-214 92.9 ± 2.8 cd 23.6 ± 2.3 a-e 167 ± 2 ef
NM1512 87.6 ± 1.3 b-d 21.8 ± 2.0 a-c 165 ± 2 c-f
NMZ15318 87.1 ± 0.6 b-d 22.9 ± 0.5 a-d 161 ± 2 b-f The number CLDs of amylopectin chains (Fig. S1) were fitted with a
Y15-9 90.7 ± 0.7 b-d 23.9 ± 0.8 a-e 164. ± 2 c-f biosynthesis model (Wu et al., 2013). The DP range chosen for model
NF158 91.7 ± 4.4 b-d 27.5 ± 0.7 e 169 ± 6 f fitting is 6–60, which yields values of βAp,i and βAp,ii. As mentioned
DM1501 89.1 ± 1.8 b-d 26.2 ± 0.5 c-e 166 ± 4 d-f
above, these parameters represent the relative activity of SBE to SS
YFM7216 78.5 ± 2.5 a 21.3 ± 0.3 a 149 ± 3 a
XZM1 93.6 ± 1.6 d 25.9 ± 2.6 b-e 162 ± 3 b-f within enzyme set 1, which dominates the synthesis of amylopectin
NM1529 85.8 ± 1.3 a-c 23.8 ± 0.5 a-e 153 ± 1 a-c chains less than DP∼30, and enzyme set 2, which dominates the
N1625 84.5 ± 1.6 ab 23.6 ± 0.0 a-e 152 ± 1 ab synthesis of amylopectin chains with the range of DP from 33 to 60,
NMZ16306 90.3 ± 1.5 b-d 27.4 ± 0.7 de 154 ± 1 a-d
respectively; hAp,ii reflecting the relative contribution ratio of enzyme
XM9 88.3 ± 1.8 b-d 26.9 ± 0.5 de 154 ± 2 a-c
RYM5145 88.4 ± 1.7 b-d 27.6 ± 0.0 e 155 ± 1 a-e set 2 to enzyme set 1 is also obtained from the fitting. The fitted curve is
JF1702 87.5 ± 0.1 b-d 24.4 ± 0.2 a-e 160 ± 6 a-f essentially indistinguishable from the experimental CLD over this range
(Fig. S1). The method and results of the intermediate steps in the fitting
a
Samples with different letters in the same column are significantly different procedure are similar to those given in detail elsewhere, e.g. (Tao, Li,
at p < 0.05. Yu, Gilbert, & Li, 2019). Significant differences are observed in βAp,i,
b
Mean ± SD is calculated from duplicate measurements.
βAp,iii, and hAp,ii, among all the samples (Table 2).
Amylose CLDs were fitted using an equivalent model for amylose,
hydrodynamic radius of the whole starch (Vilaplana & Gilbert, 2010); with publicly available software (Nada et al., 2017) (Fig. S2). Although
this value is only semi-quantitative because of shear scission (Cave there is only one single peak (no shoulders) in the amylose CLD, two
et al., 2009). As shown in Table 1, there are statistically significantly enzyme sets were needed in order to obtain a good fit. Values of βAm,i,
differences in average Rh, Rh,Am and Rh,Ap. YFM7162 has the smallest and hAm,i representing amylose medium and long chains (Region 1, DP
average Rh, Rh,Am and Rh,Ap values among all the wheat varieties. 560–20,000), and βAm,ii and hAm,ii representing amylose short chains
SEC weight distributions of debranched starches, wde(logX), nor- (Region 2, DP 100–560), were obtained from the fitting. The amylose
malized to the height of the highest amylopectin peak, are shown in fitting parameters are shown in Table 2; some significant differences are
Fig. 2A. The SEC weight distributions of debranched starch show si- observed.
milar features seen in such distributions in the literature, e.g. (Wang,
Hasjim, Wu, Henry, & Gilbert, 2014): two peaks of amylopectin chains
3.3. SRC properties
and one peak of amylose chains. The first peak (denoted Ap1) is the
global maximum, which comprises short amylopectin chains (DP <
The values of four SRCs are presented in Table 3. Significant dif-
30) spanning only one semi-crystalline lamella, while the second peak
ferences are observed. The ranges of SRCs for water, sodium carbonate,
or shoulder (denoted Ap2) comprises longer amylopectin chains span-
sucrose and lactic acid are 56.1∼67.8 %, 55.0∼71.1 %, 86.8∼99.6 %,
ning two or more semi-crystalline lamellae (30 < DP < 100). All the
and 98.2∼137.2 %, respectively. Y14-179 has the largest values of

4
Z. Zhang, et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

Fig. 2. SEC weight CLDs, wdelog(X), of debranched starches (A); number distribution, Nde(X), of amylopectin chains characterized using SEC (B). All distributions
were normalized to the same global maximum.

water SRC, sodium carbonate SRC, and lactic acid SRC, while YFM7216
has the largest sucrose SRC. All four SRC values of XM9 are the lowest
among different wheat flour samples. Similar results were observed by
Zhang, Zhang, Zhang, He, and Pena, (2007).
3.4. Rheology of sugar-snap cookie dough
The dynamic viscoelastic properties of sugar-snap cookie doughs
were measured as a function of frequency (Fig. 3). For all samples, both
G′ and G″ increase with frequency, while tan δ values initially decrease
then increase with frequency. All samples have higher G′ than G″ (tan
δ < 1) over the frequency range examined, indicating that all the
sugar-snap cookie dough have elastic solid-like behavior. These features
are consistent with previous studies (Lee & Inglett, 2006). Fitting
parameters from the power-law model are presented in Table 4. Sig-
nificant differences are observed in the values of n′, n″, K′ and K″.
3.5. Dimensional characteristics of sugar-snap cookies
Diameter, thickness and spread ratio are shown in Table 5. It is seen
that cookie diameter has significant and negative correlations with
thickness for all varieties. DM1501 has the highest cookie diameter
while having the lowest cookie thickness. Spread ratio values are sig-
nificantly different among the samples, with a range of 7.6–10.2. These
results are in accordance with Zhang et al. (2007), who used the same
baking procedure.
3.6. Textural properties
Sugar-snap cookies from different wheat varieties exhibit significant
differences in their hardness and fracturability, ranging from 35.4 to
55.0 N and 0.8 to 1.1 mm, respectively (Table 5). These results are
consistent with those of Mancebo, Rodríguez, Martínez, and Gómez,
(2018), who studied the effects of soluble and insoluble fibers on the
quality of sugar-snap cookies. Sarabhai and Prabhasankar (2015) sug-
gested that cookie hardness is controlled by starch-protein interaction
through hydrogen bonding. Sugar-snap cookies are composed mainly of
a continuous glassy sucrose-water matrix containing embedded un-
gelatinized starch granules, which gives this product its textural prop-
erties.
3.7. SRC-property relations
SRC can be used to predict the contribution of each flour component
to overall flour functionality and the quality of final products. The
correlations between four SRCs and dough rheological properties and
measures of cookie quality are presented in Table 6.
Both n′ and n" are positively correlated with water SRC (Table 6),
which indicates that the water retention capacity has a strong frequency
dependence. The influence of water SRC on dough rheology has also
been reported previously (Zhang et al., 2007); these authors found that
rheological parameters of sugar-snap cookie dough, measured by a
farinograph and extensograph, are significantly correlated with the
water SRC. In addition, n′ is significantly and positively correlated with

Table 2
Amylose content and model fitting parameters of amylopectin and amylose CLDs for all soft wheat samples a,b,c
.
Amylopectin fitting parameters Amylose fitting parameters

Varieties AC (%) βAp,i/10–2 βAp,ii/10–2 hAp,ii/10–2 βAm,i/10–4 hAm,i/10–2 βAm,ii/10–4 hAm,ii/10–2

Y14-179 28.0 ± 0.9 b 9.8 ± 0.0 b-d 5.8 ± 0.1 bc 2.0 ± 0.1 b-e 13.2 ± 0.1 ab 56.1 ± 1.3 a 34.0 ± 0.1 a-c 41.1 ± 1.5 ab
YFM5162 28.8 ± 0.2 bc 9.8 ± 0.0 a-d 5.7 ± 0.0 a 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 13.6 ± 1.1 ab 61.5 ± 6.7 a 35.9 ± 3.5 d 40.2 ± 1.2 ab
Y14-214 27.8 ± 0.3 b 10.0 ± 0.0 d 5.9 ± 0.0 cd 2.1 ± 0.0 de 12.6 ± 0.2 ab 63.2 ± 1.7 a 34.2 ± 0.3 a-d 34.6 ± 1.5 a
NM1512 29.0 ± 0.4 bc 9.7 ± 0.0 a-c 5.7 ± 0.0 ab 2.4 ± 0.0 f 12.8 ± 0.1 ab 58.6 ± 3.4 a 33.0 ± 0.9 a 38.2 ± 3.0 ab
NMZ15318 28.0 ± 0.8 b 9.8 ± 0.0 b-d 5.7 ± 0.0 ab 2.2 ± 0.0 ef 13.4 ± 0.2 ab 60.2 ± 2.5 a 33.4 ± 0.3 a-c 36.0 ± 2.1 ab
Y15-9 28.1 ± 0.9 b 9.7 ± 0.0 a-d 5.9 ± 0.0 c-f 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 13.1 ± 0.2 ab 55.1 ± 0.4 a 33.8 ± 0.1 a-c 42.0 ± 0.7 b
NF158 28.7 ± 0.0 b 9.7 ± 0.0 a-c 5.9 ± 0.0 cd 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 13.0 ± 0.1 ab 56.5 ± 0.8 a 34.8 ± 0.8 a-d 41.7 ± 1.1 b
DM1501 29.3 ± 0.5 bc 9.8 ± 0.0 a-d 6.0 ± 0.1 fg 1.6 ± 0.1 a 13.1 ± 0.6 ab 55.2 ± 1.7 a 34.0 ± 0.3 a-c 42.0 ± 0.9 b
YFM7216 28.1 ± 0.1 b 9.9 ± 0.0 cd 6.0 ± 0.0 e-g 1.8 ± 0.0 b 12.7 ± 0.1 ab 57.1 ± 0.7 a 34.1 ± 0.6 a-c 40.6 ± 0.2 ab
XZM1 25.9 ± 0.1 a 9.5 ± 0.0 a 6.0 ± 0.0 g 1.9 ± 0.0 bc 14.4 ± 0.5 b 54.6 ± 4.2 a 35.1 ± 0.4 cd 41.5 ± 0.8 b
NM1529 29.6 ± 0.1 a 9.5 ± 0.3 ab 5.9 ± 0.1 c-g 2.0 ± 0.1 b-d 12.6 ± 0.8 ab 58.7 ± 5.8 a 33.3 ± 0.3 ab 38.1 ± 2.0 ab
N1625 30.6 ± 0.8 c 9.5 ± 0.0 a 5.8 ± 0.1 b-d 2.0 ± 0.1 b-e 12.5 ± 0.3 ab 61.1 ± 3.0 a 34.8 ± 0.4 b-d 38.3 ± 2.2 ab
NMZ16306 29.0 ± 0.0 bc 9.7 ± 0.0 a-d 5.9 ± 0.0 c-e 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 12.3 ± 0.3 a 61.4 ± 4.9 a 34.9 ± 0.8 b-d 38.0 ± 3.3 ab
XM9 28.9 ± 0.1 bc 9.9 ± 0.0 cd 5.8 ± 0.0 b-d 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 12.5 ± 0.1 ab 58.6 ± 0.8 a 34.1 ± 0.5 a-c 39.7 ± 0.1 ab
RYM5145 29.2 ± 0.1 bc 9.8 ± 0.0 a-d 6.0 ± 0.0 d-g 2.0 ± 0.0 b-d 12.3 ± 0.1 a 58.7 ± 1.6 a 34.1 ± 0.3 a-c 40.9 ± 2.8 ab
JF1702 28.7 ± 0.0 b 9.7 ± 0.1 a-d 5.9 ± 0.0 cd 2.1 ± 0.0 c-e 12.9 ± 0.2 ab 57.3 ± 0.9 a 33.6 ± 0.3 a-c 39.8 ± 1.4 ab

a
Samples with different letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.
b
Mean ± SD is calculated from duplicate measurements.
c
AC: amylose content.

5
Z. Zhang, et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

Table 3
a,b
Four SRCs of all the wheat varieties .
Varieties water SRC (%) sodium carbonate SRC (%) sucrose SRC (%) lactic acid SRC (%)

Y14-179 67.8 ± 0.0 j 71.1 ± 0.9 i 99.1 ± 0.1 d 137.2 ± 1.4 h

YFM5162 61.7 ± 0.3 fg 66.2 ± 0.2 gh 91.2 ± 1.5 bc 101.2 ± 1.4 ab
Y14-214 58.5 ± 0.2 b-d 61.4 ± 0.1 bc 90.7 ± 0.9 bc 107.5 ± 0.4 c
NM1512 58.2 ± 0.2 bc 62.0 ± 0.2 b-d 90.6 ± 0.1 bc 101.3 ± 0.5 ab
NMZ15318 63.2 ± 0.1 gh 67.2 ± 1.6 h 97.5 ± 0.6 d 119.8 ± 0.1 e
Y15-9 65.1 ± 0.8 i 70.6 ± 0.3 i 97.3 ± 0.2 d 98.7 ± 1.0 a
NF158 58.9 ± 0.2 c-e 61.1 ± 1.1 bc 90.0 ± 1.0 b 104.4 ± 0.5 bc
DM1501 57.7 ± 0.2 a-c 59.4 ± 0.2 b 86.8 ± 0.4 a 99.6 ± 0.8 a
YFM7216 64.3 ± 0.0 hi 67.1 ± 0.5 h 99.6 ± 0.3 d 118.7 ± 0.5 e
XZM1 60.5 ± 0.8 ef 63.3 ± 0.1 c-f 99.5 ± 0.3 d 131.2 ± 0.9 g
NM1529 63.3 ± 0.5 gh 65.7 ± 0.5 e-h 91.0 ± 0.4 bc 113.2 ± 2.1 d
N1625 61.1 ± 0.0 f 62.0 ± 0.3 b-d 92.4 ± 0.4 bc 123.7 ± 0.5 f
NMZ16306 60.9 ± 0.0 f 62.5 ± 0.1 b-e 93.4 ± 1.4 c 107.7 ± 0.7 c
XM9 56.1 ± 0.5 a 55.0 ± 2.0 a 86.8 ± 0.2 a 98.2 ± 0.1 a
RYM5145 57.0 ± 0.7 ab 61.1 ± 0.0 bc 87.2 ± 0.9 a 99.0 ± 0.1 a
JF1702 60.2 ± 0.7 d-f 64.9 ± 0.8 d-g 99.4 ± 0.6 d 131.4 ± 0.3 g

a
Samples with different letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.
b
Mean ± SD is calculated from duplicate measurements.

lactic acid SRC, indicating that an increase of gluten in cookie dough
would lead to a more elastic texture.
Diameter is negatively correlated with four SRCs, thickness is po-
sitively correlated with water SRC and sodium carbonate SRC, and
spread ratio is negatively correlated with three SRCs but not lactic acid
SRC (Table 6). Similar observations were reported by Ram and Singh
(2004), who analyzed 92 soft wheat varieties and found that four SRCs
are significantly and negatively correlated with cookie diameter. In
addition, Zhang et al. (2007) found that cookie diameter and spread
ratio are significantly and negatively correlated with the water, sodium
carbonate and sucrose SRCs. SRC values show no significant correlation
with hardness and fraturability of sugar-snap cookies. This is in ac-
cordance with the findings of Moiraghi et al. (2011).
3.8. Structure-property relations
The correlations between amylose molecular size (Rh,Am) and water
SRC with sodium carbonate SRC are significantly negative (Table 6).
This could be because more amylose chains can make starch granules
less fragile and decrease starch damage during milling, resulting in
decrease of sodium carbonate SRC (Guo, Jackson, Graybosch, &
Parkhurst, 2003). Because the pH of the sodium carbonate solution is
above the pKa of starch hydroxyl groups, damaged starch can be sol-
vated by this solution and swell significantly, which is why the sodium
carbonate SRC reflects the level of damaged starch (Kweon et al., 2011).
Correlation results also show that water SRC is significantly and posi-
tively correlated with sodium carbonate SRC (Table 6), which indicates
that water SRC of wheat flour is mainly due to damaged starch; thus
water SRC is also negatively correlated with Rh,Am. Starch structural
parameters should show no correlation with sucrose SRC and lactic acid

Fig. 3. Dynamic viscoelastic properties of sugar-snap cookie doughs.

6
Z. Zhang, et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

Table 4
Power law model fitting parameters for cookie dough rheology of all the samples a,b
.
Varieties logK' n' logK" n"

Y14-179 3.8 ± 0.1 bc 0.29 ± 0.00 e 3.6 ± 0.2 bc 0.29 ± 0.00 e

YFM5162 4.5 ± 0.2 b-e 0.12 ± 0.00 ab 4.3 ± 0.2 b-d 0.18 ± 0.01 ab
Y14-214 3.8 ± 0.1 bc 0.17 ± 0.01 b-d 3.6 ± 0.1 bc 0.20 ± 0.01 a-c
NM1512 4.0 ± 0.2 b-d 0.12 ± 0.01 ab 3.8 ± 0.2 bc 0.18 ± 0.01 ab
NMZ15318 4.3 ± 0.2 b-e 0.18 ± 0.01 cd 4.2 ± 0.3 b-d 0.24 ± 0.01 c-e
Y15-9 4.3 ± 0.1 b-e 0.16 ± 0.01 a-d 4.1 ± 0.2 b-d 0.22 ± 0.01 a-d
NF158 3.7 ± 0.2 ab 0.19 ± 0.01 cd 3.5 ± 0.2 ab 0.20 ± 0.01 a-c
DM1501 3.8 ± 0.1 bc 0.11 ± 0.00 a 3.7 ± 0.2 bc 0.20 ± 0.01 a-c
YFM7216 2.9 ± 0.1 a 0.21 ± 0.02 d 2.7 ± 0.1 a 0.26 ± 0.01 de
XZM1 4.8 ± 0.1 e 0.14 ± 0.01 a-c 4.7 ± 0.3 d 0.19 ± 0.01 a-c
NM1529 4.5 ± 0.2 c-e 0.18 ± 0.00 cd 4.3 ± 0.2 b-d 0.24 ± 0.01 c-e
N1625 4.9 ± 0.2 e 0.15 ± 0.01 a-c 4.8 ± 0.2 d 0.17 ± 0.01 a
NMZ16306 4.6 ± 0.1 de 0.16 ± 0.01 a-d 4.4 ± 0.1 cd 0.22 ± 0.01 a-d
XM9 4.4 ± 0.1 b-e 0.17 ± 0.02 b-d 4.2 ± 0.1 b-d 0.23 ± 0.01 b-d
RYM5145 4.3 ± 0.3 b-e 0.15 ± 0.01 a-c 4.2 ± 0.1 b-d 0.24 ± 0.01 c-e
JF1702 4.5 ± 0.2 c-e 0.16 ± 0.01 a-d 4.3 ± 0.1 b-d 0.21 ± 0.01 a-d

a
Samples with different letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.
b
Mean ± SD is calculated from triplicate measurements.

SRC, as these two SRCs are related to non-starch components. Amylose
content is significantly and negatively correlated with sucrose SRC, as
also observed by Nishio et al. (2009), who found that waxy wheat
varieties tend to have a higher sucrose SRC. As it is associated with level
of pentosans, this phenomenon might be caused by higher arabinoxylan
content in waxy wheat endosperm (Takata et al., 2005).
Both logK′ and logK″ are negatively correlated with βAp,i, which
means a high proportion of short amylopectin chains increases dough
viscoelasticity. A previous study suggested that starch holds water
through hydrogen bonding of inter-amylopectin helices which can form
junction zones to store a large amount of water (Zhou, Wang, Yoo, &
Lim, 2011). The inter-amylopectin helices are mainly formed by short
amylopectin chains, and increase of their length could increase the
capacity to store water. Therefore, this would limit the availability of
water in the cookie dough system, and make cookie dough drier and
harder with significantly higher logK′ and logK″. This results are si-
milar to the findings of Saric et al. (2019) for the effects of fiber con-
centrates in gluten-free cookies on dough rheology.
The values of βAm,ii are negatively correlated with cookie thickness
while positively correlated with the spread ratio (Table 6), which
means shorter amylose short chains decrease cookie thickness.
Donelson (1990) observed that the hydrophilicity of starch has a sig-
nificant influence on sugar-snap cookie diameter; it was posited that if
flour components are less hydrophilic, more water would be available
to the sugar to form syrup and decrease the dough viscosity, resulting in
an increase in dough spreading during baking and cookie diameter. In
this study, cookie diameter and spread ratio are negatively, and
thickness is positively, correlated with cookie dough viscoelasticity (n′
and n″) (Table S2), which is consistent with the previous hypothesis. It
is believed that starch granules in sugar-snap cookies are partially ge-
latinized and that most of them show little deformation because of the
limited water and high amount of sugar available (Chevallier et al.,
2000). Amylose is amorphous and it provides most of the hydrophilicity
of starch (Tavares, de Campos, Mitsuyuki, Luchesi, & Marconcini,
2019), exceeding the smaller effect from amylopectin discussed above.
Determining the fractions of amorphous and crystalline regions can be
implemented with X-ray diffraction, an avenue for future work. Thus,
amylose with shorter chains is less amorphous and reduces starch hy-
drophilicity, resulting in a decrease of cookie thickness and an increase
of spread ratio. However, Kaldy et al. (1991) found that amylose con-
tent is significantly and positively correlated with cookie diameter,
which is not seen in this study. This might because that wheat varieties
used in this study all have similar amylose content.
Starch molecular structure has no significant effect on cookie
hardness and fracturability (Table 6). Amylose content is significantly
and positively correlated with cookie diameter (Kaldy et al., 1991).
Fracture force tests on corn and potato cookies showed that different
amylose/amylopectin ratios of wheat starch could result in the quality

Table 5
a,b
Dimension and textural properties of sugar-snap cookies of 16 soft wheat varieties .
Varieties Diameter (cm) Thickness (cm) Spread factor Hardness (N) Fraturability (mm)

Y14-179 8.0 ± 0.1 a 1.05 ± 0.07 cd 7.7 ± 0.4 ab 51.7 ± 1.9 e-g 1.10 ± 0.19 ab
YFM5162 8.5 ± 0.2 c-f 0.86 ± 0.09 ab 9.9 ± 0.0 gh 40.8 ± 2.4 a-d 1.06 ± 0.14 ab
Y14-214 8.6 ± 0.1 c-f 0.93 ± 0.01 ab 9.2 ± 0.0 ef 42.0 ± 2.7 a-d 0.90 ± 0.09 ab
NM1512 8.5 ± 0.1 b-f 0.93 ± 0.01 ab 9.1 ± 0.0 ef 42.9 ± 3.6 a-d 0.82 ± 0.05 ab
NMZ15318 8.3 ± 0.0 a-d 0.99 ± 0.01 b-d 8.4 ± 0.1 c 48.8 ± 1.4 d-g 1.00 ± 0.16 ab
Y15-9 8.2 ± 0.2 a-c 1.01 ± 0.03 b-d 8.1 ± 0.1 a-c 40.5 ± 2.7 a-d 0.85 ± 0.04 ab
NF158 8.3 ± 0.1 a-f 0.95 ± 0.00 a-c 8.7 ± 0.1 c-e 40.2 ± 5.2 a-c 0.91 ± 0.07 ab
DM1501 8.7 ± 0.1 f 0.86 ± 0.01 a 10.2 ± 0.2 h 45.2 ± 1.6 b-e 0.81 ± 0.01 ab
YFM7216 8.3 ± 0.0 a-c 0.99 ± 0.00 b-d 8.4 ± 0.0 c 48.4 ± 1.2 c-g 0.93 ± 0.03 ab
XZM1 8.5 ± 0.1 b-f 0.91 ± 0.00 ab 9.3 ± 0.1 e-g 41.9 ± 1.2 a-d 1.07 ± 0.11 ab
NM1529 8.1 ± 0.2 ab 1.07 ± 0.03 d 7.6 ± 0.1 a 55.0 ± 5.7 g 1.13 ± 0.02 b
N1625 8.5 ± 0.1 b-f 0.94 ± 0.01 a-c 9.0 ± 0.0 de 43.1 ± 1.3 a-f 0.85 ± 0.05 ab
NMZ16306 8.5 ± 0.2 b-f 0.93 ± 0.00 ab 9.1 ± 0.2 ef 35.4 ± 2.7 a 0.79 ± 0.03 a
XM9 8.7 ± 0.1 df 0.90 ± 0.00 ab 9.7 ± 0.2 f-h 37.5 ± 2.7 ab 0.93 ± 0.07 ab
RYM5145 8.4 ± 0.2 a-f 1.01 ± 0.00 b-d 8.4 ± 0.3 cd 53.5 ± 1.3 fg 1.02 ± 0.06 ab
JF1702 8.3 ± 0.1 a-c 0.99 ± 0.01 b-d 8.3 ± 0.1 bc 45.4 ± 1.9 b-e 0.88 ± 0.11 ab

a
Samples with different letters in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.
b
Mean ± SD is calculated from duplicate measurements.

7
Z. Zhang, et al. Carbohydrate Polymers 241 (2020) 116371

Table 6
a,b
Correlation coefficients between starch structural parameters, SRCs, cookie dough rheological parameters and cookie characteristic parameters .
Average Rh Rh,Am Rh,Ap AC βAp,i βAp,ii hAp,ii βAm,i hAm,i βAm,ii hAm,ii Water SRC Sodium Sucrose SRC Lactic
carbonate acid
SRC SRC

Water SRC −0.37 −0.62* −0.25 −0.23 −0.07 0.01 −0.11 0.27 −0.19 −0.05 0.09 ― – – ―
Sodium −0.28 −0.65** −0.1 −0.29 −0.03 −0.08 −0.13 0.34 −0.20 −0.10 0.10 0.94** – – ―
carbonate
SRC
Sucrose SRC −0.20 −0.45 −0.11 −0.58* −0.09 0.13 −0.02 0.47 −0.30 −0.05 0.07 0.74** 0.75** – ―
Lactic acid SRC −0.20 −0.32 −0.18 −0.35 −0.24 −0.08 −0.07 0.35 −0.18 −0.02 −0.05 0.54* 0.46 0.77** ―
Hardness −0.44 −0.29 −0.2 0.09 −0.03 −0.11 −0.15 −0.07 −0.17 −0.49 0.01 0.34 0.39 0.13 0.33
Fracturability −0.11 −0.24 −0.3 −0.32 −0.1 −0.38 −0.42 0.41 −0.09 0.10 0.08 0.37 0.36 0.19 0.36
Diameter 0.27 0.36 0.11 0.15 0.17 −0.13 −0.16 0.08 0.29 0.33 0.12 −0.80** −0.82** −0.62** −0.50*
Thickness −0.28 −0.21 −0.15 0.01 −0.1 0.11 0.25 −0.23 −0.18 −0.55* −0.05 0.60* 0.601* 0.42 0.40
Spread ratio 0.28 0.24 0.13 0.04 0.12 −0.12 −0.25 0.02 0.19 0.50* 0.02 −0.65** −0.66** −0.50* −0.44
logK′ 0.34 0.26 −0.18 0.14 −0.57* −0.14 0.22 0.16 0.22 0.26 −0.13 −0.14 −0.13 −0.04 0.12
n' −0.27 −0.26 −0.17 −0.23 0.28 0.03 −0.02 −0.05 −0.15 −0.15 0.04 0.64** 0.49 0.48 0.55*
logK″ 0.34 0.30 −0.17 0.15 −0.57* −0.11 0.22 0.15 0.19 0.25 −0.11 −0.16 −0.16 −0.07 0.10
n” −0.39 −0.18 −0.3 −0.15 0.42 0.10 −0.04 −0.18 −0.22 −0.36 0.11 0.55* 0.45 0.35 0.33

a
*Correlations are significant at p < 0.05. **Correlations are significant at p < 0.01.
b
AC: amylose content.

differences of cookies (Singh, Singh, Sharma, & Saxena, 2003). For
wheat samples with similar amylose content, there was no significant
correlation between the textural properties of sugar-snap cookies and
the amylose content, as expected.
Non-starch components, such as protein and arabinoxylan, have
been found to have significant effects on cookie properties. However,
they do not affect starch structure correlation results in this study, as
the correlation analysis is based on linear independence of the con-
trollable variables. In wheat, most of the arabinoxylan exists in the bran
(Rosicka-Kaczmarek, Komisarczyk, Nebesny, & Makowski, 2016), and
only very small amounts are present in the white wheat flour used in
this study. Protein also has been shown here to have no correlations
with cookie dough properties and cookie quality (Table S3 in the SI)
4. Conclusion
The current study gives new perspective on the relationship be-
tween the molecular structures of amylose and amylopectin and cookie
dough rheology and textural properties of the final product. For the first
time, our study shows that amylose molecular size is correlated with
water and sodium carbonate SRCs. This is an explanation for the effects
of starch molecular structure on each contribution of each flour com-
ponent of flour functionality. Dough viscoelasticity shows a positive
correlation with the length of amylopectin short chains, indicating that
longer amylopectin short chains hold more water molecules and limit
the water mobility within the system, causing a harder texture.
Moreover, the length of amylose short chains is positively correlated
with cookie thickness but negatively correlated with spread ratio, while
showing no significant correlation with cookie diameter. Thus high
proportions of short amylose chains decrease cookie thickness and
spread ratio and thus improve cookie quality. Spread ratio is calculated
as diameter divided by thickness, and the correlation between short
amylose chains and cookie diameter is not significant. The results
cannot distinguish whether or not an increase of short amylose chain
lengths increases cookie width, although the dough dynamic viscoe-
lasticity correlation results suggest that the cookies expand in both
directions (width and thickness). However, starch structural parameters
are not correlated with cookie hardness and fracturability. This study
provides information that may be of use for predicting and promoting
cookie quality.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhongwei Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Writing - original draft. Xiangyun Fan: Resources.
Xiaoyan Yang: Investigation. Cheng Li: Writing - review & editing.
Robert G. Gilbert: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review &
editing. Enpeng Li: Conceptualization, Supervision, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the support of a Jiangsu Provincial
Entrepreneurial and Innovation PhD Program, and a Yangzhou
Lvyangjinfeng Talent Program (to EL), a National Natural Science
Foundation of China grant (C1304013151101138, to both RGG and
EL), the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher
Education Institutions (EL and RGG), a Jiangsu Entrepreneurship and
Innovation Team program (to R.G.G.), a Shanghai Agriculture Applied
Technology Development Program, China (Grant No.G2016060101, to
LZ), Youth Fund of Jiangsu Natural Science Foundation (BK20190906,
to EL and CL), and Jiangsu Yangzhou Key Research and Development
Program (No. SSF2018000008, to EL and CL).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116371.
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