ARTICLE IN PRESS

Crop Protection 25 (2006) 968–972

www.elsevier.com/locate/cropro

Evaluation of integrated weed management practices for

onion in Pakistan
Khalid Mahmood Khokhar, Tariq Mahmood, Muhammad Shakeel, M. Farooq Chaudhry
Vegetable Crops, HRI, NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan
Received 31 December 2005; received in revised form 8 January 2006; accepted 11 January 2006

Abstract

Weed management studies in transplanted onion were conducted during 2004 and 2005 at the National Agricultural Research Centre,
Islamabad, Pakistan. Pendimethalin and oxadiazon were applied post-emergence 2 days and 4 week after transplanting and their efficacy
alone and in combination with one manual weeding was evaluated to reduce weed competition and its effects on marketable bulb yield.
Hand weeded and weedy check were included. Compared to weed free condition, weed crop competition caused 71% and 76% reduction
in the marketable bulb yield during the first and second year, respectively. Cyprus rotundus (41%) and Coronopus didymus (19%) were the
dominant weeds recorded in the field. Both pendimethalin and oxadiazon when applied 2 DAT in combination with one weeding at 60
DAT were found more effective in enhancing marketable bulb yield and recorded higher net returns than other treatments.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Pendimethalin; Oxadiazon; Weed count; Weed fresh biomass; Marketable bulb yield; Onion; Pakistan

1. Introduction 1986) whereas losses from 49% to 86% and up to 96%

Onion (Allium cepa L.) belonging to the family Alliaceae
is one of the important vegetable crops with world
production of about 55 million tonnes (FAO, 2004). It is
a condiment crop consumed as fresh in salads and as a
spice in cooking dishes. In Pakistan, onion is grown on
108.9 thousand hectares producing 1449 thousand tonnes
at an average yield of 13.3 t ha
1 (Anonymous, 2004),
which is low when compared with the maximum potential
of the cultivars. One of the causes of this low production is
the high levels of weeds, reflecting inadequate control
measures. Dryden and Karishnamurthy (1974) reported
from India that weeds could take about 30–40% plant
nutrients applied to the crop.
The poor competitive ability of onion has been
attributed to its initial slow growth and lack of adequate
foliage to smother weeds (Wicks et al., 1973). Reduction in
bulb yield by 36–48% has been reported from Sudan due to
unrestricted weed growth in onion (Babiker and Ahmed,
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tomshakeel@yahoo.com (M. Shakeel).
have been reported from India and UK, respectively, from
weed interference (Sinha and Lagoke, 1983; Bond and
Burston, 1996). The long growing season required to
produce dry bulb onion, necessitates integrated weed
control activities (Dunan et al., 1996).
Weed control in onion has been reported with the use of
different herbicides (Patel et al., 1986; Keeling et al., 1990).
The use of selective herbicides together with mechanical
methods for weed control in onion has been recommended
(Rapparini, 1994). Ghaffoor (2004) reported that pendi-
methalin at 0.99 l a.i. ha
1 controlled weeds effectively and
gave the highest bulb yield. Similarly Porwal and Singh
(1993) found that oxadiazon at 0.12 kg a.i. ha
1 followed
by manual weeding 45 DAT showed maximum weed
control compared with oxadiazon alone and increased the
bulb yield by 81.4–254% over weedy check. Govindra et al.
(1985) observed best weed control in onion with oxadiazon
at 0.12 kg a.i. ha
1 and reported that one manual weeding
over the application of herbicides caused an increase in the
bulb yield.
Application of herbicides, such as, oxadiazon and
trifluralin proved equally effective for weed control in

0261-2194/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2006.01.003
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K.M. Khokhar et al. / Crop Protection 25 (2006) 968–972 969

onion (Amrutkar et al., 2002). Oxyfluorfen, pendimethalin
and metribuzin significantly reduced the weed population
and increased onion yield to levels comparable to yields of
weeded control in a relay cabbage–onion cropping system
(Sanjeev et al., 2003).
In Pakistan, chemical weed control in onion has received
little attention and weeds are mostly managed manually,
which is expensive. Sometimes due to shortage of labour
and unexpected rains, hand weeding or mechanical weed
operations are delayed or omitted altogether. In such
situations, herbicides offer the most practical, effective and
economical method of weed control for increasing crop
yield. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate
the comparative efficacy of two herbicides alone and in
combination with one manual weeding and to determine
the most economical method of weed control in trans-
planted onion.
2. Materials and methods
The studies were conducted at the experimental area of
Vegetable Programme, National Agricultural Research Centre,
Islamabad, Pakistan during 2004 and 2005. The experiment
was laid out in randomized block design with three replica-
tions. Seed of onion variety ‘Swat-I’ was sown in first week of
November and seedlings were transplanted in the field in mid-
January during both seasons, keeping inter and intra row
spacings of 10 and 25 cm, respectively. The crop was
immediately irrigated after transplanting. Ten treatments (see
Tables 2 and 3) were assessed for weed intensity, weed
biomass, number of bulb m
2, average bulb weight, un-
marketable and marketable bulb yield and economic analysis.
The marketable bulb yield was recorded by deducting
unmarketable bulbs (o50 g) from the total bulb yield.
Pendimethalin and oxadiazon at 0.825 and 0.240 l a.i. ha
1,
respectively, were spayed post-emergence 2 days and 4 weeks
after transplanting and after irrigation in moist condition. The
herbicides were applied with a hand pump sprayer.
In weed free treatment plots were hand weeded four times
at 30 days interval. The recommended doses of NPK at
100:60:50 kg ha
1 in the form of urea, single super
phosphate and potassium sulphate, respectively, were
applied (Khokhar et al., 2004). Full dose of phosphorus
and potash and half dose of nitrogen were applied at the
time of soil bed preparation while half of the remaining
amount of nitrogen was applied 1 month after transplanting
and then at bulb formation. Irrigation and insect/disease
control measures were performed as recommended. The
experiments were completed in mid-July of each season.
The data were subjected to analysis of variance and the
test of significance was applied following Duncan’s Multi-
ple Rang Test (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Weed spectrum
The experimental field was infested with grassy and broad-
leaf weeds. Cyperus rotundus (41%) was the most dominant
weed observed in the experimental plots (Table 1). The other
weed species recorded in the field area were Coronopus
didymus (19%), Cynodon dactylon (7%), Poa annua (9%),
Chenopodium album and Dactyloctenium aegyptium (6%).
3.2. Phytotoxicity
The phytotoxicity data on onion seedlings were recorded
with an interval of 15 and 30 days after the application of
herbicides. Both these herbicides used at various stages
caused no phytotoxicity on onion plants. Similarly, Lagoke
and Sinha (1983), Ahmed et al. (1994) and Marwat et al.
(2003) and Ghaffoor (2004) reported that oxadiazon and
pendimethalin at 0.12–0.36 and at 0.33–0.99 l a.i. ha
1,
respectively, did not produce any crop reaction on onion
seedlings.
3.3. Weed density (m
2) and weed fresh biomass (g)
All the weed control treatments proved effective in reducing
the weed population and fresh weight compared with weedy

Table 1
Common weeds found in the onion field

Botanical name Common name Leaf morphology Family Proportion of

total weeds (%)

Cyperus rotundus L. Purple nutsedge Sedges Cyperaceae 41

Chenopodium album L. Common lambsquarters Broadleafed Chenopodiaceae 6
Rumex dentatus L. Sheeps sorrel Broadleafed Polygonaceae 4
Coronopus didymus L. Swine cress Broadleafed Cruciferae 19
Phalaris minor Retz. Canary grass Grasses Gramineae 2
Dactyloctenium aegyptium L. Willd. Crow foot grass Grasses Gramineae 6
Poa annua L. Meadow grass Grasses Gramineae 9
Anagallis arvensis L. Blue pimpernel Broadleafed Primulaceae 4
Medicago denticulate Willd. Bur clover Broadleafed Leguminoseae 1
Polygonum plebejum R.Br. Smart weed Broadleafed Polygonaceae 1
Cynodon dactylon L. Pers. Bermuda grass Grasses Gramineae 7
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Table 2
Weed count, weed fresh, biomass, number of bulbs and average bulb weight as affected by different weed control methods in onion

Treatments Weed count (m
2) Weed fresh biomass (g m
2) Number of bulbs (m
2) Average bulb weight (g)

2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005

Pendimethalin 2 DAT 49 de 53 cde 136 e 151 fg 36 cd 36 bc 97 cd 96 cd

Pendimethalin 2 DAT+1 hand weeding 60 DAT 32 f 37 f 60 g 79 i 39 a 39 a 120 a 111 a
Pendimethalin 4 WAT 62 c 58 cde 243 c 259 c 34 e 33 de 95 d 92 d
Pendimethalin 4 WAT+1 hand weeding 75 DAT 44 de 49 def 163 de 188 e 36 cd 34 cd 104 bc 106 ab
Oxadiazon 2 DAT 54 cd 60 cd 153 de 166 f 36 cd 35 cd 107 b 101 bc
Oxadiazon 2 DAT+1 hand weeding 60 DAT 42 ef 44 ef 79 fg 103 h 38 ab 38 a 115 a 109 a
Oxadiazon 4 WAT 62 c 66 c 312 b 325 b 30 f 32 e 101 bcd 99 bcd
Oxadiazon 4 WAT+1 hand weeding 75 DAT 51 de 58 cd 188 d 213 d 35 de 36 bc 105 bc 100 bc
Weed-free 136 a 140 a 122 ef 143 g 37 bc 38 ab 100 bcd 98 cd
Weedy check 83 b 88 b 635 a 679 a 30 f 29 f 53 e 47 e

Any two means not sharing a same letter differ significantly according to DMR test at 1% probability. Weed-free ¼ 4 hand weeding at 30 days interval,
DAT ¼ days after transplanting, WAT ¼ weeks after transplanting.

check (Table 2). In different weed control treatments, one
manual weeding over the application of herbicides at 60 and 75
days after transplanting of onion caused further reductions in
the density and fresh biomass of weeds.
Control plots having no weed control produced max-
imum weed fresh biomass (635 and 679 g m
2) during
2003–2004 and 2004–2005, respectively. Pendimethalin in
combination with hoeing at 60 DAT resulted in lower weed
population (32 and 37 m
2) and weed fresh biomass
production (60 and 79 g m
2) compared to oxadiazon
during both years. In weed free treatment the plots were
weeded four times at monthly interval and density of weeds
discussed here was an aggregate of four hoeings, which was
significantly higher (136 and 140 m
2) than other treat-
ments during 2004 and 2005, respectively. Weed density in
weed free treatment was higher because weeds were
removed at earlier stages, which provided more space,
light and nutrient resources for remaining buried weed
seeds to germinate ultimately resulting in more number of
weeds. The weed count recorded in the weedy check was
lower (83 and 88 m
2) than weed free treatment but had
significantly highest fresh weed biomass (635 and
679 g m
2). The highest fresh weed biomass recorded in
weedy check was because of the prolonged growth period
of weeds that remained in the field till the time of harvest.
In comparison the weed free treatment showed the benefits
of weeding at earlier stages of growth.
The results obtained in this investigation confirm earlier
reports on the efficacy of these herbicides for weed control
in onion (Verma and Singh, 1997; Ghaffoor, 2004; Sinha
and Lagoke, 1983).
The minimum weed count (32 and 37 m
2) was recorded
where pendimethalin was applied 2 days after transplanting
following one weeding at 60 DAT.
The variability in weed population in different treat-
ments could be attributed to the fact that some herbicidal
treatments were more effective for weed control than the
other. These results are in agreement with those of Patel
et al. (1986), Warade et al. (1995), Marwat et al. (2003) and
Ghaffoor (2004).
3.4. Number of bulbs m
2
The weed control methods significantly affected the
number of bulbs m
2 (Table 2). The minimum number of
bulbs (30 and 29 m
2) was observed in the weedy check
whereas the highest number of bulbs (39 m
2) was recorded
in the treatment where pendimethalin was applied 2 DAT
following one weeding at 60 DAT. Next was oxadiazon
2 DAT+one weeding at 60 DAT with 38 bulbs m
2. These
findings confirm the results reported by Marwat et al.
(2003), who reported highest bulb count m
2 with the
application of pendimethalin. The decrease in number of
bulbs m
2 in weedy check could be the adverse effect of
weeds population on survival of onion seedlings.
3.5. Average bulb weight (g)
In both seasons all weed control treatments resulted in
significantly higher bulb weight compared with the
untreated control (Table 2). The highest average bulb
weight (120 and 111 g) was recorded with the application of
pendimethalin 2 DAT+one weeding at 60 DAT whereas
the lowest bulb weights (53 and 47 g) were recorded in the
weedy control. These results support the findings of
Ghaffoor (2004) and Marwat et al. (2003) who obtained
greater bulb weight with pendimethalin treatment.
3.6. Unmarketable bulb yield (t ha
1)
All weed control treatments significantly reduced un-
marketable bulb yield compared to control (Table 3). The
highest un-marketable bulb yields (5.41 and 5.49 t ha
1) were
recorded in weedy check and the lowest of 1.17 and 1.37 t ha
1
were recorded with the application of pendimethalin in
combination with one weeding at 60 DAT. Significantly higher
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Table 3
Un-marketable and marketable bulb yield as affected by different weed control methods in onion

Treatments Un-marketable bulb Marketable bulb Yield increase over weedy Percent increase
yield (t ha
1) yield (t ha
1) check (t ha
1)

2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005 2004 2005

Pendimethalin 2 DAT 1.71 bc 1.41 c 33.60 e 32.47 c 23.24 24.08 224 287
Pendimethalin 2 DAT+1 1.17 c 1.37 c 45.05 a 41.72 a 34.69 33.33 335 397
hand weeding 60 DAT
Pendimethalin 4 WAT 1.71 bc 1.92 bc 30.99 f 27.92 d 20.63 19.53 199 233
Pendimethalin 4 WAT+1 2.52 b 2.40 b 34.51 de 33.80 bc 24.15 25.41 233 303
hand weeding 75 DAT
Oxadiazon 2 DAT 1.98 bc 2.00 bc 36.49 c 32.71 bc 26.13 24.32 252 290
Oxadiazon 2 DAT+1 hand 1.80 bc 1.92 bc 41.98 b 39.84 a 31.62 31.45 305 375
weeding 60 DAT
Oxadiazon 4 WAT 2.25 bc 1.81 bc 27.84 g 29.49 d 17.48 21.10 169 252
Oxadiazon 4 WAT+1 2.16 bc 1.96 bc 34.96 cde 34.12 bc 24.60 25.73 238 307
hand weeding 75 DAT
Weed-free 1.26 bc 1.92 bc 35.59 cd 34.87 b 25.23 26.48 244 316
Weedy check 5.41 a 5.49 a 10.36 h 8.39 e — — — —

Any two means not sharing a same letter differ significantly according to DMR test at 5% probability. Weed-free ¼ 4 hand weeding at 30 days interval,
DAT ¼ days after transplanting, WAT ¼ weeks after transplanting.

unmarketable bulb yield in the weedy check could be
attributed to weed competition which resulted in reduced bulb
size whereas pendimethalin along with one hand weeding
controlled weeds to the maximum and provided better
environment for bulb development.
3.7. Marketable bulb yield (t ha
1)
Statistical analysis of the data exhibited that all weed
control methods significantly increased marketable bulb
yield compared to control (Table 3). The marketable bulb
yield increased to the maximum of 45.05 t ha
1 during 2004
when pendimethalin was applied 2 DAT following one
weeding at 60 DAT. It was followed by oxadiazon applied
2 DAT+one weeding at 60 DAT with marketable bulb
yield of 41.98 t ha
1. However, during 2005, pendimethalin
or oxadiazon applied 2 DAT and supplemented with one
weeding at 60 DAT produced marketable bulb yields,
statistically at par with each other (41.7 and 39.8 t ha
1,
respectively). These results are in close conformity with
those of Porwal and Singh (1993), Ghaffoor (2004) and
Sinha and Lagoke (1983), who reported highest bulb yields
with the application of pendimethalin and oxadiazon. The
lowest marketable yields of 8.4 and 10.4 t ha
1 were
obtained in the weedy check.
The increase in bulb yield in weed control treatments
ranged between 169% and 335% over control during 2004.
A similar trend was observed in 2005 where 233–397%
increase of bulb yield over weedy check was observed. The
present findings support the results of Porwal and Singh
(1993), Warade et al. (1995), Shimi and Moghadam (1996)
and Ghaffoor (2004), who found that herbicides applica-
tion significantly increased the bulb yield of onion.
Supplementary weeding, plus the application of pendi-
methalin and oxadiazon resulted into significant increase in
the marketable bulb yields when compared with the
application of these herbicides alone. Our results agree
with those of Govindra et al. (1985), Sinha and Lagoke
(1983) and Porwal and Singh (1993), who reported
increased bulb yield in onion with one supplementary
manual weeding over the application of herbicides. This
might be the reason that these herbicides alone could not
provide good control of weeds and the combination with
supplementary weeding effectively controlled the weeds.
The lowest bulb yield in the weedy check was due to the
competition of weeds with the onion plants for space,
nutrients and light as is evident from the high population of
weeds in this treatment. Application of pendimethalin and
oxadiazon following one weeding at 60 DAT reduced weed
competition, which in turn provided a favourable environ-
ment for growth and development of the crop and resulted
in highest survival percentage, more number of bulbs m
2
and highest average bulb weight increasing significantly
higher marketable bulb yield in these treatments.
3.8. Monetary returns
Farmers adopt only those improved practices, which are
more profitable. On the basis of current marketable prices of
herbicides and the wholesale prices of onion, the economics
of different weed control methods were calculated to find out
the most profitable (Table 4). All the weed control treatments
gave considerably higher net income ha
1 over unweeded
check. Among the weed control treatments, pendimethalin in
combination with hoeing 60 DAT recorded the highest net
returns of US $2191 and 2103 ha
1 over weedy check during
first and second year, respectively. Weedy check resulted in
the least profit US $673 and 545 ha
1.
These studies suggest that pendimethalin along with one
hand weeding 60 DAT can be successfully applied to boost
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Table 4
Economic analysis

Treatments Gross income (US $ ha
1) Value of increased yield Variable cost Increased net benefit over
(US $ ha
1) control (US $ ha
1)

2004 2005 2004 2005 2004–2005 2004 2005

Pendimethalin 2 DAT 2184 2111 1511 1565 29 1482 1537

Pendimethalin 2 DAT+1 hoeing 2928 2712 2255 2167 64 2191 2103
60 DAT
Pendimethalin 4 WAT 2014 1815 1341 1270 29 1312 1241
Pendimethalin 4 WAT+1 hand 2243 2197 1570 1652 64 1506 1588
weeding 75 DAT
Oxadiazon 2 DAT 2372 2126 1699 1581 18 1680 1563
Oxadiazon 2 DAT+1 hand 2729 2590 2055 2044 53 2002 1991
weeding 60 DAT
Oxadiazon 4 WAT 1810 1917 1136 1372 18 1118 1353
Oxadiazon 4 WAT+1 hand 2272 2218 1599 1673 53 1546 1619
weeding 75 DAT
Weed-free 2313 2267 1640 1721 140 1500 1581
Weedy check 673 545 — — — — —

Any two means not sharing a same letter differ significantly according to DMR test at 5% probability. Price of onion bulb kg
1 US $0.065, cost of
variables: pendimethalin 330 EC at US $10.0 l, oxadiazon 120 EC at US $7.4 l
1, sprayer rent US $1.0, labour charges of herbicide application US
$2.5 ha
1, cost of hand weeding 14 men day at US $2.5 man
1.

up the marketable bulb yield in onion and to harvest the
maximum profit for raising the economic status of farmers.
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Further reading
Sinha, S.N., Agnihotri, N.P., Gajbhiye, V.T., 1996. Field evaluation of
pendimethalin for weed control in onion and persistence in plant and
soil. Ann. Plant Prot. Sci. 4 (1), 71–75.