DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS
B. N. MUKHERJEE

U. N. DHUR soNs PRIVATELTD.

 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
book ig prepared with a view to be uged L textbook
for the B.A. and B.Sc. BtudentBof the Indian Univerai±iae.
Wehave tried to make the oxpogitiongof the fundamezt•l
principlesclear ag well ag concise without going into anne-
cesgarydetails ; and at the game time an attempt has been
made to make the treatment as much rigorous and
up-to,dateag possible within the scope of the elemenÉary
work,
Proofs of certain important fundamental results and
theoremswhich are assumed in the earlier chapters of the
book for the convenience of the beginners and average
studentshave been given in the Appendix. A brief account
of the theory oi infinite series, especially the power series,
iB given in the Appendix in order to emphasise their
peculiarity in the application of the principles of Calculus.
Important formulæ of this book are given in the beginning
for ready reference. A good number of typical examples
have been worked out by way of illustrations.
Many varied types of examples have been. given (cr
exercisein order that the Etudentg might acquire a gocd
grasp of the applications of the principles of Calculuf.
Universityquestions of recent years have been at
the end to give the students an idea of the standard of the
examination. Our thank-gare due to the authorities and
the staff of the K. P. Bagu Printing Works, Calcutta, who,
in Bpite of their various preoccupations, had the kindness
to completethe printing go effciently in a short period ot
time. Any criticigm, correction and suggestion towards tho
Improvementof the book from teachers and students will
be thankfully
received.
CALCUTTA,I
June, 1949 f
 SYLLABUS FOB
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (B.A. & B.Sc. Pass)

Rotfonal numbere, Geometrical representations.IrrationalnumEez..

Real numbere represented as points on a ltne—-LInear oontlnuam
Rlgczoue treatmeot Is cot required). Acqua intance with basic important
prcpert{esof teal numbers (No deduction or proof In Includedb

Sequenco : Definitions of bounds of sequence and monotone

sequences. Limit of a Eequenoe. Sotoment of Limit Theorems,
Concept of Ccave:gence gud Divergence. Statement of the Theorem
of oonve:gence and divergenoe ot monotone Bequenceg and their
(fn paztteuiaz, definition of e).

Statement of General Principle of convergence and

•ppllutlcne,

Infinite ser'es of oonstant terms : Convergenoe and Divergence

(definitions). Cauchy's prine!ple ag appl!ed to IDßn!te sedes (appllca,—
done ovly)•, Berleg ot Pogltlve terms : St•tements of Comparlson Test,

D' Alembert'f R3tlo Test. Oauohy'g nth root test and B•abe's Teö'.-—
Applications, Bertes : Statement of Lelbnltz'g Test and

appl{catlons,

Real 721ued Pano€tone defined in an Internal : Their graphs, Llmlt

Of • fanotton (Cauchy's definition). Algebra of llmltg, Oondnutty
Ofa function at a point and in an interval : Definition,Acquaintance
Ghe important properties of continuous
(no proof required) with
intervafg. Inverse funotlone : Statement cn
tunotlone on oloaed
of a Btrlotly monotone funotlon and
existence of inverse functions
oontlnutty.

Derivatives. Its geometricaland pbydcal Interpretations, Baler

Of differentlafdon.(Revlston of prevloua knoqledge only). Bign ot the
Inoreb81ng and deoNaslog functions. Differen•
In finding
geometrlo•l Interpretation and
approximations. Relatiou between oontlnufty •ad derivablltty.

Saooeeatvedifferentiation and euocesslve derivatives. Lalbnits'e

heerem and its applications(no proof required).
D.C.—B
 CONTENTS
Chaptor Page
LiB6of Important formulae
A 13rfof Ili8tory of Development
of Calculug
Introduction (Numborg) 1

1 Functions 9
11. Limit 27
111. Continuity 56
Differentiation 72
Successive Differentiation 134
Expansion of Functions 152
Maxima and Minima 189
7111.Indeterminate Forms 211
( Evaluation of certain limits )
Partial Differentiation 227
( Functions of two or more Variables )
X. Maxima and Minima of
Functions pf two Variables 255
Tangent and Normal 261
ill. Curvature 2E6
Elli. Agymptoteg 330
Envelope of Straight Lines and Curves 353
IVs Agsociated Loci 373
Concavity and Convexity :
Point of Inflexion 385
Migcellaneoug Examples 394
xvtl On Some Well-known Curves 397
 LIST OF IMPORTANTFORMULÆ
Important Limltg.
Bin
= 1, where is in radian measure,
1
(ii) Lt 1+ —e or, Lt (1

(iii) Jut log (1 + r,) = 1,

n
(vi) Lt

Lt
(vii)n»oo —1< c < 1).

8tandard Derivativen,

dc
1
dc dc
d d
—a" logg a.
dc dc

(loga r) — loga
1 1
(log
dc
d d (COB c) = —Binc,
(Bin c) = COBc ; dc

(tan c)— sec sø ; (cot c) — — cosec c.

dc dc
d
(sec c) = sec c tan
d (cosec —oogeor cot z.
;

dc
(C08¯ —
(Sin¯ i æ) =
dc dr
 CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
sil
1
1 (cosec-I c)
d (geo-Sr)— Jcg—l' d"

(COBh C) — Sinh C.
d r) cosb ; dc
(Sinb

(coth c) — cosech*z.
d
(tsnh c) sech R Ø ; d"

d — — tanhØ ; (cosech æ)— — cosech ooth z.

(sech z) dc
dz
1
(sinh-l ø)
= 1
(cogh -l c)—
d"

1 1
(tanh -l c) = (c<l); (coth- l c) —
dc
1 1
(æ<l) ; dc(cosech -lc) —
dz Jl—æ2

Ill, Fundamentaltheorems on Differentiation.

dc (ii) {c+(æ)}— co' (c).

(iii)

(IV) 1+($) v(æ)}

+
borivntivoof tho
Product of two functions
—firtlt;function
x derivative of the second
+ hooond
function x derivative of the first'
lib,
(m)...ot,
 LIST OF IMP0RTAN'1'FORMULAE

mrivative of tho quotient of two functions

(Deriv. of Num.) x Donom. —(Derive of Denom.) x Nam.
(Denom.
(vii) If
dv dv dv
dc ¯ dv dc
dy dc dc dc
—- O
dc dy dy dv and dc
(ix) If Y = V

du d? /dc dc
dc ¯dt / dt dt
IV Muning of the derivatives and differential.
d?
= tan V,where V iBthe angle which the tangent
at any point to the curve v
makes with the positive
direction of the æ-axiE.

dy
dc —rate of change of y with respect to r.
dy —f (c) act-if V
V Thenth
derivatives of some special functions.

(m being a positive integer > n)'

(c + a)n+l ; Dn log (c + a) =

+ac+b •
Bin (ac
+ b)

cos (az
+ b)
---+ac+b •
 CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL

cos
TY cos ac=a
D n sin — an sin 2
b/c),
sin (b" + n tan -I
+ b 2)T eaz
D W (eag sin
+ n tan -l b/a),
+ b2)l eac COB(bc
Dn (ecz cos
( —I) n n I Binw+lOsin (n +
21
where 0 —tan-I (a/c).
— — l)n - l (n —1) I Binne sin no,
(tan-I c) z.
where 6 = cot

Lelhnltz's Theorem.
cxun-1V1+ +

VI. (i) Mean Value Theorem.

Taylor's Series ( finite form

RemainderRn r (c + Oh),O < O< 1 (Lagrange's form)

or, r (c + Oh). (Cauchy's form)

(n —1)

21
n- i
+ (r — a)

Be nainder —
 OF IMPORTANT
Serleg (finiteform
(fii) 'tfaclaorfn's
fl'x) —l'o) (0) + { f" (0) +

(iv) Taylor'B Serfeg ( extended to infinitv

+ 11) f(Œ)+ h/ (r) + +

(v) Maclaurin's Serfeg ( ectended to infinitv

(Fi) Expansions of some well-known functfons in serles.

2

5 20+1
sin
for
(c) cosc a l —
(2n) ! values
5 2n+1
(d)Sinh r = a+ + — + ...+ of r.
3 ! 51 (2n + 1) I
(e)cash +-— + + +
21 41
8
(f) Icg (14
2 3 n
for
for
for
1-2r+3x for —1 l.
13
2.4
for 1,
 CALOVLVS
DIFFERENTIAL

2n-•1
(h) tan -l c— 3 5 for —1< c <
5
1.3 c for
2.4 3

WII Maxima and Minima.

(i)If and is wgative. then

f(c) is marimun for c —c.

(ii) If and is positive, then

f(c) is a minimum for c —c.
(iii) • and y r (c) 0, then
(a) if r ig even,then f(c) ig marimum or minimum
for according as f r(c) is negative or positive •
(b) if r is odd,there iBneither a
maximum nor a mini-
mum for f(c) at z—c.

(iv) Alternative
criterion for
maxima and minima :
(a) f(c) is a
maximum if f'(c + h)
changes Bign from
(b) is minimum if f'(æ+h)
— to + ,
changes Bign from
as h, being
numerically
infinitely
small,
changes from
VIll. Indeterminate
form.
(l) Form 0

+(c)
Lt
p'c) ( L' Rospitai•s
(If) Porm Theorem )
Lt +(Z)
 LIST OF IMPORTANTFORMULÆ
Differentiation.
IS, Partial
(i) If u —fir,
V), and if , føv exi8t and ( or G)
continuous, then
is

(ii) If f(r, V) be a homogeneous function ot d%ræ n

r + V — nf(æ, ( Euler"
in r,V, then
v). Thurm I

Similarly, +z

dy _ f"
(iii) If f(c, dc fv
iv) If v), where v=
du au dc Dudye
dt dt Dvdt
(v) If u V), du dc +fv dv•

Similarly, du —f" dc +fv dV+ % dz,

(vi)If where (c, y), z. (z,

' av art
X, Tangent and
Normal.
(i) Equation of the tangent

dc (X- or,(X- +
(ii) Equation Of the normal
dc
(X— c), or,

(iii) Cartesian
subtangent — ; subnormal
Length of tangent = V
VI + VI g/vg.
Length Of normal —
V + Vi •
 DIFFERENTIAL
(Cartesian)
dlJ
d,1J

ds d,tr, dt
as
ds as
as

(+)
roaius
.
rd0 cos + — (Js
rd0 sin + — as

(Polar)
Arc-differential
r dB
ds

dr as — dr

----— — r—
(vii) Polar subtongent—r
where

dr
Polar subnormal —

Perpendicular from pole on tangent (p)

1 dr du
p = r Bin +

(giii) Pedal equationsof some well-known curves

(1) Circle + = (centra)
 rurST OF IMPORTANTFORMULÆ
xls
(3) Parabola vg 4aæ —ar.

4) FJllipse +

(5) Ellipse +

a¯
2a
(6) Hyperbola 1 (focus)

(7) Hyperbolo 2 ¯ ¯
1 (centre)•••

a*bB

(8) Roct, Hyperbola

20
(9) Parabola r = 1 ± cog 8 (focus)p g = cr.

(10) Cardioide r=a (1 ± cog 0) =2ap'.

(11) Lemniscate r 2 —a g cos 29
r2 sin 28

(12) rn =a n cos no
rn =a n sin no

Curvature.

fzæfvg¯ 2fcvfJv +fvvfø

 CALCULUS

dtpg

At the origin, r-axis (V= 0) being tangent l,

p=Lt the origin, y-axis (x = 0) being tangenbl,

[ the origin,
ar + by
ax + by = 0 being tangent

Chord of curvature through the pole = 2p sin 4.

parallel to x-axis = 2p Bin

Chora of curvatura
parallel to y-axis = 2p cos V,
Centreof curvature
_V1(1+V12), - 1+Y1 2

XI(I + Cl 2 )

p Bin
v=v+p cos v.
Radiu8 of curvature
of the evolute —
dv2
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF
DEVELOPMENT OF CALCULUS

Oneof the most powerful methods in modern mathe-

matics is that of the calculus, the ideas of which were
conceived by Archimedes in third century B.O. By
dividinga segmentof parabola into thin strips and add.
ing together their areas, he found an approximation to the
area of the segment. He then obtained closer approxima-
tions by taking more and thinner strips. By this method
of exhaustion he found the area of the segment exactly.

About 1586 Strevinug of Bruges used a method similar

to that of Archimedesto find the thrust of a liquid on a
surface, and a little later o Jesuit priest, Cavalieri, exten-
ded the method to find the volumes of solids. The methods
used by these mathematicians to find the whole area, or
volume, by dividing it up into small parts is now called
"integration" , i.e., finding the whole.
In the beginning of the seventeenth century the
French mathematician Fermat considered the ratio of
infinitesimally small increments and BOlaid the foundation
on which Newton (1642—1727) ond Leibnitz (1646—1716)
later built the theory of "differentiation" or finding rates of
changefrom the ratios of small differences, It was due to
the genius of Newton and Leibnitz that a great advance was
made. Newton conceived the idea of continuous change,
and rate of change at an instant or flux, and he described
his new subject "fluxions". He found that hig knowledge
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
ssil
could be applied 60 calculate
ot rates of oh%nge
volumes.that,is, perform integrations, much more easily
thon the method of exhaustion described above. Leibnitz
discoveredthe method of diffqrentibtion about the game
timeond we are specially indebted to him for his notation,
whichis essentially that now in general uge.
In the last two centuries calculus has been develope&
to suchan extent that it is now used to debt with problemsj
In every branch of f;echnical science.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
INTRODUCTION
NUMBERS
0•1. Numbers.
The earliestconcept of numbers originatedfrom count•
ing, and the first set of numbers which wag known to men
was the get of positive integers. The arithmetical process of
subtraction needed an extension to negative integers,and
zero was included as a number. The process of division
required D further extension to rational numbers, which are

defined to be numbers of the form where m and n are

integers, ultimately prime to each other, n being positive

and not equal to zero. It may be noted that terminating
decimals, algo recurring decimals, which are expressible
in the form m/n, fall under this category.
;
0*2. Geometrical representation of rational numbers
rational points.

roforenoe,and a suit-
Tako an tndefinite Iino X OX for
origin. A suitable length OA on it
able point O on it ag
geometrically into
being ch0Bcn LB unit, if wo divide 07
equal to m guob
equal partB, and take length OP (or Opt)
and towards
Parts (towardBthe right of O if rn be positive,
tho longth OP (or ON), or the
the left if m be negative),
 OALOVLVB
DIFFERENTIAL
the rational
the may be) represents
point P (or p', P, repregenting a rational number,
number n/a. The point
point.
ig called B rational

Properties of rational numbers.

0•3.
numbers ore well-ordered, Thig means that
(i) Rational
rational numbers a and b, either a > b or
of two unequal c, etc, In other
and b > c, then a >
a < b; also if a > b
in respect of their
words,rational numbers are well-arranged
numbers always
magnitudes, points representing higher
fallingto the right of those representing smaller ones, and

vice versa, in their geometrical representation.

(ii)Rational numbers are everywhere dense ; in other
words, between any two rationalnumbers however close,
or Tithin any interval on the axis representing rational
numbers, however small, there is an infinite number Of
rational numbers or points.

This may be easily Been from the fact that however

closethe two rationalnumbers
a and b may be, å(a+b) is
a rationalnumber lying
between them. Similarly, between
a and + b), ag also between
+ b) and b we can ingerj
rationalnumberg,•
and BO on.
Thus there is an infinite
number of rational
numbers between a and b.

004. Irrational
numbers.
Whereagall rational
on the axigjand numbers are represented by points
though in any
iB an infinite interval however small there
number of rational
that every point on the points, still the converge'
axis must
number, iB not represent some rational
true
OP J2 is not
 8
OA being unity, if be taken at right
angleg to 07
and equal to it, 0B ig joined and on OR,
OP be cut off,
equal to 0B, then OP reprogentB
a number equalto J2,
which is not rational.

Proof : For, if J2 m/n where n, n are integersprime

to each other, then mg = 2n2, showing that n g and go m ig
an even integer (for, the square of an odd integer ig evidently
odd). Let m = 2nd, where n' ig an integer. Then we get
n* = 2nd 2 and go n ig also an even integer. Thus m and n,
which have a common factor 2, cannot be prime to one
another, thug leading to a contradiction.
Similarly, equations like " 8 = 7, 4"' —13, etc. cannot

be solved in terms of rational numbers alone. Besides

radicals, there are other types of number like 6, n, (called
transcendental, numbers)
There are, therefore, numbers other than rational
numbers, which are called irrationalnumbers, thug leading
to a further extension of numbers.

Relations of irrational numbers to rational

numbers ; representation of numbers (rational as well as
irrational) as sections of rational numbers.
Consider the number J2. There is no rational number

whose square is 2. The system of rational numbers there.

 CALOVLVS
DIFFERENTIAL
their squares than 2, and
the L-olaBBbove greater than 2. Renae,
numbers of
811 hove squares of
thoseof the
Il-class
> every number the
the
everynumberof 1'414, 1 04142
belong to L-clao
1'41,
Thus, 1, 1'4,
belong to R-claBB,
1'4143
1'5, 1'42, 1'415,
and 2,
numbers of the
of the corresponding
The differences
classes are, respectively,
1, 0'1, 0001, 0'001, 0 00001
(by expressing J2 in decimal
Proceedingin thig manner
decimal not recurring,
form, which will lead to an endless
and choosing the rational numbers of the two classes by
stoppingat any stage) we can find a member of the
and a member of the R eclass which differ from one another
by as little ve please. Our commonsense notion there•
fore demands the existence
of a number c, and a corres•
ponding point P on
the axiBi such
that P divides the
claggL from the
clagg R.
But thignumber
c iB not
of the two rational and belongs
classes. to neither
Further, iB neither
For,if > 2, let > 2 nor < 2'
be, —2+e. Then
can get
rational however small e
being numbers
of the

numbergofthe differ from 2 by

wh0Be squares

ReclaBB than e. Such rational

aggumption 3villlie to
that iB the left of and BO
untenable. the point
Similarly, dividing the two classes
€ 2
before,
it
point P neither
iB thug to
only
point nor to class R.
ofdBec•tion
 NUMBERS
This leads to n new idea of
defining numbersag
of rational numbers,as follows : sections
"If by some means or other we
divide all rational
numbers into two classes L and R, Buch that each
clagg
contains at least ono rational number, every
rational number
belongs to either L or R, and each number
belonging to
a-class > every number of the L-clagg, then
we obtain
section of rational numbers which defines a
number, ration-
al or irrational ; the particular mode of division
definee
a particular number by its section."

Threecases
may arise
: (i) That L-clagg hag a greatest
number, but the R-clags hag no least ; e.g.,let all
rational
numbers > 5 belong to R-clasg, and the number 5, as algo
all rational numberg < 5 belong to L-clagg. The section in
this case represents the rational number 5, which belongs
here to one of the two classes,namely, the L-clagg. (ii)The
L-class has no greatest number, but the B-clasg has a least
one ; e.g., all rational numbers < — belong to L-class
and — with all rational numbers greater than thig belongs
to R•clagg. Here the section represents the rational number
— $5, and the number itselfbelongs to R-clasg. (iii)The
L-clasa hag no greatest number and the R-class has no least
number ; e.g., all rational numberg whose cubes are < 7
be!ong to L-clagg, and those whose cubes are > 7 belong
to R-clags ; there ig no rational number, ng can be shown,
whose cube iB equal to 7. The section in this case repre-
gents the irrationalnumber V 7, and belongs to none of the
classes L and R which consist of rationalnumbers only.

It may be noted that the case in which the L-clagghas

a greatest number and the R-clagg hag a least number
simultaneously is not possible,for otherwise, between these
 CALOVLVS
DIFFERENTIAL
number of
be an infinite
there
rational numbers they would belong
proved before,
rational numbers
two classes,
to none ot the conception of
numbers 8B
of our
This extension more satisfactory basis of
numbers gives us a
ot rational
in uniform way. We no longer think
definingall numbers an aggregate
but
isolated members,
of numbers as
rational numbers divided into sections.

0'6. Real numbers.

well 8B irrationa%,
All kinds of numbers, rational BB
constitute what are
positive or negative, including zero,
called roar numbers.

It may be thought that just as from rational numberB,

by dividingthem into two classes by sections, wo get, in
additionto rationalnumbers, a new type of numbers, namely,
irrationalnumbers, similarly by sections of real numbers
again,we may expect further extension of numbers. Bu t
this is not true. In thig connection
we state the following
theorem :

Dedekind's theorem (on sections

of real numbers) :
If real numbersbe divided
8uch way that
into two classes L and R ire
(i) everyreal number
(ii)each class
belongsto one class or the other,
contains at
and (iii)anv least one number,
number of the
L-class is Less
Ofthe a-class, thon every number
then there ecists
a
i.e., whichhas the real number a which effects thi8 sectiom
to L-classj and propertythat all numbers Jess
thon a belong
the numbera itself numbersgreater than a
belongto either belong to
For proof, class.
Bee mrdy'B
Pure Mathematics•)
 Thug ag gectiong of real
numbers we get real numbers
alone (unlike that in cage
of rational numbers), and not
any
other nev type of numberg,

Thus no further extension

of numbers ig possible ; and
the aggregate of real numbers
iB complete. The corres-
pondence (one to one) between an
the pointg on the line

SOX without exception (called the linear continuum)

and the gygtem of all real numbersrational and irrational
(constituting what iB called the arithmetical continuum)
ig now perfect.

Properties of real numbers.

(i) All fundamental lawg of algebra which hold for
rational numbers (including index laws, etc.)remain true for
irrational numbers as well.
[ For proof, Bee Bromwich's Infinite Series, Appendic ]
(ii)Between any two real numbers however close,there
exigtg an infinite number of rational numbers, as also an
infinite number of irrational numbers.

One special case of thig iBArt. 0B (ii).

O•8. Complex numbers.
In order to fillup the gaps and bring about a uniformity
in the theory of equations, ag also in _a!lother theorieg of
higher mathematics, it hag been found necessary to intro-
duce a class of numbers, called complex numbers. A compleø
number has been defined by modern mathematicians ag an
ordered couple of real numbers, i.e., a, pair of real numbers
united symbolically in a particular order for the purpose ot
technical convenience. Thug a complex number iB,strictly
speaking, not a Binglenumber at all, but a pair of real
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULU8
the order iB revergeåi
numbers with proper order. If
complex number
we get B different complex number. A
may be expressedin the form [a, b], where a nnd b are
real numbers. It is Alsorepresented, for convenience, in
the form a + ib, where the symbol i hag no meaning by
itself
; it merely indicates the order in which the real
numbers a and b are considered, In defining all ordinary
algebraicaloperationswith regard to complex numbers it
has been found convenientto aggociatethe symbol i with
the property i 2 —1, in which case all operationa con.
sistentTith the algebra of real
numbers may be applied
to the case of complex
numbers.
For geometrical representation
and further introduction
into the algebra of
complex numbers Bee
Chapter VI, Das
anÜMukherjees' Bigher
Trigonometry.
 CÜAPTER 1
FUNCTIONS
In higher mathematics
and various branohegof
science very often wo havo
to don!with changeablequan-
Citieswhich are interrelated
to ono another, and in many
such cases we have occasions to investigato
how one of these
quantities changes with a gradual
changein the other. For
example, in a given amount
of gag enclosed in
a cylinder
with a movable piston, and kept
at a constant temperature,
the volume and pressure are
interdependent, and a change in
one produces a corresponding change in the other ; or again,
for a falling particle, the height from the ground depends
on the time, and changes with it; the area of a circle
changes with its radius, etc.
In Differential Calculus we deal with the way in which
one quantity varieg with another when the change in the
latter is ultimately very small, or more properly, with the
rate of change of one quantity with another, as also other
allied problemg.*
In these investigations we shall be dealing with the rela-
tiong between pure numberg which represent the magni-
tudes (with proper Bigng)of the quantities, and not with the
concrete quantitieg themgelveg, go that the results will be
general in nature, applicable to any pair of interdependent
quantitiea under gimilar mathematical conditions.

• While Invegtlgatlng problemgot thig typo, Newton (In England)

and Leibnftz (In Germony) wore Indopendontlyled to the investigation
0t the principlog ot Oaloulug,towards tho ologe ot the seventeenth
century. The prlnolplog ot Oaloulug, In gomo form, vora algo known
to the Hindus In Indfa much earlfør.
 CALCVLVS
DIFFERENTIAL
be concerned
10 we Bhan
discussions
following meaning by real numbenj
in the only,
numbers numbers, positive
the irrational
rational
zero, integers,
negative.
Definitions and Notations.
1'2. Preliminary system of real numbers defined*
: A
A«gregate or Set 'aggregate' or 'Bet' Of
is called an
in eny way whatever
numbers.
The aggregate of positive Integers ; the aggregate Ota
Illustration:
aggregate of al) real numbers positive,
Allnegativerational numbers ; the from —3to +7
or negative ; the aggregatoof all rational numbere
111 _ 1 etc.
the aggregate of numbers

Variable: Let be a symbolused during any mathw

to which may
maticalinvestigation, be assigned any numeri-
cal value out of a given get of real numbers. Then is,

called 'variable'or 'real variable', and the totality Of

the values of c constitutes what ig called the domain of
Illustration
: In the expression a reav
l, may be considered
variable whosedomain iBthe aggregate of
positive integers.
Note. Variablesare usually denoted
by latter letters of the alpbB•
bet, euch z, V, g, u, v, w,
E, etc.

Continuous Variable :
If assumes succesBively every
numerical value of
an aggregate
of real numbers from
given number 'a'
to another
called given number 'b',then is
'continuousreal
The domainor variable'.
interval (as it will
of in this caseiB be sometimeg called)
denotedby (a, b)
If a be
omitted from
or a < x < b.
the domain,
it iB indicated
In the last
the domain
end, the domain is to be open at the left
< < b iB said to be
 FUNCTIONS
11

Theinterval a < < b ig open at both ends, a and

b being
from the domain of possible values of c.
botb excluded
Illustration: In the expresglon
a oontlnuoue
Those domain iB —8 < z < 5 ; again, in
variable dz+2/ 07—æ,
thereal variablez has the Interval —2< < 7. In Bin-I ", the
of z lg —1
InterVBJ < l.
The domain of the variable in any expression contain.
ing c, as in the above cases, Oongistg of those values of

for which the expression hag a definite real value.

The interval (a, b) ig very often graphically represented
on the c-axis by means of the length bounded by the two
points A (c—a) and B (c The length of the interval
(a,b) iB obviously AB = 0B — OA —b — a.

Constant: A Bymbolwhich retains the game numerical

value throughout a Bet of mathematical operations ig called
a constant.

Note, Constants (other than numerical constants like 2,

etc,)are usually denoted by the earlier letterg of the alphabet, such as,
a, b, a, 9,
etc.

VAbsolute value : By absolute value of a quantity

as distinguished from its algebraical value, we mean its
magnitude or numerical value, taken with a positive Bigne
It iBrepresented by the notation I I which ig O or —z
according c > ,— or < O.
From the very definition the following results are
Q Pparent,
viz.,
(i) I I< Ia + I b I or more generally,
al +1b 1+1 cl+
(ii) b I > la I i.e., I la I -1b Il
 DIFFERENTIALcnruoüLVS

161-6, I -2+61 < 2+6,

Illus. : | —21-2, 1 -6-2,
| —2-61=2+?, I —6-21 > 6-2, 1
o the symbol I "—a I < b.
Note. Meaning i.e., z < a+ö; andIt
> a, m—a<
I "—al < b, it
< Hence, combining the two, we
i.e.,
< a+ö. Similarly,I "—al < b
< a, <
that I < 8 meanea•-ö < O < I z —a I meane
Symbol
means < z < a+ö.
a--ö < 0+8, but a.
—b < < b.
Thus, I g I < 8 means
defined for a given
Functions: By a, function of c,
which has a single and
domain, is understooda quantity
definite valuefor every value of in its domain.
See note 1. )
and be two real variables so
In other words, "If
defined
related that, correspondingto every value of within
to b'
domain, we get definite value of Y, then Y is said
function of definedin its domain."
In this case, the variable c, to which we may arbitrarily
assign different values in the given domains is referred to

the independent variable (or, argument), and y is called

the dependent variable (or, function). See note 2.
We shallgenerally denote functions of by such symbols
f(c), v(æ),F(æ), +6), etc., where the mathematical forms
of these functions may or may not be obtainable.
funot100
Note 1. When an expression or equation which defines a
gives two or more values of the function for each value of we call
to
the function multiple-valued. The definition given above refers
ID
single-valuedfunction vith Thioh we are mainly concerned
all mathematical investigations. A multiple-valued functioD'
proper limitationBimpoged on its value to be used In any particular
different
invegtfgatlon,can In general be treated
defining two OE more
aingle-valued funotlong of ; e.g., y=gin-læ 1)
(—1 Z
'broken up Into y— Bin-Læ, There (i) --åT < (li) V
<
 13

< V < F, etc, ; again, y' —z can be broken up into

(11)
and V — Jz, and go on.
More generally (without restricting to single-valued
function:
of z may be defined as follows :
only), function
If two quantiCiesz and V are so related that, correspondingto
valuesof z, there are values of y, then y is said to be a function of z.
Note2. If y be a function of the variable z, It will generallybe
open to ug algo to regard z as function of V by virtue of the functional

relation between c and p, the proper domain of y being taken Into

occount In thig case, because It may BO happen that the domoln in
qbfcb V lg defined {g not the domain In which Is defined. For
example, can be written as c=y', the domainot in the former
relationbeing z > O, and that of V In the latter Is the aggregateof
Blireal numberg, positive or negative.
In the latter cage, V will be the Independent variable, z the depen•
dent one,

Note 3. A function •maybe undefined (i.e., may not have a definite

tilue) for someparticular value or values of z in a given interval.
In thisconnection we may make the following remark :

Division by zero (symbols a/o, 0/0) ig meaninglegg.

a and b (viz.,alb) defined ae
The quotient of two finite numbers
the definite finite number that a = bz, Now, obviously, In the
z such
dlvldon, zero value ; for, If b=O, then a (z
of b Is excluded
dlvlB10n
and z can be any number. Hence, the above definitionrules out
by zero. Therefore, forms alO, 010 are meaningless.
The following simple illustrationshows how division by sero leade
tofallacious results.
Suppose, (z 0, V O),

Hence, dividing out by z —y, z+y=v, 2y=v,

i.e., or, 2=1.

the fallacy Is due to the fact that we have divided by z —V

Is equal to zero.
that anything divided
Similarly, the assumption 010 = 1, on the basfs
by Itselt below.
is i, leads to fallacious results, ag shown

o Bxo o
again, 3 x — o
 CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
that
It
romnrkg, will bo npparont
Front tho above ;
not defined for
Ibo tunotlon f(x)
-----is not defined for ; etc.
the tunotlon
denotes certnln function of z, then In oasef(æ)
Note4. It f(x)
by o mathemoticnl expressionInvolving z, f(a), i.e., the value
given
functionfor z—a,may, In general but not always, explained
ot the
(IV), Art, i'4J, be obtained by puttinga
in note 8 Above,and also in
for f(c),
for z in the expression
f(O) = Bin ;
Chas,
If --5z+ 1, f(l)

If f(z) (c+ h)' +2zh+ h' ; etc.,

1
•bereas, If cog f(O) 1B undefined,

1%3. Graphical representation of functions.

Taking the straight line X/OX, with origin O on it as

asual, to represent the real variable c, the value of the
(unction, V or f(æ), may be represented
parallel to the line

Y' OY drawn at right angles to

X' OX, as in ordinary graphs.
Corregponding to every value
of (in the assigned domain)
the point iB plotted whose
ordinate gives the corresponding
value of the function.
The assemblage of the points,
nay or may not form
a continuous
line,represents the graph
of the function.

In drawing tho graph

it iB not nocesgary to know the
-exact mathematical
relation botweon
or may not bo and f/ (which
obtainable). It will
the definite value be sufficient if we
of t/ corresponding
a Largenumber of to every value (at
valucB)of in the
The graph at once defined domain•
pregentBto tho eye
the function iB
related to, and the way in wbicb
changes with the argument•
 CHAPTER Xlll
ASYMPTOTES
( Rectilinear )

13•1. In some cases a curve may have a branch or

branches extending beyond the finite region, In thiB cage,
if P be a point on such a branch of the curve, having itB
cc-ordinates(r, y), and if P moves along the curve go that
at least one of and tends to + 00 or to — 0', then P iE
and this we denote by P -+
said to tend to infinity,

Def. If P be a point on a branchof a curve extending

beyondthe finite regicn, and a straight Lineexists at a finite
distance from the origin from which the distance Of P
gradually diminishesand ultimately tends to zero as P -+
(moving along the curve), then such a straight line is called,
an asymptote of the curve,
1302. Asymptotes not parallel to y-axis.
If y=nc+ c be an asymptote corresponding to an infinite
branchof a curve,wherem and c are both finite (includine.
zero), then

and c —Lt (y —mx),

where(c, y) are the co-ordinatesoj a point
P on the branch o/
the curve.
The distance of the point
P from the straight line
v —m" — is given by

Jl + mg ' and if be an asymptote,

d 0 as T,-+ and since m iBfinite here,
Lt (V— or, Lt (y—mæ)— c.
 ASYMPTOTES 33k

Again, denoting Y— — c, i.e.,d VI by u,

Now making + 00, since u -+ 0 in thig case, and c it

finite,

= 0, or, Lt

Accordingly, to find asymptotes (which are not parallel

to the y-axis) of a curve (c) { or F (c, wo first"
ofallfind outLt from the equation to the curve, which
may have severa! finite values (inclusive of zero). Cor.
responding to any such value (m say), we next proceed tc•
find Lt (V — mæ), using the equation to the curve.

If this limit is found to be finite,say c, then v —næ + c'

ig an asymptote. [ See E". 7, S 138. ]
Note. An alternative definition of a rectilinear asymptote
sometimes given as follows: If P be a point on a branch of a curvc
extending to infinity and if a straight Jine at a finite distancefrom
origin exists towards which the tangent line to the curve at P
approaches as a limit when P 00, then the straight Jine ig an
agymptote of the curvc,
With this definition also, we can prove the results of the nbove•
•rtfole ; for, the equation of the tangent at P (z, V) to the curve fe
-2- and as z • 00, If thie
(x-c), or, dz X+ Y-c
{ends to Y=mX+c, where m and c are finite,clearly ane

d_? —Lt (y—nzz).•

rigorousproof of this last equality requlreg the age of

integration.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

It 8bould noted when P 00, If tho tongont Iino tondg

GoA Btrnlght Iino 88 118ltmltlng poßltlon, that, Iino nn ngympt,olo,
The converse, however, Is not true, i.e., ovon it tho tangont llnohag no
aednlto limiting position whon P thoro may bo nn ngymptota,
( BooDc. 8, 5

13%3. Asymptotos parallel to y-axis.

The necessary and sufficiont condition that tha straight
fine c is an asymptote to the curve v —f(æ) is that
f (z) I when either -+ a +0 or a— 0.

For, guppose -+ a—O. Since I I in this cage,

P being the point (c, y) on the curve, P -9 00 in this cage ;
conversely, if P —i in this cage, I y I 00, and
hence the necessity of the condition Now the per-
pendicular distance of P from the line m—a ig c —a (the
axes being rectangular), and I c —a •l 0 as a—O,
Hence, c —a is an asymptote. Similarly, for the cage when

Thug to find asymptotes parallel to y-axis, we may write

z for l/v in the equation to tho curve, and then make
g —+0. If then the result lendgto a finite value or valueg
of z of the type æ=a, these will give ug tho corresponding
BBymptotegparallel to y-axis. [ Boo ET. 7, 5
Note. In a gimilar way wo may got asymptotesparaUeI to æ-axdsI
ibug If ag b ± O,I I -+ (whore Vfg a point on the curve)
then lg an agyrnp€oto.

13•4e Asymptotes of algebraic curvos.

The mogt useful cage of determination of agymptojeg iB
Of
gor algebraic curves. The general form of the equation
 ASYMPTOTES 939
an algobrnic curvo of tho nth dogrco ig, arranging
in grouvg
of homogeneous Corms,
(aoæn + I f/ + a 2a;n-2v2 + + any n)
+ bn—
Ivn¯ 1)
+ (coc n- 2 + cic n - 8 v + -2 )
+ co-gy n

o,
which can also be written as

o,
where is an algebraic polynomial of degree r.
For asymptotes of this curve, we proceed to prove the
following rules :
Rule l. Asymptotesnot parallel to y-axis will
be given
by y=mæ+ c, where m is any of the real finite roots
o]
and for each such value of m,
provided it gives a definite value of c.
Proof :
The epation (2) of the curve can be put in the form

+ On—a
Now if y—mæ+ c be an asymptote, where n and c are,
0
finite,Lt ( See 5 13 2 Hence from (3), making

E -+ since m iBfinite, and the functions +n(m),

etc. which are algebraic polynomialsin m are accordingly
finite, we get (m)—O.
Again, Bincoin this case Lt ( See S 132
we can write V— —c+ u, where u is a function of
that u e+u
Owhen ThuB, —m+
 334 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

From (3),now we get

Expanding each term by Taylor's theorem, 8ince tho

functions Or are all algebraicpolynomialsand will each lead
to a finite series, and remembering that (m)—0,we get

æ 22 !

+ — +71—1
(m) + 2 t d) n-l (m) +

Now multiplying throughout by c and making c

•e get ( •: u 0 now )
c+'n (m) + on-I (n) —O, or, c = (m)/+'n
Each finite root of will give one value Of c
( provided (m) 0 for thig value and accordingly
get the corresponding asymptote mc + c,
Special cages,
If any value of m satisfying (n) —O(gay moke8 •'n(m)—C
algo ( Thfcb requiregm, to be a multiple root of (m)—Oag we Enov
trom tho theory of equationg and If (Pi) 0 for this value, tho
as Accordingly there 18 no asymptote corresponding
to thig value of rn,
If for tn—mt, we get (m) (m), each —O,then from
(4), multiplying throughout by c', and making c 00, we derive

0
giving two values ( Bayc., c. ) of c in general ( provided
tbetoby giving two parallel asymptotesof the type
 ASYMPTOTES 335

It • Un(tnn) ig algo zero {i.e., If nil lg a triple root of (m) —O}, and
If (ml), (nix) are also identically zero, we gholl, proceeding
(n B gtmilar manner, get three parallel ngymptotogIn generalcorroge
pondlng to In—nil ; and go on.

Rule ll. Asymptotesparallel to y-axis erist only when

(the coefficientof the highestpower of y, i.e., of 1/11
) is zero,
Cendin this case the coefficientof ghehighest available power
of Vin the equation (provided it involves cc,and is not nerelv
constant) equated to zero will, give us those asymptotes.
similar rule will apply to asymptotesparallel to æ-aæis.
Proof :
After dividing by and replacing 1/1/ by z, the
equation (1) of the curve can be written in ascending

•owerg of z in the form

an + z(an— + bn—1) + Z2 (an—2C2 + + Cn—g
(5)

This will have an asymptote parallel to y-axis of the

type where a ig finite, provided z 0 when a +0
or [ See S 13%3J.
Hence making z -4 0, since now tends to finite value,

•e must have the necessary condition an = 0.

Assuming this to be satisfied, we get from (5), dividing
by z and making z -4 0,
an-I + bow-I
giving finite value of (provided an-I ig not zero) which
makes I y 1--> and thus represents an asymptote.

In caser is also zero along with an in order that

we may have an asymptote parallel to y-axis, Nincec is
be finite, we must have, from (6), bn—l= O. Hence, (5b!
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
386

dividing by and makingz -9 0 now we get the agymp,.

by
totes parallel to y-axis (two in this case) given
+ bn—gØ
+ Cn—g
provided this gives finite values of m. In case an-2j n-%y
manner
cn-g are all identically zero, we proceed in a similar
with the coeffcient of z8 in (5), i.e., the coeffcient of
in the original equation (1), and so on, proving tho rule.
Note. By interchangingVand in arranging the given equatior:
(1),and proceedingin a similar manner, (making we can prove
ibe correspondingrule for finding the asymptotes parallel to the z-axis,

13•5. Working rule for asymptotes of algebraic

curves.
For an algebraic curve of the nth degree with equation-
given by (1) of the previous article, first of all gee if the
term involving yn is absent, in which case, the coeffcient'
of the highest power of Y involved in the equation (unless
alt is merely a constant independent of c) equated to zero
will give asymptotes parallel to the y-axis,
Similarly, if the term involving is absent, the coeffw
cient of the highest available power of equated to zerc•
will in general give asymptotes parallel to the c-axiB.
Next, replacing by 1 and Y by m in the homogeneouE
nth degree terms, get (m) [ as is apparent from the alter-
native form (y/c)l. Similarly get (m) from the
(n —l)th degree terms, and if necessary (see later), (n)
from the (n —2)thdegree terms, and BOon. Now equating
(m) to zero, obtain the real finite roots ml, mø, etc.
which will indicate the directions of the corresponding
•symptoteB (repeated roots giving in general set of parallele
asymptotes).
 ASYMPTOTES

For each non-repeated root (mr, BOY),a definite value c,

— (m)//n (m) ig obtained, and the corresponding
is determined. For repeated roots,
asymptote y = mim +
obtained explained under
ihe several values of c may be
the head 'Special cages' of Rule I.
of
13'6. Alternative method of finding asymptotes
algebraic curves,
Let the equation to an algebraic curve be
(1)

where Pn [ aoæn + ly+ + any n (V/Ø) J

consistsof homogeneous terms of degree n, Pn-l ig homo-
geneous of degree n —1, and go on. Now ml, mg,
being the roots of (m)= 0, we know from the theory of
equations that m —ml, m —ma, e. are factors of (m)
and accordingly Pn an (y — maæ)... The possible
asymptotes are parallel to Y — mlØ—0,
etc., as
provedin 13'4,and their directions are thus all easily
found from the factors of Pne

CASE I. Let y — ml" be a non-repeated factor of P, s.

Equation (1) can then be written
as

(v-mlc) Qn-1+Fn-1=O
or, y —rntæ + (Fn-1/Qn-1)
= 0, (2)
whereQn-l [ =
J iB a homogeneous
expreggion
of degree n —1
which does not contain
a factor, andFn-l v—
[ Pn-l + Pn-g +
and lower degree ] consists of
terms,
Nov the
asymptote parallel
e (v (—Fn-1/Qn-1) [from
(2)
338 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULü8

•boveJ, it being remembered that Lt (v/Ø) in thig

oase [ See S 132 In other words, the particular asymptote

in question is

y —mix + Lt

where in determining the limit involved, we are to put V= m

and then make
CASEIl. Let Pn have a repeated factor (V—mræ),
The equation (1) can then be written as
(Y —mræ)2Qn_g+ pn_l + Fn_2 = 0,
where Qn-2 is a homogeneous expression of degree n —2,
and Fn-2 [ = P n _ 2 + p n _ B + ] consistsof (n — '2)
th and
lower degree terms.
Now the asymptotes parallel to V— will be
cr, where cr = Lt (v—mræ),and this from (3) is
given by

Org + n 1
n—2

it beingrememberedthat Lt (y/æ) mr here.

If Pn-l does not contain

as factor, then it is
Beenthat cr given above,does not tend to a finit&
I tmit, and accordinglythere are no
asymptotes parallel to
V nrø.
If, on the other hand, Pn-l has a
factor Y—mrc„ assum-
Ing Pn-l (y —mrc) Rn-2, we can write
(3) in the form
(V —mræ)2 + (V —nrc)
 ASYMPTOTES 339

and arguing as before, the required asymptotes will be

given by
Rn-2
(V —mræ)2 + (y —mræ) Lt
z.oc Z-»oo n— 2

it being remembered that in proceeding to determine the

limits we are to use Lt (y/æ)= mr here,

The two parallel asymptotes correspondingto the tV70

repeated factors of Pn are thus obtained.
Similarly, we may proceed in cages of factors of PE
repeated more than twice.
Note. If, In Pn the term Involvingy" be absent, that 1B,an=n,
'OlearlyPn Till have a factor and correspondingto this there will
be In general an asymptote parallel to y-axis, i.e., parallel to z=0,
(m)(which Is in general of degreen) will have its degreelower than
In thig case. If, for Instance, be a factor of Pn, (m) will be cf
degreen—2, as will be the term involvingthe highest powej
asymptote:
of y In Pg. In this oase, there will be in general two
garallel to p-axlB (i.e., æ=O) and asymptotes corresponding to the
loots of (m) = O, i.e., corresponding to the other factors of Pn,

of the algebra"
Thus, an the possible directions of the asymptotes
:curve (including those parallel to y-axis) will be indicated bp the
factors of Pg, and the asymptotes may be very effectivelydetermined
by the method of the present article. For illustrations, gee
Q. 2-5; S 13•8.

A special case (Asymptotes by inspection).

If the equation to an algebraic curve can be put in tha
form Fn + Fn-s = O, whereFn consists of nth and towerdegrea
terms which can be eæprgssødas a product of n linear factors
none of which is repeated, and Fin-z consists of terns al
•nost of degree n —2, then an the asymptotes are given by
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

For, let Fn + bill+ bey + cg)

(anæ+ +
= (alt + bill + CO Qn-l (gay),
where Qn-l is of degree n —1.
The equation of the curve can then bo written 0B
OIT+bIy+c1+F n—2
/Q
and the asymptote parallel to air, is, ag 8hown
above,
+ Lt 00 (Fn-2/Qn-l)-O
where, in calculatingthe limit of the last term, we are to
putV= —(al/bl)æ, and then make 00, and thig limit
is easily seen to be zero, since Fn-2 ig at mogt of degree
n —2, and Qn-l is of degree n —1.
Thus, —0 is an asymptote. Similarly,
eoch of a2c+bgy+ce etc. will be an asymptote.
there are n asymptotes here, Fn=O represent all the
asymptotes,
Note. If in the above oase, Fn consistBof zeal linear factors:r
some repeated,and some non-repeated,the non-repeated linear faot0EE
equated to zero will be asymptotes to the curve. The asymptotes corres-
ponding to the repeated iactors, however, will have to be obtained as Ir
the general case.

13'7. Asymptote of Polar curves.

Let r —f(0) be the polar equation to a curve. This
may be written as u = 1 1
F(o) (Bay).
P being any point (r, 0) on the curve, P
00 as r -4
which requires F(O)-+ O. Let the solutions of b'
etc. Then these are the only
along which the branchesof the curve tend to infinity
 AS YMPTOTDS 341

Oongider the branch corresponding to 0 = a. Let the straight

line r cog (6 —al) (2) be the asymptote to thig branch,

Then p = ON, where ON ig the perpendicular from the

pole O on the Line,and LNOX— al. Let OP produced meet
thislineat Q If PM be the perpendicular from P on the
line,then

PM-PQ QPM-(OQ- 02) QON

— {p geo (0 —al ) — f(0)} cos (0 — al) [ From (1) (2) )

—p —f(0) cog (0 — at),

Now Bince (2) is an asymptote, O as P -+

tee,ag 8
a for the branch in question.

Lt COS(8—al)} —O, or, Lt f(0) cog (0 —al) —p

•nd as p iB
finite,and f(6) as e —i a, Lt cos (9 — at) —O

or, al —a —ån
Again, COS (0— al)
p=Lt f(e) cos (e — al) —

O — sin (0 — al)
being of the form

Bin (a — al 1
842
DIFFERENTIAL OÅLOVLVS

(0 — a +
Hence, (2) reduces to r COB
or, r sin (6 a) = I/F' (c)
asymptote.
$hioh is the required
asymptotes corresponding
Similarly, the other possible
sin (0 — ß) = I/F'
to the other branches are r
r sin (8 Y) — I/F(Y), etc,

13•8. Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Find the asymptotes of the cubic
C, P. 1949
The curve being an algebraiccurve of the third degree, Blnoe tht
terms Involving z s and are both present, there are no asymptote'
parallel to either the z-axis or the y-axis in this case,

To find the asymptotes of the type y=mc+c, which are obllqcs

eonsldering respectivelythe third and second degree terms (putting i
z and m for y),we get here

(m) = 1 —2m' +171 (2 —m) = (1 — + +2m),

and (m) = m (1

Now, gives m —1

A ISO, C — (m) = m (m—l)

—O
— +2 —2m and thug for m—i, '1
1; and form— c
Hence the required asymptotes are

, = —z—l and
i.e., z+Y+1=O andz+2y=1,
Note. It may be noted that the
equation to determine m and
Plight be obtainedin practice by putting
v=mz+e 'n the given
"on, and then equatingto gercthe eoeficientsof
the two highest
Ofz,
Alternative method :
Writing the highest degree terms tn
tac€ozlsed torm, the
gan written as
 ASYMPTOTES 343

Hence tho possible asymptotes are parallel to

•rd z+ 2? —0, and these asymptotes are regpeotlvely
z—p+Lt (æ-y)+l -o,
c-»cro

z+v+Lt y (c-y)+l -o
(z 27)

and z+2v+Lt ("-0+1 (3)

Thelimit, Involvedin (I), Lt (c—c)+1

x-»oo 2")

that In (2), z Lt —2"2+1

andthat in -Lt
Hence the asymptotes are

Ex. 2. Find the asymptotes of 2" (y— 5)

the curve fg algebraic, arranging the terms In descending degreee,

ibe equation can be written ag
(2y-3c)+2c
The possibleasymptotes are parallel to and
I'he asymptote parallel to z —O,i.e., to the y-axis, 1B(equating to zero
the coo±olent of y a, the highest available power of y In (l), glnce the
Germ involving y' Is absent here) i.e.,"*O, the y-axis Itself.
2z=O,
The asymptote parallel to y —O,(In a 81mllar manner, gince term
1B absent
here), 18 —31/+6=0, or,

The third asymptote 1B

2v-3z+Lt (3æ-7y)+38z-3p+6
Z-»oo

•ud since the limit

Involved—Lt
the asymptote
1B 2V—3z— 10—0.
Hence the required
asymptotes are z—O, V—2, 2v—3z+iO.
 344
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

the asymptotes OJ
Ex. 8. Determine
= O.
— + 2cv+ 21/• —3c+V

Writing the equation as

two parallel asymptotes parallel

presumably
we note that there are
to
to ø+y—O, and one parallel
æ+v=O are given by
The agymptotes parallel to
(c + v) a +2 (c + 11). Lt

provided the limits involved exist.

Now,

rut 3c-V=Lt
and

Hence the asymptoteg from (2) are

or,

Again, the asymptote parallel to "—v=0 g!ven from (1) by

21/ (c + y) — 3c+y
c—v+Lt

(æ+æ)— 3z+z
i.e., c—v+Lt
Thug the required asymptotes are
z+v-v 1—O, and c--V+
Ex. Find the asymptotes of the Folium oj Degcart68

Tbe equation can be written and

'tnoe the highest degreeterms have got only one real linear
E+p, (the linear factors of z' —cy+ya being clearly Imaginary), there
only one possibleasymptote here, which Is parallel z+v—O.
aymptote in question
= Lt
 ASYMPTOTES 345

Ex. 5. Find the asvmptotes of —

The Fossibleasymptotes here are one parallelto and a pal'
?arallel to z —y —O.

The first one, vhich Is parallel to y-axis, is found by equating the

nescient of to zero (the term Involving y' being absent, as It should

Ee ander the circumstances), namely, 2+3=0,

The other tT0 ate given by

Lt
z-»oc Z
vaz
'tea, or,
Thus the required asymptotes are
z+3=O, and

Ex. 6. Prove that the asymptotes of the cubic

a triangle of area a a.
The equation to the curve may written as

or, v{z a

'hlch is of the form F, + F, —O, F, having three non-repeated linear

and so the required asymptotes are given by equating these
factors to zero,
namely,

By solving In pairs, their points of intersection are easily seen to be

( —a, O), (a, O) and (O, —a).
The azea of the triangle with these as vertices Is

o 1

€1.7. Find the asymptotes, if any, of the curve

V —a log sec (zla).
18 not an If
Algebrafo curve. To find Its asymptotes,
•re not parallel to
y-axis, we know that
RE ere Lt and Lt (v—me).
 DIFFICnnNTIAL OALCULUB

V —Lt a log goo(Cla)

Now tho ourvo, Lt
limit d008not exist,
Renee there 18no osymptoto non-parallel to y-axis In thig cage,
To flud it thoro bo any asymptote parallel to y-axis, we notloe that
vhon rla-• 2nr±åT, and accordinglythe asymptotee parallel
So are ( See S 18'8 )
(2nr±
are the only of the given ourvo.
Ex. 8, An asymptote is defined in following two ways :
(A) An asymptoteis a straight line, the distance of which from
point on a curvediminisheswithout limit as the point on the curve
motesto an infinite distancefront the origin.
(B) An aswnptote to a curve is the limiting position of the tanøøn*
ghen the point of contactmovesto an infinite distance from the origin.
Consider the two curves
c+sin z

8hotDthat for the first curve, an asymptote ecists according to both

(he definitions, but for the secondcurve, an asymptote exists accordinc•
cc the ßrgt definition, but not according to the second.
tzt oonglderthe flrgt definition. Aooordlng to thlB It hag beer
vrcved( 182 ) that the Gtralghtline v—mx+o will be an asymptote
a curve, where m —Lt ana (v—mæ), (c, V) being
on the curve, provided the oxiBt.
Now tor (l),

Accordingly the auyrnptoto exlgtg, given

by v ••ax+b.
again, tor the curvo (Il),
e+eln
% lelnølO)
and (y-tnc)-Lt (v-ax)-Lt c+einø —be
 usnłprorzs
the existâHere giî2Z

Next, consider the gazond đeź.nltioz.

cane (1),— —a— —i' so tŁe the

:• •c, the eąuation Eecc=ă 7=aZ+Ł,

d±nlte Eftâight line t0țarčs the lire
cf contsct (z, V) an infinite E=ce IS

Ecr cažîe (u),

z cos z)
dz¯a+

the egaation țo the tangent line at (z, ț)

z cos z)

o: the î'âlue of V źro:n (Ii),

cu z c+sin z 2(c+s1n z) •
—cos z+ž
z z z
cos z do— not to •ny definite limit. Eezce
tbe tangent line any definite psitîoz
Bt (z, V) do— not tend
the Bîyzłptote does nct exist iz this •ccordlzg tke

deânltion.

Ex. 9. Find the asvmptoteof the curte (r—c)sin e —b.

sin
The be vritten
b+a sin
The dlrect{ons are given u=O, or
In Fhlcb
țlîlng nr.
NOȚ r du (b+a gin a.
i.e., (b+a Bin 8)
î

oog
for
(b+a sin e)'
 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Hence, as in S 13•7,the required asymptote iBgiven by

r Bin (6— = IIF' b sec
cahloh, whether n is even or odd, reduoeg to
r Bin6=b,

ExamplesXlll

Find the asymptotes of the following curves [ E". 1 -31]:

1. - æ2- 2y-3=o.
8 — 6æy 2 + 11æ 2y— 6m8 + V 2 — +2m — 39' 1
2 — 'zcv + 3112 + 4c + 5
3. +3c2y-cy
4. + - + - 14æy+ 7V2 +4c+ 5y -O.
[ C. P. 1943j
5. + 2c 2y— —'2?g + 4y g +2æy— 5y+6

6. 7. 8 = 3y (m
+ V).

8. —Y4 + 3æ2y + 3cy 2 +æy=o.

9. 4m' — 5æ2v* + V 4 + V 8 —3æ2v + 5" -8=0.
-10. (i) — '2V — 3m —0. (ii) v 2(æ 2
(iii) æ(æ2 + 1/2) + a(c 2 —y 2) 0

11.
12. [ C. P. 1937 )
13. — 3væ 2 —5æv2 + 2æB + 6y 2 —c— 3y + 2=0.
14. —æ g v 2 +æ 2 + —0 2 —0.

a Z(æ +
—4ævg -- 4- 12vc— 12v* +8m + 2V+4 —O
 xlll ASYMPTOTES

18. + 3æ g v-- 4B/8 --Ø+V+3—O.

19• [ C. P. 1989 )
20. + c 2v + 2cy 2 —V +1 [ C. P. 1941, '44 )
21. (cg - v 2)2 - 8(C 2 + y 2) 16=0,
22, — —2æ) + 3c 2(v —c) —2c 2 —0,
23. + — V) 2 + 2æ 8 (c — V) — 4y 8 0,

24. (c + y)(c — V)2 + 3cv(c — V) + + = 0,

25. — 2(c + — — 2(cg Y)

26. 8 -- 5æy 2 + 8c 2v — 4æ8 —4y 2 +12cy— 8r 2

+ — 3z+2 —O

27. (i) cy(æ2 + y 2. (ii) zy(c g —v•

28. (c 2 — —9y 9) + 3cy 6r— 5y +2—0.
29. (i) —6c2v+ 1Icy* —6? s +2c—v+1
(ii) —5æ2ye + 4y4 + 2V2 +2c+v+ 7=0.

*31 • (i) V = tan

c.

(iii) V= (iv) v=log

Showthat the asymptotes of the curve
—a9(æg+ t/2) form a square of side '2a
Show that the asymptotes of the curve
—a2(æg —O
form Bquare curve
two of whose angular points lie on the
34. Show of the
the finite points of intersection
ABymptotegof tbe curve
on circle
cv — ) + a(Ø9 + vs) —as —Owith
whose centre iB at the origin.
 DIFFERENTIAL CALOULU8
which hog tho
36. Find the equntion of the cubic
g 31/(m—1)g nnd which
asymptotes DBthe curve 2m(V-- 3)
iouohes the axis of at, the origin and goog through tho
point (1, 1)

*36. If any of the asymptotes of the curve

2fv+ c = 0 (11%> ab)
ar g + 2hæy + by 2 + 2gæ+

passes through the origin, prove that

af 2 +bg 2 —2fgh.

*37. If the equation of curve can be put in the form

y= +b+ where +(æ) 0 LB ,
then show that y=oæ+b iB an asymptote of the curve,
Apply this method in determining the asymptotes of the
courve æ2 !/--æ 8 m2 — 3m +2=0.

*38. 'An asymptote iB sometimes defined ag a straight

flne which cuts the curve in two points at infinity without
being itself at infinity.' Comment on this definition.
Attempt a correct definitionand use it to obtain the agymP•
ioteg of (c + + 2y +2) = + 9y —2.

39. Find the asymptotes of :

(i)r —a (cos 0 + sec 6). (ii) r COB 2a Bin 6.
r —a sec 0+b tan 0. (iv) r cog
(iii) Bin g o.
(v) cosec 0 + b (vi) r sin no —a.

(vii) re—a. [C. P. 19371 (viii) ro Binn9=an (n > l)

40. Show that there is an infinite series of parallel
•gymptotes to the curve

e Bin 0
 en
41, Show that LII the agymptot0B of tho curvo
r tan —a

touchthe circlo r—a/n.

*42. Show that the curve
Bec no + b tan no

two Bet8 of asymptotes, memberg of each get touchine

fixedcircle.

2. 1/x 2z+3, 1/—3z

3. 4z+121/+9—0,

611+33+5=0,

c.
8. 2Z—2y+3aO,
3z-3y-1=o,
10, (f)

11
12, z=O, Z—I, FO, 1/—1,
13.
14.

, z--2y=O ;
18.
; z+21/-1=0 ;
a+ 27+1=0.
21. 20. I ,

22,
,
28 z--V+I=O ; z —7+2=0 ;
; ; ; 2+11+1=0.
852 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

v=2r+1 ; v=2J+3.
27. (i) r=O, x+v=C), z —V (ii)
28. z+3V=O, c
29.
z+2p=0,
(ii) c+v=O, c —y —0,

81.(i) z=(2n+1) {T,where n is zero or any integer positive or negative.

(If) v=oe (iii) y=O, (iv)c=0.
SS. — 3c%/ — 6æv+ 37. p=z+ i.
88. ; ± 2 02,
(i) r 00Be=a, (ii) r oos ±2a, (iii) r oos
(IV) r cos e=a, (v) r sin 0=a.

(VI) r Bin e— a
geomm,where m is an integer.

(vfi) r Bin 9 —a. (viii) 6 where m iB an Integer,