PHILOSOPHY WEEK3 not just through movement (locomotion)
but also through understanding or
Limits the Human Body
Imposes and
Possibilities for Transcendence
The Human Person as an Embodied
Spirit
According to St. Thomas
of Aquinas in his Summa
Theologia, “the body is not of
the essence of the soul; but the
soul by the nature of its essence
can be united to the body, so
that, properly speaking, not the
soul alone, but the “composite,” is
the species.
And the very fact that the
soul in a certain way requires the
body for its operation proves that
the soul is endowed with a grade
of intellectuality inferior to that of
an angel, who is not united to a
body.
The Union of Body and Soul
The philosopher Aristotle in his book De
Anima II, stated the union of body and
soul, “The soul is the source of these
phenomena and is characterized by
them, viz. by the power of self-
nutrition, sensation, thinking and
movement; further, since it is the soul
by which primarily we live, perceive
and think- it follows that the soul
must be an account and essence, not
matter or subject… it is the soul which
is the quality of a certain kind of
body.”
In De Anima II, Aristotle explains that
the primary principle of what animates
man- from nourishment to
understanding-is the soul, which is
united with the body as its form. The
soul is said to be essentially the form
of the body, but for Aristotle, it is not
because the soul is merged with the
body. The soul has the power of
communicating its existence to the body
thinking (knowledge).
 St. Thomas of Aquinas
addressed the mind-body
problem by characterizing
human nature as body and
soul: “Man is composed of
spiritual and corporeal
substance.
 ” In Summa Theologica, he
also addressed the following
concerns about the nature of
the soul as a body:
(1) it is the body’s moving principle;
(2) knowledge of corporeal things is
caused by likeness; hence to know of
the body is to be like it in nature; and
(3) the soul moves the body, and
movement happens through contact;
hence the soul must be a body because
contact happens between bodies.
 St. Thomas of Aquinas conceives
the soul is an affirmation and
development of Aristotle’s ideas.
 St. Thomas of Aquinas conceives
the soul is an affirmation and
development of Aristotle’s ideas.
 Moreover, to justify this claim, St.
Thomas distinguished between the
kinds of mover and moved.
 The thing which is moved
accidentally does not cause
invariable movement-that is, the
soul-while what is moved
essentially is the body. Thus, it is
not right to believe that the soul is a
body in this distinction between
relations of mover and moved.
 St. Thomas explained that
knowledge of a corporeal body
does not necessarily entails that
there should be necessary likeness
to the thing which needs to be
known. Hence the soul, to know the
body, does not necessarily mean
that it has to be a body, or be
corporeal, as well.
 St. Thomas distinguished
between contact of quality and
contact of power. With power,
a body is in contact with
another body; but under the
contact of quality, a body can
be touched by an incorporeal
thing.
 St. Thomas is certain that the
soul is not a body.
Consequently, after
establishing that the soul is not
a body, it has to be explained
whether it subsists because
for a long time during the
ancient age, it was believed
that all that exists are only
corporeal or material
substances.
According to Thomas Merton
(1948), a Trappist monk, there is no
other way for us to find who we are
than by finding in ourselves the
divine image.
Human Nature as Freedom
 Sartre suggests that it is a
difficult task to live an
authentic life because living
an authentic life requires
one to transcend (to go
beyond) the nothingness (to
create a perpetual free-for-
itself which is haunted by the
nothingness itself is both a
challenge and a revelation
of how man can become.
 Sartre asserts that freedom
is the choice of autonomy.
 Freedom is not about wanting
to do things but the being-
for- itself acting upon
autonomous choices.
 Blaming others is not a
possibility for a human whose
actions were guided by his or
her freedom.
Hinduism
Brahman Is Self-Hood
 At the heart of Hinduism lies
the idea of human beings’
quest for absolute truth, so
that one’s soul and the
Brahman or Atman (Absolute
Soul) might become one.
 For the Indians, God first
created sound and the
universe arose from it. As
the most sacred sound,
The Aum (Om) is the root
of the universe and
everything that exists and
it continues to hold
everything together.
 According to Hinduism,
human beings have a dual
nature: one is the spiritual
and immortal essence (soul);
the other is empirical life and
character. Between the two
natures, however, it is
maintained that it is the soul
that is ultimately real.
 Hindus believe that the
soul is eternal but is
bound by the law of
Karma (action) to the
world of matter, which it
can escape only after
spiritual progress through
an endless series of
births. God allots
rewards and
punishments to all beings
according to their karma
(Puligandia 1997.
Hinduism: Reincarnation and Karma
 Hindu belief is the transmigration of
souls, reincarnation or
“metempsychosis”.
 Essential Hinduism is based on the
belief in karma and has its first
literary expression in Upanishads
 This doctrine is the very old
one.
 For the Jains, there is nothing
mightier in the world than
karma; karma trample down
 all powers, as an elephant to a
clump of lotuses (Puliganda
2007).
Buddhism: From Tears to
Enlightenment
The teaching of Buddha has
been set forth traditionally in the
“Four Noble Truths” leading to the
“Eightfold Path” to perfect
character or archatship, which in
turn gave assurance of entrance
into Nirvana at death.
In the Four Noble Truths, Gautama
taught:
(1) life is full of suffering;
(2) suffering is caused by passionate
desires, lusts, cravings;
(3) only as these are obliterated, will
suffering cease;
(4) such eradication of desire
may be accomplished only by
following the Eightfold Path of
earnest endeavor.
These steps are:
(1) right belief in acceptance of the
“Fourfold Truth”;
(2) right aspiration for one’s self and
for others;
(3) right speech that harms no one;
(4) right conduct, motivated by
goodwill toward all human
beings;
(5) right means of livelihood, or
earning one’s living by honorable
means;
(6) right endeavor, or effort to direct
one’s energies toward wise ends;
(7) right mindfulness in choosing
topics for thought; and
(8) right meditation, or
concentration to the point of
complete absorption in mystic
ecstasy.
Buddhism: Nirvana
Nirvana means the state in
which one is absolutely free
from all form of bondage and
attachment. It means to
overcome and remove the
cause of suffering. It is also the
state of perfect insight into the
nature of existence.
 The Buddhists see one who
has attained nirvanas one who
is unencumbered from all the
fetters that bind a human being
to existence (i.e., wealth). He
has perfect knowledge, perfect
peace, and perfect wisdom
(Aguilar 2010).
 Nirvana is beyond the sense,
language, and thought
(Puligandla 2007).
 Another false conception
regarding nirvana is that one
who attains it, cuts
himself/herself off from the
world of toil, tears, and turmoil
and spends his/her life in a
state of total inactivity and
indifference to the world around
him.
 It is, thus, absurd to describe
nirvanas a state of inactivity,
stupor, and indifference. One
who has attained
enlightenment is a non-
attachment.
 The nirvanic man, according to
Puligandla (2007), is the true
follower of the Buddha, in that,
he neither always sits
absorbed in meditation nor
always involved in activity. He
is the living testimony that the
middle way is indeed the way
to enlightenment.
Own Limitations and the
Possibilities for their
Transcendence
St. Augustine of Hippo and St.
Thomas of Aquinas
 St Augustine quotes,
“Faith is to believe what
you do not see; the
reward of this faith is to
see what you believe.”

 For St. Augustine (354-430
CE), philosophy is amor
sapiential, the love of
wisdom; its aims to produce
happiness.
 For Augustine, wisdom is
not just an abstract logical
construction; but it is
substantially existent as the
Divine Logos.
 For Augustine, Christianity,
as presenting the full
revelation of the true God, is
the only full and true
philosophy.
 For St. Thomas of
Aquinas, a medieval
philosopher, of all
creatures, human
beings have the unique
power to change
themselves and things
for the better.
 His philosophy is best grasped
in his treatises Summa Contra
Gentiles and Summa
Theologica
 St. Thomas considers the
human being as moral agent.
St. Augustine and St. Thomas of
Aquinas: Will and Love
For St. Augustine, physically we are free
yet, yet morally bound to obey the law. The
Eternal Law is God Himself. According to
this law, humanity must do well and avoid
evil, hence the existence of moral obligation
in every human being. Christian life is not
easy. However, no human being should
become an end to himself. We are
responsible to our neighbor as we to your
actions.
WEEK 4
Lesson 1: What is a human person?
A human person is a living being that
contains a real and existing to direct its own
development toward fulfillment through
perfect, unconditional, infinite love,
goodness, beauty and unity and will do so if
all the proper conditions are met.
Environment The sum total of all
surroundings of a living organism, including
natural forces and other living things which
provide conditional development and growth
as well as danger and damage.
- According to Payne (2010) there are two
frameworks where humans can be related.
1. Anthropocentric model - Based on
anthropocentric model, humans are superior
and central to the universe, thus it is human
centered. - The denomination of humanity is
linked to the domination of nature based on
the anthropocentric model. An unfair or
unjust utilization of the environment result to
ecological crisis. From this view, it follows
that the human arrogance toward nature is
justifiable in order to satisfy human interest.
Sometimes, humans adopt an exploitive
attitude whenever nature is merely
considered as an instrument for one’s profit
or gain.
2. Ecocentric model - Ecocentric model, the
ecological or relational integrity of the
humans provides meaning of our morals
and values and it is nature centered.
- Devoted to preserving the totality of
Earth’s biodiversity and the functioning of
it’s life-supporting system. Nature Wild
Holism 8 Body Relational
Earth/wisdom Ecology over/ against
humans There are three theories about the
Ecocentric Model such as, Deep Ecology,
Social Ecology, Ecofeminism. Deep Ecology
– is an ecological philosophy developed by
Norweigan philosopher Ames Naess in the
early 1970’s asserting that all life forms
have an equal right to exist, and human
needs and desires have no priority over
those of the other organisms. Believes that
the living environment should be respected
and regarded as having rights to flourish,
independent of its utility to humans. Social
Ecology- it is a critical social theory founded
by American anarchist and libertarian
socialist author Murray Bookchin.
Ecofeminism- it is also called ecological
feminism that examines the connections
between women and nature. Its name was
coined by French feminist Francoise
d’Eaubonne in 1974. A philosophical idea
that combines feminism and ecology
concerns, emphasizing that both suffer from
their treatment by a male dominated
society. Comes from the idea that women
and nature have significant connection,
since women most often have a close
association with nature in many societies
due to the nature of their traditional roles.
Anaximander a pre-Socratic philosopher
and scientist said about the Creation
Destruction. According to him, the sketch of
the genesis of the world (cosmology), the
evolution begins with the generation of
opposites in a certain region Nature.
Nature is inderminate-boundless in the
sense that no boundaries between the
warm and or the moist and dry regions are
originally present within. While according to
Pythagoras, ‘universe is a living
embodiment of nature’s order, harmony and
beauty’. He sees our relationship with the
universe involving biophilia (love of other
living things) and cosmophilia (love of other
living beings). For modern thinker,
Immanuel Kant, ‘beauty is ultimately a
symbol of morality (goodness). He believes
that orderliness of nature and the harmony
with our faculties guide us toward a deeper
religious perspective. Herbert Marcuse said
about the power of humans over nature,
while George Herbert Mead tackled about
our duties and responsibilities.
Lesson 2: Environmental Protection and
Management
What is Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003)
-This law aims for the reduction of solid
waste through source reduction and waste
minimization measures, treatment and
disposal of solid waste in accordance with
ecologically sustainable development
principle. It also aims to ensure the proper
segregation, collection, transport, storage,
treatment and disposal of solid waste
through the formulation and adoption of the
best environmental practice in ecological
waste management excluding incineration.
RA 9003 considers: waste as resource that
can be recovered”, emphasizing on
recycling, reuse and composting as
methods to minimize waste problems
The Six R’s of RA 9003
 Reduce
 Recover
 Recycle
 Repurpose
 Refuse
 Rethink
Types of Waste
 according to source Household or
domestic waste
 Commercial or industrial waste
Types of Waste according to
classification
 Residual- waste with no
commercial value meant for
disposal
 Recycle- waste that can be
reused
 Biodegradable – Waste that
can be decomposed by
organisms
 Hazardous- waste that may
cause or contribute to mortality
or illness
 Toxic- waste that may cause
immediate death or body
change.
Provisions of RA 9003
The said act gives strong emphasis
on the role of municipal and local
government units (LGUs) providing
for the creation of Solid Waste
Management Communities up to
barangay level. This requires the
participation of nongovernment
offices, people’s organizations,
church leaders, schools, business
and community organizations.
Offenses under RA 9003
Minor Offense
 Grave Offense
Major Offense
Grave Offense Punishable by any/all of the
following: Fine: 1,000-3,000 pesos
Imprisonment: 15 days- 6 months
Major Offense Punishable by any/all of the
following: Fine: 5,000-200,000 pesos
Imprisonment- 1-6 years
Example of Philippine Environmental Laws
Commonwealth Act No. 383 (anti-Dumping
Law)
 Effective September 5, 1938
 Prohibits the dumping into rivers of
refuse waste matter of substance of
 any kind. Punishment of
imprisonment of not more than six
moths or by a fine of not more than
P200 or both.
Presidential Decree 825
 Effective November 7,
1975
 Penalizes improper disposal of
garbage and other forms of being
dirty.
 Violators may be imprisoned for
not less than five days or more than
a year or pay a fine or not less than
P100 or more than P2,000 or both.
 Mandates local government units to
exercise powers, functions and basic
services and facilities related to general
hygiene, sanitation, beautification and
solid waste collection, transport and
disposal.
Presidential Degree 984 (Pollution
Control Law)
 The implementation is specified
in DENR Administrative Order
24 (series of 1990) for water
usage and water quality criteria
and DENR Administrative Order
35 (series of 1990) on effluent
regulations.
 Penalty will be P5,000/day but
higher for juridical positions who
violated this act.
Republic Act 9275 (The Clean Water Act of
2002)
 This shall institute a policy of sustainable
development and a holistic national
water quality management program of
fresh, backish and marine resources.
 Penalty is not less than 10,000-
200,000/everyday violation with 10%
increase per year.

Republic Act 6969 (Toxic Substances

and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste
Control Act)
Effective 1990
 Mandates the control and
management of the import, manufacture,
processing, distribution, use, transport,
treatment and disposal of toxic
substances and hazardous and nuclear
wastes in the country.
Republic Act 7160 (Local Government
Code)
 Effective 1991