CXC AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE (SINGLE AWARD)

SECTION A: INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULUTURE

AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL

SCIENCE

Agriculture is defined as the art, science and business of producing crops and livestock for
economic purposes.

Art infers that the performance of operations on the farm that must be done in a skillful manner.
Science is the application of knowledge used in agriculture to develop technologies for crop and
livestock production. Business aims at achieving maximum returns (i.e. profit) through efficient
management of land, labour and capital, all of which are considered the factors of production.

Agricultural science is therefore an understanding of the interaction of art, science and business to
achieve crop and livestock production in a sustainable manner.

Sustainable means conserving our natural resources, e.g. water courses, swamps, forests etc.

2. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN

Pre-Colonial

The diet of the First Peoples or Amerindians (i.e. Caribs and Arawaks) consisted mainly of
vegetables, fruits, seafood and the meat of wild animals.

They practiced ‘slash and burn’ agriculture where all the trees in a chosen area were cut down and
burnt. The soil was dug up with sticks and tools made out of stone. They planted crops such as
cassava, corn, peppers, sweet potato, cotton and tobacco. They also gathered fruits such as
pineapple, guava, mammee apple, star apple and plums.

Seafood was a valuable source of protein for the Amerindians. They fished in rivers and ventured
out to the sea in canoes. They made net and lines from vines, and harpoons and hooks from bones
and shell. They caught fish, lobsters, crabs and turtle.

The hunters used spears, clubs, bows and arrows to catch iguana, agouti and other wild animals.
They also caught birds by using nets or they put sticky gum near grains so they got stuck.

Colonial

Many islands in the Caribbean became Spanish colonies in the late fifteen century (1400’s). These
settlers cultivated small amounts of tobacco, cocoa, cotton and sugar. They were grown primarily
for local consumption.

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It was not until the eighteen century (1700’s) that sugar became a major crop in the region. The
movement from small-scale cultivation of several crops to large scale cultivation of sugar
(monoculture) was as follows:

a. The Amerindians were enslaved by the settlers to work on these estates but they were not
accustomed to working long hours and soon died out. A large labour force was required but it
was not available.

b. A French company engaged in the Transatlantic Slave Trade secured a contract to supply
African slaves to the Caribbean. These slaves were involved mainly in cocoa cultivation.
However in some islands the cocoa was attacked and killed by disease so the planters turned
their attention to sugarcane. However cotton was still an important crop also.

c. In 1838, slaves were granted Emancipation, as a result many ex-slaves chose to live their lives
away from sugar plantations. The activities into which they ventured led individuals to
diversify agriculture. Some of the agriculture activities in which they engaged included rearing
of livestock, growing of vegetables, cultivation of fruits etc.

d. In order to meet the shortfall of labour on the sugarcane plantations, East Indian immigrants
were granted contracts to work on these estates. At the end of their contracts, they were granted
land in place of their return passage to India. They engaged in the production of crops (rice)
and livestock and further diversified agriculture in the region.

Post-Colonial

After Independence, many governments in the Caribbean initiated programmes of agricultural

diversification to promote food security. Food security means being self-sufficient in food. Food
is a necessity to life and agriculture is the main source of providing food to our people. This makes
us less dependent on foreign countries for food and whose economies are highly developed.

When domestic food production is increased, the food import bill is reduced so valuable foreign
exchange is saved and this could be utilized to develop other sectors of our economy, e.g. the
Health and Education sectors.

3. ALTERNATIVES TO CONVENTIONAL FARMING

Conventional farming may be defined as the interaction of man and the natural environment to
produce crops and livestock for food. This practice is becoming less feasible because arable or
fertile land is becoming a scarce resource due to competition from housing, population pressure
and industrialization. Non-conventional farming systems may prove to be a credible alternative to
provide our food requirements as the resulting land shortage becomes worst.

Some non-conventional farming methods include:

a. Greenhouse Gardening
b. Grow box
c. Trough Culture and Container Farming

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d. Hydroponics
e. Aquaponics
f. Urban and Peri-urban farming

Greenhouse Gardening

A greenhouse is an artificial structure, made primarily of glass, to control the effect of

environmental factors (temperature and humidity) on the growth and development of plants. In the
greenhouse, the radiation, temperature, water supply is monitored by electronic sensors that are
controlled by computers. A hydroponics system to grow crops can be implemented inside the
greenhouse. In the Caribbean, greenhouses that can be dismantled and stored if hurricanes are
approaching are very useful.

Greenhouses are usually used to grow flowers, vegetables, fruits and tobacco plants. Special
greenhouse varieties of tomatoes are generally used for commercial purposes. The ability to
control the environment in the greenhouse can allow certain crops to be grown throughout the year.
Tropical crops can be made to grow in temperate climates and vice versa. Pollination can be done
by bumblebees or by the use of artificial pollination.

A greenhouse can be constructed with glass with a glass or plastic roof and glass or plastic walls
with varying designs.

Grow box

The grow box system refers to the production of crops in an enclosed box-like structure using a
special mixture inside the box to grow crops. A grow box is basically a small garden bed enclosed
in frames and filled with special ‘custom-made soil’. The frames can be made from any non-toxic
material, e.g. wood, concrete blocks, bamboo etc. A grow box rests on the soil surface and has no
bottom or lids.
‘Soil’ used to fill Grow box
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Three to four parts bagasse / peat / promix / manure to one part sharp sand or plastering sand.

Size of Grow Boxes

A standard size grow box is 30 feet long by 5 feet wide by 10 inches in height. It can also be 35
feet long by 4 feet wide by 8 inches in height. The latter size is more convenient to work. These
dimensions give about 100 cubic feet of rooting medium. All recommendations for materials
required and fertilizer applications are based on standard size grow box.

The Grow Box Method

The grow box method combines the best features of traditional gardening with hydroponic
gardening. This method is based on the MITLEIDER SYSTEM where anyone can learn to produce
top quality crops.

Stages in building a Grow Box

1. The area should be first cleared of all vegetation and leveled.

2. The layout should then be planned, i.e. the area measured, the four corners staked and lines run
outlining the box.
3. The grow box is then constructed using the materials mentioned above, i.e. blocks, wood etc.
A standard size box requires 54 blocks.
4. 10 pounds of agricultural limestone are then spread evenly on the bottom of the box.
5. The ‘custom made soil’ should then be thoroughly mixed and filled in the box.
6. 5 pounds of ‘pre-plant’ fertilizer and 2 pounds of limestone should then be spread evenly on
top of the mixture. These should be then be worked into the mixture and then levelled again.
7. The entire box should then be wet and allowed to settle in place. The mixture should not be
pressed down or compacted.
8. The grow box is now ready for planting.

Planting in the Grow box

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Care should be taken not to step into the box while planting. A small hole is made in the medium
and young plants placed in the hole and the medium around firmed up to support the plant. Crops
should be spaced depending on the type of plant, variety and size they would reach at maturity.
Ideally mature crops should be just touching each other.

Fertilizer Recommendations

After planting, and then on a weekly basis, until 2 weeks before harvesting, 1½ -2 pounds of
fertilizer should be applied. Fertilizers can be applied in granular form or as a liquid drench. The
following NPK fertilizers are recommended during the various stages of growth of the plant.

Stage of Plant NPK Fertilizer Reasoning

Growth

Seedling Stage 12:24:12 More Phosphorus to facilitate rooting

Growing Stage 20:10:10 More Nitrogen to facilitate vegetative growth

Flowering Stage 12:12:17:2 More Potassium to facilitate flowering

13:13:21

Bearing Stage 12:12:17:2 More Potassium to facilitate fruiting

Finisher 13:13:21 More Potassium to rejuvenate old bearing

plants

Pest and Disease Control

Normal control of pests and diseases should be done during the growth and development of crops.

Advantages of the Grow Box

1. It is ideal for places where the soil is poor in quality and planting space is limited.
2. It is fairly easy to understand.
3. Boxes can be tended in early mornings and late evenings. You can avoid work in the hot sun.
4. There are little or no weeds.
5. There is less use of harmful pesticides. This means safer food for the family.
6. Boxes can be situated around the home or close to home for security reasons.

Disadvantages of the Grow Box

1. It is somewhat costly to establish a grow box but with careful management, costs can be
recovered and profits made in a relatively short space of time.
2. The soil medium must be change on a fairly regular basis and it might only last two crop cycles.
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3. Bagasse is exceeding difficult to obtain with closure of the local sugar industry in Trinidad and
Tobago.
4. Peat and promix is expensive to use in place of bagasse.

Trough Culture And Container Farming

Trough culture and container planting involves the use of an assortment of items in the home to
grow vegetables or ornamental plants on a small scale. Items which would otherwise be discarded
as garbage can be used in your home garden. Trough culture and container farming can be used for
cultivating crops in areas with poor quality soil, limited space and uncultivable land or soilless
space. The use of containers for growing plants is not new. Flowers and ornamental plants have
traditionally been grown in flowerpots in and around the house for aesthetic purposes. Today
containers are used to grow crops such as tomatoes, beans and peppers for human consumption.

This technique allows the farmer to grow crops in virtually anything that can hold some soil and
has holes in it for drainage. Implements that can be used include troughs, balconies, window sills,
kitchen counters, used car tires, old bathtubs, baskets, plastic containers, drums, feed sacks and
hanging baskets. Black containers absorb light which causes heat to build up in the media. If black
bags/black plastic containers are used, keep the soil moist to avoid root injury.

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In container planting, small amounts of soil must provide large amounts of nutrients. A good mixture
consists of two parts soil; one part sand, and one part well-rotted manure. Since plants are confined
to a small, isolated volume of rooting media, water and nutrient reserves can be quickly exhausted.
Therefore, you must maintain soil fertility levels, for container planting to be productive.

Hydroponics

Hydroponics is the term used to describe crop production systems in which plants are grown
without soil.

Crops can be grown in the absence of soil, compost or manure by adding required nutrients to the
rooting medium in which they are grown. Systems can be water based or media based. Examples
of media that can be used include:
• Gravel
• Sharp Sand
• Crushed Bricks
• Styrofoam

Some crops that can be grown in the Hydroponics System include:

Leafy lettuce,
vegetables patchoi,
cabbage

Herbs chive,
celery,
parsley

Fruiting tomato,
vegetables pepper,
melongene

Vining crops bodi, seim,

cucumber,
melon

Root crops radish, beet,

sweet potato

Other crops cauliflower

and broccoli

Benefits of Hydroponics

• Reduced transplanting shock

• Minimal soil-borne pests and diseases.
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• Easier weed control.

• Reduced labour requirement.
• Closer spacing of plants possible.
• Crops can be harvested earlier.
• Yields are higher.
• Improved shelf life of produce.
• Crops can be grown in infertile areas

Hydroponics Using the Media Based Method

Establishment of the System

1. Select a site that is: exposed to sunlight; properly drained; and level.

2. Cover the selected area with construction plastic in order to isolate the rooting medium from
possible source of soil-borne pests and diseases.

3. Arrange the blocks to form a rectangular trough: one block high (20 cm); and 3.5 m long x 1.2
m wide.

4. Fill the rectangular trough with sharp sand. This is used as the rooting medium because it:
a) contains no nutrients;
b) does not bind nutrients like soil; and
c) drains freely.
This allows for optimal uptake of plant nutrients.

5. Construct and set tank stand, 1 m high and approximately 1 m away from the trough as shown
in the diagram below.

6. Cut 4 pieces of PVC pipe each 3.5 m long. These are the irrigation lines.

7. In each irrigation line, drill a row of 11 holes, 35 cm apart. Use 1/8 inch drill bit.

8. Install tanks and irrigation fitting as shown in the diagram below. Place irrigation lines with
the holes facing sideways and angled downwards at 450.

9. Fill one tank with clean water

10. In the other tanks fill with water and place:

a) 224g Blau Korn (12:12:17:2)
b) 112g Calcium Nitrate
c) 56g Magnesium Sulphate
Dissolve the recommended nutrients in the water.

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DIAGRAM SHOWING LAYOUT OF HYDROPONIC SYSTEM

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Transplanting and Maintaining Crops

1. Water the rooting medium thoroughly just before planting.

2. Plant a seedling adjacent to each hole in the irrigation line. Plant early in the morning.

3. Open valve on the nutrient solution tank for 30 seconds in order to apply the liquid fertilizer
solution.

4. Repeat step 3 every day for 6 days.

5. On the 7th day, open the valve on the water tank for 1 minute. This will flush out any salts
that may have crystallized in the rooting medium over the previous six days.

6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until harvesting. It is best to carry out the operations early in the morning.

7. Monitor plants regularly and take an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach to pest and
disease management as needed.

Hydroponics Using the Water Based Method – Nutrient Film Technique

This is a circulating system that supplies the plant roots with oxygen and nutrients. This technique
is widely used for growing tomatoes, cucumbers and salad vegetables in green houses.

The components of the system include:

a. Growing chamber (or tray) to hold the set system.
b. Reservoir to hold the nutrient solution that feeds the plants.
c. Delivery system to get water / nutrients from the pump in the reservoir to the plants.
d. A pump to water the plants.
e. Air pump and air stone to oxygenate the nutrient solution.

The plants are grown in troughs whose roots are embedded in peat, sand or rock wool. They are
supplied with a nutrient solution containing the nutrients essential for growth. The solution is
pumped into the troughs, circulates around the roots, collects in a tank and is then re-circulated.

Concentration of the nutrient solution can be varied at different stages of growth as required. The
solution is aerated so the roots can obtain oxygen for respiration. As plants grow they are supported
by wires suspended from the roof of the glasshouse.

The advantages of the nutrient film technique are:

• high yields as plants get the nutrients they require
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• soil-borne diseases are eliminated

• produce is clean and not covered in soil
• harvesting the produce is easier and more efficient
• weed control is eliminated
• environmentally friendly - minimal potential for groundwater contamination
• growth rate of crops is much faster compared to traditional cropping systems

Some disadvantages of the nutrient film technique are:

• initial set up is costly
• dependent upon electricity, which means additional costs and the threat of loss of power
• pump failure can result in plant death within a few hours, especially in hot weather
• not suitable for plants with large tap-root systems, e.g. carrots.

Aquaponics

Aquaponics is a combination of fish and plant production using aquaculture and hydroponics
systems.

The fish provides an organic food source for the growing plants and the plants provide a natural
filter for the water the fish live in. The third participants in the system is nitrifying bacteria that
convert ammonia from the fish waste into nitrates which are used by the plants.

In combining both systems, aquaponics capitalizes on the benefits and eliminates the drawbacks
of each.
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Comparison Between Hydroponics And Aquaponics

Hydroponics Aquaponics

Expensive man-made chemicals are used Inexpensive fish feed, food scraps

The concentration of this mixture needs to be Carefully monitor during the first month but
monitored along with pH using expensive once system is established you on need to
meters check pH and ammonia levels weekly if your
fish seems stressed

The water needs to periodically discharged as Only top up as water evaporates

the chemicals build up

Plants are prone to the disease root rot This disease is virtually non-existent

Urban And Peri-Urban Agriculture

Peri - Urban

Urban Centre

Expansion of cities is driven by economic growth and migration of peoples’ from rural to urban
and peri-urban areas as employment opportunities decline. The challenge of supplying safe food
to city dwellers is substantial. The growth in Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture is due to its
adaptability and mobility when compared to rural agriculture.

Urban agriculture is agriculture being practiced in the city centres in order to produce food. In
urban areas crops can be grown in vacant parcels of land, roof tops, basements and window sills
to satisfy household needs and the surrounding community. Farming techniques that can be
utilized in urban farming may include greenhouses together with hydroponics that could be
monitored and controlled by computerized systems.

Peri-urban agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock in areas close to (or
surrounding) urban areas. This ensures that there is a ready supply and access market access.

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Farming techniques that could be used in peri-urban agriculture may include organic farming,
hydroponics, grow box and trough culture.

Urban and Peri-urban agriculture is the practice of producing, processing and distributing food
in or around a village, town or city.

Benefits of Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture

• Reduction in transport cost as food is grown locally

• Fewer pesticides are used which make food production more sustainable
• Improves the quality of urban environment through greening and thus, a reduction in
pollution
• Generates employment for local people
• Vacant urban areas can be used in agricultural production
• It saves energy by minimizing the transportation of food into the city

Difficulties of Urban Agriculture

• The use of waste water for irrigation without careful treatment and monitoring can result
in the spread of diseases among the population
• Cultivation on contaminated land represents also represents a health hazard for the
consumers
• The practice of cultivating along roadsides facilitates the distributions of products to local
markets but it is at the same time a risky practice since it exposes food to car pollution, i.e.
lead poisoning.

4. ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming is the production of crops without the use of chemicals such as fertilizers,
insecticides and weedicides.

Soil nutrient management involve crop rotation and green manuring. Organic farmers also use seed
meal that is rich in nitrogen and mineral powders of rock phosphate and greensand, which is a
naturally occurring form of potash. Weed control methods include hand weeding, hoeing and,
mulching with compost or plastic films across the ground. Pests are controlled using organic
insecticides that include Bt (obtained from bacteria), Pyrethrum and Rotenone. These organic
insecticides are usually combined with other Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques such
as cultural, mechanical and biological control practices to manage any pest problem.

Principles Governing Organic Farming

1. Maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity

Species found in most organic farms provides a means of agricultural sustainability by reducing
amount of human input e.g. use of fertilizers and pesticides. This allows for the reduction of

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pollution using normal agricultural techniques. The use of non-renewable resources are promoted
whenever possible. Wildlife habitats are maintained to promote genetic diversity on the farm.

2. Integrated health management of soils, crops and animals

Organic farming methods help to control erosion and enhance the health of the soil as well as
crops. Organic farming also treats the welfare of animals as important as this help to ensure that
the animals are healthy, better able to resist diseases and to provide good yields for the farmer. The
animals are raised in conditions that allow them to carry out their innate (natural) behaviour.

Certification of Organic Farms

In some countries, certification is overseen by the government and the commercial use of the term,
organic, is legally restricted. Certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural,
food safety and other government regulations that apply to non-certified producers. Requirements
for certification vary from country to country, and generally involve a set of production standards
for growing, storage, processing, packaging and shipping that include:

1. Avoidance of chemical inputs (e.g. fertilizer, pesticides, antibiotics, food additives etc.);
2. Use of farmland should be chemical free for a number of years (often, three or more);
3. Keeping detailed written production and sales records (audit trail);
4. Maintaining strict physical separation of organic products from non-certified products;
5. Undergoing periodic on-site inspections.

It is important to note that agricultural products (crop or livestock) that has been certified as
organic, fetch a higher price than produce not certified as consumers perceive them to be a more
healthy option to consume.

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