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NETWORK LAYER

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: To Study about Network Layer – IPv4 Addressing Scheme and perform an Exercise.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:
• Define the role of Network Layer in data network communications.
• Correlate different Network Layer protocols to the different platforms of equipment’s used in
data network communications.
• Familiarize one’s self and become acquainted with the IPv4 addressing scheme.
• Differentiate and describe the differences between a Network Address, Broadcast Address and
Host Address.
• Implement VLSM Subnetting, satisfying the host requirements in a given Network Topology.
Theory:
In any activity which requires routing and delivery, addressing schemes are of vital importance.
In data communications networks, it is the Network Layer’s task to ensure end-to-end packet
routing and delivery – meaning a source is able to reach and send messages to a particular
destination, and vice-versa. Different protocols, pertaining to different addressing schemes,
under the Network Layer are available.
Each of which consists of different features corresponding to different technologies involved in a
data network. Common data network protocols are tabulated below:

Common Network Protocols

Protocol Description
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) Most widely used network
protocol. Basic protocol of the
Internet.
Internet Protocol version 6 (Ipv6) Currently in use in some areas.
Will not work with Ipv4 and likely
replace it.
Novel IPX Part of Novell NetWare, a widely
popular internetworking protocol
in the 1980s and 1990s.
AppleTalk Apple Computer’s proprietary
networking protocol
Connectionless Network Service A protocol used in
(CLNS) telecommunication networks that
does not require established
circuits.

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The Network Layer describes four major steps prior to fulfilling its responsibilities in a data
communications network. The steps are as follows:

1. Addressing packets with an IP address

2. Encapsulation
3. Routing
4. Decapsulation

The focus of this particular module would be on the first step, including other addressing
schemes involved, using Ipv4. An Ipv4 address can be referred to simply as an IP address. Such
emphasis with the version is just stated to differentiate it from the Ipv6 address.

PART 1: Interpreting an Ipv4 Address

Each device on a network must be uniquely defined by a Network Layer address. An Ipv4
address, which is an example of a Network Layer address, is represented using the dotted
decimal format, which is logically 32 bits in composition. The dots separate the 32-bit address
into bytes, which is later referred to as an octet.

To illustrate this, given the following Ipv4 address in dotted decimal format:

192.168.1.14
can be formatted as:

11000000.10101000.00000001.00001110 (32-bits separated by dots

into bytes or octets)

which in reality, understood by a machine to be written as:

11000000101010000000000100001110 (without dots)

Keep in mind that devices use binary logic. The dotted decimal format only makes it easier for
people to use and remember addresses. An indepth review of decimal-to-binary conversion and
vice-versa is highly suggested when dealing with these numbers.

Convert the following Ipv4 Addresses into the required format:

Ipv4 Address
Dotted Decimal Format Dotted Binary Format
10.4.78.5
172.16.89.15
192.168.14.1
242.170.19.153
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204.170.19.153
121.180.96.64
74.35.124.224
76.227.147.235
127.0.0.1
5.25.48.243

Ipv4 addresses have two parts, namely, the network portion and the host portion. The separation
of these portions is directly determined through the address’ Subnet Mask.

Given a complete Ipv4 address of:

192.168.14.1 /24

simply means that the first 24 bits of the 32-bit address counted from left to right belongs to the
network portion, while the remaining 8 bits belongs to the host portion of the given Ipv4 address.
Illustrating further, the Ipv4 address:

192.168.14.1 /24
can be shown as:

11000000.10101000.00001110.00000001

for which the binary text selection in bold format pertains to the network portion, while the
binary text selection in underlined format pertains to the host portion of the Ipv4 address given.

The bits in the network portion of the IP address define the network through which a
communicating device belongs to, while the bits in the host portion of the IP addresses
distinguish those communicating devices from one another, particularly on the same network. If
two IP addresses have different network portions, may it be in the number of bits in the network
portion or in form, then they are said to be distinct.

For example, given five Ipv4 addresses:

A) 192.168.14.1 /24 –
11000000.10101000.00001110.00000001

B) 192.168.14.24 /24 –
11000000.10101000.00001110.00011000

C) 182.168.14.13 /24 –
10110110.10101000.00001110.00001101

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D) 192.168.14.8 /26 –
11000000.10101000.00001110.00001000

E) 192.168.14.1 /26 –
11000000.10101000.00001110.00000001
Condition 1:
IP addresses A and B have the same form and number of bits in the network portion; hence they
are two distinct IP addresses belonging to the same network.

Condition 2:
IP addresses A and C have the same number of bits in the network portion but in different form
(the first octet of IP address A is 192, while 182 for IP address C); hence they are two distinct IP
addresses from different networks.

Condition 3:
IP addresses A and D do have the same form in the first 24 bits but do not have the same number
of bits in the network portion (24 bits for the network portion of IP address A, while 26 for IP
address C); hence they are two distinct IP addresses from different networks.

Condition 4:
IP addresses A and E do have the same form as a whole, but do not have the same number of bits
in the network portion; hence they are two identical IP addresses belonging from different
networks, making them still distinct from one another.

Based on the stated conditions, what condition should be met in order that two distinct IP
addresses would belong to the same network?

_____The distinct IP addresses should have the same form and number of bits for their network
portion in order for them to belong to the same network. _

On the given IP addresses, determine whether they are distinct and/or they belong to the same
network, by putting a check on the space provided:

IP Addresses Distinct Belong to the Same

Network
10.0.1.3 /8 and
10.0.23.4 /8
192.168.0.1 /24 and
193.168.0.2 /24
172.16.8.8 /15 and
172.16.5.8/16
172.16.8.8 /16 and
172.16.5.8 /16
121.11.10.8 /25 and
122.25.38.3 /25
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121.11.10.8 /7 and
120.11.10.8 /7
87.34.34.34 /27 and
87.34.34.34 /30
10.192.19.1 /9 and
10.128.19.1 /9
192.168.1.224 /26
and 192.168.1.192
/26
172.16.14.4 /21 and
172.16.8.3 /26

PART 2: Network Address, Broadcast Address and Host Address

When you are given an Ipv4 address, it can be classified as Network Address, a Broadcast
Address, or simply a Host Address. Distinction between each of them lies on their uses. A
Network Address is an entity used to identify the network as a whole. A Host Address is an
entity used to distinguish hosts from a particular network. This is different from the host portion
discussed earlier, in a manner that the Host Address describes the whole IP address, not just a
portion of the particular IP address. A Broadcast Address is an entity used to address all of the
members of a given network.

To illustrate, Ipv4 host addresses:

192.168.14.1 /24 and 192.168.14.2 /24 (which are distinct and of the same network)
belong to a network family, identified with a Network Address of:
192.168.14.0 /24 and can be addressed as a whole, through a Broadcast Address of:
192.168.14.255 /24

Before any message can be sent to a destination in data networks, the network family of the
destination, identified through its Network Address, should be sought first by intermediary
devices, such as routers and other Layer 3 devices, before the message can be continually passed
to the destination. In cases where there is a need of sending a message to all of the members of
the network family, the Broadcast Address is used.

Determining the Network Address and the Broadcast Address:

A Network Address can be determined, given an IP address and its Subnet Mask, by changing all
the host bits of a particular IP address to 0’s. No change in the network portion is necessary.

A Broadcast Address can be determined, given an IP address and its Subnet Mask, by changing
all the host bits of a particular IP address to 1’s. Still, no change in the network portion is
necessary.

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For example, given an Ipv4 address of:

192.168.29.4 /22
(from the Subnet Mask given, it is known that there are 22 bits in the network portion and 10 bits
for the host portion, making up the whole 32-bit address) with a dotted binary format of:

11000000.10101000.00011101.00000100 (network portion – bold, host portion – underlined)

has a Network Address of:
11000000.10101000.00011100.00000000 (all host bits changed to 0) or

192.168.26.0 /22and has Broadcast Address of:

11000000.10101000.00011111.11111111 (all host bits changed to 1) or
192.168.31.255 /22
From this example, is it possible to determine the Broadcast Address of a Network Address with
given Subnet Masks and vice-versa?
_____Yes___________________________________________

Determining the Host Addresses:

Determining the Host Addresses from the previous example, having a Network Address of
192.168.26.0 and a Broadcast Address of 192.168.31.255, simply requires you to consider
addresses in between those two as host addresses.

That is, from 192.168.26.1 to 192.168.31.254, or from Network Address +1 to Broadcast

Address – 1 (in the fourth octet).

It should be noted that both the Network Address and Broadcast Address are not referred to as
host addresses. They are IP addresses with the uses of identifying the whole network and
addressing them in a special manner. Host addresses are addresses which are usable and assigned
to a communicating device. The given IP address from the previous example, which is
192.168.29.4 /22, only proves that it is a member of the 192.168.26.0 /22 network because the
network consists of family members with addresses ranging from 192.168.26.1 /22 to
192.168.31.254 /22.

Given the following IP addresses, determine whether it is a Network Address, a Broadcast

Address, or a Host Address:

IP Address Network Address, Broadcast Address, or

Host Address
50.50.50.54 /24
127.0.0.192 /25
10.0.0.0 /16
192.168.14.128 /25
172.16.31.31 /27
10.255.255.255 /18
99.65.36.3 /30
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172.192.168.10 /18
14.14.14.14 /14
192.168.192.168 /29

For the given IP Addresses, determine the Network Address, Broadcast Address and Range of
Usable (Host) Addresses in its network:

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

IP Address
Network Address
Broadcast Address
Range of Usable Addresses

PART 3: Subnetting with VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet Mask)

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In analyzing a Network Address, say 192.168.26.0 /22, with a range of usable IP addresses from
192.168.26.1 /22 to 192.168.31.254 /22, it is known that the network has 1,024 IP addresses are
available (1 from Network Address, 1 from Broadcast Address, and 1,022 from the usable IP
addresses). Only 1,022 addresses of which are usable. The Subnet Mask /22 actually relates to
this number. The number 22 refers to the number of bits in the network portion of the IP address,
leaving 10 bits for the host portion. It is only the host portion which changes in any IP address
given, and computing for all the possible numbers from a 10-bit binary number, there should be
210 or 1024 numbers all-in-all under a /22 Subnet Mask. In short, the network’s capacity can
easily be determined through the network’s Subnet Mask.

Say there is an IP address with a /N Subnet Mask, that IP address would have N bits for the
network portion and (32-N) bits for the host portion, having 2(32-N) available addresses in its
network. Two of these addresses are reserved for the Network and Broadcast address, leaving a
total of 2(32-N) – 2 host addresses which are usable. In real-world situations, every IP address
acquired costs quite much for a certain company. That is why IP addresses should be planned
and allotted in certain establishments practically in order to conserve them. Subnetting with
VLSM is the most efficient and practical way of doing this.

As an example, given an IP block of 192.168.0.0 /22 in a certain company with an

Administrative Firm requiring 200 usable Ips, a Consultation Firm requiring 50 usable Ips, and
an IT Firm requiring 150 usable Ips, for networking purposes.

In doing VLSM, the groups with their corresponding host requirements should be arranged from
largest to smallest. As an illustration, groups are arranged accordingly below prior to subnetting:

Administrative Firm – 200 Hosts

IT Firm – 100 Hosts
Consultation Firm – 50 Hosts

The IP block 192.168.0.0 /22 can support up to 2(32-22) – 2 usable Ips, or a total of 1,022 Host
Addresses available when used as a single network (There are actually 1,024 available Ips, but 2
of which assigned to the Network and Broadcast Address).

Through VLSM, the given IP block (or Subnet) can further be divided practically into smaller
subnets in order to support the host requirements for the three firms. The Administrative Firm
requires 200 Hosts. In order to support this, one should think of the least power of two, that even
when deducted by 2, can still support the host requirement. In doing so, the power of two would
be 256. 256 less 2 is 254, still sufficient to support a group of 200 hosts. 512 is also a power of
two but 256 is a better choice, because more IP addresses would be conserved. 128 is also a
power of two, but it is insufficient to support 200 hosts.

The IT Firm requires 100 Hosts. In order to support this, 128 is the best power of two to use in
order to satisfy the host requirement.
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The Consultation Firm requires 50 Hosts. In order to support this, 64 is the best power of two to
use. From the concept that the Subnet Mask can be used to determine the network capacity, the
network capacity can also be used to determine the appropriate Subnet Mask for a particular
network.

Say for Group 1 (Administrative Firm), the power of two that was used is 256. This number
actually pertains to the expression 2(32-N), which can be used to determine N, the number to be
used for the appropriate Subnet Mask in this group. Through computations, N = 24, therefore,
/24 should be used for Group 1. For Group 2 (IT Firm): /25, and for Group 3 (Consultation
Firm): /26.

The complete VLSM Subnetting table is as follows:

IP Block 192.168.0.0 /22

Network Power Network Subnet Range of Broadcast
Name: of Address: Mask: Usable Address:
Two: Addresses:
Administrative
(200 Hosts)
IT
(100 Hosts)
Consultation
(50 Hosts)

The Network Address of the first group (termed as Network 0) acquires the address of the IP
block, except for the IP block’s Subnet Mask. To determine the next Network Address (for the
second group or Network

1), the Network Address of Network 0 should be added with the power of two of the subnet
mask of Network 0, resulting from 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.1.0. Everytime the fourth octet
reaches 256, 1 is added in the third octet and the fourth octet returns to zero, for the reason that
255 is the highest value that an octet can hold – due to its 8-bit composition. The same procedure
goes with the determination of the third group’s Network Address. The Broadcast Address and
Range of Usable Addresses are determined using the procedures from the previous part of the
activity.

IP Block: 10.0.0.0 /8
Network Power Network Subnet Range of Broadcast
Name: of Address: Mask: Usable Address:
Two: Addresses:
Network 0
(250
Hosts)

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Network 1
(225
Hosts)
Network 2
(120
Hosts)
Network 3
(100
Hosts)
Network 4
(60 Hosts)

IP Block: 172.16.0.0 /16

Network Power Network Subnet Range of Broadcast
Name: of Address: Mask: Usable Address:
Two: Addresses:
Network 0
(500
Hosts)
Network 1
(400
Hosts)
Network 2
(240
Hosts)
Network 3
(50
Hosts)
Network 4
(3 Hosts)

IP Block: 192.168.0.0 /12

Network Power Network Subnet Range of Broadcast
Name: of Address: Mask: Usable Address:
Two: Addresses:
Network 0
(60
Hosts)
Network 1
(50
Hosts)
Network 2
(40
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Hosts)
Network 3
(30
Hosts)
Network 4
(20 Hosts)

Exercises:
1. Fill up values in the tables as per the instruction given by the instructor.
Review Questions:
1. What is Class full & Classless IP Addressing?
2. What is the meaning of VLSM?
3. What is the use of IP Address in Computer Networks?

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DATA LINK LAYER

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Write a program to implement the data link layer farming methods using the concept of
following.

1. Bit stuffing
2. Character stuffing.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Can able to understand services of data link layer.

• Learn basic concept of framing.
• Understand what is bit stuffing.
• Can able to distinguish between Bit stuffing and Character stuffing.

Theory:
There exists a hierarchy of synchronization tasks:
1. Bit level : recognizing the start and end of each bit
2. Character or byte level: recognizing the start and end of each character (or small unit of
data)
3. Block or message level: recognize the start and end of each large unit of data (in
networks this is a frame)
A fundamental requirement of digital data communications is that the receiver knows the starting
time and the duration of each bit.
Asynchronous transmission:
Each character (or byte) is treated independently for clock (bit) and character (byte)
synchronization purposes and the receiver resynchronizes at the start of each character received.
Synchronous transmission:
The complete frame is transmitted as a contiguous string of bits and the receiver endeavours to
keep in synchronism with the incoming bit stream for the duration of the frame.

Bit Stuffing:-
1. Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern called a flag byte [01111110].
{Note this is 7E in hex}
2. Whenever sender data link layer encounters five consecutive ones in the data stream,
it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing stream.
3. When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming ones followed by a 0 bit , it
automatically dyestuffs the 0 bit before sending the data to the network layer

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Character Stuffing:-
1. Also referred to as Byte Stuffing.
2. ASCII characters are used as framing delimiters (e.g. DLE STX and DLE ETX )
3. The problem occurs when these character patterns occur within the “transparent”
data. Solution: sender stuffs an extra DLE into the data stream just before each
occurrence of an ‘accidental’ DLE in the data stream. The data link layer on the
receiving end unstuffs the DLE before giving the data to the network layer.

Exercises:
1) Perform Bit Stuffing Using C Program.
2) Perform Character Stuffing Using C Program.

Review Questions:

1) Explain Zero-bit insertion in Bit Stuffing.

2) Explain advantages and disadvantages of both stuffing techniques.
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ROUTING ALGORITHM

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: To simulate the SHORTEST PATH FIRST routing protocol using C.

Objectives:

Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Can able to understand services of network layer.

• Learn basic concept of routing.
• Understand routing protocols.

Theory:
Shortest path can be calculated only for the weighted graphs. The edges connecting two vertices
can be assigned a nonnegative real number, called the weight of the edge. A graph with such
weighted edges is called a weighted graph.
Let G be a weighted graph. Let u and v be two vertices in G, and let P be a path in G from u to v.
The weight of the path P is the sum of the weights of all the edges on the path P, which is also
called the weight of v from u via P.
Let G be a weighted graph representing a highway structure. Suppose that the weight of an edge
represents the travel time. For example, to plan monthly business trips, a salesperson wants to
find the shortest path (that is, the path with the smallest weight) from her or his city to every
other city in the graph. Many such problems exist in which we want to find the shortest path
from a given vertex, called the source, to every other vertex in the graph. This section describes
the shortest path algorithm, also called the greedy algorithm, developed by Dijkstra.

Example : Shortest Path

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Exercises:
1) Perform shortest path first routing protocol using C Program.

Review Questions:

1) Define Routing.
2) What is the difference between static and dynamic routing?
3) Explain different ways to measure cost of using the link for transmission.
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PACKET TRACER

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Introduction of Packet Tracer.

Objective:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Learn about packet tracer

• Learn to Building the Topology – Connecting the Hosts to Hubs and Switches
using packet tracer
• Learn to Configuring IP Addresses and Subnet Masks on the Hosts using packet
tracer
• Connecting Hub to Switch using packet tracer

Theory:
What is Packet Tracer?
Packet Tracer is a protocol simulator developed by Dennis Frezzo and his team at Cisco
Systems. Packet Tracer (PT) is a powerful and dynamic tool that displays the various protocols
used in networking, in either Real Time or Simulation mode. This includes layer 2 protocols
such as Ethernet and PPP, layer 3 protocols such as IP, ICMP, and ARP, and layer 4 protocols
such as TCP and UDP. Routing protocols can also be traced.

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with the Packet Tracer interface. Learn
how to use existing topologies and build your own.

Requisite knowledge: This lab assumes some understanding of the Ethernet protocol. At this
point we have not discussed other protocols, but will use Packet Tracer in later labs to discuss
those as well.

Version: This lab is based on Packet Tracer 4.0 Beta, Test1.

Introduction to the Packet Tracer Interface using a Hub Topology

Step 1: Start Packet Tracer and Entering Simulation Mode

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Step 2: Choosing Devices and Connections

We will begin building our network topology by selecting devices and the media in which to
connect them.
Several types of devices and network connections can be used. For this lab we will keep it simple
by using End Devices, Switches, Hubs, and Connections.

Single click on each group of devices and connections to display the various choices.
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Step 3: Building the Topology – Adding Hosts Single click on the End Devices.

Move the cursor into topology area. You will notice it turns into a plus “+” sign.
Single click in the topology area and it copies the device.

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Step 4: Building the Topology – Connecting the Hosts to Hubs and Switches

Adding a Hub
Select a hub, by clicking once on Hubs and once on a Generic hub.
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Perform the following steps to connect PC0 to Hub0:

1. Click once on PC0
2. Choose FastEthernet
3. Drag the cursor to Hub0
4. Click once on Hub0 and choose Port 0
5. Notice the green link lights on both the PC0 Ethernet NIC and the Hub0 Port 0 showing that
the link is active.

Adding a Switch
Select a switch, by clicking once on Switches and once on a 2950-24 switch

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Add the switch by moving the plus sign “+” below PC2 and PC3 and click once.

Connect PC2 to Hub0 by first choosing Connections.

Click once on the Copper Straight-through cable.

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Perform the following steps to connect PC2 to Switch0:

1. Click once on PC2

2. Choose FastEthernet
3. Drag the cursor to Switch0
4. Click once on Switch0 and choose FastEthernet0/1
5. Notice the green link lights on PC2 Ethernet NIC and amber light Switch0 FastEthernet0/1
port. The switch port is temporarily not forwarding frames, while it goes through the stages for
the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) process.
6. After a about 30 seconds the amber light will change to green indicating that the port has
entered the forwarding stage. Frames can now forwarded out the switch port.

Step 5: Configuring IP Addresses and Subnet Masks on the Hosts

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Before we can communicate between the hosts we need to configure IP Addresses and Subnet
Masks on the devices.
Click once on PC0.

Choose the Config tab. It is here that you can change the name of PC0. It is also here where you
would enter a Gateway IP Address, also known as the default gateway. We will discuss this later,
but this would be the IP address of the local router. If you want, you can enter the IP Address
172.16.1.1, although it will not be used in this lab.
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Click on FastEthernet. Although we have not yet discussed IP Addresses, add the IP Address to
172.16.1.10. Click once in the Subnet Mask field to
enter the default Subnet Mask. You can leave this at 255.255.0.0. We will discuss this later.

Also, notice this is where you can change the Bandwidth (speed) and Duplex of the Ethernet NIC
(Network Interface Card). The default is Auto (autonegotiation), which means the NIC will
negotiate with the hub or switch. The bandwidth and/or duplex can be manually set by removing
the check from the Auto box and choosing the specific option.

Bandwidth - Auto

If the host is connected to a hub or switch port which can do 100 Mbps, then the Ethernet NIC on
the host will choose 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet). Otherwise, if the hub or switch port can only do
10 Mbps, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose 10 Mbps (Ethernet).

Duplex - Auto

Hub: If the host is connected to a hub, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Half
Duplex.

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Switch: If the host is connected to a switch, and the switch port is configured as Full Duplex (or
Autonegotiation), then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Full Duplex. If the switch port is
configured as Half Duplex, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Half Duplex. (Full
Duplex is a much more efficient option.)

The information is automatically saved when entered.

Repeat these steps for the other hosts. Use the information below for IP Addresses and Subnet
Masks.

Host IP Address Subnet Mask

PC0 172.16.1.10 255.255.0.0
PC1 172.16.1.11 255.255.0.0
PC2 172.16.1.12 255.255.0.0
PC3 172.16.1.13 255.255.0.0

Verify the information

To verify the information that you entered, move the Select tool (arrow) over each host.

Deleting a Device or Link

To delete a device or link, choose the Delete tool and click on the item you wish to delete.
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Step 6: Connecting Hub0 to Switch0

To connect like-devices, like a Hub and a Switch, we will use a Cross-over cable. Click once the
Cross-over Cable from the Connections options.

Move the Connections cursor to Switch0.

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Click once on Switch0 and choose FastEthernet0/4 (actual port does not matter).

The link light for switch port FastEthernet0/4 will begin as amber and eventually change to green
as the Spanning Tree Protocol transitions the port to forwarding

EXERCISE:

Develop a Topology using 2 switches to connect 25 host using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) What is the functionality of router device?

2) What is the difference between switch and hub?
3) Explain difference between packet and frame.
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ROUTING

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Configuration of Static Routing.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Able to learn Static Routing.

• Able to configure Static Routing Using Packet Tracer.

Theory:
Topology Diagram:

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Static Routing Configuration:

• Static routing is simply the process of manually entering routes into a device’s routing
table via a configuration file that is loaded when the routing device starts up. As an
alternative, these routes can be entered by a network administrator who configures the
routes manually. Since, these manually configured routes doesn’t change after they are
configured (unless a human changes them) they are called ‘static’ routes.
• Use static routing when you have very few devices to configure (<5) and when you know
the routes will probably never change.

Addressing Table:

Host Interface IPv4

Router 1 Fast Ethernet 0/0 192.168.10.1/24
Serial 0/3/0 17.10.10.2/30
Serial 0/3/1 17.10.10.9/30
Router 2 Fast Ethernet 0/0 192.168.20.1/24
Serial 0/3/1 17.10.10.6/30
Router 3 Fast Ethernet 0/0 10.10.20.1/24
Serial 0/3/1 17.10.10.10/30
Router 4 Fast Ethernet 0/0 10.10.10.1/24
Serial 0/3/0 17.10.10.2/30
Serial 0/3/1 17.10.10.6/30
PC0 Fa 0/1 10.10.10.2
PC1 Fa 0/2 10.10.10.3
PC2 Fa 0/1 192.168.10.2
PC3 Fa 0/2 192.168.10.3
PC4 Fa 0/1 192.168.20.2
PC5 Fa 0/2 192.168.20.3
PC6 Fa 0/1 10.10.20.2
PC7 Fa 0/2 10.10.20.3

Configuration for Routers for Static Routing:

There are 4 modes of operation for a Router:

1. Privilege mode
2. Config mode
3. Global config mode
4. Interface config mode
1. On Router R4, use the Command Line Interface (CLI) to access the Cisco IOS prompt.
Enter Privilege mode (enable) and move to configuration mode (config term):
Router4 > enable
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Router4#config term
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Router4 (config)#

2. Configure the FastEthernet:

Router4 (config)# interface FastEterhnet 0/0
Router4 (config-if)# ip address 10.10.10.1 255.0.0.0
Router4 (config-if)# exit
Router4 (config)#
Repeat step 2 until all FastEthernet are configured.

3. Configure the Serial:

Router4 (config)# interface Serial 0/3/0
Router4 (config-if)#ip address 17.10.10.1 255.255.255.252
Router4 (config-if)#exit
Router4 (config)#
Repeat step 3 until all Serial are configured.

4. Make Entry in routing table;

Router4 (config)#ip address 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 17.10.10.2
Router4 (config)#ip address 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 17.10.10.6
Router4 (config)#ip address 10.10.20.0 255.0.0.0 17.10.10.2

5. Repeat all step 1 to 4 for all Routers.

Each Router’s Table Entry:

Router 4:

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Router 3:

Router 2:
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Router 1:

Checking the connection from PC1 (10.10.10.3) to PC5 (192.168.20.3):

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EXERCISE:

Develop Static Routing Topology using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) Define static routing.

2) What is Routing protocols?
3) List any four routing protocols.
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CONFIGURING A NETWORK

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Configure a network with subnetting along with DNS Server.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Able to learn Subnetting.

• Able to configure DNS Server Using Packet Tracer.

Theory:
Topology Diagram:

Subnetting allows you to create multiple logical networks that exist within a single Class A, B, or C
network. If you do not subnet, you are only able to use one network from your Class A, B, or C
network, which is unrealistic.

Each data link on a network must have a unique network ID, with every node on that link being a
member of the same network. If you break a major network (Class A, B, or C) into smaller
subnetworks, it allows you to create a network of interconnecting subnetworks. Each data link on
this network would then have a unique network/subnetwork ID. Any device, or gateway,

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connecting n networks/subnetworks has n distinct IP addresses, one for each network /

subnetwork that it interconnects.

In order to subnet a network, extend the natural mask using some of the bits from the host ID
portion of the address to create a subnet-work ID. For example, given a Class C network of
192.168.10.0 which has a natural mask of 255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in this manner:
192.168.10.0 - 11000000.10101000.00001010.00000000
255.255.255.240 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
----------------------------------------|sub|--------

By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.240, you have taken three bits (indicated by "sub") from
the original host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three bits, it is
possible to create eight subnets. With the remaining five host ID bits, each subnet can have up to 16
host addresses, 14 of which can actually be assigned to a device since host ids of all zeros or all ones
are not allowed (it is very important to remember this).

Note: There are two ways to denote these masks. First, since you are using three bits more than the
"natural" Class C mask, you can denote these addresses as having a 4-bit subnet mask. Or, secondly,
the mask of 255.255.255.240 can also be denoted as /28 as there are 28 bits that are set in the mask.
This second method is used with CIDR. With this method, one of these networks can be described
with the notation prefix/length. For example, 192.168.10.18/28 denotes the network 192.168.10.17
255.255.255.240.

In our network, we want to make 9 subnetworks, and hence we need minimum 24 = 16

subnetwork scheme. The network address taken into consideration is 92.168.10.0 and the default
mask for this network is 255.255.255.0. Since, we want to make 9 subnetworks and hence we
would be taking only 4 bits from the net id for the subnet id as 24 = 16.

1st subnet: 192.168.10.00000000 → 192.168.10.0

192.168.10.00000000 → 192.168.10.15

2nd subnet: 192.168.10.00100000 → 192.168.10.16

192.168.10.00100000 → 192.168.10.31

3rd subnet: 192.168.10.01000000 → 192.168.10.33

192.168.10.01000000 → 192.168.10.47

4th subnet: 192.168.10.01100000 → 192.168.10.48

192.168.10.01100000 → 192.168.10.63

5th subnet: 192.168.10.10000000 → 192.168.10.64

192.168.10.10000000 → 192.168.10.79

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.11110000 → 255.255.255.240

Also, the number of bits assigned now would be 24(host id) + 4(subnet id) + 4(net id).
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Hence, /28 will be used to denote the ip address for the particular network.

The addresses assigned to the subnetworks should be in the range provided above.

The configuration is listed as shown below.

Addressing Table
Host Subnet Interface IP Address Subnet Mast Default Gateway
Router 0 FastEthernet 0/0 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.240 N/A
FastEthernet 0/1 192.168.10.17 255.255.255.240 N/A
FastEthernet1/0 192.168.10.33 255.255.255.240 N/A
FastEthernet1/1 192.168.10.50 255.255.255.240 N/A
Serial0/3/0 192.168.10.65 255.255.255.240 N/A
Router 1 Serial0/3/0 192.168.10.66 255.255.255.240 N/A
FastEthernet 0/0 10.65.10.1 255.192.0.0 N/A
FastEthernet 0/1 10.129.10.1 255.192.0.0 N/A
DNS Server FastEthernet 192.168.10.52/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.50/28

PC0 1st NIC 192.168.10.2/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.1/28

PC1 1st NIC 192.168.10.3/27 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.1/27
PC2 2nd NIC 192.168.10.18/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.17/28
PC3 2nd NIC 192.168.10.19/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.17/28
PC4 3rd NIC 192.168.10.34/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.33/28
PC5 4th NIC 192.168.10.51/28 255.255.255.240 192.168.10.50/28
PC6 5th NIC 10.65.10.2/10 255.192.0.0 10.65.10.1/10
Server0 FastEthernet 10.29.10.2/10 255.192.0.0 10.65.10.1/10

DNS SERVER

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a standard technology for managing the names of Web
sites and other Internet domains. DNS technology allows you to type names into your Web
browser like compnetworking.about.com and your computer to automatically find that address
on the Internet. A key element of the DNS is a worldwide collection of DNS servers.

A DNS server is any computer registered to join the Domain Name System. A DNS server runs
special-purpose networking software, features a public IP address, and contains a database of
network names and addresses for other Internet hosts.

IP address lookup is the process of translating between IP addresses and Internet

domain/computer names. Forward IP address lookup converts an Internet name to an
address. Reverse IP address lookup converts the number to the name.

Several Internet services support both forward and reverse IP lookup for public addresses. On
the Internet, these services rely on the Domain Name System (DNS) and are known as DNS

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lookup and reverse DNS lookup services. See the sidebar for locations of some popular DNS
lookup sites.

Configuring DNS Server

Suppose we want to fetch a web address “www.google.com” having an IP address 75.67.10.3,

that we have configured on Server 0 as shown in the figure.

Instructions

1. In any one of the subnet, set up a local DNS server, the local client will send requests to
this DNS Server for accessing the web address www.google.com which in turn will look
up for the web address.
In the local DNS Server, we need to make a record for the web address that we are
looking up to. Hence, the web server’s address in 10.65.10.2.

2. On the web server, we again need to make a record of the web address that we are
accessing which is www.google.com which is located at 100.1.100.1.
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3. On a local PC, in the same subnetwork, where DNS Server is configured and provide the
address of DNS server on the local PC.

4. Now go to the web browser of the local PC and type www.google.com and you will get
the page that has been made on the web server.

Exercise:

Develop a Topology using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) Why subnetting is required?

2) How many bits are occupied by IP address and Ethernet/ MAC address?
3) What are the functions of DNS?

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PROTOCOL VISUALIZTION

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Protocol Visualization with Packet Tracer.

Objectives:

Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Explore Packet Tracer Real-time mode

• Explore the Logical Workspace
• Explore Packet Tracer operation
• Connect devices
• Examine a device configuration
• Review the standard lab setup
• Overview of the devices

Theory:

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This is an example of what your final topology should look like.

Instructions:

1. Start Packet Tracer using Realtime mode.

• Options -> Preferences

o Enable “Show Link Lights”
o Disable “Hide Device Label”

2. Configuring the DHCP Server

Add a server.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “DHCP Server”

• Set the Gateway to 172.16.0.1
FastEthernet:

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.10

• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0
HTTP:

• Set HTTP Service and HTTPS Service to Off

DHCP:

• Set the Default Gateway to 172.16.0.1

• Set the DNS Server to 172.16.0.11
• Set the Start IP Address to 172.16.0.100
DNS:

• Set the Service to Off

Email:

• Set the SMTP Service and POP3 Service to Off

2. Configuring the DNS Server

Add a server.
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Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “DNS Server”

• Set the Gateway to 172.16.0.1
FastEthernet:

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.11

• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0
HTTP:

• Set HTTP Service and HTTPS Service to Off

DHCP:

• Set the Service to Off

DNS:

• Entering the www.cabrillo.edu Domain Name

• Enter for the Domain Name www.mapua.edu
• Enter for IP Address 172.16.0.20
• Click Add
• Entering the www.internal.com Domain Name
• Enter for the Domain Name www.internal.com
• Enter for IP Address 172.16.0.30
• Click Add
Email:

• Set the SMTP Service and POP3 Service to Off

3. Configuring the www.mapua.edu Web Server

Add a server.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “Web Server: www.mapua.edu”

• Set the Gateway to 172.16.0.1
FastEthernet:

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.20

• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0

DHCP:

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• Set the Service to Off

DNS:

• Set the Service to Off

HTTP

• Set the both the HTTP and HTTPS Service to On

• Change the sentence, “<hr> Welcome to Cisco Packet Tracer. Opening doors to
new opportunities. Mind Wide Open.” to “<hr> Welcome to Mapua Institute’s of
Technology’s public web page!” You may add other information as well.
Email:

• Set the SMTP Service and POP3 Service to Off

4. Configuring the www.internal.com Web Server

Add a server.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “Web Server: www.internal.com”

• Set the Gateway to 172.16.0.1
FastEthernet:

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.30

• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0
DHCP:

• Set the Service to Off

DNS:

• Set the Service to Off

HTTP:

• Change the sentence, “<hr> Welcome to Cisco Packet Tracer. Opening doors to
new opportunities. Mind Wide Open.” to “<hr> This is the corporate internal
network!” You may add other information as well.

5. Configuring the mail.mapua.edu Email Server

Add a server.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “Email Server: mail.mapua.edu”

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• Set the Gateway to 172.16.0.1

FastEthernet:

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.40

• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0

DHCP:

• Set the Service to Off

DNS:

• Set the Service to Off

HTTP:

• Set HTTP Service and HTTPS Service to Off

Email:

• Set SMTP and POP3 Service to On.

• Set the domain name to mail.mapua.edu
• Setup three user accounts as follows:

Users Password

user1 datacom1

user2 datacom2

user3 datacom3

6. Configure Two Client Computers using DHCP

Add two client computers.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Names to “Dynamic 1” and to “Dynamic 2” respectively

• Set the Gateway/DNS to DHCP
FastEthernet:

• Set the IP Configuration to DHCP

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6. Configure One Client Computers using Static IP Addressing

Add two client computers.

Global Settings:

• Change the Display Name to “Static”

• Set the Gateway/DNS to Static
▪ Set Gateway to 172.16.0.1
▪ Set the DNS Server to 172.16.0.11
FastEthernet:

• Be sure the configuration is set to Static

• Set the IP address to 172.16.0.90
• Set the Subnet Mask to 255.255.0.0

7. Configure Email Configuration for Clients

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8. Adding switches

• Add two switches.

• Connect the servers to one switch using a straight-through cable.
• Connect the client computers to the other switch using a straight-through cable.
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• Interconnect the two switches using a crossover cable.

9. Verify connectivity

• Ping (ICMP)
o From a client computer use the Desktop Command prompt to ping the other client
computers and the servers.
o Example: From the Dynamic 1 client, C> ping 172.16.0.20
o The first one or two pings may fail, but you should receive a reply on the later
pings. This is due to the ping timing out while the ARP process takes place.
• Web Browser (HTTP)
o On the client computers use the Desktop Web Browser, enter the URLs of the
Web Servers www.cabrillo.edu and www.internal.com.
o You should see the web pages that you created on these servers.
• Email (SMTP)
o From client computer (Dynamic 1), compose an email (from Desktop tab) to
another client computer (Static). To: user3@mail.mapua.edu
o Upon sending the email, check if email was received by Static PC by clicking the
email icon (Desktop tab), and clicking the Receive button after.
10. Using Simulation Mode

Click on Simulation.

Note: To reset a simulation, click on “Reset Simulation”

Click on Edit Filters

• Choose Show All/None so that all the boxes (protocols) are unchecked.
• Select (check) the following protocols: DHCP, ICMP, HTTP, DNS, HTTPS,
SMTP

Web Browser (HTTP)

• On the client computers use the Desktop Web Browser, enter the URLs of the
Web Servers http://www.mapua.edu or http://www.internal.com.
• Click on Auto Capture/Play (automatically forwards the packets) or Capture
Forward (must keep clicking to advance the packets)
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DHCP

• Reset the simulation by clicking on “Reset Simulation”

• To view DHCP, on one of the “Dynamic “client computers using DHCP go to the
Desktop Command prompt.
• To have the client computer ask for new IP address and other information from
the DHCP server, enter the command: C> ipconfig /renew

Email

• Reset the simulation by clicking on “Reset Simulation”

• To view email, click on one of the client computers sending email to another
client computer.
• Click on Auto Capture/Play (automatically forwards the packets) or Capture
Forward (must keep clicking to advance the packets)

Exercise:

Develop above Topology using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) What is DHCP and how it works?

2) What is the difference between ARP and RARP?
3) What is the use of MIME protocol?

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ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Configure RIP using packet tracer.

Objectives:
Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Able to learn Routing Information Protocol

• Understand Distance Vector Routing.
• Able to configure RIP using Packet Tracer.

Theory:

The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector protocol that uses hop count
as its metric. RIP is widely used for routing traffic in the global Internet and is an interior
gateway protocol (IGP), which means that it performs routing within a single autonomous
system. RIP only uses hop count to determine the best route to a remote network, RIP has a
maximum hop count of 15, 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small internetworks,
but is inefficient for large networks. RIP is susceptible to all the problems normally associated
with distance vector routing protocols. It is slow to converge and forces routers to learn network
information only from neighbors. RIP version 1 uses classful routing (all devices in the network
must use the same subnet mask because RIP version 1 doesn't send updates with subnet
information). RIP version 2 uses classless routing and does send subnet mask information with
route updates. RIP networks need the same hop count to load balance multiple links.

Routing Updates

RIP sends its complete routing table out to all active interfaces at regular intervals (every
30 seconds) and when the network topology changes. When a router receives a routing update
that includes changes to an entry, it updates its routing table to reflect the new route. The metric
value for the path is increased by one, and the sender is indicated as the next hop. RIP routers
maintain only the best route (the route with the lowest metric value) to a destination. After
updating its routing table, the router immediately begins transmitting routing updates to inform
other network routers of the change. These updates are sent independently of the regularly
scheduled updates that RIP routers send.

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RIP Routing Metric

RIP uses a single routing metric (hop count) to measure the distance between the source
and a destination network. Each hop in a path from source to destination is assigned a hop-count
value, which is typically 1. When a router receives a routing update that contains a new or
changed destination-network entry, the router adds one to the metric value indicated in the
update and enters the network in the routing table. The IP address of the sender is used as the
next hop. RIP prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely by implementing a limit on the
number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination (15 hops). If a router receives
a routing update that contains a new or changed entry, and if increasing the metric value by one
causes the metric to be infinity (that is, 16), the network destination is considered unreachable.

Addressing Table

Host Interface IP Address Subnet Default

Router 0 FastEthernet 0/0 192.168.1.1 Mast
255.255.255.0 Gateway
N/A
Serial 0/0/0 172.168.1.1 255.255.0.0 N/A
Router 1 Serial 0/0/0 172.168.1.2 255.255.0.0 N/A
FastEthernet 0/0 12.10.1.1 255.0.0.0 N/A
PC0 NIC 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.1
Laptop0 NIC 192.168.1.3 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.1
Laptop1 NIC 192.168.1.4 255.255.255.0 192.168.1.1
PC1 NIC 12.10.1.2 255.0.0.0 12.10.1.1

Configuring RIP

Instructions

1. Router 0 is connected to two networks i.e. 192.168.1.0 and 172.168.10. Hence, to

configure RIP protocol, the command used is “router rip” and then the networks that need
to be connected to.
 Page No.

Router>enable

Router#configure terminal

Router(config)#router rip

Router(config-router)#network 192.168.1.0

Router(config-router)#network 172.168.1.0

Router(config-router)#

Router(config-router)#exit

2. Do the same on 2nd router as well. Router 1 is connected to two networks i.e.
172.168.1.0 and 12.10.1.0.

To show the RIP routing protocol configured, use following command:

Router#show ip protocols

Routing Protocol is "rip"

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Sending updates every 30 seconds, next due in 22 seconds

Invalid after 180 seconds, hold down 180, flushed after 240

Outgoing update filter list for all interfaces is not set

Incoming update filter list for all interfaces is not set

Redistributing: rip

Default version control: send version 1, receive any version

Interface Send Receive Triggered RIP Key-chain

FastEthernet0/1 1 2 1

FastEthernet0/0 1 2 1

Automatic network summarization is in effect

Maximum path: 4

Routing for Networks:

12.10.1.0

172.168.1.0

Passive Interface(s):

Routing Information Sources:

Gateway Distance Last Update

172.168.20.3 120 00:00:20

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Distance: (default is 120)

Exercise:

Develop RIP Topology using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) What is distance vector Routing?

2) What is RIP?
3) What is the difference between IGP and BGP?

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Frame Relay

Practical No: Date: __________

Aim: Configuration of Frame Relay.

Objectives:

Upon completion of this experiment, the student shall be able to:

• Able to learn Frame Relay.

• Able to configure Frame Relay using Packet Tracer.

Theory:

Now first configure PC0, PC1, PC2, Router0, Router1, Router2, Router3.

Configure R0
R1>enable
R1#configure terminal
R1(config)#interface serial 0/3/0
R1(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R1(config-if)#no shutdown
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config-subif)#interface serial 0/3/0.101 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 40.40.40.2 255.0.0.0

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R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 101

R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#interface serial 0/3/0.102 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 50.50.50.2 255.0.0.0
R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 102
R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#interface serial 0/3/0.103 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 60.60.60.2 255.0.0.0
R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 103
R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#exit

configure R1
R2>enable
R2#configure terminal
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0
R2(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R2(config-if)#no shutdown
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0.100 point-to-point
R2(config-subif)#ip address 40.40.40.1 255.0.0.0
R2(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 100
R2(config-subif)#exit

configure R2
R2>enable
R2#configure terminal
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0
R2(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R2(config-if)#no shutdown
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0.201 point-to-point
R2(config-subif)#ip address 50.50.50.1 255.0.0.0.
R2(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 201
R2(config-subif)#exit

configure R3
R2>enable
R2#configure terminal
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0
R2(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R2(config-if)#no shutdown
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#interface serial 0/3/0.301 point-to-point
R2(config-subif)#ip address 60.60.60.1 255.0.0.0
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R2(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 301

R2(config-subif)#exit

Now, configure RIP in all Routers.

Router0: 40.0.0.0 Router1: 10.0.0.0 Router2: 20.0.0.0 Router3: 30.0.0.0

50.0.0.0 40.0.0.0 50.0.0.0 60.0.0.0

60.0.0.0

Now Configure Cloud0:

Frame Relay Serial4 R0toR1 → Serial1 R1toR0

Serial4 R0toR2 → Serial2 R2toR0
Serial4 R0toR3 → Serial3 R3toR0

Interface Serial4 101 R0toR1

Serial4 102 R0toR2
Serial4 103 R0toR3

Serial1 100 R1toR0

Serial2 201 R2toR0

Serial3 301 R3toR0

Exercise:

Develop Frame Relay Topology using Packet Tracer.

Review Questions:

1) What is frame relay in networking?

2) What is the difference serial transmission and parallel transmission?
3) At which layer of OSI model does frame relay works?

Gandhinagar Institute of Technology 3150710 CN