Agronomic Crops Volume 1 Production Technologies

Mirza
Hasanuzzaman Editor
Agronomic
Crops
Volume 1: Production Technologies
Agronomic Crops
Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Editor
Agronomic Crops
Volume 1: Production Technologies
Editor
Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University
Dhaka, Bangladesh
ISBN 978-981-32-9150-8 ISBN 978-981-32-9151-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

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This book is dedicated to
All of my teachers
at
Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University
who taught and inspired me in the journey of
teaching and research
Preface
The history of agriculture has played a major role in human development, as agri-
cultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide socioeconomic change.
Since the ancient civilizations, human being has been trying to explore new food
crops. In the course of time, the demands for foods are increasing, and people are
trying to rely on formal cropping practices. Agronomic crops fulfill most of the
basic demands of human life such as food, fuel, fiber, and medicine. Based on the
uses of crops, agronomic crops have been classified into different types such as
cereals, pulses, oil crops, fodder crops, green manuring crops, sugar crops, narcotic
crops, and beverage crops. Plant breeders have been developing many improved
varieties of such crops every year to boost up the global production. However, in
most of the cases, yield gaps exit in the farmers’ fields due to the lack of proper
agronomic management.
Crop management, therefore, becomes an integral part of food production.
“Agronomy” is such a solution to make the crop field capable of securing the poten-
tial yield. Literally, it means the art of managing fields, and technically, it means the
science and economics of crop production by management of farmland. On the
other hand, it is the art and science in production and improvement of field crops
with the proper use of soil fertility, water, labor, and other factors related to crop
production. Agronomy is the management of land for the cultivation of crop plants.
The central theme of agronomy is the soil-plant-environment interrelationship.
Both soil resources and climate have been changing globally, challenging crop pro-
duction. The basic agronomic principles can ensure the maximum yield from a crop
variety. Proper land preparation, selection of quality seeds and suitable varieties,
proper water management, nutrient management, accurate pest management, proper
harvesting, and postharvest operations are among them. However, these activities
should be chosen based on several factors like crop varieties, land types, agrocli-
mate, etc. Choosing suitable cropping patterns and practicing crop rotation and mul-
tiple cropping also play an important role in enhancing land use efficiency and crop
stands.
Although agricultural practices such as irrigation, crop rotation, fertilizers, and
pesticides were developed long ago, these have made great strides in the past cen-
tury. Due to the global climate changes, agronomic crops have been suffering from
various abiotic and biotic stresses like salinity, drought, floods, toxic metals/metal-
loids, extreme temperatures, atmospheric pollutants, UV radiations, pests, etc. A
vii
viii Preface
substantial portion of crop yield is being declined every year due to the adverse
effect of stresses. Therefore, researchers are trying to address these problems and
working to explore the stress tolerance mechanisms and manipulating adaptive
features.
The knowledge of agronomic crops is essential for all agricultural graduates and
scientists, not only with a view to understand their cultivation practices but also with
the objectives to know many academic and scientific details of each crop. This book
covers comprehensive information on the advanced production of agronomic crops.
Attempts have been made to cover all important field crops. Latest aspects about the
cultivation practices, varieties, resource management, plant protection along with
quality aspects, and postharvest practices are discussed in a crisp manner. The book
must be immensely useful to all graduate students, faculty, and researchers in the
field of agronomy and crop science.
This is the first volume (Production Technologies) of the three-volume book
Agronomic Crops. In this volume, the advanced production technologies of major
agronomic crops and research advancements are presented.
I would like to give special thanks to the authors for their outstanding and timely
work in producing such fine chapters. We are highly thankful to Dr. Mamta Kapila
(Senior Editor, Life Science) and Ms. Raman Shukla (Senior Editorial Assistant)
Springer, India, for their prompt responses during the acquisition. We are also
thankful to Daniel Ignatius Jagadisan, Project Coordinator of this book, and all
other editorial staff for their precious help in formatting and incorporating editorial
changes in the manuscripts. Special thanks to Prof. Dr. Md. Fazlul Karim, Taufika
Islam Anee, Dr. Md. Mahabub Alam, Mr. Abdul Awal Chowdhury Masud, Naznin
Ahmed, and Tonusree Saha, Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural
University, Bangladesh, for their generous help in formatting the manuscripts. The
editors and contributing authors hope that this book will include a practical update
on our knowledge for the role of plant nutrients in abiotic stress tolerance.
Dhaka, Bangladesh Mirza Hasanuzzaman

Contents
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses......................................................... 1

Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Pakeeza Iqbal, Amna Khan, Iqra Zakir,
Sibgha Noreen, Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, and Shakeel Ahmad
2 Climate-Resilient Minor Crops for Food Security................................ 19
M. R. Umesh, Sangu Angadi, Prasanna Gowda, Rajan Ghimire,
and Sultan Begna
3 Climatic Variability and Agronomic Cropping Pattern....................... 33
Imran, Amanullah, Abdul Bari, Hamayoon Khan, and Roshan Ali
4 Soil Health in Cropping Systems: An Overview................................... 45
Subhadip Paul, Neha Chatterjee, J. S. Bohra, S. P. Singh,
D. Dutta, Rajesh Kumar Singh, and Amitava Rakshit
5 Agronomic Cropping Systems in Relation to Climatic
Variability................................................................................................. 67
Muhammad Sami Ul Din, Iftikhar Ahmad, Nazim Hussain,
Ashfaq Ahmad, Aftab Wajid, Tasneem Khaliq,
Muhammad Mubeen, Muhammad Imran, Amjed Ali,
Rida Akram, Khizer Amanet, Mazhar Saleem,
and Wajid Nasim
6 Growth and Development Dynamics in Agronomic
Crops Under Environmental Stress........................................................ 83
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari, Arslan Masood Peerzada,
Muhammad Haseeb Javed, Muhammad Dawood,
Nazim Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
7 Tillage and Crop Production.................................................................. 115
Ahmad Khan
8 Effect of Planting Dates on Agronomic Crop Production.................... 131
Ghulam Abbas, Haseeb Younis, Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima,
Atique-ur-Rehman, Sajjad Hussain, Mukhtar Ahmed,
and Shakeel Ahmad
ix
x Contents
9 Crop Production Under Changing Climate: Past,

Present, and Future.................................................................................. 149
Muhammad Ijaz, Abdul Rehman, Komal Mazhar, Ammara Fatima,
Sami Ul-Allah, Qasim Ali, and Shakeel Ahmad
10 Cultivation of Aromatic Rice: A Review................................................ 175
S. P. Singh, M. K. Singh, Sandeep Kumar, and U. Sai Sravan
11 Direct Seeding in Rice: Problems and Prospects.................................. 199
Hafeez-ur-Rehman, Ahmad Nawaz, Masood Iqbal Awan,
Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain, Shakeel Ahmad,
and Muhammad Farooq
12 Advanced Production Technologies of Wheat....................................... 223
Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima,
Muhammad Arif Ali, Mukhtar Ahmed, Muhammad Azam Khan,
and Shakeel Ahmad
13 Advanced Production Technologies of Maize........................................ 237
Sajid Hussain, Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain, Sami Ul-Allah,
Tahira Abbas, Ahmad Nawaz, Muhammad Nawaz,
and Shakeel Ahmad
14 Agro-Techniques for Baby Corn Production......................................... 261
M. K. Singh, S. P. Singh, and B. Singh
15 Advanced Production Technologies of Millets....................................... 273
Ahmad Sher, Ahmad Nawaz, Muhammad Sarfraz,
Muhammad Ijaz, Sami Ul-Allah, Abdul Sattar, Sajid Hussain,
and Shakeel Ahmad
16 Advanced Production Technologies of Legume Crops......................... 297
Imran
17 Advanced Production Technologies of Oilseed Crops.......................... 313
Muhammad Ijaz, Muhammad Nawaz, Hakoomat Ali,
Mubshar Hussain, Muhammad Umer Chattha,
Ahmad Nawaz, Sajid Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
18 Advanced Production Technology of Sugar Crops............................... 335
Omer Farooq, Naeem Sarwar, Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir,
Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal, Tayyaba Naz, Muqarrab Ali,
Sohaib Afzal, and Shakeel Ahmad
19 Advanced Production Technologies of Potato....................................... 363
Tanveer Ahmad, Rana Muhammad Sabir Tariq, Qumer Iqbal,
Sajjad Hussain, Aamir Nawaz, and Shakeel Ahmad
20 Advanced Production Technology and Processing of Jute................... 387
Md Mahbubul Islam
Contents xi
21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug............................. 441

Mohammad Shameem Al Mamun
22 Tea: A Worthwhile, Popular Beverage Crop Since
Time Immemorial.................................................................................... 507
Anjan Hazra, Nirjhar Dasgupta, Chandan Sengupta,
Biswajit Bera, and Sauren Das
23 Agronomy of Betelvine Crop.................................................................. 533
Kajal Sengupta
24 Fundamentals of Crop Rotation in Agronomic Management............. 545
Muhammad Tariq, Hakoomat Ali, Nazim Hussain, Wajid Nasim,
Muhammad Mubeen, Shakeel Ahmad, and Mirza Hasanuzzaman
25 Cool Season Food Legumes in Rice Fallows:
An Indian Perspective.............................................................................. 561
Srijani Maji, Arpita Das, Rajib Nath, P. Bandopadhyay,
Raju Das, and Sanjeev Gupta
26 Crop Diversification and Food Security................................................. 607
Muhammad Ijaz, Ahmad Nawaz, Sami Ul-Allah,
Muhammad Shahid Rizwan, Aman Ullah, Mubshar Hussain,
Ahmad Sher, and Shakeel Ahmad
27 Fundamentals of Seed Production and Processing
of Agronomic Crops................................................................................. 623
Atique-ur-Rehman, Hakoomat Ali, Zartash Fatima,
and Shakeel Ahmad
28 Seed Production Technologies of Some Major Field Crops................. 655
Irfan Afzal, Rubab Shabir, and Saeed Rauf
29 Postharvest Technologies for Major Agronomic Crops........................ 679
Muhammad Yasin, Waqas Wakil, Kazam Ali, Muhammad Ijaz,
Shahid Hanif, Liaqat Ali, Hafiz Muhammad Atif,
and Shakeel Ahmad
Editor and Contributors
About the Editor
Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a professor of Agronomy

at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka. He

received his Ph.D. on “Plant Stress Physiology and
Antioxidant Metabolism” from Ehime University,
Japan. Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at
the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the
Ryukyus, Japan. He was also the recipient of the
Australian Government’s Endeavour Research
Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct
senior researcher at the University of Tasmania,
Australia. His current work is focused on the physio-
logical and molecular mechanisms of environmental
stress tolerance. He has published over 80 articles in
peer-reviewed journals, edited 6 books, and written 30
book chapters. According to Scopus®, his publications
have received roughly 4000 citations with an h-index
of 33. He is an editor and reviewer for more than 50
peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipi-
ent of the “Publons Peer Review Award 2017, 2018 and
2019.” He has been honored by different authorities for
his outstanding performance in different fields like
research and education and has received the World
Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014).
xiii
xiv Editor and Contributors
Contributors
Ghulam Abbas Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

Multan, Pakistan
Tahira Abbas College of Agriculture, Bahadur Sub Campus, Bahauddin Zakariya
University, Multan, Pakistan
Irfan Afzal Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sohaib Afzal Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Ashfaq Ahmad Program Chair, Climate Change, US.-Pakistan Centre for
Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Iftikhar Ahmad Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Shakeel Ahmad Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Tanveer Ahmad Department of Horticulture, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan,
Pakistan
Mukhtar Ahmed Department of Agronomy, PMAS, Arid Agriculture University,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Rida Akram Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Amjed Ali University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha,
Pakistan
Hakoomat Ali Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Kazam Ali College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Liaqat Ali Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of
Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan
Muhammad Arif Ali Department of Soil Science, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Muqarrab Ali Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan,
Punjab, Pakistan
Qasim Ali College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Editor and Contributors xv
Roshan Ali Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan

Khizer Amanet Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Amanullah Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,
Pakistan
Sangu Angadi Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis,
NM, USA
Hafiz Muhammad Atif College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Layyah, Pakistan
Atique-ur-Rehman Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Masood Iqbal Awan Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
P. Bandopadhyay Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Abdul Bari Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan
Sultan Begna Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis,
NM, USA
Biswajit Bera Tea Board of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
J. S. Bohra Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya
Neha Chatterjee Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Muhammad Umer Chattha Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
Arpita Das Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Raju Das Department of Plant Pathology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, West Bengal, India
Sauren Das Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute,
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Nirjhar Dasgupta Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical
Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
xvi Editor and Contributors
Muhammad Dawood Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin

Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
Muhammad Sami Ul Din Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS
University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
D. Dutta ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Meerut, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Muhammad Farooq Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan
Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Oman
The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley,
WA, Australia
Omer Farooq Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Ammara Fatima Department of Environmental Science, Lahore College for
women University, Lahore, Pakistan
Zartash Fatima Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Rajan Ghimire Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis,
NM, USA
Prasanna Gowda Forage and Livestock Production Research Unit, USDA-ARS
Grazinglands Research Laboratory, El Reno, OK, USA
Sanjeev Gupta ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India
Hafeez-ur-Rehman Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
Shahid Hanif College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Anjan Hazra Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical
Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Mubshar Hussain Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Nazim Hussain Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Sajid Hussain College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Sajjad Hussain College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Editor and Contributors xvii
Muhammad Ijaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,

Pakistan
Imran Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar,
Pakistan
Muhammad Imran Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS
University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Department of
Agriculture, GOP, Chiniot, Pakistan
Pakeeza Iqbal Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
Qumer Iqbal Fiblast, LLC, Tuskegee, AL, USA
Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Md Mahbubul Islam Agronomy Division, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Muhammad Haseeb Javed Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya
Tasneem Khaliq Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Ahmad Khan Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture Peshawar
Pakistan, Peshawar, Pakistan
Amna Khan Department of Agronomy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha,
Pakistan
Hamayoon Khan Director Climate Change Centre (CCC), The University of
Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
Muhammad Azam Khan In-Service Agricultural Institute, Sargodha, Pakistan
Sandeep Kumar Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Srijani Maji Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohammad Shameem Al Mamun Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, Srimangal,
Bangladesh
Komal Mazhar Department of Forestry and Range Management, University of
Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Muhammad Mubeen COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari,
Punjab, Pakistan
xviii Editor and Contributors
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad,

Islamabad, Pakistan
Wajid Nasim COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Punjab,
Pakistan
Islamabad, Pakistan
Rajib Nath Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Aamir Nawaz Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Ahmad Nawaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Muhammad Nawaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan
Sahrish Naz Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Tayyaba Naz Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of
Sibgha Noreen Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya
Subhadip Paul Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute
of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Arslan Masood Peerzada School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The
University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
Amitava Rakshit Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute
of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abdul Rehman College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Saeed Rauf Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Sargodha,
Sargodha, Pakistan
Muhammad Shahid Rizwan Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia
University Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Mazhar Saleem Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University
Muhammad Sarfraz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Layyah, Pakistan
Editor and Contributors xix
Naeem Sarwar Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

Multan, Pakistan
Abdul Sattar College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
Chandan Sengupta Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West
Bengal, India
Kajal Sengupta Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal,
India
Rubab Shabir Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Ahmad Sher College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah,
Pakistan
B. Singh Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
M. K. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
Rajesh Kumar Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
S. P. Singh Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras
U. Sai Sravan Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Muhammad Tariq Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan, Pakistan
Rana Muhammad Sabir Tariq Department of Plant Pathology, University of
Sami Ul-Allah College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Aman Ullah Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
M. R. Umesh Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Raichur, Karnataka, India
Aftab Wajid Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of
Waqas Wakil Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
xx Editor and Contributors
Muhammad Yasin College of agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

Layyah, Pakistan
Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir College of Agriculture, BZU, Bahadur Campus, Layyah,
Pakistan
Haseeb Younis Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Iqra Zakir Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan
Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
1
Sahrish Naz, Zartash Fatima, Pakeeza Iqbal, Amna Khan,
Iqra Zakir, Sibgha Noreen, Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas,
and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Agronomy includes the crops which are used for food purpose and are known as
staple crops. Well-known staple food crops are wheat, rice, corn, beans, etc.
Major cultivated crops can be classified on the basis of their purpose. On the
basis of this classification, major types of agronomic crops can be cereal, oil seed
crop, pulses, fibre crops, sugar crops, forage crops, medicinal crops, roots and
tuber crops, vegetable or garden crops, etc. All these crops are indispensable part
of our life due to their various usage.
Keywords
Cereals · Oilseed · Pulses · Fiber · Sugar · Forage · Medicinal · Vegetable · Root
crops
1.1 Cereal Crops
These crops are also known as grain crops. Grains of these crops are used for edible
purposes (Table 1.1). These crops are the grasses which belong to the family
Poaceae. Their leaves are long and narrow without any main stem. Cereals are of
S. Naz (*) · Z. Fatima · I. Zakir · H. Younis · G. Abbas · S. Ahmad (*)

Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
e-mail: shakeelahmad@bzu.edu.pk
P. Iqbal
Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Khan
Department of Agronomy, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
S. Noreen
Institute of Pure and Applied Biology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

M. Hasanuzzaman (ed.), Agronomic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_1
2
Table 1.1 Classification of commonly grown C3 and C4 cereal crops in Asia

Crop/botanical Life Growth Nutrient Root
name Family cycle Season Photoperiod habit Pollination Propagation Photosynthesis uptake system
Wheat (Triticum Poaceae/ Annual Winter LD Determinate Self- Seed C3 Exhaustive Fibrous
aestivum L.) Gramineae pollinated
Oat (Avena
sativa L.)
Barley
(Hordeum
vulgare L.)
Rice (Oryza Summer SD
sativa L.)
Sorghum C4
(Sorghum
bicolor L.)
Millet Cross-
(Pennisetum pollinated
americanum L.)
Maize (Zea DN
mays L.)
Source: Fatima et al. (2018) and Nazir et al. (1994)
LD long day, SD short day, DN day neutral
S. Naz et al.
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses 3
great importance because cereals are grown on large scale and they are used as a
major source of food in the whole world. Some cereal grains are also known as
staple food crop because some cereals are used for the food purpose on a large scale
in many countries than any other crop, for example, wheat, rice, etc. They are used
as a feed for livestock mainly for those which are used as a source of dairy and meat
purpose for human consumption.
1.1.1 Wheat
Wheat is used to manufacture many things to use as a food. Wheat grains are con-
verted into wheat flour which is used to manufacture different food products like
breads, biscuits, muffins, crumpets, noodles, cake, sauces, pasta and cereal bars and
confectionery. Wheat has great nutritional value.
1.1.2 Barley
Barley is of great importance because in many temperate areas of the world it is

used for survival of farmers. Barley is ranked second (after wheat) due to its nutri-
tional value. In many areas of the world, this crop replaces wheat as staple food crop
due to environmental conditions. Grains of this crop are used to manufacture bread
and vinegar produced by fermentation of malted barley grains by crushing and dry-
ing. It can also be used for manufacturing of beverages (alcoholic and non-alcoholic).
Its grains are also used to manufacture products which are used to cure diseases like
hepatitis, diabetes, etc., and its use can reduce cholesterol level as well. Chances of
rectal cancer are also reduced by its use.
1.1.3 Maize
Maize crop is of great importance all over the world due to its use as food and for-
age. It has high-nutritional value and is ranked on number third. Maize is used for
many purposes. It is used to manufacture cornflakes and porridges. It is also used for
animal feed, that is poultry, etc. It is used as a raw material for many products, such
as starch, high-fructose syrup, glucose, maltodextrin, fibre and gluten products
which are used in industries as textile, paper, organic chemicals, paper, textile, phar-
maceuticals, etc.
1.1.4 Rice
Rice is a staple food crop. Rice is considered as a complete food due to the absence
of nitrogenous substances and fat and lipid (in negligible amount). Oil is processed
from rice bran which is used for food and in industries. Rice straw is used to make
pottery and glass in combination with other materials. Broken rice is used for
4 S. Naz et al.
making flour which is used for different food items; it is also used for distilling and
brewing (used to make malt).
1.2 Oil Seed Crops
These crops are cultivated for oil purpose, and oil is extracted from the seeds of
these crops. Brassica, castor bean, soybean, linseed, peanut and sunflower are well-
known oil seed crops (Table 1.2).
1.2.1 Sunflower
Sunflower is an important oil seed crop and ranks fifth in the world. Seeds of this
crop are used for food purpose, while desiccated stalk of sunflower is used for fuel
purpose. Earlier, in ancient times, it has been used as an ornamental plant for ceremo-
nies (Harter et al. 2004; Muller et al. 2011). This crop is also used for medicinal
purposes. It is used for pulmonary afflictions. In addition to all above uses, the part
of this crop is also used in textile industry, for making dyes, for face paintings and for
other decorative purposes as well. Sunflower is used for manufacturing cosmetics
and paints. Oil of sunflower is used for different purposes; it is used for cooking, for
salad dressing and for manufacturing of margarine (Kunduraci et al. 2010). Roasted
seeds of sunflower are used for making one type of coffee as well. Seed cake which
is left after oil extracting is used to feed livestock in some countries of the world. The
hulls or shells of sunflower crop are used in lining or coating of plywood, manufac-
turing of ethyl alcohol and for growing the yeast. Its stem is also been used as a fuel
and as a fertilizer to the soil. Its stem contains phosphorous and potassium which are
composts that can be added to the soil as a fertilizer. Sunflower crop is also an impor-
tant source of protein for human consumption due to its high nutritious value and
deficiency of anti-nutritional factors (Fozia et al. 2008).
1.2.2 Linseed
Linseed is an oil seed crop and a major crop among industrial oil seed crops which
are grown in temperate areas of the world. Linseed is important and used in many
industrial products due to enrichment of α-linolenic acid (ALA) (18:3cisΔ9,12,15)
which cause flax oil to polymerize readily on oxygen. Industrial products in which
flax oil is used include varnish and linoleum. Meal which is obtained from pressed
seed is used for animal feed. Along with its importance in industrial sector, it is also
gaining importance in livestock feed and aqua-feed applications. Industrial require-
ment declined after the 1960s due to a shift to acrylic paints and vinyl floor cover-
ings, but now there is an improved interest in using biomass derivative feedstock.
For human diet, flax seed oil is an important source of α-linolenic acid (ALA). More
human health benefits may be provided by additional flax constituents, including
fibre and lignans (Czemplik and Szopa 2009; Vaisey-Genser and Morris 2003).
Table 1.2 Classification of commonly grown oilseed crops in Asia
Growing Growth Life Nutrient
Crop/botanical name Family season Photoperiod habit cycle Pollination Propagation Photosynthesis uptake
Soybean (Glycine max L.) Fabaceae/Leguminosae Autumn and SD D + ID A SP Seed C3 Restorative
spring
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Pedaliaceae Winter and SD ID A SP
summer
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Fabaceae/Leguminosae Spring SD ID A SP
Toria (Brassica rapa L.) Brassicaceae/Cruciferae Winter LD D A SP Exhaustive
Raya (Brassica juncea) Winter SD + LD D A SP
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) Asteraceae/Compositae Spring and DN D A CP
autumn
Sarson (Brassica campestris) Winter LD D A SP
Canola (Brassica napus L.) Brassicaceae/Cruciferae Winter LD D A SP
Taramira (Eruca sativa Mill.) Brassicaceae/Cruciferae Winter LD D A CP
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) Asteraceae/Compositae Winter DN D A CP
Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) Linaceae Winter LD D A SP
Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) Euphorbiaceae Summer and LD ID P Both
winter
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) Malvaceae Summer SD ID P∗ SP
Crambe (Crambe abyssinica) Cruciferae/Brassicaceae Winter ??? ID A SP
Jojoba/goat nut (Simmondsia Euphorbiaceae/ ??? ??? ID P SP
chinensis L.) Simmondsiaceae
Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) Compositae/Asteraceae ??? SD ID A CP ???
Source: Nazir et al. (1994)
LD long day, SD short day, DN day neutral, D determinate, ID indeterminate, A annual, P perennial
6 S. Naz et al.
1.2.3 Castor Bean
Castor is an oil seed crop which is important due to its wide range of uses.
Traditionally, it is used in medicine and electricity. It is been used since the intro-
duction of electricity. Its oil and other plant parts are used for medicinal purposes,
mainly used for internal purpose but for some external lesions as well. Oil is used as
a basic material for industrial use. It is mostly used for lubrication. Its press cake is
not used to feed animal due to its harmful effects. The castor oil also has marketable
value for manufacturing lubricants, soap, paints, margarine, plastics, linoleum and
inks. It is also used for fertilizer and fuel (miscellaneous fuels) purposes. Castor is
also regarded as a valuable feedstock for biodiesel production (Okechukwu et al.
2015; Razzazi et al. 2015). Generally, it is used for ornamental purpose as well.
1.3 Pulses
Pulses are cultivated for their edible seeds or grain, and hence they are also known
as grain legumes. They belong to the family Leguminosae. Crops included in this
group are mung bean, mash bean, cowpea, pigeon pea, lentil, chickpea, etc.
(Table 1.3).
1.3.1 Mung Bean
Mung bean or green gram is grown for its seed. It is also used as green manure and
forage and as a sole crop on the fallow land between two growing seasons. Straw
and husks from this crop are used to feed cattle.
1.3.2 Cowpea
Cowpea is used for grain, and green pods are used as vegetable. It is also used for
fodder, so it is a dual-purpose crop.
1.3.3 Black Gram
Black gram is highly nutritious due to its protein and nutrient content. It is used for
a variety of food preparations.
1.3.4 Chickpea
Chickpea is consumed by humans both as a dry crop and as a green vegetable. They
can also be used as appetizer or added to salad and desserts to improve its taste.
Table 1.3 Classification of commonly grown pulse crops in Asia
Growing Life Nutrient
Crop/botanical name Family season Photoperiod Growth habit cycle Pollination Propagation Photosynthesis uptake
Chickpea/gram (Cicer Leguminosae/ Winter LD Indeterminate Annual SP Seed C3 Restorative
arietinum L.) Fabaceae
Lentil (Lens culinaris
Medic.)
Peanut (Arachis hypogaea Spring + SD
L.) summer
Mung bean/green gram
(Vigna radiata L.)
Black gram/mash bean Summer SD to DN
1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses
(Vigna mungo L.)

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Summer SD Determinate
L.) +
Field/common pea (Pisum Winter LD Indeterminate
sativum L.)
Soybean (Glycine max L.) Spring + SD
summer
Field/kidney bean Summer DN
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
Moth/mat bean (Vigna SD
aconitifolia M.)
Grass pea/matri (Lathyrus Winter
sativus L.)
Broad/field bean (Vicia faba LD CP
L.)
Pigeon pea/arhar (Cajanus Spring + SD OCP
cajan L.) summer
Source: Nazir et al. (1994); Leguminosae = Fabaceae
7

8 S. Naz et al.
They are also consumed as salted or sugared seeds after boiling or plain seeds.
Husks and dried stem of this crop are used to feed animals. Seeds are used to feed
animals on domestic level, while straws are only used when they are chopped and
mixed with other cereals straws. Chickpea also used to improve fertility level of the
soil (agronomic purpose) by nitrogen fixation is done by this crop through the pro-
cess of symbiosis.
1.4 Fibre Crops
These crops are mainly grown for their fibre which is used as a raw material in the
fibre industry (Table 1.4). Crops included in this group are cotton, jute, sunn hemp
and flax. This fibre is used for clothing, rope making and rugs.
1.4.1 Cotton
The distinctiveness and diversity of cotton make sure that the crop’s resilient impor-
tance and stability in world markets are well into the twenty-first century. Cotton is
mainly used for its fibre which is used in the textile industry for clothing; cotton is
not only used for this propose, but it also produced high-grade vegetable oil and
cellulose by-products, and the remaining seeds are used as animal rations which are
highly protein rich. Cotton which is grown for fibre purpose is mainly of two types:
upland cotton. This type of cotton is more adaptable to environmental and growing
conditions. The second type or group is known as extra-long staple (ELS), also
known as pima or Egyptian cotton. This type depends on the areas where this crop
is cultivated with longer growing season. In the United States, this type of cotton is
mostly grown in the Western irrigated area (California, New Mexico, Texas and
Arizona).
1.4.2 Jute
Jute is one of the best fibres which is used for diversified purposes. It is used for
various textile and non-textile applications. Jute is used for covering and packing
(packaging textile), whereas cotton is used in fibre texting (for clothing). But both
jute and cotton are used for home textile as well (for decorating and furnishing pur-
pose). Jute fibre is agro-renewable and biodegradable and is a low-price commodity.
It is technically benefited but has some drawbacks as well. Less extensibility of jute
is occasionally beneficial and at times harmful too. Jute is used in home textile as
furnishing fabrics, shopping bags, decorative fabrics, handicraft items, utility items,
etc. It is also used in manufacturing aprons used in kitchen and gardening, carpets
and mats. Uses of jute in geotextiles are for canal bank protection, for vegetation
control in arid zone, for road construction and soil-saver fabrics for erosion control.
Other uses of jute include paper pulp formation from jute for good quality paper
Table 1.4 Classification of commonly grown fibre, sugar and miscellaneous crops cultivated in Asia
Growing Growth Life Nutrient
Crop/botanical name Family season Photoperiod habit cycle Pollination Propagation Photosynthesis uptake
Fibre crops
Cotton (Gossypium Malvaceae Summer SD ID P/A OCP Seed C3 Exhaustive
hirsutum)
Jute (Corchorus Malvaceae Summer SD ID P/A SP Seed C3
capsularis/olitorius)
Kenaf (Hibiscus Malvaceae Summer SD ID P/A CP Seed + C3
cannabinus) cutting
Sisal (Agave Asparagaceae/Agavaceae - - ID P SP + CP Bulbs/suckers CAM (C4)
sisalana)
Sunn hemp Fabaceae/Leguminosae Summer SD D + ID A SP Seed C3 Restorative
(Crotalaria juncea)
Sugar crops
Sugarcane Gramineae Spring + SD D + ID P CP Asexual C4 Exhaustive
(Saccharum fall
officinarum L.)
Sugar beet (Beta Chenopodiaceae Winter LD D + ID A CP Sexual C3
vulgaris L.)
Others crops
Tobacco (Nicotiana Solanaceae Spring SD D A OCP Seed C3 Exhaustive
tabacum L.)
Tea (Camellia Theaceae Summer SD D + ID P CP Sexual + C3
sinensis L.) asexual
Coffee (Coffee Rubiaceae - SD D + ID P SP Seed C3
arabica L.)
9
10 S. Naz et al.
production and inflexible fibre-resistant composite among thermostat and thermo-

plastic polymer/resin matrix.
1.4.2.1 Advantages of Jute

Jute has high tensile potency, primary modulus, moisture reclaim, good quality
sound and heat wadding property, dimensional stability and good dye
acceptability.
1.4.2.2 Drawbacks of Jute

Jute bears comparative roughness, brittleness, ruggedness in feel, broad distinction
in fibre length and fineness with branching character, deprived washability and
proneness to yellowing when exposed to sunlight.
1.4.3 Flax
Flax is a high-quality fibre due to its good colour and attractive appearance and its
handling in fabrics. It is used to make linen and ramie. It is used for oil and fibre.
Hemp fibre is more inflexible and resilient as compared to flax. It is used for manu-
facturing nets, ropes, carpets, etc.
1.5 Sugar Crops
These crops are mainly grown to extract sugarcane juice for manufacturing sugar.
Sugarcane, sugar beet and sweet sorghum are some major sugar crops included in
this group (Table 1.4).
1.5.1 Sugarcane
Sugarcane is used for preparation of various industrial products, so it is known as

industrial crop. Cane is supplied to the industries where its sugar is used to prepare
different products by using different procedures. Its small proportion is used to
make things like khandsari and gur on small scale. Fermented and sugar products of
sugarcane are very important for manufacturing and preserving products like white
sugar, gur, bagasse and molasses. Bagasse and molasses are by-products which are
used on industrial scale. Molasses are used in distilleries in the manufacture of ethyl
alcohol, citric acid, etc. Bagasse is used as fuel and to manufacture fibreboard
papers, plastics, etc. It is also preserved and used to feed livestock. The green part
of cane is used to feed cattle. Its residues are the best manures when added to the
soil (acidic and alkaline).
1.5.2 Sweet Sorghum
Sweet sorghum has high sugar content in its stalk. It was first introduced in 1852. It
is more susceptible to drought as compared to corn. It is the same species as grain
sorghum is. It is mainly grown to produce sorghum syrup, but it can also be used for
biofuel purpose. It is a big source of sugar, and its stems are used to prepare various
products on industrial scale (Inam-Bamber 1980; Ferraris and Stewart 1979; Cowley
and Smith 1972). Its stem is chewed as a snack due to its sweetness and is used to
quench thirst while working in a field. Plant material is converted into biofuel by the
process of fermentation or gasification. Synthetic gases, charcoal and bio-oil are
produced by the pyrolysis of sorghum. Charcoal is used to improve fertility of the
soil, while synthetic gases and bio-oil are used as fuel for transportation. It is mainly
used to produce sugar from its juice by fermenting. Bagasse is used to feed cattle
and to produce heat or electricity. Vinasse (mixture of dead yeast and plant material
after fermentation) can be used as a fertilizer.
1.5.3 Sugar Beet
Sugar beet is used to make alcoholic beverages. Seeds of sugar beets are boiled and
shredded, and the juice squeezed from these seeds is thick (like honey) and is used
to sweeten foods and to make sandwich spread. The by-products that result from the
conversion of beets into sugar can be used to feed livestock. These by-products are
fibre-rich supplementation. Various ranchers permit grazing in the beet fields
throughout the autumn to consume the beet tops as fodder. Betaine and uridine are
also secluded from the by-products of sugar beet processing. Other than all the
above-mentioned uses, these by-products are also used to manufacture alcohol.
They are also used in commercial banking and pharmaceuticals. It also has a great
medicinal value and used to treat tumours. The seed boiled in water is used to cure
genital tumour. Its juice and many other parts of the plants are used to cure many
tumours, leukaemia and forms of cancers such as those affecting breast, gland,
intestine, lip, leg, oesophagus, etc. Its juice has also been used for treatment of ulcer.
1.6 Forage Crops
These crops have almost 25% dry matter fibre content and are grown for pasteuriza-
tion or making silage, hay, etc. Cereal crops are also known as forage or fodder
crops when they are harvested as a whole and used as a feed for animals. These
crops are also used for green manuring purpose. These crops belong to the family
Poaceae or Fabaceae. Crops included in this group are clovers, berseem and shaftal
(Table 1.5).
12
Table 1.5 Classification of commonly grown clovers and other fodder crops in Asia
Growing Growth Life
Crop/botanical name Family season habit cycle Pollination Propagation Photosynthesis Nutrient uptake
Egyptian clover/ Leguminosae Winter ID A CP Seed C3 Restorative
berseem (Trifolium
alexandrinum L.)
Indian/sweet Winter ID A CP Seed C3 Restorative
clover/sengi
(Melilotus
parviflora)
Alfalfa/lucerne Yearly ID P CP Seed C3 Restorative
(Medicago sativa
L.)
Persian clover/ Winter D + ID A CP Seed C3 Restorative
shaftal (Trifolium
resupinatum L.)
Cluster bean/guar Summer D + ID A CP Seed C3 Restorative
(Cyamopsis
tetragonoloba
Taub)
Sesbania (Sesbania Summer ID A + P SP + CP Seed C3 Restorative
macrocarpa L.)
S. Naz et al.
Ryegrass (Lolium Gramineae Spring + D A CP Seed C3 Exhaustive
multiflorum) autumn
Sudan grass Summer D A SP Seed C4 Exhaustive
(Sorghum bicolor
L.)
Mazenta (Zea mays Summer D A SP Seed C4 Exhaustive
L. x Zea mexicana)
Sadabahar Summer D A SP Seed C4 Exhaustive
(Sorghum bicolor
L. x Sorghum
sudanense)
Rhodes grass Spring ID A + P CP Seed + C4 Exhaustive

(Chloris gayana vegetative
Kunth)
Johnson grass Summer D P SP Seed + C4 Exhaustive
(Sorghum rhizomes
halepense L.)
Dallis grass Spring ID P Apomictic Seed C4 Exhaustive
(Paspalum
dilatatum Poir)
Khabbal grass Yearly ID P CP Seed + C4 Exhaustive
(Cynodon vegetative
dactylon)
13
14 S. Naz et al.
1.6.1 Clover
Clover (white) is easy to find and is mostly grown in lawns and parks. It is also
cultivated in the grazing lands for horses and cows because it is a good fodder. The
use of white or red clover as a feed for animals can yield better milk with high con-
tent 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 and lower n-6/n-3 FA ratio, better than those animals who
are fed only on grass silage (Dewhurst et al. 2003; Al-Mabruk et al. 2004; Vanhatalo
et al. 2007; VanDorland et al. 2008).
1.6.2 Berseem
Berseem is very good forage due to its high quality and nutritive value. It is con-
sidered as a high-quality forage because of high concentration of nutrients, first
and foremost protein (15–25% dry matter) and carotene and minerals (11–19%).
Fresh berseem has a higher nutritional value than any other forage, such as alfalfa
(Fraser et al. 2004). Studied that even as a silage feed, the rudimentary protein
content of berseem contains more than 20% dry matter content.
1.7 Medicinal Crops
Plants which are used for medicinal purpose and to make drugs, for example aloe
vera, neem, sandalwood, tulsi, peppermint, etc., are known as medicinal crops.
1.7.1 Aloe Vera
Aloe vera is a very effective plant with wide range of medicinal uses. Its importance
and benefits are propagated throughout the world. It is used for both external and
internal purposes. It is used to treat external burning. Its consumption can help to
relieve constipation. Commonly the two parts of aloe vera are used for different
purposes. Exudate is used as a natural drug due to its beneficial effect. It has a bitter
taste, so it is used as a bittering agent for beverages and is also used in medicines
used for constipation. Its dried latex is good to be used to treat constipation but not
more than 1 week. It should not be used during pregnancy and menstruation. Its
suggested medicinal use depends upon its history, traditional use and pharmacologi-
cal researches. Its gel, known as inner or pure gel, is also used to treat sunburns.
After proper processing, inner gel can also be used to treat different inner ailments
(Karkala and Bhushan 2014).
1.7.2 Neem
Neem is an important medicinal plant. Its different parts, especially leaves, wood
and bark, have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times (Varma 1976;
Thakur et al. 1981). Neem oil is beneficial for different skin infections (Chopra
et al. 1956). Bark, fruit, leaf and flower of neem plant are very beneficial as they are
used to treat itching, skin ulcers, burning sensations, etc. (Mitra 1963). Its seed pulp
and oil are used to treat leprosy and intestinal worms. Its rhizome is used to cure
sedative, analgesic problems. Its twig is effective for cough, intestinal worms and
asthma (Biswas et al. 2002).
1.7.3 Sandalwood
Sandalwood is used to cure cough, skin disorder and jaundice. Its heart wood and
oil are used for this purpose.
1.7.4 Tulsi
Leaves and seeds of tulsi plant are used to cure cough, as an expectorant, and for
colds and bronchitis.
1.7.5 Peppermint
Peppermint is a perennial plant. Its leaves and oil are used to treat digestive prob-
lems and to manufacture painkillers.
1.8 Vegetable or Garden Crops
These crops, which are cultivated for their edible portions, leaves, flowers or fruits,
are called vegetable crops. The branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation
of vegetables is called olericulture, for example, cultivation of spinach and
cucumber.
1.8.1 Spinach
Spinach can be eaten raw or cooked. By adding spinach into pastas and soups, it can
be incorporated into our daily routines. It can be added into sandwiches, dip sauce,
etc. Its use can prevent asthma, blood pressure and diabetes and can promote healthy
skin and hair.
16 S. Naz et al.
1.8.2 Cucumbers
Cucumbers are used for different purposes on the basis of their types: Snake and
Kirby cucumber are used in pickles. Japanese cucumbers are crispy and can be
eaten as whole. Persian cucumbers are crunchy, and lemon cucumbers are sweet in
taste and can be eaten as whole.
Cucumber juice can be used by mixing it with the juice of other fruits and veg-
etables like carrots to make it more nutritious and healthy and also used in sand-
wich. Its slices can be used to eat as a whole or by dipping into your favourite
humus. It is used in making soup with tomato and other vegetables. It is also used
in different salads.
1.9 Roots and Tuber Crops
These crops are mainly cultivated for their underground parts. Rhizome, corns,
bulbs, roots and tubers are used as edible parts. These are also known as root and
tuber crops, for example, potato, ginger, turnip, garlic and many others.
1.9.1 Ginger
Ginger is used in many forms including dried, crystallized, fresh, preserved, pick-
led, candied and powdered or ground. As ginger ages, the concentration of essential
oil increases, so the planned use of rhizome determines the time when it is har-
vested. If the main purpose is oil extraction, then ginger can be harvested at 9 months
or more. Ginger is used to pickle with sweet vinegar which turns its colours into
pink. This form of pickle is famous with sushi.
1.9.2 Turnip
Turnip is a starchy vegetable. We mainly use the bulbs and roots, but their sprouts
and leaves are also used as edible parts in many countries of the world and have high
nutritious value. Its swollen root is chopped and used for pickle, whereas green
parts are used in soup. Baby turnips are used in different salads and can be eaten as
raw due to their sweet and delicious taste. Garlic has some health benefits as well.
Its use in your diet can prevent diseases like chest, colon or rectal tumours, cardio-
vascular, lungs and bones cancer and atherosclerosis. It aids in digestion and also
used to cure asthma and eye problems. It is also an antioxidant agent. It also bright-
ens up the skin. Its use strengthens the immune system as well.
1.9.3 Garlic
Garlic is a herb which is grown in the whole world. It is used to cure the diseases
mainly related to the heart. Its use in your diet can prevent many diseases, such as
colon cancer, rectal cancer, and prostate cancer and hardening of the arteries (ath-
erosclerosis). It also stabilizes high blood pressure, kills cold sores, regulates blood
sugar, strengthens the immune system and relieves oxidative stress. Its use is also
beneficial for the skin and hair. Raw garlic is beneficial to cure lung infection.
1.9.4 Potato
Potato is a starch crop. Fresh potatoes after baking and boiling can be used as potato
pancakes, mashed potatoes, potato soup, potato salad, etc. In European countries,
potatoes are heated to convert their starch into sugar and are used in alcoholic bever-
ages. Dehydrated potato flakes are used as ingredients in potato products, and its
flour is used to thicken soup, gravy, etc. Potato peel and other waste products are
starch rich which can be fermented after liquefaction to produce ethanol. Potato
starch is also used as an adhesive, binder, filler and texture agent in the pharmaceuti-
cal industry and wood, paper and textile industry. It also has health benefits. Its use
can prevent high blood pressure, prevent cancer, reduce inflammation and treat
scurvy, and it is also useful for skin care.
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Climate-Resilient Minor Crops for Food
Security 2
M. R. Umesh, Sangu Angadi, Prasanna Gowda,
Rajan Ghimire, and Sultan Begna
Abstract
Global sustainable development goal was aimed at poverty and hunger-free
world through food and nutritional security. Over decades, crops genetic and
production improvement was focused only on major cereals and commercial
crops. However, climate change has distressed the genetic potential of some tra-
ditional crops and thereby negatively influenced sustainable intensification in
tropical and subtropical environments. Small grains such as millets, quinoa, chia,
wild rice, teff, Amaranthus, etc. have demonstrated the ability to tolerate envi-
ronmental stresses and showed the potential to thrive in changing climate.
Therefore, climate-resilient nutri-cereals and other neglected crops have the
future of food and farm security. Further, these crops cater to nutritional demands
of increasing population. Systematic address efforts on socio-economic, political
and genetic improvements, technological advancements and policy changes
facilitating the adoption of these crops will improve food and nutritional security
in the context of climate change. This review summarizes the potential role of
underutilized crops towards food and nutritional security under the changing
climate.
Keywords
Climate resilient · Pseudo-cereals · Nutri-cereals · Subtropics · Food security ·
Nutritional security
M. R. Umesh (*)
Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India
S. Angadi · R. Ghimire · S. Begna
Agriculture Science Center, New Mexico State University, Clovis, NM, USA
P. Gowda
Forage and Livestock Production Research Unit, USDA-ARS Grazinglands
Research Laboratory, El Reno, OK, USA

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_2
20 M. R. Umesh et al.
Abbreviations
ET evapotranspiration
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GDD growing degree days
ICRISAT International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
UN United Nations
2.1 Introduction
The United Nations defines food security as a state where both the availability and
accessibility of food are ensured. Food security is active when all people at all times
have both physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary
needs for a productive and healthy life (USAID 1994). When it comes to assessing
food security, practitioners and scientists recommend developing indicators which
are particularly suited to a local context. Maintaining food security with agroeco-
system resilience is a challenging task in the context of climate change and popula-
tion growth. However, the growing world population and the challenges posed by
climate change urge the need for increasing food production while maintaining
agroecosystem resilience.
The world today relies on few crop species for food, leaving an abundance of
genetic resources underutilized to meet the growing food demand. Exploring
opportunities to grow minor and underutilized crops would diversify agricultural
systems and thereby improve food and nutritional security in the face of climate
change and increasing food demand. Currently, more than 90 million people in
Africa and Asia depend on millets in their diets, and 500 million people in more
than 30 countries depend on them as a staple food. In the past few decades, these
crops have largely been abandoned in favour of developing more popular crops like
maize (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa L.) and soy-
beans (Glycine max). However, the major crops production in many countries has
been threatened due to increasing climate change and variability, particularly high
temperature, and more variable precipitation in drier parts of the subtropics
(Abraham et al. 2014, Massawe et al. 2016).
Although the major cereals’ productivity has gone up over years, especially after
the Green Revolution, their genetic potential has not been exploited to the full
extent, especially in the nutrient-poor soils in the developing countries of Asia and
Africa. These major cereal hybrids are high irrigation responsive, need high amount
of fertilizer and demand intensive chemical-based insect-pest management. In
recent past, many reports indicated that maize and wheat yields pre- and postharvest
losses are tremendously increased. A study conducted by Lobell and Ortiz-
Monasterio (2007) revealed that extreme weather with temperature beyond 30 °C
has negative impact on wheat yields. Similarly, rice yields are limited under night
temperature higher than 32 °C. Many of the underutilized crops thrive better under
2 Climate-Resilient Minor Crops for Food Security 21
Table 2.1 Status of genetic resource of nutri-cereals across the world (Padulosi et al. 2009)
Svalbard
CGIAR ICRISAT, India NBPGR, New genebank
Crop genebank genebank Delhi genebank (Norway) Total
Finger 22,766 5949 10,334 5379 44,428
millet
Foxtail 9494 1535 4473 1442 16,944
millet
Proso and 9188 1308 2428 730 13,654
little millet
Kodo millet 24,189 658 2273 108 5457
Banyard 2365 743 1718 44 4870
millet
Total 46,231 10,193 21,226 7703 85,353
extreme temperatures and can produce reasonable yields. These crops survive and
can produce good yield even under high temperature fluctuations and extended
droughts. For example, quinoa thrives at low temperature of up to −8 °C (Bazile
et al. 2016) and drought. It has a special chemical, calcium oxalate, in its vesicles
that reduces transpiration at the time of temperature extremes. Many of the under-
utilized crops (Table 2.1) are climate resilient and provide food and nutritional ben-
efits under climate change.
The underutilized crops are well adapted to extreme climates, soils and manage-
ment practices (Dida and Devos 2006). The extraordinary hardiness of many of
these species and their ability to cope with adverse growing and climatic conditions
offer great promise to improve food and nutritional security (Bala Ravi et al. 2006).
Millets are particularly adapted to regions of low moisture and low fertility soils.
Their deep root systems and short life cycles make it possible for millets to grow in
places where the mean annual precipitation is as low as 300 mm (Panaud 2006).
These can be used as catch crops, where other major cereals have failed. The fact
that they are annual grasses, self-pollinated and require almost no maintenance, is
also an advantage. Their unique chemical and physical properties of millet make
them quite resistant to pests and diseases and also require little input during growth.
The UN defines food security as a state where both the availability and accessi-
bility of food are ensured which means that there should be enough food to cover
the demand and that people can afford to buy it. It means all the people at all times
have both physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary
needs for a productive and healthy life (USAID 1994). Food utilization is here
understood as dealing not only with meeting the necessary dietary needs, but also
with the availability of potable water and adequate sanitation (USAID 1994). When
it comes to assessing food security, practitioners and scientists alike recommend
developing indicators which are particularly suited to the situation at hand.
Resilience refers to the intrinsic ability of a system to withstand and recover from
shocks. Whether the concept is applied to ecosystems or integrated socio-ecological
systems, the resilience distinguishes the amount of change the system can undergo
and still retain the same controls on function and structure, the degree to which the
system is capable of self-organization and the ability to build and increase the
capacity for learning and adaptation. Compared to major cereals, several underuti-
lized crops prove their superiority in genetic, biochemical and morphophysiological
characters. For example, with short maturity period (60–90 days), millets can resist
various abiotic stresses. Major morphological traits such as short stature, small leaf
area, thickened cell walls and root systems are also responsible for climate resil-
ience (Li and Brutnell 2011). Physiologically millets are C4 photosynthetic trait
wherein CO2 is concentrated around RuBisCO which in turn suppresses RuBP oxy-
genation and photorespiration (Aubry et al. 2011). It enhances the concentration of
CO2 in bundle sheath, which suppresses photorespiration (around 80%) depending
on the temperature and increases in plant catalytic activity of RuBisCO (Sage et al.
2011). Since RuBisCO of C4 plants works at elevated CO2 levels, millets have
enhanced photosynthetic rates at warm conditions and confer immediate water-use
efficiency (WUE) and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) which are ∼1.5- to 4-fold
higher than C3 photosynthesis (Sage and Zhu 2011). For instance, foxtail millet
requires just 257 g of water to produce a dry biomass of 1 g, whereas maize and
wheat require 470 and 510 g, respectively (Li and Brutnell 2011). In addition, C4
photosynthesis provides secondary benefit to millets including improved growth
and ecological enactment in warm temperatures, enhanced flexible allocation pat-
terns of biomass and reduced hydraulic conductivity per unit leaf area (Sage and
Zhu 2011). These attributes of millets make them next-generation crops holding the
potential for research to explore the climate-resilient traits and exploit the informa-
tion for the improvement of major cereals (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2017).
2.2 Nutritional Advantage
Nutritional properties and health benefits of nutri-cereals such as millets have not
only shown to be rich in proteins, but they are also valued for their high content of
vitamin B, folic acid, phosphorus, iron and potassium. Finger millet contains 16
times more calcium than maize (Table 2.1) (Gupta et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2014).
In fact, it is believed that its replacement with rice as a staple food has had serious
health implications, leading to widespread of anaemia. In addition, millets are
gluten-free, easy to digest and suitable for special diets, such as those associated to
wheat intolerance, stomach ulcers or high cholesterol levels. Although there is little
research in this area, it appears that millets are a great source of antioxidants and
might have anticarcinogenic properties (Dykes and Rooney 2006). Millets can thus
provide a wide variety of nutrients where dietary diversity is problematic.
Long-duration storage in regions that are economically weak and with little
potential for investment in storage facilities, millets present the advantage of pre-
serving very well, without necessitating special conditions. In particular finger mil-
let is very resistant to grain mould and insect attack, a property that can be most
probably attributed to the presence of tannins (McDonough et al. 1986). This
Table 2.2 Nutritional composition and advantage over major cereals of the world (Hulse et al.
1980; United States National Research Council)
Protein Fat Ash Crude Carbohydrate Energy Ca Fe
Crop (g) (g) (g) fibre (g) (g) (Kcal) (mg) (mg)
Rice 7.9 2.7 1.3 1 76 362 33 1.8
Wheat 11.6 2 1.6 2 71 348 30 3.5
Maize 9.2 4.6 1.2 2.8 73 358 26 2.7
Sorghum 10.4 3.1 1.6 2 70.7 329 25 5.4
Pearl 11.8 4.8 2.2 2.3 67 363 42 11
millet
Finger 7.7 1.5 2.6 3.6 72.6 336 350 3.9
millet
Foxtail 11.2 4 3.3 6.7 63.2 351 31 2.8
millet
Proso 12.5 3.5 3.1 5.2 63.8 354 8 2.9
millet
Little 9.7 5.2 5.4 7.6 60.9 329 17 9.3
millet
Barnyard 11 3.9 4.5 13.6 55 300 22 18.6
millet
Kodo 9.8 3.6 3.3 5.2 66.6 353 35 1.7
millet
Quinoa 16.5 6.3 3.8 3.8 69.0 399 – –
Values area per 100 g of edible portion at 12% moisture
provides vulnerable farmers with a certain amount of food security where income or
access to other staple foods might be unstable (Table 2.2).
As a potential driver for economic development, millets can also provide an
opportunity for profit from niche markets (Table 2.3). Taylor et al. (2006) suggested
that millet-based foods and beverages are well suited to respond to an increasing
demand for gluten-free foods. Lastly, preliminary studies show that pearl millet
might be interesting in the future for ethanol production.
2.3 Major Challenges
As we know the world is different today than it was before, and to a certain extent
underutilized or nutri-cereals may not achieve self-sufficiency in food supply
(Table 2.4). There are many agronomic, environmental, socio-economic and politi-
cal constraints to explore potential of underutilized crops. Genetic improvement of
major grain crops alone will be insufficient to feed the rapidly growing population,
which urges the need for the development of production technologies and best man-
agement practices of underutilized climate-resilient crops. However, major con-
straints in exploring underutilized crops are lack of seed supply systems, particularly
for high-yielding varieties and hybrids. Lack of research funding and insufficient
trained human resources involved in research are constraints successful
Table 2.3 Characteristics of underexploited potential crops for climate-resilient subtropics
24
Max. Maturity Average

altitude (days after productivity in
Crop Origin Climate (msl) planting) India (t/ha) Special characteristics
Finger millet (Eleusine African highlands Tropics/ 2300 90–130 1.49 Wider adoptability, rich source of calcium
coracana L.) of Uganda and subtropics (Seetharam 1998)
Ethiopia
Pearl millet Sahel region of Subtropics 2300 80–90 1.01 Rich in minerals and fat, short duration, plasticity
(Pennisetum glaucum) Africa in duration under adverse climate, warm weather,
drought escaping mechanism, survive in
nutrient-poor soils
Foxtail millet (Setaria India Temperate 2000 70–120 0.565 Short duration, tolerant to low soil fertility and
italica L.) drought (Jijau 1989)
Kodo millet (Paspalum India Tropic/ 1800 120–180 0.312 Long duration, grown well in shallow and deep
scrobiculatum L.) subtropic soil (Hegde and Gowda 1989)
Little millet (Panicum Indian Tropic/sub 2100 70–100 0.349 Short duration, withstand both drought and
sumatrense Roth) subcontinent tropic waterlogging (Doggett 1989)
Proso millet (Panicum North China Wide 3500 60–90 0.323 Short duration (75–90 days), tolerant to heat and
miliaceum L.) adaptation drought (Sahib 1997)
Barnyard millet India Wide >2000 60–70 0.857 Fastest growing, voluminous fodder (Gupta et al.
(Echinochloa adaptation 2009)
frumentacea L.)
Quinoa Border of Bolivia Arid and 2500 105–100 3–4 Grain had saponin content responsible for bitter
and Peru semiarid taste
Chia Arid and 1500 85–105 0.85–1.0 Rich in omega-3 fatty acid, 20–25% protein
semiarid
Teff (Eragrostis tef Ethiopia and Warm 2000 45–55 0.2–2.0 World’s smallest domesticated grain, closest to
(Zuccagni Trotter) Eritrea humid finger millet, exceptionally tolerant to drought
and heat, good fodder for livestock, used in
non-gluten food items in developing countries
(Araya et al. 2010; Minten et al. 2013)
M. R. Umesh et al.
Table 2.4 Climatic requirement of major nutri-cereals (Hirich et al. 2014)

Annual
Air Soil salinity rainfall
Crop Ideal soil temperature Soil pH (dS/m) (cm)
Pearl Loamy soils, 30–34 °C 6.0–7.0 11–12 dS/m 20–60
millet shallow soils, soils can grow up to can yields are
with clay, clay loam 46 °C grow up economically well
and sandy loam to 8.0 up to ECe 8 dS/m
texture pH
Finger Rich loam to poor 26–29 °C 4.5–7.5 11–12 dS/m 50–60
millet upland shallow soils ∗lower
productivity
below 20 °C
Proso Sandy loam, slightly 20–30 °C 5.5–6.5 – 20–50
millet acidic, saline, low
fertility soils
Foxtail Sandy to loamy Range 5–35 °C 5.5–7.0 6 dS/m 30–70
Millet soils Average
16–25 °C
Barnyard Medium to heavy Range 4.6–7.4 3–5 dS/m –
millet soils 15–33 °C
Average
27–33 °C
Kodo Fertile to marginal 25–27 °C – – 80–120
millet soils
development of these cereals. Environmental pollution and soil degradation also

contribute to low production. Low economic value of the nutri-cereals competes
with commercial and other high potential crops, unless value addition profit margin
is very meagre. Lack of well-organized markets and processing units and alternative
use of cultivable land also reduces the area under these crops. Changed food habits
of the present generation, loss of indigenous knowledge, social stigma and food
consumption pattern also had a greater challenge in social acceptance of these
crops, in spite of better nutritional quality. Further, the absence of policies to encour-
age area expansion, investment on research and processing, absence of legal frame-
works and failure of the government to support research are also some constraints.
2.4 Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L.)
Finger millet is also known as ragi and mandua (India); koddo (Nepal); fingerhirse
(Germany); petit mil, koracan (France); bulo (Uganda); kambale, lupoko, mawele,
amale (Zambia); mazhovole (Zimbabwe); finger millet, African millet, koracan
(England); dagussa, tokuso, barankiya (Ethiopia); and mugimbi (Kenya) (Singh and
Raghuvanshi 2012). It is believed to have originated in African highland of Uganda
and Ethiopia (Seetharam et al. 1997). India is considered as a secondary centre of
genetic diversity. It is considered an important small millet in the tropics, with 12% of
the global millet area (ICRISAT 2007) cultivated in more than 25 countries in Africa
and Asia. Compared to rice, finger millet grains are more nutritious and have eight
times more calcium, four time more minerals and two times more phosphorus and
also protein (Gowda et al. 2015). It is a very good source of methionine and lysine,
thiamine and riboflavin and folic acid and niacin Bhatt et al. 2003). It has a high hypo-
glycaemic effect that is attributes to high fibre content that is slowly digested and
absorbed, thus bringing reduction in postprandial glucose (Geetha and Parvathi 1990).
It can be grown throughout the year in tropic and subtropics, with temperature
above 20 °C. It has good drought-recovery characteristics but sensitive to tem-
perature and moisture stress. Finger millet is grown in the areas where rainfall
ranges from 550 to 1250 mm or more. Well-drained alluvial, sandy and loamy
soils are well suited for finger millet. It can also be grown in black soil and pro-
vides good drainage. It responds well to nitrogenous fertilizers, and even high
levels of added fertilizers positive response were observed in Southern India.
Further, graded N fertilizers enhanced protein content of the seeds. Significant
yield improvement was noticed for the application of 200 kg N fertilizers per
hectare (Umesh et al. 2006, 2012).
Finger millet seeds can resist to storage pests for as long as 10 years, ensuring
round the year food supply or even during crop failure, which has earned it the
popular name of ‘famine crop’ (Mgonja et al. 2007). Finger millet is a drought-
tolerant crop, having low water requirement, though yield is significantly affected
by irrigation. Irrigation or soil mositure exceeds daily water requirement is known
to cause damping off and stunted growth. Generally, it is intercropped with pulses
and oilseeds. Gowda et al. (2015) reported that the forage finger millet would be
potential component crop with corn and sorghum to improve forage nutritional
quality under water-scarce regions of southern high plains. Research reports across
India indicated that finger millet with pigeon pea, soybean sesame and black gram
has increased productivity and net returns (Pradhan and Thakur 2012). It can also be
sown in crop mixture either as intercrop, sequence crop, double or triple crops in a
year, mixed intercropping or catch crop (Jagadeesh et al. 2016; Umesh 2002).
2.5 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)
Quinoa which belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae, native to the Andean regions
of South America, is grown predominantly in the semiarid tropics of Asia and
Africa. It tolerates high temperatures up to 35 °C; the flowers are sensitive to frost.
Quinoa is drought resistant. It is able to develop even in regions where the annual
rainfall is 200–400 mm (Oelke et al. 1992). It responds well to nitrogenous fertil-
izers, but high level of available nitrogen is reported to decrease yield due to slow
maturity and intense lodging (Oelke et al. 1992). Further, it also positively responded
to increased N rates and enhanced grain protein content (Johnson and Ward, 1993),
though Gandaillas (1982) stated that quinoa showed no response for either potas-
sium or phosphorus. Quinoa is used to make flour, soup, breakfast cereal and alco-
hol. Whole grain is cooked separately as rice; flour works well as a starch extender
when combined with wheat flour or cornflour used in making biscuits, bread, and
processed food; seeds have 14% protein apart from rich source of fibre, iron, mag-
nesium, manganese and riboflavin. Plants grow up to 2.0 m height and have thick,
erect, woody stalk that may be branched and alternated; seed colours vary from
white, yellow and pink to darker red, purple and black. Seeds are produced in large
clusters on a panicle that resembles that of sorghum and matures in 75–80 days after
flowering. It requires short day lengths and cool temperatures for good growth. It is
suitable for well-drained sandy loam to loamy soils, with 6.0–8.5 soil pH. It prefers
cool soil conditions (45°–50 °F); seedlings emerge in 3–5 days. In subtropics, opti-
mum time of sowing was June to July and in October to November. Seeds can be
sown in 0.45 m rows and 0.3 m intra-row spacing (7.5 plants m−2) seeding rate
1.5 kg ha−1. When plants turn pale yellow or red colour and leaves have dropped
depending on the variety, the crop takes 3–4 months to mature potential seed yield
up to 4 t ha−1 (Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1 Effect of sowing dates, (a) irrigation (b), organic amendment (b) and nitrogen (c) on
quinoa yield and length of growing period
2.6 Chia (Salvia hispanica)
Cultivated chia belongs to Lamiaceae family native to Mexico grown in Argentina,

Bolivia, Nicaragua, Australia, Guatemala and Ecuador. It had oil content 30–35%
rich in fatty acids, 20–25% protein and 40% fibre. Optimum time of sowing in rainy
season was June to July and during rabi sown in October to November. Seeding rate
to compensate optimum plant population needs 250 g ha−1. Crop will be sown in
60 cm rows with 30 cm intra-row spacing, while in winter closer spacing of 45 cm
found optimum to compensate yield reductions. To nourish plants 57.5–40–24 kg
N-P-K ha−1 was found effective along 10 t ha−1 well-decomposed organic manure. It
matures in 85–105 days after sowing. It has potential of 875–1000 kg seed yield ha−1.
2.7 Wild Rice (Zizania palustris L.)
Similar to cultivated rice, it belongs to family Poaceae native to North America. It is

currently produced commercially as a field crop in Minnesota and California, which
accounts for most of the acreage 20,000 and 8000 acres, respectively. Wild rice is a
nutritional grain that serves as a substitute for potatoes or rice, used in a wide variety
of foods such as dressings, casseroles, soups, salads and desserts (Table 2.5). In
recent years, wild rice has been used in breakfast cereals. Wild rice is an annual,
cross-pollinated crop that matures in about 110 days. In cultivated fields that have
four plants per sq ft., plants usually have three to six tillers. Flowers are in a branch-
ing panicle with female flowers at the top and male flowers on the lower portion.
Crop grows well on shallow peat soils and clay or sandy loams. Soils should be
saturated from germination until 2–3 weeks before harvest to ensure vigorous plant
growth. Water depth of at least 150–325 mm adequate for plant populations.
Optimum temperature is 64–70 °F. Seeding time is May to June; it should be planted
at a depth of 2.5–7.5 cm. Higher plant populations have lodging and leaf-disease
problems. Seed rate is 33.75–50.6 kg ha−1. Maximum yields of processed wild rice
are obtained when about one-third of the grain at harvest time is greenish brown or
black. Yield potential is 1200–1688 kg ha−1.
2.8 Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum Gaertn.)
It belongs to genus Fagopyrum and family Polygonaceae, and major cultivated spe-
cies are common and tartary buckwheat. It is a potential pseudo-cereal with compa-
rable potential food and fodder crop for subtropics. It originated in East Asia around
6000 BC and was later introduced to Europe and North America. It grows best
where the climate is moist and cool. It is more soil acidity–tolerant crop than any
other cultivated crop, and is best suited to well-drained soils such as sandy loams,
loams and silt loams. In Himalayan region, tartary buckwheat is common, while
common buckwheat is grown worldwide (>90% of total buckwheat area). It is much
more proteinaceous than other wheat, maize and rice cereals (Inglett et al. 2011).
Table 2.5 Nutritional quality of wild rice in comparison to cultivated brown rice and wheat
Nutritional component Wild rice Cultivated brown rice Wheat
Protein 13.8 8.1 14.3
Ash (%) 1.7 1.4 2.0
Fat (%) 0.8 1.9 1.8
Fibre (%) 1.7 1.0 2.9
Carbohydrate (%) 75.3 77.4 71.7
Ether extract (%) 1.0 2.1 1.9
Phosphorus (%) 0.28 0.22 0.41
Potassium (%) 0.30 0.22 0.58
Magnesium (%) 0.11 0.12 0.18
Calcium (ppm) 20 32 40
Iron (ppm) 17 10–17 00
Manganese (ppm) 14 30–39 55
Zinc (ppm) 5 24 —
Copper (ppm) 13 4–7 8
Additionally, seeds are also high in flavonoids, a primary rutin which has antioxi-
dant property. It is short season summer annual that matures in 70 days. It can be
sown in rows or broadcast. Seeds attain dark brown colour at physiological matu-
rity. Average potential yield of common buckwheat is 1.3–1.8 t ha−1. There are
many potential varieties, with predominant regional adaptations, such as Mancan,
Manor, Pennquad, Tempest, Tokyo, Winsor Royal, etc.
2.9 Teff (Eragrostis tef Zuccagni Trotter)
Teff is a dual-purpose, warm-season C4-type cereal, popular in dry areas of Africa.

It is useful as a grain as well as nutritious fodder for livestock in short period. It is
considered to be the world’s smallest grain; the closest cultivated species to teff is
finger millet. It is exceptionally tolerant to heat and drought. Teff grain is rich in
protein, carbohydrates and fibre and mainly used for human food, particularly in
Ethiopia used to produce bread (Injera) and quality beer (Baye 2015). Teff grain
quality particularly calcium and protein content is much higher than major cereals
(Table 2.6). Later in the 1990s, the recognition of teff as a quality grain and gluten-
free cereal of good nutritional value has resulted in its spread across Australia,
South Africa and the USA, majorly as fodder for livestock and considered as alter-
nate to wheat forage. Worldwide demand for this high-quality gluten-free cereal has
increased both as grain and fodder. Teff may be used as emergency crop for famine
relief in difficult seasons. It can also be grown when other crops fail and harvest
grain 2 months later. It is commonly grown in rotation with other cereals, pulses and
Niger. It can be sown in rows or broadcasted 15–20 kg ha−1. It must be regularly
weeded, N fertilizers should be provided in small amounts, or Teff should be sown
after a leguminous crop in order to reduce the risk of lodging. In many of the pre-
dominant growing areas, it is considered as lazy man’s crop. Teff is fastest maturing
Table 2.6 Comparison of grain nutrient content of teff and other major cereals (per 100 g of
grain) (Dejene et al. 2014)
Teff grain type
Nech Sergegna
Nutrient parameters (white) Key (brown) (mixed) Barley Maize Wheat Sorghum
Food energy (cal.) 339 336 336 334 356 339 338
Moisture (%) 10.4 11.1 10.7 11.3 12.4 10.8 12.1
Protein (g) 11.1 10.5 7.2 9.3 8.3 10.3 7.1
Fat (g) 2.4 2.7 2.9 1.9 4.6 1.9 2.8
Carbohydrate (g) 73.6 73.1 75.2 75.4 73.4 71.9 76.5
Fibre (g) 3.0 3.1 3.6 3.7 2.2 3.0 2.3
Ash (g) 2.5 3.1 3.0 2.0 1.3 1.6 1.5
Calcium (mg) 156.0 157.0 140.0 47.0 6.0 49.0 30.0
Phosphorus (mg) 366.0 348.0 368.0 325.0 276.0 276.0 282.0
Iron (mg) 18.9 58.9 59.0 10.2 4.2 7.5 7.8
cereal crop, which matures in 3 months after sowing for early maturing types
(Lyddon 2015). Maturity is indicated by the yellowing of the stalks bearing the
spikelet. Teff grain yields range from 0.2 to 2.0 t ha−1.
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Climatic Variability and Agronomic
Cropping Pattern 3
Imran, Amanullah, Abdul Bari, Hamayoon Khan,
and Roshan Ali
Abstract
When the climate changes, so does the weather. We can get bad weather without
climate change, but we can’t get climate change without the weather changing
too. Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which
take place on a global scale. Climate change affects agriculture in a number of
ways, including through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate
extremes (e.g., heat waves), changes in pests and diseases, changes in atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations, changes in the
nutritional quality of some foods, and changes in sea level. Climate change is
already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.
Climate changes have affected agriculture for thousands of years and will con-
tinue to do so. My experience as a farmer and as an agronomist through wet and
dry cycles in semiarid of KP Pakistan is of diversity. As a professional agrono-
mist, to minimize cropping risks, crop diversity should be adopted to overcome
on food security and lessen the impact of climate change. As an economist look-
ing at countries with individual businesses, diversity minimizes risks. As a soci-
etal explorer, civilizations, animals, and plants have come and gone without
diversification in a changing environment. I would suggest that climate change
effects should be overcome by diversity. The climate change is not unique in
nature. It is multifaceted gradual changes over period of time. So far as the agro-
nomic crop and cropping pattern is concerned, it varies from situation to
situation.
Imran (*) · Amanullah

Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
e-mail: imranagrarian@aup.edu.pk
A. Bari · R. Ali
Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan
H. Khan
Director Climate Change Centre (CCC), The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_3
34 Imran et al.
Keywords
Climate change · Forecasting · Yield · Cropping pattern · Diversity · Greenhouse
gases · Aerosols · Denitrification · Methane · Methanogenesis
3.1 Introduction
Climate refers to the average weather conditions in a place over many years (usually
at least 30 years, to account for the range of natural variations from 1 year to the
next). A significant change in the Earth’s climate is occurring slowly and gradually
and influencing life on the planet Earth. Climate can be defined as “expected
weather.” When changes in the expected weather occur, it is known as climate
change (Barnola et al. 1987; Abbot 1910). Crops responded positively to regional
climate and showed ameliorating effect in terms of grain yield, plant height, thou-
sand grain weight, dry matter portioning, biological yield, oil yield, and quality of
the crops (Imran et al. 2015b; Adkins 1998). Climate may change in different ways,
over different timescales, and at different geographical scales. In recent times, sci-
entists have become interested in global warming, due to mankind’s impact on the
climate system, through the enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect. The
Earth is currently getting warmer because people are adding heat-trapping green-
house gases to the atmosphere. The term “global warming” refers to warmer tem-
peratures, while “climate change” refers to the broader set of changes that go along
with warmer temperatures, including changes in weather patterns, the oceans, ice
and snow, and ecosystems around the world (Imran et al. 2015a; Anwar et al. 2016).
The average climate around the world is called global climate. When scientists talk
about global climate change, they’re talking a pattern of changes happening around
the world over many years. One of the most important trends that scientists look for
it is the average temperature of the Earth, which has been increasing for many years
(Barnett et al. 1999; Battle 1996; Imran 2017). The increase in temperature adversely
effected all sectors of life, but the most vulnerable is agriculture. Water shortage is
enhancing day by day due to climate change at arid and semiarid region which leads
to demolish crop production practices.
3.2 esponse of Crop Toward Climate Change and Their

R
Respective Areas
Due to gradual climate change, shift in cropping areas is a major challenge for
attributing, detecting, and understating climate change impact on cropping patterns.
For instance, the potential contribution of climate change in the last decades to the
expansion of cropping area to higher latitudes and altitudes has been hypothesized
for a long time and suggested by many studies exploring agroclimatic indices (e.g.,
growing-season degree-days with a certain base temperature), but few studies have
corroborated this hypothesis. For instance, the cropping area in central Siberia
3 Climatic Variability and Agronomic Cropping Pattern 35
approached its peak in 1960–1980 due to growing industrialization and urbaniza-

tion and decreased after the downfall of the Soviet Union in 1991, although the
thermal condition became more suitable for crop production over time (Trenberth
et al. 2007; Imran 2015; Iqbal et al. 2016). The expansion of cropland in the conti-
nental United States in 1860–2010 is mainly attributed increase in population den-
sity, though the biophysical factors, including climate, play a certain role to explain
the historical cropland trajectories in some biophysically marginal regions (Berger
et al. 1998; Imran and Asad 2015). Imran et al. (2017a, b) observed cropland expan-
sions. Interestingly, the cropping intensity in the region in the 2000s increased hori-
zontally and vertically compared to those in the 1970s primarily due to temperature
rise. The warmer climate in spring allows farmers to plant the first crop (winter
barley) earlier than before, and this allows farmers to grow the second crop (rape-
seed) for the remaining portion of the growing season to improve soil fertility and
income.
The impacts on yield due to high temperature extremes have been modeled or
empirically estimated at the global scale during the last years (Berger et al. 1998;
Imran and Asad 2015; Imran et al. 2016a; Khan et al. 2016). However, the impact of
other weather extremes, such as tropical cyclones, are not well quantified, although
the influence of tropical cyclones on yield and harvested area in some regions is
evident (Imran 2017; Lal 2001). Crop damages due to tropical cyclones include
many factors, such as salt injury due to blowing tides inland, insufficient oxygen
caused by overhead flooding, flash floods, wind injury to plant organs, and water
stress induced by enforced respiration, all of which occur at the same time
(Lockwood 2012; Naveed et al. 2016; Imran 2017). Similarly, the different impacts
of many weather/climate extremes, including floods, hail, etc., on each component
of crop production, are poorly understood or not well quantified compared to other
large-scale climate extremes such as droughts. The development of new global data
sets tracking crop losses from extreme weather events would be beneficial.
3.3 Climate Change and Agronomic Cropping Pattern
The global warming caused by climate change is likely to affect crops throughout
the life cycle due to increased temperature, moisture stress, heat waves, the possible
emergence of new major insect-pests and disease (Anwar et al. 2016). It has been
reported that mung bean has high nutritive value and has advantage over the other
pulses known as king of the pulse crop which seed contains 24.20% protein content,
1.30% fat, and 60.4% carbohydrates; calcium (Ca) is 118, and phosphorus (P) is
340 mg per 100 g of the seed, but due to increase in temperature, the quality and
production potential of the crop is going to decline (Imran et al. 2016b). There have
been reports that pulse production is very low in many regions due to miss manage-
ment of the inputs and temperature stress. They suggested that if farmers implement
more number of tillage practices as compared to conventional, the nutrients demand
will be fulfilled by the leached and adsorbed nutrients away from root zone by pul-
verizing the soil, whereas the productivity of the soil will also increase with soft
36 Imran et al.
soil, promote root density, and will result in more number of nodules having more
nitrogen fixation and will ultimately reduce the impact of changing climate (Imran
et al. 2016b).
3.4 ice per Grain Production on the Cost of More GHG

R
Emission
Agricultural practices emit over 50% of global noncarbon dioxide greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. About 7% of these emissions are a result of rice farming, and
over 80% of GHG emissions from rice farming are produced in South and Southeast
Asia (India, China, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Burma) (Fig. 3.1). The warm-
ing of the planet, combined with the growing population expected to exceed 9 bil-
lion by 2050, threaten advancements made to achieve global food security and
environmental sustainability. Methane and nitrous oxide emission are mostly
induced by flooded rice cultivation by the process of methanogenesis and denitrifi-
cation (Fig. 3.2). Denitrification is a microbial process in the soil that reduces
N-containing compounds into their simplest forms. Nitrification makes N available
to the plant. Denitrification is one of the primary ways in which nitrogen is lost.
Denitrification occurs when soil microorganisms use oxygen from the nitrate ion
(NO-) rather than from air in the soil (oxygen) for respiration (Imran et al. 2017a).
This happens most often when soils are saturated and temperatures are warm enough
to encourage a high level of microbial activity. Both fertilizer and organic sources
Methanogenesis Pathway
H2O 5,10-methenyl-H4MPT+
(=C—)
2e–
F420
MFR
CHO—H4MPT
CO2 (HC=O)
–
2e
5,10-methylenel-H4MPT
CHO—MFR H4MPT (=CH2—)
(HC=O)
2e–
Methyl-H4MPT
(CH3—)
CH3SCoM HS—CoM
H2
Hydrogenase + MCR protein is a3
methyl—CoM
component complex;
methylreductase
Component C is made of 3
(F430)
H+ polypeptide subunits (α,β,γ)
FAD encoded on mcrA, mcrB,
CH4 and mcrG genes.
Fig. 3.1 Methane formation pathway in flooded rice increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases from 0 to 2005

400 2000
1800
Cerban Dioxide (CO2)
CO2 (ppm), N2O (ppb)
Methene (CH4) 1600

350 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
CH4 (ppb)
1400
1200
300
1000
800
250 600
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Year
Fig. 3.2 Global increase in CO2, CH4, and N2O (GHG emission)
of nitrogen are affected. A soil does not have to be completely saturated for denitri-
fication to occur. When it does occur, nitrous oxide gas (N2O) and other N gases are
produced and lost into the atmosphere (Imran 2017; Fig. 3.1). When soils are warm
and wet, nitrate is easily lost as gas. Long period of wet condition can result tremen-
dous fertilizer losses.
3.5 Human Activities Accelerates Climate Change
The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeds earlier times due to
known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions
(Fig. 3.3). However, human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and
clearing of forests, have greatly intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing
global warming (Shaw et al. 2010; Samreen et al. 2016). Greenhouse gases and
aerosols affect climate by altering incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared
(thermal) radiation that are part of Earth’s energy balance (Lockwood 2012,
Fig. 3.2). Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in
Earth’s atmosphere in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles),
and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from the burning of fossil
fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. Water vapor is the most
important greenhouse gas, and carbon dioxide (CO2) is the second-most important
one (Fig. 3.2). Methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and several other gases present in the
atmosphere in small amounts also contribute to the greenhouse effect. In the humid
equatorial regions, where there is so much water vapor in the air, the greenhouse
effect is very large, and adding a small additional amount of CO2 or water vapor has
38 Imran et al.
Fig. 3.3 Continual global temperature increase showing the hottest years in the history
only a small direct impact on downward infrared radiation. Changing the atmo-
spheric abundance or properties of these gases and particles can lead to a warming
or cooling of the climate system. Since the start of the industrial era (about 1750),
the overall effect of human activities on climate has been a warming influence
(Fig. 3.3). The two most abundant gases in the atmosphere, nitrogen (comprising
78% of the dry atmosphere) and oxygen (comprising 21%), exert almost no green-
house effect. Instead, the greenhouse effect comes from molecules that are more
complex and much less common.
3.6 Greenhouse Gases Effect and Global Warming
Roughly one-third of the solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere is
reflected directly back to space. The remaining two-thirds is absorbed by the surface
and, to a lesser extent, by the atmosphere. To balance the absorbed incoming energy,
the Earth must, on average, radiate the same amount of energy back to space.
Because the Earth is much colder than the Sun, it radiates at much longer wave-
lengths, primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum. Much of this thermal radia-
tion emitted by the land and ocean is absorbed by the atmosphere, including clouds,
and reradiated back to the Earth. This is called the greenhouse effect (Barnola et al.
1987).
Fig. 3.4 Global Co2 increase from 1850 to 2012 and emission per year
It is wisely said that to solve a problem, first you must know and understand the
problem (Barnola et al. 1987). Climate change has happened in the past also and is
a normal and natural process occurring in a cyclical manner due to changes in the
planetary movements. Research over the past one century by scientific communities
across the world has indicated that the alarming increase in the amount of different
greenhouse gases (GHGs), which include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
and water vapor in the atmosphere, has buttressed warming of the planet (Figs. 3.4
and 3.2). It has also been discovered that there is a proportional change in the global
temperature and GHGs released in the atmosphere and has caused the planet to
warm by 1° Celsius in the last one century and is still continuing (Ackerman and
Stokes 2003; Imran 2017; Fig. 3.3). Among the GHGs, the share of carbon dioxide
in global warming is highest due to its higher proportional release (Fig. 3.4). The
CO2 levels today stands at 402 ppm (Ackerman and Stokes 2003; Imran 2017) and
is further increasing at an alarming rate. Figures 3.4 and 3.2 explain how the release
of CO2 by various anthropogenic activities determines its concentration levels in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse effect caused by such gases is though important to
keep the planet congenial for living, as in the absence of “normal warming” earth,
will become a cold planet. The excess of anything is detrimental so is the case with
GHGs.
3.7 Climate Change Mitigating Strategy (DSR Technology)
Rice production in many regions of the world has accelerated greenhouse gas emis-
sion. Rice produces methane gas by methanogenesis process by standing of water in
their growing periods (Fig. 3.5). Mostly other gases are also contributed by rice in
the form of nitrification and methanogenesis (Shaw et al. 2010). More carbon diox-
ide in the atmosphere and rising temperatures cause rice agriculture to release more
40 Imran et al.
Fig. 3.5 Flooded rice cultivation contributing to climate change through CH4 and N2O emission
of the potent greenhouse gas methane (CH4) for each kilogram of rice it produces
(Imran et al. 2017b). Mosier et al. reported that “Our results show that rice agricul-
ture becomes less climate friendly as our atmosphere continues to change”. This is
important, because rice paddies are one of the largest human sources of methane,
and rice is the world’s second-most produced staple crop. Imran et al. (2017a) con-
ducted an experiment on direct seeded rice (DSR) at Agriculture Research Institute,
Mingora Swat, Pakistan, to determine denitrification and methanogenesis in tradi-
tional rice forming as compared to DSR technology. It was observed that traditional
rice farming is a bigger contributor of climate change as compared to DSR methods.
Same experiments were earlier studied by the scientist, and the common theme in
those experiments were that they measured how rising temperatures and extra car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere affect rice yields and the amount of methane that is
released by rice paddies (Trenberth et al. 2007; Marengo 2006). Rising tempera-
tures were found to have only small effects on CH4 emissions, but because they
decrease rice yield, they also increase the amount of CH4 emitted per kilogram of
rice. The development of climate resilient crops requires a deep understanding of a
plant’s growth, development, genetics, and its interaction with the surrounding envi-
ronment. The genomic technology and data science are increasingly revealing the
new knowledge about plants as a system and hold promise to accelerate and inten-
sify modern agricultural development by employing genetic engineering and
molecular breeding.
3.8 limate Change Impact on Seed Germination and Crop

C
Stand
The changes in the rainfall patterns, temperature, etc., worldwide can further exac-
erbate the abiotic stresses (e.g., drought, waterlogging, salinity, mineral deficiency,
heavy metal contamination, etc.) and increase existing pests and pathogens in a
given region or alter their geographical range all likely to impact crop yields and
survival. A major challenge for the agriculture is to produce enough food sustain-
ably for the growing world population while facing unpredictable changes in the
global climate. Crop seeds germinate in a particular range of temperature. Increase
in soil temperature by global warming will adversely affect germination, and there-
fore crop stand will be affected respectively. Increase in temperature beyond this
range during the sowing time will adversely affect crop germination (Barnola et al.
1987). For example, groundnut which is a major crop of KP has an optimum tem-
perature of 25–30 °C for germination. To ensure world food security, successful
mitigation strategies in the long run would require a multifaceted approach, includ-
ing prudent use of natural resources, adoption of agricultural practices that generate
lower environmental footprint, and cultivation of high yielding, greener cultivars
capable of flourishing with reduced inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, water, and
energy (Imran et al. 2016a). They have reported that canola cultivars positively
responded in optimum temperature range to sulfur fertilization in terms of seed
yield and oil quality and concluded that Oscar cultivar increased seed yield 53% as
compared to other treatments.
3.9 limate Change Impact on Crop Growth

C
and Development
Temperature higher than the optimum range adversely affects growth and develop-
ment of plants due to harmful effects on plant metabolic activities. The rate of pho-
tosynthesis may get more sluggish as the temperature increases due to closure of
stomata. Besides, higher temperature enhances the rate of evapotranspiration caus-
ing moisture stress in plants under rain-fed situations. Also, at higher temperature,
the dry matter accumulation becomes less. Higher temperature has harmful effects
on flowering, pollination, fruit setting, and maturation. Higher temperatures may
increase flower and fruit dropping in some crops and cause stigma and pollens to
dry (Imran et al. 2015c; Barnola et al. 1987; Bender 1996). The increase in tempera-
ture will speed the maturity, so cutting the total duration of the crop. It will result in
lower dry matter accumulation and lower yield. Lower plant stand due to poor ger-
mination, low dry matter accumulation, adverse effects on flowering and fruiting,
and reduced crop duration caused by an increase in temperature will ultimately
reduce the crop yield. Still, in case of C3 plants, the enhanced level of CO2 may
result in higher rate of photosynthesis and increase yield. But such effects of CO2
may get negated due to higher temperature and moisture stress caused by climate
change (Imran et al. 2015d; Barnola et al. 1987; Imran and Khan 2017; Naveed
et al. 2016), examined that regional climate is very important for an ideal crop
growth and production. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show five different crop average yields
grown and different elevation and topography with different rainfall pattern and
temperature. Difference in the average temperature of a locality has significant
effect on crop growth, yield, and productivity.
42 Imran et al.
Table 3.1 Total area in kanals (20 marlas) under cultivation of different vegetables crops, number
of beneficiaries, and average yield (kg k−1) at Madyan, Bahrain, and Kalam in the year 2014
Crop of the Seed rate Total area No of Avg yield (kg)
locality Cultivars k−1 (K) beneficiaries k−1
1.Tomato Rio 50 g 185 153 986.46
grande
2.Cucumber Rohini 30 g 103 95 1089.43
3.French bean Paulista 1 kg 225 190 748.13
4.Squashes Asma F1 50 g 62 51 887.06
5.Peas Climax 4 kg 25 11 467.23
Table 3.2 Average yield and Average yield Average price

market rate per kg of different Crop of the locality (kg k−1) kg−1
vegetables crops at high ele- 1.Tomato 986.46 38.333 PKR
vation of Swat KP Pakistan
2.Cucumber 1089.43 23.33 PKR
(Madyan, Bahrain, and
Kalam) in the year 2014 3.French bean 748.13 62.22 PKR
4.Squashes 887.06 41.00 PKR
5.Peas 467.23 105.71 PKR
3.10 Conclusion
The effect of climate change is not limited to agronomic crops with uneven rainfall
distribution only, but it also intensifies floods that lead to dampen the soil, causes
storms, and also increases the air temperature which intensifies the risk of drought
and affects various agronomic crop yields and thus the food security and worsens
the human living environments. It also affects agriculture in a number of ways,
including through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes
(e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon
dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; and changes in the nutritional qual-
ity of some foods and changes in sea level. Climate change and agriculture are inter-
related processes, both of which take place on a global scale. I would suggest that
climate change effect should be overcome by diversity of crop.
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Soil Health in Cropping Systems:
An Overview 4
Subhadip Paul, Neha Chatterjee, J. S. Bohra, S. P. Singh,
D. Dutta, Rajesh Kumar Singh, and Amitava Rakshit
Abstract
Soil health has existed as an integrative property that reveals the capability of
soil to react to agricultural interference, so that it persistently supports mutually
the agricultural production and the stipulation of other ecosystem services.
The key confrontation within sustainable soil management is to safeguard the
ecosystem service besides optimizing agricultural yields. It is anticipated that
soil health is reliant on the preservation of four foremost functions: carbon alter-
ations, biogeochemistry mediated nutrient cycles, soil structure continuance
and the directive of pests and diseases controlled by cropping system. Every one
of these functions is marked as a comprehensive of a variety of biological
processes provided by a multiplicity of interacting soil organisms under the
authority of the abiotic soil upbringing which dictate assessment and manage-
ment of soil health.
Keywords
Soil health · Agricultural impact · Ecosystem services · Cropping system
S. Paul · A. Rakshit
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
Neha Chatterjee · J. S. Bohra · S. P. Singh · R. K. Singh (*)
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
D. Dutta
ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_4
46 S. Paul et al.
4.1 Introduction
With the increasing growth of population, there is a greater demand for food. Thus,
world agriculture has to be intensified. But land availability is still limited or even
decreasing at increasing rate of urbanization. The per capita availability of land in
India has decreased from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.12 ha in 2016 and projected to further
reduce to 0.10 ha by 2025. Intensive agriculture needs higher doses of fertilizers for
crop nourishment and pesticides for crop protection. Several intensive cereals or
vegetables-based cropping systems have been practised by farmers across diversi-
fied ecology. Intensive agriculture, that is cultivation of high-yielding cereals and
other crops which lead to nutrient depletion from the soil and use of chemical fertil-
izers and pesticides without any proper dosage, resulted in soil health degradation
(John et al. 2001). Further, world agriculture is fully dependent on specific climatic
conditions and specific management practices. These agricultural management pro-
cesses could be substituted for biological functions, which affect the ecosystem’s
natural balance (Kibblewhite et al. 2008) and lead to deterioration of soil quality. As
of now, although organic agriculture is developed to sustain production, it is very
costly and labour intensive and can’t provide demand-based food quantity. In
addition to this all-out drive, soil health has also become major interest in develop-
ing areas, where the extensive production system has been intensified (Sinha et al.
2013). There is an increasing interest on the impact of cropping systems on soil
quality to assess the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil in relation
to crop production. In this review, we will discuss about how different soil groups
show different responses in different cropping systems.
4.2 Concept of Soil Health
The term soil health is used as a synonym of soil quality. Soil quality is related to
the function of soil (Letey et al. 2003; Karlen et al. 2013), whereas soil health rep-
resents a limited dynamic living resource which is non-renewable in nature (Doran
and Zeiss 2000). Agricultural and environmental scientists in general prefer the
term soil quality, and farmers or producers prefer the term soil health. Furthermore,
soil health describes the biological virtue of soil microbial community that includes
balanced interaction between organisms within soil and with their environment
(Sinha et al. 2013).
Soil quality can be viewed in two ways:
(i) As inherent characteristics of soil which is formed by combined effect of

climate, topography, organisms, parent material and time (Jenny 1941). Therefore,
soil has an innate capacity to function. Five soil functions as given by Karlen
et al. (1997) are
• Sustaining activity of soil microbes with their diversity and productivity
• Regulation of water and solute flow
4 Soil Health in Cropping Systems: An Overview 47
• Buffering, degrading, immobilizing and detoxifying organic and inorganic

toxic compounds which includes industrial wastes and by-products
• Acting as storage of nutrients and other elements within Earth’s biosphere
and continues to recycle it
• Providing foundation archaeological structures and buildings associated
with human habitation
(ii) As a dynamic system of soils, influenced by climate and biosphere especially
for human use. For example, erosion of surface layer with consequent loss of
clay, organic matter and nutrients can’t be protected by only cropping system,
and thus soil properties are degraded continuously over time. Larson and Pierce
(1991) reported that approaches for evaluating soil health were (i) comparative
(e.g. land use management) and (ii) dynamic assessment by measuring changes
in soil quality attributes over time.
Physical, chemical and biological properties of soil interact in complex way to

create a favourable environment in soil to perform. Thus soil quality cannot be mea-
sured directly but can be determined by measuring changes in its properties which
are known to as indicators. Generally indicators are complex set of attributes which
are derived from functional relationships and can be monitored with laboratory or
field analysis, remote sensing or combinations of them. Soil indicators should
• React to quick or slow change in management practices

• Coalesce soil physical, chemical and biological properties
• Be measured easily
• Have a limiting or threshold value
• Be stable for some time during analysis to enable measurement
• Be sensitive to change in management practices
• Be resistant to short-term weather pattern
Indicators as described in Table 4.1 which monitor the soil directly are grouped
as visual (change in soil colour, gullies, ponding), chemical (soil pH, CEC, organic
matter, nutrients), physical (soil structure, surface crust, B.D, hydraulic conduc-
tivity) and biological indicators (potentially mineralizable N, enzyme activity, soil
microbial biomass/respiration).
4.3 ropping System in Relation to Soil Fertility

C
and Productivity
Cropping system may be defined as sequence or order in which crops are grown on
a piece of land over fixed period of time. Cropping system is an important compo-
nent of a farming system. The productivity of land is maintained over time through
proper soil management practices. Sustainable management is necessary for better
germination, growth and yield of crops over the long run. Thus to maintain soil
fertility as well as intensive cropping, soil should be cultivated with various crops
48 S. Paul et al.
Table 4.1 Major soil nutritional, chemical and biological indicators and related soil processes
(Lal 1994)
Indicators Process
pH Acidification and soil reaction, nutrient availability
Base saturation Absorption and desorption, solubilization
Cation exchange capacity Ion exchange, leaching
Total and plant available Soil fertility, nutrient reserves
nutrients
Soil organic matter Structural formation, mineralization, biomass carbon,
nutrient retention
Earthworm population and soil Nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, formation
macrofauna and activity of soil structure
Soil biomass carbon Microbial transformations and respiration, formation of
soil structure and organo-mineral complexes
Total soil organic carbon Soil nutrient source and sink, biomass carbon, soil
respiration and gaseous fluxes
that ameliorates soil as well as sustain minimum productivity. Depending on

resource availability, different types of cropping systems are practised in different
agroclimatic regions.
There is a growing consensus that comprehensive knowledge about the effect of
continuous cropping on soil properties (physical, chemical and biological) is needed
for the establishment of extent to which impacts on soil quality is quantized, thereby
creating a sustainable cropping system (Aparicio and Costa 2007). Baseline values
of soil properties have been assessed and determined in many parts of globe (Richter
et al. 2007), including China (Ding et al. 2007; Wu et al. 2004), Canada (Zentner
et al. 2001), India (Masto et al. 2008), the USA (Khan et al. 2007; Varvel et al.
2006), Nigeria (Oluwatosin et al. 2008), New Zealand (Lilburne et al. 2002; Murata
et al. 1995), Sweden (Gerzabek et al. 2001; Gerzabek et al. 2006; Kirchmann et al.
2004), etc. From the experiments conducted in different agroecology, it has been
observed that many suitable cropping sequences under different soils (Table 4.2)
ensure and indicate the probable chances of maintaining soil fertility for next culti-
vation practices to follow.
4.4 arming System Diversity in Different Agroecological

F
Regions Impacts on Soil Environment
A farming system is a combination of farm enterprise like cropping system, for-

estry, livestock, poultry and fishery, practised on farm to increase the profit of farmer
per unit land. Without disturbing the effect of other components or ecological bal-
ance, the enterprises interact with each other in a synergistic manner. As different
farming system is adapted in different agroecological regions, more of soil and
water resources are being utilized differently according to the need-based practices,
for example area under the small farmer community is being practised with crop
and livestock production in combinations (McIntire et al. 1992). Now grassland is
Table 4.2 Diversification of crops: viable answers
Dominant Preferred cropping system
soil order Constraints (region under practice) Effect on soil health References
Vertisol 1. Swelling and 1. Wheat – soybean (a) Build-up of high amount of organic matter during summer than under Behera et al.
shrinking behaviour (FYM+ poultry manure+ normal cereal cultivation (2007)
due to addition and N-P-K) (Central India) (b) Availability of phosphorus to soybean is more
losses of moisture (c) Enhanced activity of non-symbiotic bacteria observed
2. Too much of clay 2. Lupin – strawberry (a) The increased amount of Fe2+ particularly oxalate-extractable Fe (Feo) Velazquez
content (>30%) (Temporary flooding for (b) The SPADc values for lupin and strawberry were larger for the vertisols et al. (2004)
3. Not easy to 30 days) than for the inceptisols (vertisols contain little carbonate and cause less Fe
cultivate (tillage (Spain) chlorosis than the inceptisols)
problem) (c) Increases in Feo and amount of Fe2+ released in the incubation
4. Develops wide and experiment
4 Soil Health in Cropping Systems: An Overview
deep cracks during (d) Weak response of the vertisols to flooding was partly a result of their
dry seasons history including flooding episodes in the field, so a steady state had been
reached in which the pool of Fe compounds undergoing reductive
dissolution and reprecipitating upon oxidation as poorly crystalline Fe
3. Dry farming with legumes (a) Direct drilling (DD) resulted in significantly greater soil organic C (12 Bravo et al.
such as chickpeas (Cicer gkg-1) in the surface horizon (0–10 cm) of soil 25% greater than (2007)
arietinum), broad bean conventional tillage (CT) (9.5 g kg-1)
(Vicia faba), vetch (Vicia (b) After 22 years of cropping, a significantly larger amount of available
sativa), field pea (Pisum phosphorus and exchangeable potassium was found in the surface horizon
sativum), (Southern Spain) (0–10 cm) under DD compared with CT
(c) The extractable calcium content was higher in CT (600 mgkg-1) than in
DD (500 mg kg-1)
(d) Irrespective of the tillage, the CEC had high values, indicating the good
fertility level of the soil used in the experiment
(continued)
49
Table 4.2 (continued)
50

4. Sorghum + pigeon pea (a) Sorghum releases HCN which helps to control the soil-borne pathogens Ali (1985)
(Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India) (b) The use of straw mulch after sorghum harvesting reduces soil moisture
loss and enhances more beneficial microbial colony growth
(c) As in initial stage sorghum is used for fodder crop, more pigeon pea
recovers faster and provides N to sorghum
(d) Intercropping pigeon pea with sorghum reduces the soil-borne wilt
disease in pigeon pea (Natarajan et al. 1985)
(e) Willey et al. (1981) reported that on deep vertisols of peninsular India,
sorghum and pigeon pea intercropping were highly productive both in
maintaining the soil health and farmer’s return
5. Soybean–wheat (a) At the end of 3-year cycle, application of organic manure produces good Pedaprolu
(with combination of cattle soil structure et al. (2009)
dung manure, poultry (b) Elevated soil organic carbon was noted down
manure and vermin (c) Increased availability soil nutrients like N, P and K
compost) (d) Significant increase in dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase is also
(Central India) recorded
(e) This cropping cycle increases high microbial biomass c in upper
0–15 cm soil
Mollisol Generally has no 1. Cotton–grain sorghum– (a) Due to incorporation of three times, more residue annually by including Acosta-
limitation in winter rye haygrazer, sorghum and winter rye crops into cropping system microbial Martínez
agriculture point of (with haygrazer [a sorghum– biomass C and N was increased (10–26%) at 0–5 cm soil depth et al. (2011)
view, but excessive sudan grass hybrid} and (b) More fungal and bacterial population was observed and
water saturation winter rye cover, i.e. (c) More of enzyme activities have been recorded such as β-glucosidase, Acosta-
during rainy season maximum biomass returned α-galactosidase, arylsulfatase, β-glucosaminidase, phosphodiesterase, Martínez
causes reductive soil {three times more} to soil) alkaline phosphatase, etc. and Cotton
layer (marshy soil). (sandy soils of Texas High (d) But after adding more cotton crops in next cycle, the phosphodiester (2017)
Plains, US) activity was reduced
(e) Moreover, this practice induces more microbial diversity in sandy soils
compared to cotton monoculture
S. Paul et al.
2. (a) Decline in soil organic C when rotation changed from soybean to maize Tong et al.
Soybean–soybean/maize– monocropping (2017)
maize (b) More of N fixed during soybean cultivation is used for nutrition of
For 10 years maize
(Northeast China) (c) Hydrogenase activity was more in soybean system
(d) When maize biomass after harvesting is returned to soil as mulch, it
also provides soil organic C pool and more bacterial population
Entisol 1. Generally no soil 1. Prosopis cineraria-based (a) Increased activity of dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activity Yadav et al.
profile development agroforestry system (b) Long canopy diameter of tree gives protection against wind and splash (2011)
has been seen (Jaipur, Rajasthan, India) water erosion
2. Soils are deficient (c) Deep taproot system holds soil particles tightly
in organic carbon and (d) Canopy provides shade to the soil surface Hence soil moisture is
nitrogen content but conserved to some extent, and soil microbial community becomes more
rich in available active
potassium content (e) Fluxes of C, N and P through microbial biomass are higher
3. As its development 2. Paired row-planted maize (a) This system increases more C and N into soil Sarkar et al.
is influenced by local + black gram (b) Conserve more soil water (1998)
conditions, some (West Bengal, India) (c) Dehydrogenase activity is higher

soils show stony, (d) Porosity and aggregate stability are more
infertile and poorly (e) In lowland, utilization of water is more
drained conditions, (f) Microbial activity tends to increase
and some exhibits 3. Rice–cabbage (Brassica (a) Rice cultivation provides more soil moisture for the next cabbage. Thus Acharya and
sand dunes or oleracea)–green gram water requirements are reduced in cabbage Mondal
floodplains. (West Bengal, India) (b) Urease activity was higher (2010)
(c) Fungal pathogenic incidences were lowered down
(d) Green gram compensates N economy in soil, previously depleted by
continuous submergence in rice field
(e) Soil porosity and aggregate stability are improved during green gram
cultivation
(f) Soil organic C is restored in green gram cropping
(continued)
51
52

Alfisol Soils are rich in 1. Long-term alley cropping (a) Surface soil properties declined with time with continuous cultivation Kang et al.
exchangeable bases with (b) Alley cropping with woody species maintained higher soil organic (1999)
(>35%) 1. Gliricidia sepium carbon, phosphorus and potassium levels
Generally these soils 2. Leucaena leucocephala (c) Plots alley cropped with Gliricidia and Leucaena showed lower pH and
are fertile and do not 3. Alchornea cordifolia extractable calcium level
have much 4. Dactyladenia barteri (d) Leucaena alley cropped plot also showed lower magnesium level
constraints (southwestern Nigeria) (e) The decline in soil pH and extractable cations may be due to increased
But soils have very cation leaching with application of high rates of Gliricidia and Leucaena
low organic matter pruning
content (<1%) and
become very dry
2. Pearl millet + cowpea (a) In intercrop millet, sole cowpea and intercrop cowpea, the NUEs were Sarr et al.
(Africa) 15.20, 45.33 and 46.00%, respectively, indicating that the use of nitrogen 2008
fertilizer significantly decreased in intercrop only for millet
(b) No significant difference was observed between sole and intercrop
cowpea relative to the nitrogen derived from N2 fixation
3. Maize–soybean (a) Most of the surplus nitrogen received by the MNR (manure as N source) Drinkwater
(Pennsylvania, USA) increases in soil nitrogen, whereas in the CNV (conventional system) et al. (1998)
system, soil nitrogen levels have decreased
(b) Maximum nitrogen input from the green manure over 15 years to be
840 kg N/ha
(c) Nitrogen fixation was lower in conventional-system soybeans and
greater in LEG-system (N directly from
(d) Legumes) soybeans
(e) LEG system reduces average CO2 emissions to 7%
(f) More of legume-derived N than fertilizer-derived N immobilized in
microbial biomass Thus NO3- leaching has been reduced during summer
and rainy seasons
(g) These practices in the growing areas of the USA would increase soil
carbon sequestration by 0:13–0:30 × 1014 g/year which is equal to 1–2% of
S. Paul et al.
the estimated annual carbon released into the atmosphere in the USA from
fossil fuel combustion
4. Groundnut–fingermillet in (a) Higher EC, CEC, soil organic C in respect of control and only NPK Srinivasarao
rainfed alfisol for 13 years treated acidic plots et al. (2014)
(Bengaluru, India) (b) N availability is greater than P and K
(c) Loss of N is less if groundnut is planted first compared to finger millet.
Therefore, application of nitrogenous fertilizer is reduced
(d) There were negative balances for K, secondary and micronutrients in all
treatments
(e) Positive balance was found in the case of P and N
5. Sabai grass (Eulaliopsis (a) Sabai grass holds the soil particles with their roots and prevents soil Mahapatra
binata)+black gram erosion (2010)
(Acid lateritic soils of India) (b) Black gram provides substantial amount of N for good canopy growth
of grass
(c) Black gram reduces the N losses from the soil
(d) At tender stage, leaves are used for fodder purpose
(e) Cellulosic material (32%) of the leaves makes sabai grass an excellent
raw material in the paper industries, second to bamboo
6. (i) Cucumber + garlic in (a) Increase in soil urease and catalase activity Zhou et al.
first season (b) Soil polyphenol oxidase activity under intercropping system has also (2011)
(ii) Cucumber monocropping increased in the first two growing seasons
in second and third seasons (c) Soil bacterial community was relatively stable under intercropping
(China) system than monocropping system.
(d) This system has more beneficial effect on soil fungal community
structure
7. Brinjal (Solanum (a) Reduced tillage conserves soil moisture and maintains good soil Butler et al.
melongena)–Watermelon physical conditions during winter (2016)
(Citrullus lanatus) (b) Reduced tillage helps in maintaining soil microbial biomass in a
(with reduced tillage and sustaining condition
winter cover crops residue as (c) Cover crops provide good canopy development and thereby reduce the
mulch) weed infestation as well as accumulate organic matter on soil
(Tamil Nadu, India) (d) Particulate organic matter carbon (POM-C) and particulate organic
matter nitrogen (POM-N) were highest compared to bare field cropping
(e) This system has no effect on harmful plant-pathogenic nematode
53
populations in soil
(continued)
54

8. Tomato (Lycopersicon (a) Annual cover crops were used to fix N Abdul-Baki
esculentum) with hairy vetch (b) Cover crops prevent soil loss throughout the winter and spring et al. (1996)
(Vicia villosa), crimson (c) Half of fertilizer N is saved and
clover (Trifolium (d) As cover crops were used as mulch after harvesting, it conserves soil Kornecki
incarnatum) and rye (Secale moisture, and after incorporating it in soil, it recycles the leftover nutrients and Arriaga
cereale) as winter annual (e) 5. Rye can provide an alternative in tomato production for those (2011)
cover crops producers who do not want to use polythene mulch
(United States)
Inceptisol 1. Generally have 1. Dhaincha (Sesbania (a) Microbial population in soil has improved Roy et al.
little profile aculeata) as green manure in (b) Bio-organic amendment increased soil available N in rice field (2017)
distinction rice field for 2 consecutive compared to fertilizers alone
2. Coarser in texture years (c) Green manured supplemented with ZnSO4, Azotobacter, PSB reduce the
3. Deficient in (Gangetic alluvial soils of fertilizer N and P2O5 requirement by 25% (Roy et al. 2017)
organic matter, West Bengal, India) (d) Positive influence of Zn and biofertilizers on microbial population
nitrogen and sulphur dynamics was recorded (Roy et al. 2017)
content (e) Organic manures and biofertilizers help in increasing the P
4. Sometimes it concentration in solution through organic P mineralization and
poses location solubilization of native soil P compounds by producing organic acids
specific problems (f) Soil organic C has also been increased
like alkali problem
and water stagnation
But these soils are
good source of plant
nutrients as they are
fluvial in nature
S. Paul et al.
2. Winter wheat–sugar beet– (a) Bacteria constituted more than 90%, fungi approximately 5% and Brussaard
spring barley–potato for protozoa less than 2% of the total biomass et al. (1990)
4-year rotation (b) Carbon flow through the protozoa was higher, corresponding to
(calcareous marine silt loam, bacterial production in both conventional and integrated farming
Noordoostpolder, (c) Nitrogen mineralization by the protozoa was estimated to be higher in
Netherlands) conventional and integrated farming (Brussaard et al. 1990)
3. Long-term cultivation of (a) Acid and alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase activity (threefold), Srinivas
lowland rice β-glucosidase activity (threefold to sixfold was increased) et al. (2015)
(Maruteru, Andhra Pradesh) (b) Increased microbial biomass carbon
(c) More of C is sequestered under more C availability of aromatic
functional C gr
4. Wheat-green gram (a) Persistent source of mineral N in soil Moharana
(Delhi, India) (b) Greater amount of Olsen P in flowering and maturity stage of wheat is et al. (2014)
recorded
(c) K content of soil is increased during flowering to pod formation stage
(d) Dehydrogenase and phosphatase activity are increased by 40–46%
5. Summer groundnut-toria (a) Fixation of nitrogen and solubilization of phosphorus Sinha et al.
+ gobhi sarson – fallow (b) Reduces the root-knot nematode population in soil (2013)
(Ludhiana, Punjab, India)
6. Aman rice – chickpea (a) The residual soil moisture is utilized efficiently Musa et al.
(Rajshahi and Nawabganj (b) The N reserve of soil increased (2001)
Dist. of Bangladesh) (c) More soil rhizosphere activity
7. Groundnut–rice–black (a) High soil N reserve Porpavai
gram (b) Loss of N (in form of NO3-) through leaching is reduced as most of the et al. (2011)
(Tamil Nadu, India) soil N is in organic form
(c) Increased soil organic C, available N, P, K and S content of the soil
8. Rice–rice–green gram (a) Incorporation of more soil N Porpavai
(Tamil Nadu, India) (b) Improvement of soil structure et al. (2011)
(c) More organic carbon content in soil due to accumulation and
decomposition of root residues and shedding of leaves by the leguminous
crops on the soil
55
(continued)
56

9. Pigeon pea + green gram (a) Soil physical properties become more stable and porous Ali (1985)
(Ludhiana, Punjab, India) (b) More soil N is available for succeeding crop cultivation
(c) Lower losses of N by leaching
(d) Nutrient uptake increased both spatially and temporally
10. Sugarcane–ratoon–wheat (a) The bulk density of soil is lowered down Shukla et al.
(residue incorporation + (b) Increased porosity (>48%) was observed in this system (2017)
Trichoderma viride (c) Soil organic carbon was recorded higher (20%) at 0–15 cm soil depth.
application) (d) Higher total carbon sequestered (@ 1.3 Mg/ha) in 0–15 cm soil depth
(Lucknow, India) (e) Residue incorporation along with application of Trichoderma sustained
soil C level as well as N level for longer period
11. Sugarcane + soybean (a) Increased nitrogenase activity (by 55%), urease activity (78%) Li et al.
(China) (b) Increase in N and P contents of rhizospheric soil (2013)
(c) More number of bacteria and actinomycetes were increased
Andisol 1. When dry, they are Ryegrass (Lolium perenne (a) Fertilization with the highest NH4-N dose strongly decreased soil pH Paredes
susceptible to wind cv. Nui) and tall fescue and shoot P content, as well as it increased root phosphatase activity et al. (2011)
erosion (Festuca (b) The highest NH4-N dose strongly decreased soil pH
2. They have high P arundinacea cv. Exella)
fixation capacity; (Piedras Negras series)
thus crops grown
show little response
to P application
S. Paul et al.
Aridisol 1. Soils remain dry 1. Groundnut – wheat (a) N and S deficit is found Sharma and
for most part of the (Rajasthan, India) (b) Legumes drive 56–68% of their N requirement through biological N Jain (2014)
year fixation (BNF)
2. More (c) Loss of N through volatilization is lowered down
evapotranspiration (d) Maximum value of phosphorus was recorded in this cropping system
than rainfall, partly because of solubilizing effect of decomposing organic residue for
received in these native soil phosphorus and less removal compared to quantity applied
soils 2. Pearl millet + clusterbean (a) N dose can be reduced up to 25% in the case of pearl millet Sharma and
3. Soils have high (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) (b) More soil organic C helps to increase soil microbial activity Gupta
groundwater table (Jobner, Rajasthan, India) (c) Infestation by soil-borne pathogen is reduced (2001)
with brackish (d) Phosphatase activity is higher
groundwater 3. Cluster bean (Cyamopsis (a) Maximum positive potassium balance was observed Sharma and
4. Soil is very coarse tetragonoloba)–wheat (b) Improvement of soil structure for wheat cultivation was recorded Jain (2014)
in texture with low (Rajasthan, India) (c) Reduced soil erosion from wind as well as from rain
contents of soil (d) Solubilizing effects of soil phosphorus is recorded
organic matter, N, S
and micronutrients
(except Mo and B)
5. Diurnal and
seasonal fluctuations
of soil temperature
are rapid
6. Water-holding
capacity is very low
in these soils
7. Development of
calcic, gypsic, salic
horizons causes poor
crop stand
(continued)
57
58

4. Multistoreyed cropping of (a) There was more fungi population and fewer bacterial populations in the Bopaiah and
coconut (Cocos nucifera) rhizosphere zone Shetty
with pepper (Piper nigrum), (b) More P is solubilized in root zones (1991) and
cacao (Theobroma cacao) (c) The organic C, total N and K were higher in the root regions of Ghai and
and pineapple (Ananas multistoreyed cropping, but C and N mineralization decreased with soil Thomas
comosus) depth (1989)
(India) (d) Incidence of Azospirillum sp. was determined in high-density
multistoreyed cropping
(e) Higher nitrogenase activity was recorded in this system
(f) Application of vermiwash in this multistoreyed system greatly controls
the populations of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), spiral
nematode (Helicotylenchus multicinctus) followed by burrowing nematode
(Radopholus similis) and root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae)
(Banu and Iyer 2006)
Histosol 1. Generally not used Six rows of sugarcane (a) Enhanced labile P availability >100% compared with untreated soils Ye et al.
for cultivation in (Saccharum officinarum L.) (b) Higher phosphatase and glucosidase activities (2011)
Indian soils Sugarcane cultivar CP (c) Microbial biomass P was higher
2. Permanent water 89-2143 was
saturated planted for 2 years
environment is (Everglades Agricultural
prevailed as because Area (EAA), north of the
it formed in Water Conservation Areas in
low-lying areas South Florida)
3. Rate of
decomposition is
lower than rate of
organic matter
accumulation
4. Local conditions
sometimes give rise
S. Paul et al.
to unfavourable
alkaline pH condition
with poor aeration
practised in all farming system as it adds more litters, high in C:N ratio and lignin:N
ratio (Rasse et al. 2005); residence of C in grassland is much longer than others
(Lemaire et al. 2014). Moderate grazing by cattle improves soil quality and increases
soil C and N for longer periods of time (Franzluebbers and Stuedemann 2010).
Hence multiple components of a farming system have multiple effects on modifica-
tion of soil environment in different ecosystems. Some typical example of farming
systems mediated changes in soil physical, chemical and biological properties have
been provided in Tables 4.1 and 4.3.
4.5 essons Learnt and Rephrasing Traditional Approach

L
with Flexible Mode
Yield increment in last few decades is stagnated because of practices such as wide-
spread cultivation intensification, development of high-yielding exhaustive varieties
and increasing use of chemicals such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, wastewater
irrigation and farm-mechanization. According to researchers, intensive cropping
areas should include legume-based cropping systems. Improved yield of crops fol-
lowed by legume addition has been widely observed by farmers and recorded by
researchers. As legumes with low C/N ratio, high rate of mineralization of organic
N can fix atmospheric N2, breaks diseases and pest cycles in soil, improves soil
microbial community and physical and chemical attributes and increases activity of
soil macrofauna such as earthworms (Peoples and Craswell 1992; Kundu and Ladha
1995; Wani et al. 1995). Rotational benefits of annual legumes can be achieved by
improving the N economy of soils assessed by reserves of organic N which is read-
ily mineralizable in soil and microbial biomass C and N (Dalai et al. 1994; Rupela
et al. 1995; Wani et al. 1995). The application of manure with balanced fertilization
of N, P and K leads to lowering loss of nutrient and maintains soil organic carbon
pool and soil microorganisms for long time. This in turn helps in transformation of
nutrients. Again it has been time and again demonstrated that in areas having eroded
soil where fertility is major constraints, conservation agriculture should be practised
instead of conventional agriculture to sustain soil health and crop productivity for
the long term (Govaerts et al. 2009; Hobbs et al. 2008). For eroded soil with flat
plains, cost-effective stubble mulch or crop residue mulch gives conservation of
moisture under field conditions as well as addition of organic matter with low soil
temperature fluctuations. It protects soil from wind erosion. In dry semiarid areas
and even in laterites, where soil lacks moisture content, ‘alley cropping’ should be
followed. For example, black gram, turmeric, ginger, etc. crops are grown in pas-
sages formed by rows of eucalyptus, subabool, etc. to hasten soil fertility restoration
by providing more organic litters, conserve moisture by providing shades and
reduce soil erosion. Again continuous seashore winds or winds in nearby desert
areas bury the croplands with sand when vegetation stabilizing the sand dunes is
seriously damaged. Therefore stabilization or mitigation of sand dunes can be
achieved by growing vegetation like ephemeral grasses, shrubs and trees with good
rooting depth that traps sand because it is less expensive, stable over long period and
60
Table 4.3 Farming system impacts on soil health differentially

Agroecological
regions Farming practices Soil health References
Tropical 1. Crop rotation with rice – groundnut/ (a) Papaya and banana utilize soil water during rice cultivation Srivastava
ecosystem mustard/watermelon (b) Groundnut provides more of soil N et al. (2004)
2. Horticultural crops: papaya, banana (c) More of hydrogenase and phosphatase activity is prevalent during
3. Fishes: Indian major carps and prawns watermelon cultivation
(d) Fish litters provide more of organic matter in the bottom of pond
Subtropical dry 1. Various rice-, wheat- and maize-based (a) Crop residue incorporation of cereals can hasten soil organic C Devendra
ecosystem cropping system dynamics as well as colonization of associative N-fixing organisms and Thomas
2. Inclusion of cassava, vegetables and (b) Vegetable crops increase more of soil enzymatic activity (2002)
legume crops in upland conditions (c) Perennial trees provide shade to bare lands as well as create a
3. Perennial tree crops like coconut, oil favourable soil structure in the long run
palm, rubber and fruit trees (d) Cattle dung provides more of soil organic matter in soil
4. Cattles like goats, buffaloes and pigs (e) Grazing of cattle hasten soil surface layer more developed
Dryland 1. Crops like sorghum + cowpea (grain), (a) Sorghum provides HCN in soil to control harmful incidence of wilt Singh and
ecosystem sorghum + cowpea (fodder) and Cenchrus causing fungi Sharma
spp. Intercropped with Emblica officinalis (b) Cowpea both as grain and fodder adds more of biomass into soil. (1987)
2. Goats and dairy cattle Hence a soil organic matter level of soil is increased
(c) Soil erosion is prevented through the binding actions of roots of
Cenchrus spp. and Emblica officinalis
(d) Addition of more soil organic matter is achieved through excreta of
goats and cattle
(e) More of soil surface layer is developed. It also reduces wind erosion
S. Paul et al.
Agroecological
regions Farming practices Soil health References
Semiarid 1. Agrosilvopasture with maize in between (a) Readily oxidizable organic matter shows highest CO2-C stock in Maia et al.
ecosystem rows of Leucaena leucocephala with grasses upper soil layers of the native area (2007)
like Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), (b) This system provides protection against wind erosion as grasses, and
quack grass (Elymus repens), etc. with tree sp. holds surface soil more tightly
maize straw mulch after crop harvest (c) Mulches provide more soil organism diversity Mulching causes less
2. With grazing of cattle problems for mixed farming (Erenstein 2003)
(d) Cattle dung addition provides more of organic C fractions in soil
Subtropical 1. Rice – fish includes common carps in (a) Alkaline phosphatase, urease and FDA activity were observed in Bihari et al.
humid fresh water, fish–fingerlings and rice–fish rice–fish culture. (2015)
ecosystem refuge system (b) Hydrogenase and acid phosphatase activity was high in vegetable and
2. Fruits include guava, banana and mango fish – fingerlings production system
on the side of ponded areas (c) N cycles affected more in this farming system
3. Vegetable cultivation like cucurbits, (d) Soil erosion was less compared to only rice monocropping or bare
spinach, chilli, tomato, etc. land
4. Agroforestry systems including Dalbergia (e) Agroforestry systems not only provide protection against wind and
sissoo, Acacia spp., Prosopis cineraria, etc. water erosion, but it helps in adding more of tree litters and thereby
increases organic matter content in soil
(f) Agroforestry practice provides shades on surface soil and thereby

increases more of microbial diversity in surface soil for the long run
61
62 S. Paul et al.
self-repairing technique (Woodhouse 1978). In case of waterlogged soils, where

anaerobic conditions prevail over the year can be used for cultivation of rice. For
utilization of its full potential, reclamation through bio-drainage plants proved to be
successful during course of 3–5 years. Bio-drainage plants are crops with higher
transpiration rate with good rooting depth and are tolerant to waterlogging, for
example Eucalyptus camaldulensis, willow (Salix spp.), poplar (Populus spp.) and
alfalfa (Medicago sativa). They up take more of water from deeper soil depth and,
after using it, transpire rapidly through the stomata of leaves. Continuous transpira-
tion causes higher water levels to go down. Hence, fields become cultivable with
more number of crops other than rice.
4.6 Conclusion
Diversification of cropping systems, an innovative movement with farmer-friendly

approach, is necessary to get higher yield and return and to maintain soil health,
preserve environment and meet daily requirement of human and animals. Thus, not
only the number of crops, but type of crops included in the cropping sequence is
also important. In this approach, resources are not only utilized efficiently but also
ensure on a farm and their interactions with farm resources. Various cropping sys-
tems have different residual effects on different soils. Efficient nutrient management
is prime concern in the management of optimum soil fertility. Hence, synthetic fer-
tilizers should be applied in soil with optimal dose or little less along with organic
manures because the maintenance of soil fertility as well as soil health can only be
achieved through building up of soil organic carbon and proliferation of soil
microbes. The sensitivity of soil indicators can provide information about dynamic
nature of soil properties in field conditions. There is scope for further refinement to
assess the soil quality parameters based on crop productivity under different soil
types.
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Agronomic Cropping Systems
in Relation to Climatic Variability 5
Muhammad Sami Ul Din, Iftikhar Ahmad, Nazim Hussain,
Ashfaq Ahmad, Aftab Wajid, Tasneem Khaliq,
Muhammad Mubeen, Muhammad Imran, Amjed Ali,
Rida Akram, Khizer Amanet, Mazhar Saleem,
and Wajid Nasim
Abstract
Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of
time in a unit area, or it indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangements
of crops and fallows in an area. The cropping system should provide enough food
for the family and fodder for cattle and generate sufficient cash income for
domestic and cultivation expenses. Cropping pattern plays a vital role in deter-
mining the level of agricultural production, which in turn would reflect on the
agricultural economy of an area. A change in cropping pattern would mean a
change in the proportionate area under different crops. A radial orientation of the
cropping pattern may be affected by changes in agrarian policy, improvements in
technology, availability of agricultural inputs, etc. The cropping patterns of a
region are closely influenced by the geo-climatic, socioeconomic, historical, and
political factors. Cropping systems based on climate, soil, and water availability
have to be evolved for realizing the potential production levels through efficient
M. Sami Ul Din · I. Ahmad · M. Mubeen (*) · M. Imran · R. Akram

K. Amanet · M. Saleem · W. Nasim
Islamabad, Pakistan
e-mail: muhammadmubeen@ciitvehari.edu.pk
N. Hussain
A. Ahmad
Program Chair, Climate Change, US.-Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Agriculture
and Food Security, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Wajid · T. Khaliq
Agro-Climatology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
A. Ali
University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_5
68 M. Sami Ul Din et al.
use of available resources. Climate variability is one of the most significant fac-
tors influencing year-to-year crop production as well as cropping pattern. Climate
variability is a major reason behind the shifting of cropping patterns and also
influences the management practices for sustainable agriculture outputs.
Similarly, increase in the temperature especially in winter had caused wheat pro-
ductivity to decline. Remote sensing and GIS techniques play an important role
to study the cropping patterns over a long period of time in the specific location.
Through normalized vegetative index (NDVI) values, we can prepare cropping
pattern maps. However, adaptations to climate change like agronomic manipula-
tions, sustainable climate-resilient agriculture, shifting the planting dates, and
using short-duration crop cultivars can reduce vulnerabilities.
Keywords
Climate variability · Cropping system · Normalized difference vegetation index
(NDVI)
5.1 Introduction
Cropping pattern is the proportion of area under various crops at a point as it changes
over space and time. The cropping patterns of a region are closely influenced by the
geo-climatic, socioeconomic, historical, and political factors (Sujatha et al. 2011).
Cropping pattern also depends on terrain, topography, slope, soils, availability of
water for irrigation, the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and mechanization. So, pat-
terns of crop land use of a region are manifestation of combined influence of physi-
cal and human environment. Their effects on both landscape and land-use studies
are likely to be far reaching (Bowler 2014). Weather plays a decisive role in deter-
mining the existing cropping pattern (Amin et al. 2015, 2017a, 2018; Nasim et al.
2018). It is a dynamic concept because no cropping pattern can be said to be ideal
for all times to a particular region. It changes in space and time with a view to meet
requirements and is governed largely by the physical as well as cultural and techno-
logical factors. The change in cropping pattern in particular span of time clearly
indicates the changes that have been taken place in the agricultural development.
Weather and climate affect plant growth and development, and the fluctuations and
occurrences of climatic extremes particularly at critical crop growth stages may
reduce yield significantly. In the Philippines, typhoons, floods, and droughts caused
82.4% of the total Philippine rice (Oryza sativa L.) losses from 1970 to 1990 (Satake
and Yoshida 1978; Tripathi and Chintamanie 2011).
Agriculture in the entire world is mostly dependent on the persisting weather
conditions. Climate change with its four dimensions, namely, variability, impact,
social vulnerability, and adaptation, gives a holistic idea of its impact on the agrar-
ian society. Social vulnerability to climate change is defined as the exposure of
groups or individuals to stress as a result of the impacts of climate change and
related climate extremes.
5 Agronomic Cropping Systems in Relation to Climatic Variability 69
The distribution of crop is an important analysis to understand the cropping pat-

tern of an area. Growing two, three, or four crops in a year is defined as double,
triple, and multiple cropping. The repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of
crops (or crop and fallow) on the same land is defined as crop rotation. One cycle
may take one or more years to complete. It defines crop intensification in time
dimension. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop is harvested
(Manjunath et al. 2011).
The multifaceted agriculture practices bring different crops in fields. The con-
cept of agricultural regionalization is not dividing a land into different fragments but
also a method of understanding the agricultural patterns. Jegankumar et al. (2015)
found that the cropping pattern of the Salem District was brought out through cal-
culating crop concentration, crop combination, cropping intensity, and crop diversi-
fication. Also the crop pattern study was carried out using the NDVI. Finally the
crop pattern map is prepared using ArcGIS tools (Bharathkumar and Mohammed-
Aslam 2015). The selection of crops is very important in the agroclimatic condi-
tions of the district under study. The cropping pattern is based on both time and
space sequence of crops. The variety in cropping pattern is the result of climate
variability, physical, economic, and social factors.
5.2 What Is Climate Change and Climate Variability?
“Climate variability” is defined as the inherent characteristic of climate which man-

ifests itself in changes of climate with time. The term “climate variability” is often
used to denote deviations of climate statistics over a given short period of time (such
as a specific month, season, or year) from the long-term climate statistics relating to
the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by
those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies.
On the other hand, climate change refers to any change in climate over time,
whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity (IPCC 2001).
Climate change is one of the biggest challenges the world is facing today. The prob-
lem of human-induced climate change first came into force and drew the attention
of the scientists and policy makers when the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) was established. It is well recognized that climate variability has a
wide range of direct and indirect impacts on crop production.
5.2.1 Importance of Climate
Agricultural activities are very sensitive to climate variability and climate change.
An agricultural decision-maker can either be at the mercy of these natural factors or
tries to benefit from them. The only way to profit from natural factors is to take them
into account and learn to know them as well as possible. Agro-meteorological infor-
mation, in practice mainly climate data, is essential in planning agricultural produc-
tion. Before giving recommendations about land use, it is necessary to know the
environmental conditions. Parameters required to quantify these conditions are the

rainfall data, temperature data, etc. Real-time meteorological information can also
be effectively used in agricultural production process.
The timing of different activities, for example, sowing, ploughing, fertilizing,
and pest and disease control should be done when weather conditions are most
favorable. For example, the spreading of pesticide will succeed if weather is moist
and warm (not hot) and not very rainy or windy. Hay should be made before a
period of several dry days so that the hay has enough time to dry. The harvesting of
wheat is also most effective during a dry period. If the wheat is threshed while it is
damp, it becomes predisposed to damages.
Although these examples concern agriculture in mild climates, the meaning of
real-time meteorological information can be broadened to activities in the tropics as
well. Because climate conditions are different around the world, the importance of
climatological information and real-time meteorological information is emphasized
differently. In Finland, for example, real-time weather information is more impor-
tant than in central parts of Africa because the weather in Finland is less
predictable.
In fact, it is sometimes difficult to appreciate the importance of climatological
information in Finland because this information is considered self-evident. On the
other hand, the climatological knowledge is often insufficient in the developing
countries. The importance of climate, as an agricultural aspect, is even more crucial
if the geographic situation of the developing countries and the global warming of
the atmosphere are taken into account. If the climate of these regions becomes even
more warm and dry, food production can be a tremendous problem. This is why
climate-related knowledge should also be promoted in developing countries.
Agro-meteorological information can increase agricultural yield. The quality
and quantity of agricultural production can be increased, and production costs
decreased, for example, with more optimized use of fertilizers and pesticides. If
climatological data are available, the probability of unfavorable meteorological
phenomena can be calculated, and the related risks can be estimated. Further, it is
also possible to recognize bad weather conditions and to be more prepared to mini-
mize the damage. Agricultural activities are weather-sensitive, and it would be inef-
ficient not to use climatological and meteorological information (Naikwadi 2017).
5.3 D
ifference Between Cropping System and Cropping
Patterns
5.3.1 Cropping Patterns
Cropping pattern is the proportion of area under various crops at a point as it changes
over space and time. Weather plays a decisive role in determining the existing crop-
ping pattern. Cropping pattern is also depending on terrain, topography, slope, soils,
and availability of water for irrigation use of pesticides, fertilizers, and mechaniza-
tion. In the simple word cropping pattern means the production of area under
Fig. 5.1 A schematic diagram showing difference between cropping pattern and cropping
system
various crops at a point of time. It is dynamic concept because no cropping pattern

can be said to be ideal for all times to a particular region. In most of the situations,
the physical environment reduces the choice of certain crops altogether or by reduc-
ing their level (Kanse 2015). Cropping pattern is the yearly sequence and spatial
arrangement of crops, or of crops and pasture, on a given piece of land. Multiple
cropping is when more than one crop is involved, as opposed to single cropping
(Bégué et al. 2018).
5.3.2 Cropping System
The term cropping system refers to the crops and crop sequences and the manage-
ment techniques used on a particular field over a period of years. This term is not a
new one, but it has been used more often in recent years in discussions about sus-
tainability of our agricultural production systems Nafziger (2009). Crop nutrient
management is an essential component of any cropping system (Fig. 5.1).
5.4 Major Agronomic Cropping Patterns
I. Sole cropping: Cultivation of one crop alone in pure stand at normal density
in a certain time and place.
II.
Monocropping/monoculture: A cropping system in which the same crop is
grown year after year in the same field.
III. Multiple cropping: Growing of two or more crops consecutively on the same
field in the same year. There are different types of multiple cropping as
follows:
IV. Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same
piece of land with a definite row arrangement or in a fixed ratio.
V. Mixed cropping: Cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the
same piece of land without definite row pattern or fixed ratio.
VI. Sequential cropping: Growing of two or more crops in quick succession on
the same piece of land in a farming year.
VII. Relay cropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously during the part
of the life cycle of each.
VIII. Multistoried/multitiered: Multilevel cropping. Cultivation of two or more
crops of different heights simultaneously on a certain piece of land in any
certain period. It utilizes solar energy and soil layers effectively.
5.5 What Is Crop Rotation?
This means changing the type of crops grown in the field each season or each year
(or changing from crops to fallow). Some of the examples of crop rotation followed
in different countries is given in Fig. 5.2.
5.5.1 Advantages of Crop Rotation
Rotating crops is one of the key principles of conservation agriculture. It has many
advantages as follows:
• It improves the soil structure.

• It increases soil fertility.
• It helps control weeds, pests, and diseases.
• It reduces risk.
Fig. 5.2 Examples of crop rotation in different countries

Fig. 5.3 Various types of intercropping
5.5.2 Sequential Cropping
Sequential cropping consists of harvesting more than one crop sequentially during
the same growing season. In areas with sufficient rainfall and a long frost-free
period, one, two, or even three harvests are possible per year. The main reason for
adopting sequential cropping systems is economic since it creates a rapid increase
in the land productivity. Nonetheless, sequential cropping can also be related to the
adoption of ecological cropping practices. For example, the second crop is often
sown both to benefit from the end of the rainy season and to enable the adoption of
no-tillage practices. By doing so, the soil quality is improved by limiting the loss of
chemical products and organic matter via erosion and by retaining water for a lon-
ger period, which allow farmers to achieve better yields.
5.5.3 Intercropping
Planting alternating rows of maize and beans or growing a cover crop in between the
cereal rows is called intercropping. This means growing a two or more crops in the
same field at the same time. A possible problem is that the intercrop may compete
with the main crop for light, water, and nutrients. This may reduce the yields of both
crops. Various types of intercropping are depicted in Fig. 5.3.
5.6 Factors Affecting Cropping Patterns
5.6.1 Government Policies
The farmers are influenced by the government policies. Government policies regard-
ing distribution of loan, giving of subsidies on fertilizers and high yielding variety
of crops, improving in irrigation system, land development policies, etc. are for the
benefit of small and marginal farmers. These policies influence the decision of crop-
ping in their field.
5.6.2 Knowledge, Skills, and Labor
Managing rotations properly requires more skills than a single crop. It also needs
work at different times of year. People may be reluctant to try out new crops because
they are not used to growing or eating them. New cropping patterns can be adopted
by:
• Trying out the new crops on a small scale first so you can learn from your
mistakes.
• Visiting other farmers who are already growing the crop.
• Asking an extension worker for advice.
• Asking about ways to use or sell the output.
• Knowing recipes for how to cook it.
5.6.3 Economic
Economic factors relate to such things as prices, income, size of land holdings,
availability of agricultural inputs, and manufactured goods. Not only the level of
prices but also changes in prices affect decisions as to what to grow and on how
much of land. The availability of various inputs of agriculture also affects the crop-
ping pattern. If all these are easily available, a farmer can grow any crop that gives
him the best results.
5.6.4 Historical Factors
The early settlement of man on land and the evolution of needs and capacity of
population through time have governed the types of crops grown, and the lands
earmarked for different crops. A small farmer owing the land, cultivating as under
Ryotwari system, naturally produces all that he can and gives priority to the produc-
tion for his consumption (Anwar and Hussain 2015). As against this land under
zamindari system may have a different cropping pattern.
5.6.5 Physical and Technical Factors
These include the physical characteristic as soil, climate, weather rainfall, etc. In the
dry regions where the rainfall is scanty and where there is high uncertainty of mon-
soons, the dependence is on jowar and bajra. Waterlogged areas cultivate rice.
Cropping pattern also depends upon irrigation facilities.
5.7 Impact of Climate Variability on Cropping Patterns
Estimated climate variability influences the economic growth of the world respect
to agriculture (Zhu et al. 2009). The negative effect of climate variability was espe-
cially severe for maize, the country’s main staple crop, and that it therefore greatly
threatened basic food security in both rural and urban areas in Zambia. Kashyapi
et al. (2012) reviewed the agromet services for sustainable development under
changing climatic scenario. Increase in atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse
gases reduce Earth’s radiation that escapes to space with consequent warming of the
atmosphere.
The vulnerability of farming communities to climate change in different agrocli-
matic zones was analyzed using primary and secondary data drawn from various
sources (Subash et al. 2011; Mubeen et al. 2016; Amin et al. 2017b; Hammad et al.
2018). Agriculture is likely to be adversely affected by climate change, and produc-
tion of rice, maize, and wheat was expected to decline in many parts of Asia. Hence,
a pattern of resource use was thought, which aimed at meeting human needs while
preserving environment. Kumar et al. (2011) conducted a study on sensitivity of
yields of major rain-fed crops to climate in India. The analysis of productivity trends
of bajra, maize, and sorghum crops clearly showed that there was a wide gap
between productivity in rain-fed and irrigated regions except in the case of sor-
ghum, which was least irrigated. However, the similar behavior of productivity
trends in rain-fed as well as irrigated regions in all the three selected crops clearly
indicated that weather variables have major influence on the productivity of these
crops in the irrigated region also. The analysis carried out for the crops of bajra,
maize, and sorghum showed that the increase in rainfall and number of rainy days
would result in yield increment in most of the districts, and vice versa. Kharif maxi-
mum temperature was found to influence the yields.
Sidhu et al. (2011) conducted a study on climate change impact and management
strategies for sustainable water-energy-agriculture outcomes in Punjab. The study
revealed that climate change trends and projections suggest that regional agricul-
ture, wheat yields, water levels, and energy use and consequently national food
security and individual livelihood security were negatively impacted. Fall in pre-
cipitation had resulted into greater fall in groundwater resources and increased state
subsidies on electricity. Similarly, increase in the temperature especially in winter
had caused wheat productivity to decline.
5.8 Role of Remote Sensing in Cropping Patterns
In terms of productivity, use of natural resources, and farmer income, the impor-
tance of cropping practices has long been recognized by the international commu-
nity, who thus defined the concept and guidelines of good agricultural practices
(GAP) under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) guidance (Poisot et al.
2007). The GAP is aimed at producing safe and healthy food and nonfood agricul-
tural products while managing and enhancing environmental habitats. For this
purpose, the guidelines encourage improved water and soil management, crop and
fodder production, pest and disease control, and energy and waste management, at
the farm scale. As food is produced on a global scale, it is increasingly difficult for
national governments and consumers to control the production process. Therefore,
traceability and verification of good agricultural practices are important, and to
achieve this, the needs for spatial information are expected to grow rapidly.
Remote sensing has been proven to be an effective tool for monitoring cropping
practices. Due to a large variety of onboard sensors on an increasing number of
civilian satellites (Belward and Skøien 2015), the spectral and temporal properties
of the land surface resulting from human practices can be captured and monitored
at different spatial and temporal scales. However, a detailed literature analysis
showed that less than 10% of the publications on remote sensing and agriculture
actually focus on cropping practices (Bégué et al. 2015). Given its importance, a
status report on the capabilities of remote sensing for mapping and characterizing
cropping systems is overdue. Reported that typology of the main cropping practices
with their definitions is presented, since agronomic-related vocabulary sometimes
lacks precision in the remote sensing literature. Three main categories of practices,
crop succession, cropping patterns, and cropping techniques, have been identified.
For each practice, its agronomic, environmental, and socioeconomic benefits have
been synthesized, and remote sensing-based studies used to detect and characterize
these benefits have been reviewed. The most important features of each category are
then highlighted, and the research efforts needed to produce accurate and robust
information on the cropping system are discussed. Finally, future research for the
use of the new generation of Earth observation systems for large-scale applications
is recommended (Bégué et al. 2018).
5.9 Use of GIS Techniques for Cropping Pattern Mapping
In the post-green revolution era, changing socioeconomic conditions, food security

compulsions, policy support and incentives, and farmers preferences in response to
market demands have given rise to new cropping patterns that predominate in dif-
ferent agroecological subregions (Karunakaran 2015; Velayutham and Palaniappan
2003). With the availability of inputs for intensive agriculture, the cropping system
in Punjab state has undergone a paradigm shift, from a much-diversified cropping
pattern to a monocropped one. Bathinda is one district in Punjab, which has under-
gone a major change in cropping pattern. Multitemporal satellite data is the valuable
source to acquire timely, cost-effective, and relatively accurate information in spa-
tial domain (maps) about the existing cropping systems, crop rotation, etc.
(Panigrahy et al. 1995; Panigrahy and Sharma 1997; Panigrahy et al. 2005; Ray
et al. 2005). In view of this, the present study was undertaken in Bathinda district of
Punjab state for studying long-term changes in cropping pattern using multitempo-
ral, multisensor remote sensing data.
5.9.1 Cropping Pattern Maps
After georeferencing the satellite data, using ground truth information and K-means
unsupervised classification followed by maximum likelihood supervised classifica-
tion, nonagricultural mask covering both kharif and rabi seasons was generated by
overlaying administrative boundaries of Bathinda district (district/block). Using
logistic modeling approach and by overlaying the nonagricultural mask on
RADARSAT ScanSAR data, the rice mask was generated. Using the rice mask
along with nonagricultural mask, the cotton crop was segregated from the IRS-1D
LISS-III, September and October data. Similarly, during rabi season, using the non-
agricultural mask, the wheat crop was classified from IRS-1D LISS-III, February
data of the year 2004. Subsequently, the corresponding area under rice, cotton, and
wheat were calculated from statistics generated through histograms. Since wheat is
the single most dominant crop in the rabi season occupying 82% of cropped area, all
other crops were grouped into a single class, namely, other crops. Similarly, in
kharif season, cotton and rice are the dominant crops covering together 76% of
cropped area; all other minor crops were classified as other crops (Fig. 5.4).
5.9.2 Crop Rotation Map
Crop rotation indicates the dynamics of crop diversity, that is, the crops grown in a
unit area as a sequence within a year. The two major cropping pattern maps (kharif
Fig. 5.4 Changes in cropping pattern of Bathinda district

and rabi) were used to generate crop rotation map. A logical class code combination
algorithm was used to derive the crop rotation map (Panigrahy and Sharma 1997).
5.9.3 Long-Term Change Analysis
The long-term changes were studied using the crop coverage and the crop rotation
maps generated from IRS-1D LISS-III for 2003–2004 by comparing the maps
already generated for the years 1988–1989 and 1998–1999 (Panigrahy et al. 2002).
5.10 Cropping Pattern Choice as a Strategy to Cope with Risk
With a view to minimizing risk with agricultural practices, especially in the absence
of any crop insurance program, farmers often tend to resort to self-insurance in their
own capacities by way of adjustment in cropping pattern across crops and/or season.
In a study on the drought-hit state of Rajasthan, Rathore (2004) found how a correct
crop mix and cropping pattern has been successfully adopted by the farmers as one
of the few strategies to cope with risk of crop loss due to drought. The farmers were
growing those crops which are highly drought resistant. They adopted a mixed crop-
ping system which allowed them to follow a flexible production schedule in terms
of their responses to varying rainfall patterns.
Several researchers found to avoid crop losses due to frequent floods, and many
farmers in the state of Assam have adopted a risk-averse strategy as a result of which
there has been a decline in the acreage of kharif food grains, which are grown in the
rainy season and hence largely affected by flood, and an increase in the acreage
share of rabi food grains and vegetables (Mandal 2010; Goyari 2005). Moreover, a
diversified cropping pattern is found as an important strategy to cope with risk and
uncertainty associated with agriculture due to climatic and biological vagaries
(Shiyani and Pandya 1998).
Gupta and Tewari (1985) found that the farmers who perceive greater risk resort
to diversification of crops more as a means of risk aversion. Blade and Slinkard
(2002) identified risk reduction as one of the factors promoting diversification of
crops. According to them, diversification allows a producer to balance low price in
one or two crops with reasonable prices in others. Similarly Mahesh (1999) observed
that in order to spread risk arising out of fluctuations in the prices of agricultural
products, the farmers diversified their cropping pattern which helped minimize risk
due to crop failures and price fluctuations.
5.11 Global Climate Trends and Adaptation
A wide variety of agricultural adaptations to climatic variability and change are

available and reported in the literature (Smit and Skinner 2002). Adaptations come
in many forms and can be characterized according to a suite of attributes such as
• Intent (spontaneous versus planned).

• Timing (reactive, concurrent or anticipatory).
• Duration (short versus long term).
• Spatial extent (localized or widespread).
• Responsibility (e.g., government, producers, etc.)
Expanding on this last attribute, adaptations undertaken by governments typi-

cally refer to conscious policy measures that aim to enhance the adaptive capacity
of agricultural systems (Bryant et al. 2000). These measures might include funding
technological adaptations such as crop development (Smithers and Blay-Palmer
2001), improving the state of weather forecasting (Murphy 1994), or promoting and
even subsidizing certain farm-level adaptations (Brklacich et al. 2000).
5.11.1 Farm-Level Adaptations
Possible farm-level adaptations to climatic variability and change are many. For
example, farmers can adapt tactically to climate change conditions by changing the
timing of planting, input use, and harvesting (Smit 1993). They can also adapt stra-
tegically by altering soil management practices such as tillage or their selection of
crop types/varieties (Mendelsohn 2000; Wandel and Smit 2000), by diversifying
their farm enterprise (Smit 1993; Kelly and Adger 2000), or purchasing crop insur-
ance. Rather than simply identifying all possible adaptations for managing climate-
related risks, recent research in the field has sought to evaluate the suitability of
adaptations according to criteria such as economic efficiency, effectiveness, flexibil-
ity, or institutional compatibility.
5.12 Future Research Needs
I. Balanced crop pattern.

II. Training of farmers and related stakeholders.
III. Building the capacity of scientist.
IV. Need to start cropping pattern-based field trials.
V. Will Cropping Systems Need to Change?
Some who look at cropping systems in terms of ecological principles contend

that current cropping patterns are so unstable that changes must be made soon to
prevent disaster. There is historical evidence that some cultures have been destroyed
as a consequence of depending too much on a single crop or a few crops, though it
is not clear that the methods of production were the problem as much as lack of
means to adequately manage insects and diseases. Yields of some major crops in
major growing areas of the world have stagnated in recent years, in some cases
without a clear cause, even as genetic potential of these crops continues to increase.
Thus the answer to the question of whether cropping systems will need to change is
“probably,” though there is very little evidence pointing to specific changes that will
have to be made.
5.13 Conclusion
Climate variability is one of the most significant factors influencing year to year
crop production as well as cropping pattern. Weather plays a decisive role in deter-
mining the existing cropping pattern. In most of the situations, the physical environ-
ment (floods, drought, and extreme weather events) reduces the choice of certain
crops altogether or by reducing their level. The negative effect of climate variability
was especially severe for main staple crop and that it therefore greatly threatened
basic food security of the entire world. We need to utilize latest technology as like
remote sensing tools and possible farm-level adaptations for balanced cropping pat-
terns with respect to agricultural problems which limit the crop production. Future
research is the basic need to mitigate the negative impact of climate variability and
other environmental changes.
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Growth and Development Dynamics
in Agronomic Crops Under 6
Environmental Stress
Syed Asad Hussain Bukhari, Arslan Masood Peerzada,
Muhammad Haseeb Javed, Muhammad Dawood,
Nazim Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Plants are exposed to different kinds of adverse environmental conditions during
their life cycle that ablate their productivity. These environmental fluctuations
have detrimental effects on the crops in terms of growth and development. Plants
are highly susceptible to abiotic stresses including drought, salinity, high tem-
perature, and increasing heavy metal concentration. The changing events related
to climatic conditions are the signs of consternation for crops to maintain their
productivity. Due to global warming, drought and high temperature are serious
concerns regarding effective crop production. Salinity also adversely affects
growth and productivity by disrupting normal physiology and biochemistry of
plants. It causes osmotic disturbance, nutritional imbalance, malfunction of pho-
tosynthetic machinery, and oxidative stress. Rapid urbanization and industrial-
ization are polluting the arable lands with heavy metals which not only affects
crop productivity but also interferes with human health. In the modern era, heavy
metals, like lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury, and copper are main environ-
mental hazards, especially in regions of higher anthropogenic activity.
Contamination of agricultural soils with heavy metals is a serious concern owing
to its deleterious effects on agricultural productivity, phytotoxicity, food safety,
and quality of the environment with ultimate impact on human health. All these
abiotic stresses negatively affect several growth and developmental processes of
plants which reduce the productivity of agronomic crop and also deteriorate the
S. A. H. Bukhari (*) · M. H. Javed · N. Hussain · S. Ahmad (*)

e-mail: asadbukhari@bzu.edu.pk; shakeelahmad@bzu.edu.pk
A. M. Peerzada
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences (SAFS), The University of Queensland,
Gatton, QLD, Australia
M. Dawood
Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_6
84 S. A. H. Bukhari et al.
quality of produce. To cope with the situation, it is inevitable to understand the

adverse effects of these abiotic factors on crop plants. This chapter provides
comprehensive information on the impacts of abiotic stresses on crop plants.
Keywords
Abiotic stress · Drought · Salinity · Climate change · Heavy metals
6.1 Introduction
One of the disastrous abiotic stresses is drought which influenced the food security
due to the progressive climatic changes. Arid and semiarid regions are more vulner-
able to drought stress due to severe water limitations. Scientists and climatic stake-
holders are anticipating that amount of precipitation significantly changes because
of alteration in temperature as global warming have been the most concerning issue
during the past few years. Its impacts are detrimental peculiarly to major crops and
this leads to threatened food security (Ahmadizadeh 2013). Various plants are sensi-
tive to temperature modifications; slight changes in temperature enhance the thirst
for water. Plants necessitate an adequate amount of water to retain its turgidity for
normal growth and completion of the life cycle in extreme conditions (Smith and
Stitt 2007). If prevailing conditions for plants are not suitable, it goes through aus-
tere stress. It has been renowned that drought caused more than 50% yield reduc-
tions in crops. Plants mainly rely on water for its survival. The scarcity of water at
any stage cause destabilization in its growth and structure. Mostly two types of
stress signals have been observed produced by the plants when exposed to water
exiguous conditions. The first one is due to osmotic stress. The secondary stress
signal due to water deficiency is oxidative damage which is more detrimental to
cellular components for instance proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids and disturbs
metabolic functions. Plants have a natural mechanism of adopting various stress
conditions in different ways. When the plants face stress, they instantly activate
their defense system for survival and tend to continue the growth by allocating
fewer nutrients and energy. They also have the capability to control transpiration
rate by various modifications to avoid stressful conditions (Anjum et al. 2017). Lack
of sufficient moisture stimulates the loss of cell water from the plant cell via sto-
mata. Leaf surface contains several stomata which are responsible for transpiration
process. A direct relationship exists between stomatal aperture and rate of transpira-
tion. The process of transpiration causes the loss of water from the leaves surface to
regulate internal temperature. Plants adopt the strategy to cope with the water-scarce
conditions by closing their stomata to maintain cellular metabolism and turgidity.
However, the closing of stomata for the longer period of time may diminish the rate
of photosynthesis. Plants tend to regulate stomatal conductance by any means to
6 Growth and Development Dynamics in Agronomic Crops Under Environmental… 85
allow excess uptake of CO2 and reduce transpiration rate. Besides, plants adopt vari-
ous techniques to avoid water-scarce condition that include folding and shedding of
leaves, reducing the number and size of stomatal openings, acquiring waxy layer on
the leaf surface, reducing leaf area, and extending root system for supplementary
moisture. Plants can also develop small hairs-like structure on the leaf surface to
absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Plants adopt all the above-mentioned modifi-
cations during the course of evolutionary development under unfavorable environ-
ments (Basuchaudhuri 2016). For the survival of plants under drought, they must
sense water shortage timely. Abscisic acid is considered as the foremost phytohor-
mone that is supposed to control stress signaling in plants at transcription levels for
the closing of stomata (Yamaguchi-Shinozaki 2007; Cramer et al. 2011).
Salinity is a severe abiotic stress that causes great losses to the quality and quan-
tity of agricultural products. About 20% of the world’s total arable land is affected
by salinity (Zhao et al. 2007). Soil salinity is a chief obstacle in crop production all
over the world, especially on cultivated land near the sea (Zhu 2001). Due to global
climate change, salinity is expected to affect about 33% of the total arable land of
the world in the near future (FAO 2016).
The unforeseeable changes and fluctuations in the environment and its corre-
sponding components are proved to be atrocious peculiarly when the rise in tem-
perature is uncertain; this would be reckoned as more detrimental. Stakeholders
pertaining to climatic studies are well acquainted with the adverse impairments
caused by heat stress and its consequences on the living organisms. Plants are
unable to relocate towards favorable circumstances because of their sessile mode of
nature. Thus, the rise in temperature at any stage proves to be disastrous; retards
growth and processes, related to development and often forces the plant to become
nonviable. This depends on the intensity and duration of the period of temperature
in the vicinity of growing plants (Lobell and Field 2007).
The term “heavy metals” refers to any metal element possessing relatively higher
density and is toxic even at low concentration. Generally, the metals and metalloids
having density higher than 4 g per cm3 are considered as heavy metals (Hawkes
1997). However, comparing with the density, chemical properties, and toxic effect
of these metals are more relevant factors. Generally, cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb),
nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and arsenic (As) are
considered heavy metals (Gill 2014). Rapid urbanization and industrialization dur-
ing the last few decades have increased the heavy metal contamination in biosphere.
The toxicity of heavy metal depends upon plant species, concentration, chemical
nature, pH, bioavailability, and composition of soil.
This chapter mainly focuses on the impact of abiotic stresses like drought, heat,
and heavy metals on the performance of crop plants. The information is collected
after reviewing several research articles on the subject matter that will help the sci-
entific fraternity engaged in abiotic stress tolerance of crop plants.
6.2 rowth and Development Dynamics in Relation

G
to Drought Stress
Water scarcity disturbs the main attributes of plants including osmotic potential,
rate of transpiration, water potential of leaf and relative water content (Farooq et al.
2012). Roots are the foremost organs known as primary sensors that influence the
uptake of water as well as nutrients through a different procedure. However, nutrient
uptake is closely associated with the presence of water in the rhizosphere.
Transpiration ratio and uptake of water and nutrients are highly dependent on the
water available to roots. Lower uptake and dilatory rates of transpiration are directly
amenable to the lower amount of water in shoots and eventually create stress condi-
tions for leaves (Pirzad et al. 2011). Drought results in severe consequences to plant
by reducing cell division and enlargement, leaf size, stem extension, root growth,
stomatal functioning, and nutrient-uptake capacity (Farooq et al. 2009). Climatic
stakeholders anticipated that the severity of drought would be more detrimental and
devastating for agricultural crops in the near future due to ongoing global warming
events (Walter and Ron 2011). Drought stress might range from moderate to severe
that may perturb crop functioning, disturb its metabolism, alter enzymatic activities
and restrain plant growth. Imbibition is considered as the most vulnerable stage in
relation to seed germination. Throughout this period, even moderate water scarcity
restrains imbibition process and causes severe decline in seedling emergence rate.
Therefore, it can confine germination, consequently detain tillering, leaves are less
in numbers, and internodes are shortened in length. These are the severe symptoms
of water deficiency at an earlier stage and lead to fruit stain and lower quality and
taste (Anjum et al. 2017). Insufficient water availability at an early stage may
prompt the plant to switch from vegetative to reproductive growth phase. This con-
dition eventually leads to early flowering and causes a considerable reduction in
seed yield (Senapati et al. 2018). Flowering stage is more susceptible to water scar-
city as it can amplify pollen sterility and seize grain setting. A prolonged period of
drought can cause tissue fatality, reduction in stem diameter, or restrict root growth
and its density. Plants are incapable to grow vertically and turn out to be dwarf and
stunted. The extended impacts of water shortage influence the phonological and
defensive events related to plant life cycle. These include osmotic adjustment,
abscisic acid formation, signal transduction, and ionic balance. Furthermore, water
deficit has an atrocious influence on the vegetative as well as reproductive growth of
plants. It not only reduces leaf area but also decreases the number of leaves (Farooq
et al. 2009). It also restricts the supply of water from xylem to other plant cells,
which results in turgor loss. Consequently, the growth of plants stops that may result
in tissue of complete mortality under severe circumstances (Fahad et al. 2017).
Drought stimulates early senescence in plants which diminish photosynthetic
ability and abridged dry matter accumulation (Westgate and Boyer 1985). The
outcomes of drought on various crops are distinct depending upon the stage of the
crop growth and its intensity in the prevailing conditions. Wheat plants grown under
water-scarce conditions, particularly at the time of pre-anthesis, produce less
number of spikelet plants, reduced number of grains per spikelet, and ultimately
reduced yield (Senapati et al. 2018). Maize is yet another sensitive crop with
abounding critical growth stages in terms of water insufficiency. Drought impedes
flowering and kernel setting in maize. The severe outcomes of drought stress on
maize include reduced cob length and diameter, shriveled grains, abridged accumu-
lation of biomass that results in poor grain yield, and deteriorated quality (Westgate
and Boyer 1985). Rice crop necessitates an immense quantity of water for its growth
throughout the lifespan. Scarcity of water causes major constraints at anthesis stage.
It is renowned that tillering of rice is critically influenced by water-scarce condi-
tions. It causes disruption in the reproductive cycle, which noticeably reduces ker-
nel yield (Haider et al. 2014). Drought stress has also been reported to reduce the
yield and oil contents of sunflower by oxidative damage and negatively affects water
relations, photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, germination, and root/shoot length
(Hussain et al. 2018). In cotton, the scarcity of water mainly damages the reproduc-
tive phase of the plants. It is considered as the most critical phase of the cotton
lifespan. Mostly it has been noted that water-deficit conditions at reproductive stage
reduce the number of bolls per plant with ultimate result of deterioration of yield
and quality of lint (Djanaguiraman et al. 2009). Water insufficiency for sugarcane,
especially at germination and cane development stage, is considered highly damag-
ing which restricts plant growth and causes severe yield loss. Water-scarce condi-
tions mainly at tillering stage have an adverse effect on the vegetative growth.
Furthermore, prolonged drought spell significantly reduces crop yield (Srivastava
et al. 2012).
6.3 Effects of Drought Stress on Plants
6.3.1 Gas Exchange Characteristics
The catastrophic effects of drought have been experienced by various plant spe-
cies around the globe. Plants suffered a lot in utmost stress conditions and numer-
ous morphological, physiological, bio-chemical, biophysical and photochemical
changes that occurred during its ontogeny. The most fundamental event that
ascertains the growth and productivity of plants is photosynthesis. The prolonged
and standard activities of photosynthesis throughout the growth cycle are prefer-
ential for the economic yield. To execute the normal process of photosynthesis,
chlorophyll plays a vital role, as it is a major constituent of chloroplast (Rahdari
et al. 2012).
When the prevailing conditions are not appropriate for plants, particularly when
the water is insufficient in leaf, it progressively declines photosynthetic rate which
is closely associated with the activities of nitrogen and carbon assimilation
(Yordanov et al. 2000). Water-limited conditions considerably reduce the photosyn-
thetic pigments which results in degradation of chlorophyll that loweres its capabil-
ity to harvest proper sunlight (Anjum et al. 2017). It is a well-established fact that
the main cause of diminution in photosynthetic rate is internal carbon dioxide con-
centration. The diffusion of CO2 from atmosphere to the carboxylation site becomes
limited under the scarcity of water (Flexas et al. 2006a, b; Chaves and Oliveira
2004). Generally, two components, such as lower mesophyll conductivity and sto-
matal closure, are highly responsible for reduced leaf diffusion capability. Stomatal,
as well as non-stomatal activities, are attributed to the slower rate of photosynthe-
sis (Yordanov et al. 2003). To prevent excessive water loss through transpiration
under water-limited conditions plants rapidly close their stomata (Lawlor and
Cornic 2002). This curtails the diffusion of carbon dioxide within the leaf with a
consequent decline in 2internal concentration of CO2. The activities of essential
enzymes (RuBisCO) and ATP synthase, which carry out photosynthesis, are
declined (Haupt-Herting and Fock 2000). Likewise, water-scarce environment also
restricts the functioning of photosystem II (Chakir and Jensen 1999). Owing to
drought conditions, non-stomatal restrictions during photosynthesis have been
ascribed to lessen carboxylation (Jia and Gray 2003). Hence, impairment possibly
occurred during the complex process of biochemical and photochemical activities
(Lawlor and Cornic 2002).
Photosynthesis is categorized into two stages by means of stomatal conductance
under water shortage. The first stage is determined by the maximum limit of stoma-
tal conductivity which is beyond 0.05 to 0.10 mol of H2O m−2 s−1. Restricted diffu-
sion of CO2 is highly responsible for the restrained activity of photosynthesis. The
second stage is determined by the lower limit of stomatal conductivity somehow at
the verge where impairment of metabolic activities happens. However, this is highly
dependent on species and prevailing conditions (Flexas et al. 2006a, b).
The lengthened period of water scarcity significantly diminishes the functioning
of chlorophyll. Under drought conditions, photosynthetic pigment absorbs surplus
energy to sustain its growth that results in the excess amount of ROS production.
Drought is also responsible for the abjection of chlorophyll a & b in leaf. The con-
sequences of drought include loose and withered cell wall; diminished cell volume,
desiccation of leaf mesophyll cells, and production of excess ROS, which ultimately
leads to death of plants. Furthermore, maintaining relative water content is a factor
of supreme importance, failure of which leads to closure of stomata that badly influ-
ences the rate of photosynthesis (Flexas et al. 2006a).
In the adverse scenario of water-inadequate conditions, somehow plants are
capable to embrace conditions by several means of adaptations that include osmotic
adjustment and accretion of compatible solutes at the cellular level. For that pur-
pose, plants need to maintain its turgor on the expenditure of energy that, otherwise,
is utilized for essential plant growth and development. An osmotic adjustment
underwater insufficient state has been an indispensable process for plants to retain
turgidity and stomatal conductivity for their survival. Ludlow and Muchow (1990)
evinced that osmotic adjustment maintains the process of photosynthesis up to a
certain level beyond which plant growth is severely affected. Under acute water
deficiency, photosynthesis is reduced, and the rate of respiration is increased, which
leads to stunted growth and causes a significant yield loss (Ribas-Carbo et al. 2005).
Respiration encounters a major role in the metabolic process of plants. It pro-
duces the essential amount of ATPs for plant growth as well as controls various
metabolites that contribute to consequential synthetic processes. It also facilitates to
maintain homeostasis. It helps to regulate various processes that are taking place in
plants under severe stress conditions. Plant growth has survived under the acute
stress of water and its endurance depends on the osmotic adjustment (Blum 2017).
On the basis of observation, it was known that the rate of respiration is inconsistent
throughout the drought period. Sometimes, it increases or often decreases but not
impaired as a whole (Flexas et al. 2006a, b). The photosynthetic rate is substantially
reduced under stress prone conditions. Respiration rate decreases upon exposure to
water-deficit conditions but increases substantially when it faces severe drought
conditions (Cornic et al. 1992).
Some plants have the ability to alter their photosynthetic rate because of their
modified respiration system (Nunes-Nesi et al. 2005). They acquire precocious
mechanism of increased respiration in such a way as to contend photosynthesis
recovery under acute shortage of water (Nogués and Baker 2000). Apart from that
maximum carbon is utilized in the process of respiration which was assimilated dur-
ing photosynthesis. This stability might change with respect to the stress level
(Ribas-Carbo et al. 2005).
6.3.2 Nutrient Uptake
Nutrients have a constitutional role for the standard growth and productiveness of
plants. They are essentially required in an optimum amount to maintain proper
growth and development of plants. Accessibility of plants to vital nutrients at vari-
ous critical growth stages has been found expedient to complete their life cycle.
Inadequate availability of essential nutrients to plants leads to reduced growth and
productivity. Several components influence the accessibility of nutrients to plants.
Abiotic stresses are widely known and have been damaging for plant growth
(Fedoroff et al. 2010). The most perturbing abiotic stress is drought which has a key
role in plants’ ontogeny. Water-scant conditions reduce the growth of plants by sev-
eral ways. It reduces the leaf size significantly by affecting cell division and enlarge-
ment. Furthermore, it affects the growth of stem and roots. It also diminishes the
relation of water and nutrient to plant by subjugating its water use competence
(Farooq et al. 2009; Hussain et al. 2018). Limited water influences the accessibility
of nutrients because water is responsible for their transport, especially to roots.
Roots are the primary source of water and nutrients uptake to the internal parts of
the plants. Thus, it tends to reduce nutrients diffusion and mass flow of Ca, Mg,
sulfate, nitrate, and Si, which are simply soluble in water. The restrained deliverance
of nutrients from roots to shoots lowers the rate of transpiration, damages active
transport system and deteriorates membrane permeability. It also inhibits the ability
of roots to absorb water and nutrients. Hence, productivity of plants due to lessening
nutrients supply may stop (Westgate and Boyer 1985).
Transpiration process severely suffers under limited availability of water in the
rhizosphere. It is known as an essential process that retains the internal temperature
of plants particularly in leaves. Besides, nutrients uptake and carbon dioxide influxes
are also carried out by process of transpiration. Nutrients necessity depends on the
translocation and recycling of internal reserve material that requires excess mois-
ture (Farooq et al. 2012). Plant roots are capable to absorb nutrients in the form of
inorganic ions from the soil solution. The scarcity of moisture in the rhizosphere is
responsible for the movement, uptake, and distribution of essential minerals from
soil matrix to integral parts of the plant by mass flow and diffusion. Drought stress
is the most important restrictive factor for plant growth and development. Under
drought, decline in soil water potential results in the reduction of nutrient uptake by
decreasing the process of diffusion from soil solution to the roots (Silva et al. 2011).
Moreover, drought inhibits the growth of microbes that reduce microbial activity,
thus it lowers the solubility of mineral nutrients for plant growth. This nutrient
imbalance adversely affects the growth and development of the plants (Vurukonda
et al. 2016).
Drought stress causes major consequences at different growth stages of plants
and this shortage leads to unavailability of nutrients (Hussain et al. 2018). Seedling
growth is usually more susceptible to drought but appropriate nutrient supply at this
stage facilitates the plants to attain better establishment (Waraich et al. 2011).
Drought for the particular period at any stage may result in temporary wilting. If
moisture conditions become suitable enough to attain the turgidity, plants recover
themselves. However, prolonged water shortage may result in permanent wilting,
which not merely ceases the water supply and nutrients uptake, but also blocks
transpiration process ultimately leading to death of plants. To cope with the situa-
tion, plants modify their root biomass to such an extent to absorb maximum water
and nutrients from the soil vicinity (Ribas-Carbo et al. 2005).
Nutrients are renowned as imperative elements for plant growth, endurance, and
development. Multifarious functions in plants are carried out and regulated by nutri-
ents. They are essential for various metabolic activities in plants. They accommo-
date normal functioning and maintain different morphological, biological, and
physiological functions up to a standard level. They opt to cater defense mechanism
of plants against preponderant stresses. Many indispensable functions such as sto-
matal conductance, photosynthetic activities, integrity of cell membrane, osmotic
adjustment, activities of ATPase (Saud et al. 2017), cell turgidity and regular water
flow are dependent on the accessibility of nutrients (Raza et al. 2012). Nutrients
have a particular role to cope with drought stress in plants. It has been endorsed by
different researchers that some essential nutrient elements such as nitrogen and
phosphorus have the ability to make plants tolerant against drought stress condi-
tions. They increase the water use efficiency of plants in various ways (Waraich
et al. 2011). Furthermore, they augment the osmotic adjustment and facilitate the
cell membrane in such a way as to maintain its stability. It has been illustrated that
zinc plays a specific role under water stress in tomato (Abdelaziz and Taha 2018).
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are identified as foremost nutrients for plants
growth and life cycle. They recover photosynthesis, osmotic regulation, stomatal
conductivity, water flow, and cell turgidity (Silva et al. 2011).
Nutrients supply at appropriate stage may help the plants to survive and grow
better even the conditions are not suitable. If a suitable amount of nutrients is
ensured at an early stage, the plants become more vigorous and produce higher
biomass that help their early establishment. There is a positive correlation between
the nutrient supply and plant growth. The study illustrates that combined applica-
tion of NPK improves the shoot growth, which results in better leaf area, the fresh
and dry weight of roots and shoots, as well as overall biomass of the plant. Silicon
is considered as an important beneficial element that has the ability to make plants
more tolerant against drought stress. Application of Si at particular stages amelio-
rates nutrient uptake and balance to maintain homeostasis (Rizwan et al. 2015;
Chen et al. 2011).
Under water-scarce conditions the optimum level of nutrients such as N–P–K
and other macro- and micro-essential minerals could be advantageous to survive
under stress (Studer et al. 2017).
6.3.3 Antioxidant Defense Mechanism
Water-scarce conditions in plants at any phase impede its normal functioning by

altering its physiological, as well as morphological traits (Hussain et al. 2018).
Drought stress disrupts the major plant functions at cell and organ level which low-
ers its water- and nutrient-uptake ability (Rahdari et al. 2012). The fewer nutrients
and water deliverance from roots to shoots cause austere consequences to plant in
the form of lower rate of transpiration, damage active transport system, and cause
severe oxidative injury to plants. The accumulation of reactive oxygen species under
drought stress is a natural phenomenon in plants. Furthermore, it stimulates the
formation of free radicals that subvert antioxidant defense system (Choudhury et al.
2017).
Reactive oxygen species are renowned as lethal elements for plants which have
the capability to harm its various functions. Reactive oxygen species are diversified
in its types and generally include free radicals such as superoxide (O2•−) and
hydroxyl (OH•) radicals. Likewise, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as well as singlet
oxygen (1O2) are classified under the category of non-radical molecules. It initiates
the degradation of plants by impairing membrane and deoxyribonucleic acid, induc-
ing lipid peroxidation, damaging proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid (Hendry 2005).
Sometimes, under a dearth of water plants are diagnosed with the photo-oxidation
due to reduced chlorophyll activity (Nair et al. 2008). Cell wall is considered as
active site for the production of ROS (Kim et al. 2011). Cell wall–associated enzyme
oxalate oxidase is responsible for H2O2 production from oxalic acid (Apel and Hirt
2004). Plant cells have to maintain the level of ROS to avert oxidative impairment.
Enzymatic and non-enzymatic anti-oxidative systems execute an indispensable role
in quenching the excess of ROS. Glutathione S-transferase is involved in stress
tolerance in tomato by ROS scavenging (Islam et al. 2017; Foyer and Noctor 2003).
Tocopherols and Carotenoids have also been reported to quench ROS and protect
plants from oxidative damage (Ouyang et al. 2011). Enzymatic antioxidant defense
system includes Superoxide dismutase (SOD), which detoxifies the O2•− by
converting into O2 and H2O2 (Scandalios 1993). Catalase ameliorates the oxidative
stress by converting H2O2 into water and oxygen (Mittler 2002). Guaiacol Peroxidase
oxidizes guaiacol at the disbursal of H2O2 (Schuller et al. 1996). Moreover, in enzy-
matic antioxidants ascorbate–glutathione (ASA–GSH) cycle includes glutathione
reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), monodehydroascorbate
reductase (MDHAR), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) performing their functions
within the cell (Jimenez et al. 1997).
Several investigations have demonstrated that the activities of enzymes to com-
bat the oxidative damage are evoked by environmental stresses. Appreciable prog-
ress has been made in crop plants to cope with the stress-induced oxidative stress by
creating transgenic lines (Sharma et al. 2012).
6.4 rowth and Development Dynamics in Relation to Salt

G
Stress
In arid and semiarid regions, soil salinity is a key constraint in crop production
(Paranychianakis and Chartzoulakis 2005; Ahmed 2009; Shrivastava and Kumar
2015). Water balance of arable land is disturbed due to inappropriate irrigation
management in arid and semiarid regions, especially under poor drainage condi-
tion, which leads to accumulation of salts (Zalidis et al. 2002; Ahmed 2009). In
Mediterranean region, salinity has affected about 27.3 million ha of agricultural
area (Aragüés et al. 2011). The reaction of plants to salinity varies with plant spe-
cies, growth stage, and nature of salt. In relation to osmotic effects, the plants are
damaged by toxic substances produced as a consequence of Cl−& Na+ accumula-
tion leading biochemical and physiological disorders that ultimately stops plant’s
growth and development (Heidari and Jamshid 2010). Salt stress affects the plants’
growth and development in a number of ways such as malfunction of photosyn-
thetic apparatus, disruption of protein synthesis, energy production, and lipid
metabolism (Ramoliya et al. 2004; Parida and Das 2005). Salinity is considered as
a severe threat to food security as most of the crops cannot withstand higher salt
concentrations (Flowers 2004). Salinity stress also reduces photosynthetic ability
due to the osmotic stress and partial closure of stomata (Benidire et al. 2017). It
seems inevitable to exploit the potential of crops to tolerate salt stress to increase
crop production on sustainable basis. Salinity causes osmotic and ionic stress to
different plants. Osmotic stress is faced by the plants just after they are exposed to
higher salt concentration. However, ionic stress takes place at later stages as it
depends upon the translocation of ions from roots to aerial plant parts (Munns and
Tester 2008). Secondary salinization from irrigation water is a major problem in
agriculture, especially in arid to semiarid regions, where irrigation water is required
to meet the evapotranspirational demands of the crops for maximum yields. In
these areas, mostly soils and water contain the amount of salts that interferes with
crop productivity.
6.4.1 Nutritional Imbalance
Higher salt concentration causes nutrient imbalance in the plants due to the decline
in nutrient uptake and transport to aerial plant parts (Munns 2002; Heidari and
Jamshid 2010). Nutrients imbalance can occur in salt-affected plants in many ways.
Nutrient imbalance may result from the consequence of salinity as nutrient unavail-
ability, competitive uptake, transport, or division within the plants because of physi-
ological inactivation of a given nutrient, resulting in an increase in the plant’s
interior necessity for that vital element (Parihar et al. 2015). It is sensible to under-
stand that several processes may be occurring at the same time, but whether they
ultimately affect crop yield or quality depends upon the salinity level, composition
of salts, the crop species, the nutrient in question, and a number of environmental
factors (Alagoz and Toorchi 2018). The availability and uptake of nutrients by
plants in saline environments are affected by many factors in the soil plant environ-
ment. The solid part of the soil and the quantity and composition of solutes in the
soil solution control the activity of the nutrient ion. Soil solution pH will persuade
the speciation and availability of certain nutrients. The amount and percentage of
associated elements can affect the uptake and transport of a particular nutrient and
ultimately may affect the uptake and translocation of others (Benidire et al. 2017).
These interactions are complicated further by numerous environmental factors such
as aeration, temperature, and stresses both biotic and abiotic. Crops vary not only in
the rate at which they absorb an available nutrient element, but also in the manner
by which they distribute the element spatially within the plant. Certain ions in the
saline media such as sodium can have a profound effect on calcium mobility and
distribution within certain plant organs. Similar examples can be made for other
essential nutrients. The presence of salinity adds a new level of complexity to the
mineral nutrition of crops (Marschner 1995).
Nitrogen is a nutrient that plants need in large quantity and is a part of different
plant components, such as amino acids and nucleic acids. Nitrogen deficiency
quickly stops plant growth due to reduction in total shoot N concentration under
saline conditions (Munns and Termaat 1986). Egamberdieva et al. reported a decline
in root/shoot growth, nodulation, and colonization of biological nitrogen-fixing bac-
teria in the rhizosphere of soybean under salt stress. The failure of plants in biologi-
cal nitrogen fixation by nodule formation under salinity stress might be the
consequence of restricted nitrogenase activity owing to reduced nodule respiration
under limited concentration of oxygen in the nodules (Serraj et al. 1995; Soussi
et al. 2001). Potassium is an important factor which is involved in a large number of
plants’ physiological and biochemical processes. It also plays a vital role in osmotic
adjustment and maintaining cell turgidity, especially under salt stress (Marschner
1995). Absorption of K+ is restricted because of higher concentration of Na+ in
saline environments, which could be explained by the competition between both
elements for the sites of absorption (Innocenti et al. 2009; Al-Karaki 2008; Asch
et al. 1999, 2000; Botella et al. 1997; Hamamoto et al. 2015). According to some
reports, excess Na+ absorption also inhibits Ca2+ uptake and additional supply of
calcium may decrease the Na+ influx, thereby improving the membrane stability
under saline environment (Patel et al. 2011; Shoresh et al. 2011; Semida et al. 2014).
6.4.2 Oxidative Damage
Plants grown under saline conditions have to face the oxidative stress imposed by
overgeneration of reactive oxygen species like O2•−, H2O2, and OH• (Gomez et al.
2004). Malondialdehyde, as a disintegration product of polyunsaturated fatty acids
of biomembranes, show greater accumulation in salt stress (Gossett et al. 1994). To
combat the oxidative stress, plants have developed a unique mechanism through
evolutionary process, that is antioxidant defense system which is comprised of the
enzymatic and non-enzymatic components (Apel and Hirt 2004). Production of
H2O2 could be highly fatal as it deteriorates lipids and affects the permeability of
plasma membrane along with damage to other biomolecules (Mittler 2002). The
scavenging of H2O2 just after its generation is highly important to minimize the
damage. In peroxysomes and glyoxisomes catalase performs this function while in
chloroplast, mitochondria, and apoplast peroxidase does the same job (Shigeoka
et al. 2002). Another important antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase, is
responsible for the detoxification of O2•− molecules (Tuna et al. 2008). Plants can
endure membrane destabilization and general nutrient imbalance under salt stress
by virtue of different mechanisms like antioxidant activities (Sudhakar et al. 2001).
Generation of reactive oxygen species, like oxide, superoxide, and hydroxyl radi-
cals, as well as dynamics of antioxidants, are important stress indicators in plants
(Alagoz and Toorchi 2018). Antioxidants are compounds produced in plants as a
response to different kinds of stresses. In addition to other negative consequences,
salt stress also causes overgeneration of reactive oxygen species (Miller et al. 2010).
These highly reactive and toxic radicals exert a great degree of stress on plants,
leading to diminished physico-chemical processes, reduction in growth and yield,
or even death of plants in severe cases by deteriorating lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids (Morant-Manceau et al. 2004). During early growth stages, salt stress
adversely affects the agronomic traits of plants like plant height, root length, dry/
fresh weight, and leaf area index (Asch et al. 1999). Both enzymatic (SOD, Catalase,
CAT; peroxidase, POD and ascorbate peroxidase, APX) and non-enzymatic antioxi-
dants (proline, betaine, ascorbate) constitute the antioxidant defense system of
plants (Silva et al. 2008). Amelioration of oxidative stress by conferring the toler-
ance against environmental stresses is generally linked with anti-oxidative defense
mechanism (Raskin 1992). It is very well documented that antioxidants play active
role in osmotic adjustment, detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and plasma
membrane stability (Alagoz and Toorchi 2018).
6.5 rowth and Development Dynamics in Relation to Heat

G
Stress
Disastrous effects of heat stress decelerate the growth and development of plants
which influence the yield in a direct manner. Generation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) is the major dilemma when plants, exposed to heat stress, are further sub-
jected to the oxidative stress (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2013a). The survival of the plant
is problematic peculiarly under heat stress. Umpteen modifications are adopted by

the plants as defensive strategies to cope with the heat stress by formulating special
signals for altering metabolism with respect to the severity of stress. These
approaches involve the production of compatible solutes for the maintenance of cel-
lular and proteins structures (Valliyodan and Nguyen 2006). Furthermore, plants
regulate osmotic adjustment to maintain cell turgidity, restructure the antioxidant
system to sustain redox balance, as well as homeostasis. Heat stress amends the
sequence of genes expression participating to reduce and protect plants under
adverse environments. The prominent genes accountable for the maintenance of
various processes are related to osmoprotectants, transporters, enzymatic activities
and regulation of protein structure (Krasensky and Jonak 2012; Semenov and
Halford 2009). Upon exposure to austere heat, meticulous genes, responsible for the
amelioration of biochemical and physiological processes, play their role to induce
acclimatization, or in suitable conditions confront to adaptation (Moreno and
Orellana 2011). To extenuate the effect of severe heat stroke, application of different
protectants, with respect to conditions, have been practically applied. These exo-
genic applications, namely, phytohormones, osmoprotectants, polyamines, trace
elements, and essential nutrients are involved to mitigate the rigorous stress induced
by heat. Phytohormones are categorized as salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, gibberellic
acid, and brassinosteroids. Osmoprotectants are classified as proline and glycine
betaine. The distinguished forms of polyamines are renowned as spermidine, putres-
cine, and spermine. Trace elements are assorted as silicon and selenium. Furthermore,
different essential nutrients are exploited and are known to have protective role;
they are classified as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, and calcium (Hasanuzzaman
et al. 2013b). It is the need of the hour to develop breeds that are tolerant against
austere heat, and it seems to be a challenging task for scientists (Moreno and
Orellana 2011). The heat intensity and protracted period coerce the plants to respond
in a dynamic way, irrespective of type and prevailing environmental factors.
Nonetheless, some traits that are responsible for the tolerance are yet unidentified
(Wahid et al. 2007). Scientists are investigating the mechanisms which are amena-
ble for the tolerance capability of the plants against heat stress. Scientists are striv-
ing to bring forth genetically modified plants by creating variations at the genetic
level to produce susceptible genotypes against heat stress. In the current mode of
study, primary intention is to review the most recent strategies that are ascertained
through scientific observations at the physiological, biochemical, and molecular
level under high temperature. Furthermore, the purport of this diligent research is to
scrutinize the role of exogenous protectants and growth regulators upon heat expo-
sure to plants.
6.5.1 Effect of Heat Stress on Plants
Plants have specialized sensors that detect the intensity and perpetuation of heat stress.
The ruinous collapse may occur in the cellular arrangement of plants due to high-
temperature stress, which causes cellular damage and eventually causes cell death in
extreme cases (Ahuja et al. 2010). Germination and seedling establishment are articu-
lately affected because of heat intensity that categorically retards the growth, develop-
ment, and yield of the plants (Lobell et al. 2011). Devastating effects of heat stress
destabilize the structure of cell membrane, multiple proteins, RNA, and cytoskeleton.
Furthermore, proficiency of enzymes is also influenced which creates an imbalance in
physiologic, as well as metabolic processes (Suzuki et al. 2011, 2012).
6.5.1.1 Growth
Plants are more vulnerable to environmental stresses at germination among all growth
stages. High temperature deployed negative impacts on seed germination stage. Some
crops are more fragile to heat stress at the germination stage (Kumar et al. 2011). Heat
stress causes multiple problems for plant species in the form of abridged germination
ratio, curtailed plant emergence, feeble and less vigorous seedling establishment and
diminished plumule and radical growth (Piramila et al. 2012). The role of abscisic
acid (ABA) to hinder the germination of seeds in the presence of heat stress is well
documented (Toh et al. 2008). The acute temperature of about 45 °C substantially
restricts the germination of wheat and deceases the embryo growth which impedes
seedling establishment (Essemine et al. 2010). High temperature is the cause of sub-
stantial water loss from the cell, which is responsible for diminutive cell size and
restricts plant growth. Reduced rate of net assimilation was also observed in maize,
millet, and sugarcane due to heat stress which further diminished the relative growth
rate (Ashraf and Hafeez 2004; Wahid 2007). The catastrophic nature of heat stress
influences the morphologic characters of plants like scorching of leaves and twigs,
abscission and leaf senescence, growth retardation, restricted root and shoot develop-
ment, and deterioration on quality of the produce (Rodríguez et al. 2005). Furthermore,
heat stress impairs the leaf margins and tips, rolling and desiccation of leaves, and
hastens necrosis in sugarcane (Srivastava et al. 2012). Common bean (Phaseolus vul-
garis) is conspicuously affected by the heat-induced stress on morphological and
physiological attributes. These attributes involve phenology, plant relation with water,
partitioning of photosynthates, and shoot growth (Omae et al. 2010). Under HT stress,
a significant reduction was ascertained in number of tillers and stimulation of shoot
elongation in wheat plant. Temperature domain of about 25/30 °C (day/night) reduced
the leaf area along with productive tillers per plant peculiarly in wheat (Rahman et al.
2009). Alteration in phenological duration has been remarkably noted because of heat
stress which results in the form of diminishing life period. Temperature fluctuations
even in minimum range of about 1–2 °C can negatively influence the cereal crops by
reducing its grain-filling duration and other yield components. Wheat crop is some-
how more sensitive to temperature modifications and exhibit reduction in germination
periods at the temperature of 28–30 °C along with curtailed duration to anthesis and
booting stage that leads to squeezed growth period (Nahar et al. 2010). Heat stress
may cause dysfunction of the plants by imposing scheduled cell death in various tis-
sues. These conditions may lead to denatured protein structure, premature l eaf/flower/
fruit fall, abortive fruits and death of entire plant in extreme cases (Hasanuzzaman
et al. 2010).
6.5.1.2 Photosynthetic Characteristics

Photosynthesis is considered as a highly sensitive physiological process, when
plants are exposed to hostile environments like high temperature. The photosyn-
thetic apparatus of C3 plants is more vulnerable to high temperature than C4 species
(Yang et al. 2006). When the plants are subjected to high temperature, cell organ-
elles undergo severe damage. Carbon metabolism and photochemical reactions of
stroma and thylakoid lamellae are influenced in chloroplast (Wang et al. 2009;
Marchand et al. 2005). High temperature creates austere damages to thylakoid
membrane due to its sensitivity. Several foremost changes occur in the structure of
chloroplasts due to heat stress like altered internal morphology of thylakoids and
disorganization and swelling of grana, etc. (Rodríguez et al. 2005). High tempera-
ture tends to diminish the activity of photosystem II (PSII) or probably stops under
extreme conditions (Morales et al. 2003). Furthermore, photosynthetic pigments are
also reduced because of fatal heat shocks. Sustainability of gaseous exchange such
as assimilation of carbon dioxide is highly correlated with temperature (Marchand
et al. 2005). Leaf water status, intercellular carbon dioxide concentration, and sto-
matal conductivity of leaf are noticeably influence by high temperature (Greer and
Weedon 2012). Upon exposure to high temperature, stomata are closed which
impaired photosynthetic process owing to limited intake of carbon dioxide (Ashraf
and Hafeez 2004). Chlorophyll content retrogrades due to heat stress as a conse-
quence of lipid peroxidation of thylakoid membranes of chloroplast in sorghum
facing about 40/30 °C day/night temperature (Mohammed and Tarpley 2010).
Under similar heat-prone conditions, photosystem II photochemistry (Fv/Fm ratio)
was abridged prominently. Relative to optimum temperature conditions, the photo-
synthetic capability of sorghum was remarkably diminished at high temperature
(Mohammed and Tarpley 2010). In soybean, the utmost temperature ranges
28–38 °C, consequently reduced total chlorophyll content to apropos 18%, chloro-
phyll a to 7%, the ratio of chlorophyll a/b to about 3% and similarly the ratio of Fv/
Fm to about 5%, stomatal conductance to approximately 16%, and net photosynthe-
sis to nearly 20% (Tan et al. 2011). The two rice cultivars named Shuanggui1 and
T219 showed a substantial reduction of about 16% and 15% in net photosynthesis
respectively, under high temperature treatment of 33 °C constantly for 5 days
(Hurkman et al. 2009). In Vitis vinifera, a rise in temperature from 25 to 45 °C
caused a decline in net photosynthesis rate by 60% which was mainly due to stoma-
tal closure (Greer and Weedon 2012). Under heat stress, some other factor might
have contributed toward this reduction in net photosynthesis like decline in RuBisCO
binding protein and soluble proteins (Kepova et al. 2005). Besides, the synthesis of
starch and sucrose is highly influenced because of reduced activity of some enzymes
like sucrose phosphate synthase, ADP–glucose pyrophosphorylase, and invertase
upon exposure to heat stress (Sumesh et al. 2008). High temperature causes decline
in leaf area because of reduced leaf water potential and augmented pre-mature leaf
fall, which consequently decreases net photosynthetic rate (Greer and Weedon
2012; Djanaguiraman et al. 2009). Heat stress for extended duration results in the
form of depleted carbohydrate storage, and plants are deprived of food reserves
(Sumesh et al. 2008).
6.5.1.3 Reproductive Development

Heat stress at any stage, either growth or development, may damage the plant tis-
sues due to its sensitivity. However, the comparison portrayed that during reproduc-
tive stage, tissues are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations. For instance, the
slight rise in temperature beyond tolerable limit can create a huge loss to grain and
amend crop cycles (Ruelland and Zachowski 2010). Furthermore, the slight increase
in temperature even for a shorter duration at the reproduction stage considerably
decreases floral buds, as well as urges the flower to abortive condition whilst the
plants may vary in terms of sensitivity due to species and cultivar characteristics
(Young et al. 2004). Heat spells during reproductive phase of plants lead to mal-
functioning in the process of flower or fruit production (Sato et al. 2006). High
temperature is considered as a disastrous abiotic stress for plants which promotes
sterility and further consequences are observed in the form of meiosis impairment
not only in male but also in the female, diminish pollen germination potential and
growth of pollen tube which lessen the viability of ovule. The pessimistic role of
high temperature may also result in disruption of stigma and style, fewer pollen
grains, endosperm growth retardation, and formation of unfertilized embryo (Cao
et al. 2008). At the stage of heading initiation, temperature more than 33 °C results
in the form of less dehisced anthers and poor pollen viability, which leads to reduc-
tion in fertilization and consequently decline in grain yield (Cao et al. 2009). High
temperature (32 °C) during night has been reported as a major reason for spikelet
sterility (up to 60%) in rice owing to reduction in pollen germination by 36%. Heat
stress frequently causes male sterility in the pollens of rice because of excess ethyl-
ene production. It is anticipated that ethylene in excess amount inhibits the perfor-
mance of enzymes which have a major role in the metabolism of sugar and starch
that results in the production of sterile grains due to weak sink strength and restricted
grain filling (Mohammed and Tarpley 2010). Heat stress affects grain yield by
reducing the number of spikelets, ear length, and a number of fertile florets in wheat
plants. Heat stress at flowering stage, particularly at silking, showcased substantial
yield diminution as compared to stress incurred at grain-filling stage (Edreira and
Otegui 2012). Besides, high temperature may induce abscission and flower abor-
tions, immature pods, and early seed development which may result in fewer seed
numbers particularly in soybean. Pollen viability has been highly diminishing when
exposed to heat stress in soybean (Djanaguiraman et al. 2011).
6.5.1.4 Oxidative Stress

High-temperature affects several enzymes at a certain level which are highly impor-
tant for different metabolic pathways. It has been reported that heat stroke also
disconnects enzymes like all other abiotic stresses and disrupts metabolic pathways
which results in accretion of dangerous ROS, namely superoxide radical (O2•−),
singlet oxygen (1O2), hydroxyl radical (OH•), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Asada
2006). In chloroplast, the leading sites for ROS generation are the reaction center of
photosystem I and photosystem II. However, organelles like mitochondria and per-
oxisomes are also responsible for ROS generation (Soliman et al. 2011). Maximum
efficiency of photosystem II is directly correlated with ROS accumulation (Bukhari

et al. 2016), which indicates that high temperature causes the injury to photosys-
tems, thus reduces the absorption of photon. In chloroplast, photo oxidation reac-
tions (redox cycling and flavoprotein) produce O2•− by Mehler reaction during
glyoxisomal photorespiration and mitochondrial electron transport chain
(Hasanuzzaman et al. 2013b). Reaction of H2O2 with O2•− and Fe2+ and decomposi-
tion of O3 in the apoplastic space are responsible for the generation of hydroxyl
radical. Singlet oxygen is produced through photosystem II electron transfer reac-
tions and photo inhibition in chloroplast (Karuppanapandian et al. 2011). Because
of certain degrees of heat stress, plants experience several physiological damages
(Huang and Xu 2008). Hydroxyl radicals have the ability to react with almost all
biomolecules such as lipids, proteins, DNA, and all cell constituents (Moller et al.
2007). DNA, proteins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids can be easily oxidized by
singlet oxygen (Karuppanapandian et al. 2011; Huang and Xu 2008). Oxidative
strain can be induced by thermal stress through dislocation of the cell membrane by
protein denaturing and lipid peroxidation (Camejo et al. 2006). It was referenced
that even under moderate temperature increase, oxidative stress was induced which
damaged the photosynthetic light reaction through ROS generation. This ROS pro-
duction occurred because of electron leakage from the thylakoid membrane (Savicka
and Škute 2010). As leaf temperature increases, it brings down the activities of
antioxidant enzymes that are responsible for elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) con-
tents in rice leaves (Cao et al. 2009). In wheat, cell viability was considerably
reduced under high temperature (33 °C) stress due to overproduction of reactive
oxygen species that in turn caused protein degradation, impairment of membranes
and enzyme deactivation. It also aggravated the membrane peroxidation and low-
ered thermostability of membranes by 28% and 58%, respectively, with augmented
electrolyte leakage (Savicka and Škute 2010). In case of perennial ryegrass (Lolium
perenne L.), when high temperature (40 °C) is experienced, H2O2 level increases
showing the evidence of oxidative stress, and it was causative to a notable physio-
logical handicap of photosystem II efficiency. It also destabilized the cell membrane
and increased lipid peroxidation (Soliman et al. 2011). Furthermore, the noticeable
damage was also ascertained in cotton, soybean, and sorghum due to heat stress in
cell constituents (Djanaguiraman et al. 2009; Djanaguiraman et al. 2010). As com-
pared with the control, heat stress induced a considerable increase in MDA and
membrane damage by 75% and 110%, respectively, which was due to increase in
H2O2 level by 124% and O2− content by 43%. In addition, premature leaf senescence
was observed in cotton owing to ROS production by heat stress that was indulged in
protein proteolysis (Djanaguiraman et al. 2009). It was observed that if wheat is
exposed to heat stress for 2 days, there is a significant increase in O2•− production to
about 68% in root cells which results in the inhibition of root growth. In addition,
MDA content also increased at initial and later seedling development stages by 27%
and 58%, respectively (Savicka and Škute 2010). Persistent heat stress caused depo-
larization of the plasma membrane by aggregation at its outer surface (Miller et al.
2009). In extreme cases, ROS aggregation can induce programmed cell death. In
spite of ROS having an enormous devastating effect on metabolic processes of the

plant, it has been hypothesized that they also have signaling behavior for developing
heat tolerant ability in plants by initiating heat stroke responses (Hasanuzzaman
et al. 2013a).
6.5.1.5 Yield
Unforeseeable temperature is a major threat for the reduction in crop production,
as well as food security (Nahar et al. 2010). Even small fluctuation of about 1.5 °C
in temperature has been devastating for the crop production (Warland et al. 2006).
Temperature elevation interrupts the phenological processes related to develop-
ment which diminishes the grain yield. Heat caused prodigious yield reductions in
major cereals (wheat, maize, rice, barley, and sorghum), pluses (cowpea and
chickpea) as well as oilseed crops (canola and mustard) (Zhang et al. 2013; Foolad
2005; Tubiello et al. 2007; Kalra et al. 2008; Hatfield et al. 2011). It was eviden-
tially exhibited that a 1 °C rise in temperature can considerably reduce the yield
of cereal crops by 4.1–10.0% (Wang et al. 2012). Some crop cultivars are more
prone to heat stress due to their sensitive nature. Two rice cultivars are enlisted;
one is tolerant while the other is sensitive. Exposure to temperature range of about
35–40 °C, severely decreased the weight of 1000-grain up to 7.0–7.9% in
Shuanggui 1 which was sensitive in nature while 3.4–4.4% reduction was noted in
Huanghuazhan variety due to tolerant ability. The yield of Shuanggui 1, sensitive
to heat, was conspicuously reduced by 35.3–39.5%, while on the contrary, the
tolerant variety, Huanghuazhan, showed 21.7–24.5% decline in yield (Cao et al.
2008). Grain length and width reduced up to 2% under the high night temperature
of 32 °C. It further increased the spikelet sterility to approximate 61%. Besides,
grain weight is inversely proportional to nitrogen concentration as nitrogen con-
centration increased to approximate 44% by heat stress; it caused a reduction in
grain yield (Mohammed and Tarpley 2010). These are all yield-reducing factors
that contribute to 90% yield loss (Suwa et al. 2010). High temperature is also
responsible for the early maturity of wheat kernels which reduces grain weight
that ultimately causes reduction in yield (Zhang et al. 2013). Relative to optimum
temperature, delayed sowing responds to intermediate heat stress ranging from 28
to 30 °C in the form of reduced yield. This phenomenon has been illustrated in
various wheat varieties (Nahar et al. 2010). In sorghum, a substantial reduction
was observed in the weight of filled seeds (Djanaguiraman et al. 2010). Similarly,
in canola varieties, the main stem reduced seed yield by 89% but the overall
reduction was observed to about 52% due to all branches under heat stress at
30 °C. Heat stress significantly declined yield due to the formation of infertile
pods, which diminished the weight and number of seeds per pods (Kutcher et al.
2010). The decreased rate of assimilation is the major reason behind the reduced
productivity (Sinsawat et al. 2004). In case of maize, 33–40 °C temperature has a
destructive effect on radiation use efficiency, grain yield, and biomass. Flowering
and grain-filling stages were adversely affected by high temperature where the
flowering stage was more sensitive to heat stress and caused a greater loss in yield
than grain-filling stage (Edreira and Otegui 2012). Quality and performance of
crops are highly affected by the fluctuations in temperature. Owing to heat stress,
grain-quality parameters were remarkably affected in barley as maltose content
and proteinogenic amino acids were significantly increased, while nonstructural
carbohydrate concentration, fructose, and raffinose, starch, aluminum, and lipids
were noticeably reduced (Högy et al. 2013). In okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
pod, quality characters like fiber contents were deteriorated along with destruc-
tion of Ca pectate under heat stress (Gunawardhana and de Silva 2011).
6.6 rowth and Development Dynamics in Relation

G
to Heavy Metal Stress
This section of the chapter deals with the occurrence and toxicity of heavy metals to
plants. Heavy metals are absorbed by plants from the polluted soil, which disturbs
the ecosystem and causes health hazards by entering the food chain. Plants grown
in agricultural soils, infested with heavy metals, are characterized with abnormal
physiological and biochemical attributes that lead to disturbed metabolic activities,
growth retardation, reduced biomass production, and heavy metal accumulation.
The exorbitant increase in heavy metal pollution attracted scientists to investigate its
impact on plants and the whole ecosystem during the last few decades. This section
is mainly focused on cadmium, zinc, copper, chromium, mercury, lead, nickel, arse-
nic, iron, cobalt, and manganese. Generally, plants are exposed to several biotic and
abiotic stresses during their life cycle. Among all, heavy metal stress is of great
significance because of its noticeable deleterious effects on the performance of crop
plants. Heavy metal stress influences a number of metabolic processes in plants,
which ultimately causes a considerable decline in crop yield. Some heavy metals
like Zn and Cu are considered as essential plant nutrients, being involved in enzyme
activation (Mildvan 1970). Cadmium, mercury, and arsenic are highly toxic to
metal-sensitive enzymes, and cause growth restrictions and eventually death of
plants.
Plant roots are the main site for contact with heavy metals. However, the whole
body of aqueous plants is exposed to heavy metal ions. Plants can also absorb heavy
metals through leaves when the metal ions are deposited on leaf surface. The sources
of heavy metal contamination in the environment include natural, industrial, agri-
cultural, and domestic effluents.
6.6.1 Effects of Heavy Metals on Plants
The plants exhibit a number of physiological and biochemical changes under expo-
sure to heavy metal toxicity (Dubey 2010). The most generalized and prominent
visual evidence observed in plants in response to heavy metals include leaf chloro-
sis, necrosis, loss of turgidity, reduced seed germination, and distortion in photosyn-
thetic system, leading to growth reduction and consequently death of plants (Gill
2014). The above-mentioned effects of heavy metals on plants are the consequence
of physiological, biochemical, ultrastructural, and molecular alterations (Bukhari

et al. 2015, 2016; Farid et al. 2018). The individual effects of some heavy metals on
plants are discussed below.
6.6.1.1 Cadmium
Plants grown in Cd-contaminated soils show clear effects of Cd-toxicity like growth
retardation, chlorosis, deformation of photosynthetic apparatus, and ultimately
death of plants (Ali et al. 2013; Wojcik and Tukiendorf 2004; Mohanpuria et al.
2007; Guo et al. 2008). Cadmium interferes with the root Fe reductase, leading to
deficiency of Fe (II) that severely inhibits photosynthetic performance of plants
(Alcantara et al. 1994). Generally, Cd has been reported to reduce the absorption,
transportation, and assimilation of different essential nutrient elements (P, K, Ca,
Mg) and water by plants (Das et al. 1997). Absorption of nitrate and its translocation
from roots to shoots have also been reported to be hampered by Cd due to deactiva-
tion of nitrate reductase in plant roots (Hernandez et al. 1996). Soybean root nod-
ules showed a marked reduction in assimilation of ammonia and nitrogen fixation
under Cd toxicity (Balestrasse et al. 2003). Cd has also been reported to negatively
affect cell water balance because of deterioration in the permeability of plasma
membrane (Costa and Morel 1994). A reduction in the activity of ATPase of root
plasma membrane in sunflower and wheat has been shown under Cd treatment.
Cadmium affects the functions of membrane system because of lipid peroxidation
(Fodor et al. 1995). Cd also inhibits the biosynthesis of chlorophyll and reduces the
activity of CO2 enzymes (Raziuddin et al. 2011).
6.6.1.2 Chromium
Chromium (Cr) is one of the most toxic heavy metals with highly pronounced del-
eterious effects on growth and development of crop plants (Farid et al. 2017). Seed
germination is of supreme importance and basic physiological phenomenon in
plants’ life indicating the tolerance limit of plant to prevailing adverse environmen-
tal conditions like heavy metal stress (Peralta et al. 2001). Germination of
Echinochloa colona seeds was declined to 25% by treating the medium with 20 ppm
Cr (Rout et al. 2000). Germination ability of bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) was
reduced by 48% under high level of hexavalent Cr toxicity (500 ppm) in soil (Parr
and Taylor 1982). Germination percentage of Lucerne (Medicago sativa) was
reduced by 23% when treated with 40 ppm concentration (Peralta et al. 2001). Jain
et al. (2000) reported a significant reduction (57%) in sugarcane bud germination
under 80 ppm Cr treatment. The reduction in germination because of Cr stress might
be due to the reduced activity of amylases and poor transportation of sugars to
growing embryo. On the other hand, protease activity has been reported to be
increased under Cr treatment which further aggravates the poor germinating condi-
tions (Zeid 2001). In plants, restricted root growth is a well-established phenome-
non due to heavy metal stress (Tang et al. 2001). Bukhari et al. (2015) reported a
clear reduction in plant height, root length, shoot, and root dry weight of tobacco
under 100 μM Cr toxicity. In another study, it was reported that 100 μM Cr drasti-
cally reduced SPAD value, chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), net photosynthesis
rate, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2 concentration, and transpiration rate
in tobacco seedlings under hydroponic environment, which eventually lead to over-

all stunted plant growth (Bukhari et al. 2016a). A clear decline in morphological
parameters, gas exchange characteristics, chlorophyll contents, lipid peroxidation,
antioxidant enzyme activities, and ultrastructural arrangement was reported in sun-
flower (Farid et al. 2018) and tobacco (Bukhari et al. 2016). Cr toxicity also affected
root miRNA expression pattern in tobacco (Bukhari et al. 2015). Leaf protein pro-
file of tobacco plants exhibited a large number of proteins showing differential
expression in response to Cr stress (Bukhari et al. 2016).
6.6.1.3 Lead
Lead is known to be one of the most toxic heavy metals affecting growth and devel-
opmental processes of plants. Lead has been reported to reduce seed germination of
wheat which might be the outcome of Pb interference with important enzymes
(Lamhamdi et al. 2011). Lead caused genotoxicity to Acalypha indica plants at
100–500 mgL−1 concentration (Venkatachalam et al. 2017). A recent study on two
aromatic rice cultivars depicted that Pb stress caused the increased production of
H2O2, aggravated lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage, thereby inhibiting the
photosynthetic performance and pigment contents in genotype dependent manner.
Further, proline, soluble sugars, proteins, activities of antioxidants like POD, CAT,
SOD, APX, oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and reduced glutathione (GSH) were
severely affected by Pb toxicity. As a cumulative consequence of all these factors,
an overall reduction in yield and deterioration in quality parameters of rice was
observed under Pb treatment (Ashraf and Tang 2017). In another study, Sidhu et al.
(2016) reported that Pb exposure increased H2O2, electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxi-
dation, and anti-oxidant activities in Coronopus didymus plants. However, at the
highest Pb concentration, the activities of SOD and CAT declined. The H2O2 level
and MDA content in roots increased significantly up to ~500% and 213%, respec-
tively, over the control, at 2900 mg kg/kg Pb treatment. Pb Stress clearly declined
the tillering capacity, shoot length, and dry matter production by inducing oxidative
injuries to rice plants at 400, 800, and 1200 μM concentration. However, the degree
of severity was found to be cultivar dependent (Ashraf et al. 2017).
6.6.1.4 Arsenic
Arsenic is considered a major environmental pollutant with well-documented
effects on plants, animals, and human beings as well. Rice grown in As-contaminated
environment was characterized with significantly reduced shoot length, number of
productive tillers, dry matter accumulation, and kernel yield (Hossain et al. 2007;
Khan et al. 2009). Delayed heading in rice is a physiological disorder which is
caused by As toxicity that reduces plant height and kernel yield, called Straighthead
disease of rice. The severity of disease increases with increasing As concentration
in soil. Under severe conditions, the yield loss may range from 17% to 100% due to
the formation of sterile spikelets (Rahman et al. 2008), which suggests that As
might disrupt the germination of pollen tube. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b con-
tents in rice leaves have been reported to be significantly reduced by treatment of
30 mg per kg soil (Rahman et al. 2007). Yield of soybean and cotton is decreased
when tissue arsenic concentration exceeds 1, 4, and 20 mg/kg, respectively (Punshon
et al. 2017). The response of plants to arsenic stress varies with plant species and
chemical form of arsenic (Choudhury et al. 2011). The chemical analogy between
phosphate and arsenate suggests that phosphate can be replaced by arsenic in impor-
tant bio-molecules like ATP, which exerts negative effects on growth and metabolic
activities of plants (Ullrich-Eberius et al. 1989).
6.6.1.5 Mercury
Mercury exists in soil as HgS, Hg, Hg2+, Hg, and methyl-Hg. However, Hg2+ is a
predominant form of mercury in agricultural soils (Han et al. 2006). In soil, Hg is
adsorbed on clay particles, sulfides, and organic matter, and remains in solid form.
It has been shown that aquatic as well as higher plants can readily accumulate Hg2+
(Kamal et al. 2004; Wang and Greger 2004; Israr et al. 2006). Higher concentration
of Hg2+ is highly toxic and causes disorders in physiological processes of plants
(Zhou et al. 2007). Hg2+ leads to leaf stomatal closure by binding with water channel
proteins, thereby causing a physical barrier in water flow (Zhang and Tyerman
1999). The activity of mitochondria is also affected by Hg2+ toxicity, due to oxida-
tive stress caused by overgeneration of reactive oxygen species, which leads to dis-
rupted cellular metabolism in plants (Messer et al. 2005; Cargnelutti et al. 2006).
6.6.1.6 Nickel
Nickel (Ni) is also recognized as an essential micronutrient for plants’ growth and
development (Eskew et al. 1983). Nonetheless, at higher concentration, it poses
toxic effects on plants. Nickel toxicity disrupts photosynthetic performance, along
with inhibited seed germination rate and marked reduction in yield of plants
(Boominathan and Doran 2002; Pandolfini et al. 1992; Moya et al. 1993; Rao and
Sresty 2000). It has been illustrated that Ni toxicity leads to significantly higher
production of H2O2 (Boominathan and Doran 2002) and MDA contents in plants
(Baccouch et al. 2001). Nickle concentration of 50gL−1 decreased plant height,
chlorophyll contents, and proline, while it increased lipid peroxidation in wheat
plants (Parlak 2016). Excess of Ni in soil solution can lead to several physiological
changes with toxic effects like chlorosis/necrosis in various species of plants
(Pandey and Sharma 2002). High level of Ni can induce imbalance in plant nutrition
because of membrane dysfunction by reducing the activity of H-ATPase of plasma
membrane due to Ni toxicity, as observed in rice roots (Ros et al. 1992). The reduc-
tion in moisture absorption by plants is considered as an indicator of Ni toxicity
(Pandey and Sharma 2002; Gajewska et al. 2006).
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Tillage and Crop Production
7
Ahmad Khan
Abstract
Tillage is the practice of working the soil with implements to provide suitable
condition to raise crops. It is carried out for a number of reasons including: (a) to
provide a suitable tilth or soil structure for the plants to establish; (b) to control
soil moisture, aeration, and temperature; (c) to destroy weeds; (d) to destroy or
control soil pests; and e) to bury or clear rubbish and incorporate manure into the
soil, etc. It can involve the use of a range of implements either singly or in com-
bination, for example, mouldboard, tined or chisel ploughs, cultivators, disk or
tined harrows, rotavators and ripper subsoilers. The type and number of cultiva-
tions carried out depends to a large extent upon the soil type and the environ-
ment. Thus, tillage operations differ from placed to place and crop to crop. Crop
productivity and its performance are directly connected with tillage practices and
can be regulated with changes in tillage operations. Generally, the use of mini-
mum tillage has more advantages than the conventional tillage systems.
Keywords
Tillage · Types · Use and misuse · Soil properties · Crop production
7.1 Introduction
Tillage is the practice of working the soil with implements to provide suitable con-
dition to raise crops. It is carried out for a number of reasons including: (a) to pro-
vide a suitable tilth or soil structure for the plants to establish; (b) to control soil
A. Khan (*)
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture Peshawar Pakistan,
Peshawar, Pakistan
e-mail: khanahmad@aup.edu.pk

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_7
116 A. Khan
moisture, aeration, and temperature; (c) to destroy weeds; (d) to destroy or control
soil pests; and e) to bury or clear rubbish and incorporate manure into the soil, etc.
It can involve the use of a range of implements either singly or in combination, for
example, mouldboard, tined or chisel ploughs, cultivators, disk or tined harrows,
rotavators and ripper subsoilers. The type and number of cultivations carried out
depends to a large extent upon the soil type and the environment.
Various implements emerged according to the need of the farmers. For example,
between the sixteenth and eighteenth century, wooden ploughs were used to till the soil
for creating a suitable condition for seed emergence and plantation of various crops.
The wooden ploughs are still used in the mountainous and far-flung areas, where the
farmers are living a substandard life and unable to afford the new modern used technol-
ogy for raising the crops. Jethro Wood, a blacksmith from Scipio, New York, has
invented for the first time the cast-iron plough with interchangeable parts in 1814. This
commercially available iron has increased the American agriculture efficiency greatly.
In 1837, John Deere has invented the steel plough for the first time. He has observed
that the soil of the west is different from the east, and a simple wood plough breaks the
soil surface. He concluded that a well-shaped quality steel can better pulverise the soil
surface. With the discovery of steel plough, William Parlin invented the various shapes
steel ploughs in 1842, which could be used for different soil types. It was the era of
1850–1860 when George W. Brown manufactured the corn planter with a sled runner
to open the furrow for the seed. This discovery has changed the manual plantation of
maize to mechanical plantation and made the crop stand much more uniform.
With the passage of time, a precise corn planter was needed by the farming com-
munity for the precise and accurate placement and spacing of seeds. Thus, in 1877,
Deere and Mansur corn planter were introduced by Charles Deere and Alvah
Mansur. Thereafter, they also launched the Deere Rotary Adjustable Corn Planter
(1980s), Deere Center Lever Corn Planter (1877), and Single-Kernel Drill Planter
and Edge Drop Planter in the mid-1980s. In 1860–1880, the disk harrows were
invented. In 1916, one-way disk ploughs were developed by Henry Krause. The
chisel plough was manufactured in 1933 by Fred Hoeme and W.T. Graham for deep
ploughing of the soil. The discovery of chisel plough made it possible to till the soil
to a greater depth and pulverise the subsoil layers. These Chisel ploughs became
very popular for conservation tillage practices in 1950–1980.
7.2 Modern Concept of Tillage for Agriculture
After the discovery of deep tillage practices, the pollution of ecosystem due to tillage
practices was felt in developed and developing countries. Thus, the scientists started
working on conservation and zero-tillage system. In 1970–1980, the no-till planting
was made possible with residue management. Likewise, strip-till was also practised in
1990 as conservation farming. In modern agriculture, the tillage operation is consid-
ered one of the fundamental practices for raising crops on sustainable basis with least
cost and optimum production. Nowadays, zero tillage, conservation tillage, reduced
tillage and minimum tillage practices (Fig. 7.1) are in use synonymously for
7 Tillage and Crop Production 117
Conventional Conservation tillage system
REDUCED
TILLAGE
Plowing
Tillage operations
NO–TILL
disking
cultivating
cultivating Planting Planting and

spraying
only
Planting
cultivating
cultivating
Fig. 7.1 A schematic diagram showing the conventional, reduced and no-tillage practices
maximising the optimum production. The zero tillage is a practice where no imple-
ment for ploughing is used. In case of conservation tillage, at least 30% of the residue
from the last sown crop should be retained in the soil. The reduced tillage is a com-
parative tillage terminology, which is used in relation to an already established tillage
practice. For example, the recommended number of ploughing is three to four, and
if we used two ploughing; this will be considered reduced tillage. The reduction in
tillage operation can be carried out by omitting the operations which do not give more
benefits when compared to the cost, or it can be reduced by combining some operation
like seeding and fertiliser application if both need ploughing of land. The minimum
tillage refers to the depth of the tillage implements. The minimum tillage is a plough-
ing practice which tills the soil down up to a depth less than 10 cm.
Technically the tillage is time consuming, laborious and costly; owing to this
new concept of tillage like minimum tillage, reduced and zero-tillage were intro-
duced with the following advantages. More specially, the effect of each implements
on the residue remained in the soil is given in Table 7.1.
7.2.1 Advantages of Modern Tillage Concept
• Improve soil condition due to decomposition of plant residue.

• Increase the infiltration due to improved decomposition of plant residue present
on the soil and the channels formed by deed roots.
• Decrease the resistant of soil to the growing roots due to improved soil
structure.
• Reduce the soil compaction by reducing the movement of the heavy tillage
vehicles.
• Reduce the soil erosion compared to conventional tillage system.
118 A. Khan
Table 7.1 The percent of residue remained in field after operation of the implements
Implements General Wheat/corn/sorghum Soybean/Sunflower
Moldboard plough 3–5 10 5
Chisel plough
Straight shovel points 50–80 75 60
Twisted shovel points 30–60 60 30
Knife-type fertiliser applicator 50–80 80 45
Disk (tandem or offset)
3 inches deep 40–80 70 40
6 inches deep 30–60 60 30
Field cultivator 50–80 80 50
Sweep 30–60 90 80
V-blade 30–60 95 85
Rodweeder 30–60 90 85
Planters
No coulter or smooth coulter 90–95 95 90
Narrow ripple coulter <1.5 inch 85–90 90 85
Wide fluted coulter >1.5 inch 80–85 85 80
Sweeps/double disk furrowers 60–80 80 60
Drills
Disk openers 90–95 95 90
Hoe openers 50–80 80 50
Winter weathering 75–85 90 70
Adapted from Nebraska Extension, Agronomy guide, Purdue University Cooperative Extension
Service “Corn residue cover on the soil surface after planting for various tillage and planting sys-
tems (1995) by D.P. Shelton E.C. Dickey, S. D. Kachman, and K.T. Fairbanks. Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation 50 (4):399–404
• Make the soil homogeneous for increasing soil earth worm population.
• Reduce the mineralisation and thus increased the soil organic matter.
• Reduce the soil surface runoff due to increased mulching.
• Suppress the weeds population due to prolonged hibernation period and increased
mulching.
• To create conditions in the soil suited for better growth of crops.
7.3 Types and Methods of Tillage
A schematic diagram of tillage system is shown in Fig. 7.2. Generally, there are two
tillage systems, conventional and conservational. The conventional tillage system
involves the inversion of soil, whereas no soil inversion is involved in conserva-
tional tillage system, rather it retained the crop residue from the last year’s standing
crops. The conventional tillage system further consisted of different types of tillage,
i.e. primary, secondary and special purpose. All of these three types are further
divided into various types depending on the use. For example, the use of imple-
ments which cultivate the soil to a greater depth (e.g. chisel ploughs, disk harrow
and ripper subsoilers) is termed deep ploughing or deep cultivation. The use of
Fig. 7.2 A schematic presentation of the types of tillage system
simple cultivator, and tined or tooth harrow is termed conventional tillage or con-
ventional ploughing. This type of implement tills the soil for optimum plant produc-
tivity, as needed by shallow roots crops, like wheat, barley, and vegetables. The term
minimum tillage is used where only slight disturbance of the soil is required, for
example, by using rotavators which till the soil for about 5–10 cm while zero tillage
(no-tillage) refers to the practice of raising the corps without any disturbance of soil
surface, for example, by direct drilling into the stubble of the previous crop. In most
of the area, tillage practices like deep and conventional are used and are more effec-
tive. Thus, tillage operations differ from placed to place and crop to crop. Crop
productivity and its performance are directly connected with tillage practices and
can be regulated with changes in tillage operations.
7.3.1 Primary Tillage System
It is that type of tillage practices, which is carried out soon after harvesting of crops.
This type of tillage is carried out to bring the land under cultivation. It is done to
open compact soil, to loosen surface for absorbing more water and to improve soil
tilth for secondary tillage operations. Examples include country plough, chisel
plough, mould board plough, bose plough and power tiller-drawn implements.
7.3.2 Secondary Tillage System
It is the operations of tillage implements which are carried out for seedbed prepara-
tion. It is carried out after primary tillage operations. These tillage implements bring
the soil surface to a good soil tilth for proper seed burring, moisture absorption,
120 A. Khan
germination and emergence. Those tillage implements consisted of lighter and finer
operations which is carried out mostly for cleaning, breaking the soil clods and
manure/fertiliser incorporation. Implements like rotavator, field cultivator, spring/
spine tooth harrow, disk harrow, planks and rollers are included in the group of sec-
ondary tillage.
7.3.3 Special Purpose Tillage
Special purpose tillage is carried for specific functions. It is done for conditioning
the soil suitably for the forthcoming main season crop. It may be off season, pre or
post-harvest, summer tillage, winter tillage and fallow tillage. Few examples of the
special purpose tillage are given below.
7.3.3.1 Subsoiling
Subsoiling is used to break hardpan beneath the plough layer. A special implement
like chisel is carried to reduce the soil compaction. Subsoiling is recommended
once in 4–5 years. However, if the heavy machinery is involved in farming system,
it is recommended after every 3 years. Subsoiling help in provision of excessive soil
layer for crop production, percolate excess water, reduce runoff/erosion and facili-
tate the root penetration downward to extract moisture from below water table.
7.3.3.2 Leveling
Implements like rollers and planks are used to level the soil surface and break the
clouds. The smooth soil surface provides uniform moisture distribution to the
emerging seeds, and thus a uniform crop stand is obtained with leveling of soil sur-
face. Its main function is to level the soil surface.
7.3.3.3 Blind Tillage

It is the type of tillage, which is carried out after seeding/planting the crop either
before the crop emergence or after crop emergence in early growth period. Such
operations are carried out in such a way to avoid any damages to the standing crop.
It is done to thin out the crop population and to remove weeds.
7.3.3.4 Clean Tillage

The tillage practice to remove all vegetation is called clean tillage. It is carried out
in such a way that no living plant is left undisturbed. This practices control weeds,
soil borne pathogen and pests. It is recommended once in five years cycle of
ploughing.
7.3.3.5 Contour Tillage

The tillage practice on counter field to minimise the erosion rate is called contour
tillage.
7.3.3.6 Dry Tillage

It is carried out for the crops grown in dry land areas. The crops like broadcasted
rice, wheat, pulse, oil seed crops and jute can be easily grown in soil having suffi-
cient moisture for its seed germination. It is carried out in soil having around
21–23% soil moisture for softening of soil, and thus the soil becomes porous and
aerated which increased its water holding capacity. This type of tillage is very
important for improving soil biota.
7.3.3.7 Wet Tillage

Wet tillage is also called puddling. It is the practice of tillage operation in land hav-
ing standing water. Puddling is carried out in the standing water until the soil
becomes soft and completely muddy. Such type of tillage practice creates an imper-
vious soil layer below the soil surface, which decreases the deep percolation, and
enables the water to stand for longer period. Puddling is carried out in both horizon-
tal and vertical directions to minimise weeds infestation and for manure incorpora-
tion. Such type of tillage is recommended for semi-aquatic plants like rice.
7.3.3.8 Stubble Mulch Tillage

It is the tillage practice which is carried out after harvesting to crush the remaining
stubble/residue of the previous crops. Advantages of stubble mulch include improve-
ment in soil fertility, loosening of the soil and killing weeds.
7.3.3.9 Conservation Tillage

It is the disturbance of the soil minimally and leaving at least 30% of residues from
the last year’s crop.
7.3.3.10 Zero Tillage

It is an extreme form of minimum tillage system. In such tillage practices, the soil
is not disturbed. However, seeds are sown with dibbler or planter. In some cases,
secondary tillage operation if restricted to plant zone/row zone of the plant and with
least intensity, avoiding completely the primary tillage operation can also be consid-
ered as zero tillage.
7.4 Factor Affecting Tillage System
Manipulation of soil for successful raising of crops not only depends on the nature
of crops to be sown, but also influenced by other parameters including weather,
seasonal changes, soil conditions and topography, as well as crop system.
7.4.1 Weather Parameters
The changing climatic condition has changed the choice of the tillage among the
farmers. With the passage of time, the farmers have started to use conservation and
122 A. Khan
stubble tillage but avoided the use of deep tillage practices. Minimum or conserva-
tional tillage is mostly recommended in areas having greater chance of soil losses.
In an irrigated area, all kinds of tillage practices can be carried out. However, in dry
land area, summer fallow with deep-tillage operation is needed to store the moisture
for next season crops. In hot areas, conservation or stubble tillage is needed to avoid
the losses of water as evaporation. In semiarid regions, minimum tillage has been
shown to be beneficial in terms of soil and moisture conservation, to reduce the
costs for resource of poor farmers.
7.4.2 Seasonal Changes
The seasonal changes in precipitation and temperature have strong effects on the
tillage implements to be used for optimum plant production and healthier soil.
Increasing temperature and rainfall particularly in summer increased the decompo-
sition processes of soil and result in greater losses of CO2 in the atmosphere. Thus,
in hotter months of the calendar, deep-tillage operation should be made to mix the
top and bottom soil to minimise CO2 losses. However, in more moist condition,
minimum tillage practices should be carried out to avoid erosion losses. Tillage has
strong adverse effects to fungal hyphae in autumn and the hyphae detached from the
host plant as compared to other seasons.
7.4.3 Soil and Topography
The topography and slope of the soil determine the choice of the tillage to be used.
In sloped soil counter, stubble, conservation or minimum tillage operation should be
followed. Such practices decrease the soil losses from erosion, and decrease the
nutrient loses. In plain areas, deeper-tillage practices should be followed for proper
aerations and avoiding soil compaction. In clayey soil, light instrument is recom-
mended, whereas for light structure soil, heavy instruments and deep tillage can be
used.
7.4.4 Crop and Cropping System
The nature of crop and cropping system affect the preferences for tillage to be used.
In the case of deep-rooted and tuber crops (e.g. sugar cane, tobacco, turnip), heavy
instruments are used for deep ploughing, whereas for shallow-rooted crop (wheat,
rice, pulses), conventional or minimum-tillage practices can be used for optimum
production. In cereal-based cropping system, both minimum and deep tillage can be
used with proper rotation. However, inclusion of legumes for cereal legume crop-
ping system can change the choice of tillage system from deep to minimum or even
zero-tillage operation.
7.5 Tillage in Relation to Crop Productivity
Tillage has become a controversial practice over the last few decades. For example,
a group of researchers achieved better plant growth and performance as well as
improved soil physico-chemical properties with deep ploughing than other conven-
tional ploughing or zero or no-tillage system. Earlier work showed advantages in
terms of plant growth and soil conditions to each method (Table 7.2). Shifting from
conventional to no-tillage technology, more C sequestration, particulate organic
matter, and 13.6% more soil organic C was observed.
7.5.1 Impact on Soil Properties
In general, tillage, either deep, conventional or minimum, has considerable positive

effects on the soil. Deep and conventional tillage have been shown to improve soil
porosity, aeration and nutrient absorption capability, increase mineralisation of
organic matter and improve moisture conservation and availability. Deep and con-
ventional tillage have also been shown to decrease soil bulk density, soil strength
and root depth and density. Nitrogen and soil organic C are directly related to tillage
practices. In loamy soil in Italy for over 6 years, different tillage practices produced
significant variation in N content and dynamics. Higher NO3-N concentration in
0–15 cm soil surface was observed in conventional ploughed soil. Disk harrowed
plots were higher in total N, but only in the soil surface, as compared to ripper sub-
soiler, conventional and deep tillage. Disturbance of soil due to tillage releases N
from the microbial pool, increases N recovery, and thus sustains soil fertility, physi-
cal condition and nutrient availability. Reduced tillage preserved soil biota, improved
productivity, and sustainability of arable land in temperate region, which might be
due to the accumulation of more organic matter in soil and total N. Minimum tillage
increased soil quality, due to N enrichment. Conservation tillage reduced N leaching
compared to deep tillage. The increase in particulate organic C under zero tillage
reduced the overall loss of soil organic C up to 30–58%. Deep or conventional till-
age has also been shown to have adverse effects, for example, soil organic C in
annually tilled soil with mouldboard and conventional plough was lower in field
planted with corn compared to reduced tillage. Tillage had negative impacts on the
survival of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal propagules. Deep ploughing has increased
N leaching particularly in autumn.
7.5.2 Crop Productivity
Plant growth and performance depends upon a range of factors including tillage.
Earlier work showed that any form of cultivation had positive effects on plant
growth (Table 7.2). Deep tillage increased sorghum yield and water use efficiency,
enhanced wheat yield and input efficiencies in alluvial sands, increased the depth
124
Table 7.2 Response of soil physico-chemical properties and plant growth and performance to different cultivation methods in addition to other production
technologies
Other production
Tillage methods technology Climate/location Soil type Crop(s) Results of the studies References
Conservation Cover crops (airy vetch Fort Valley, Georgia, Sandy loam Tomato, corn Soil organic C and N Sainju et al. (2002)
(minimum, strip zero (Viciavillosa Roth.) vs. USA concentrations was
or no-tillage) winter weeds and increased
inorganic N (FN)
Continuous cropping Australia Light textured – Amplified macro- Chan et al. (2003)
system soil (less than porosity, and decreased
35% clay) infiltration
In the arable and forest Semiarid to semi Dark colour, Forest and Improved soil organic C Puget and Lal
soil humid (Central humus rich pasture and N (2005)
Ohio, USA)
Legume cover crops and Fort Valley, Georgia, Sandy loam Cotton and Increased yields, N Sainju et al. (2006)
FN USA sorghum uptake and reduced soil
erosion and N leaching
Lime and FN Manhattan, KS, Silty clay Continuous Extractable P, NH4O, K, Guzman et al.
applications Midwest, USA loam sorghum organic C, and bulk (2006)
density was improved
N fertilization Semiarid (Northern Clay and clay Annual Improved soil moisture Habtegebrialet al.
Ethiopia) loam bunch grass and yield and controlled (2007)
weeds infestation
Sole maize cultivation Temperate climate Loam soil Maize Mineral and organic N, Papini et al. (2007)
(Scarperia, Italy) P and plant productivity
was increased
Conventional Crop rotation and FN Mediterranean 44% clay Wheat Grain yield, NUE, and N Lopez-Bellido et al.
(mouldboard, cultivar (Córdoba, southern uptake efficiency was (2001)
and tine etc.) Spain) improved
A. Khan
Irrigation and FN Semi-arid and Sandy clay Cotton-corn Improved soil fertility Zibilske et al.
subtropical soil loam (2002)
(Weslaco, USA)
FN application level and Pendleton, Silt loam Oat and Increased grain yield Camara et al.
timing Columbia wheat and soil moisture (2003)
Organic sources of N Rugballegard, Sandy loam Wheat Mineralization changes Kristensen et al.
Denmark of N, microbial N and C (2003)
pool was increased
N fertilization Semi arid (Pakistan) Clay loam Cotton/ Improved yield and Iqbal et al. (2005);
7 Tillage and Crop Production
wheat yield components Khan et al. (2008,

2015)
Residual effects of North Florida, USA Sandy loam Cotton- Quantified higher Wiatrak et al.
applied FN to the wheat residual effect of N on (2006)
previous crop the subsequent crop
Deep (chisel, disk Crop rotation Mediterranean 44% clay Wheat WUE and water content Lopez-Bellido et al.
harrow, subsoiler and (sunflower-gram-faba (Córdoba, southern was increased (2007)
ripper etc) bean) Spain)
125
126 A. Khan
and density of rooting, leaf area index, duration of green leaf area and grain yield.
Conventional tillage resulted in better wheat yield, N use uptake and N content and
protein, and moisture and nitrate in the soil. The conventional tillage practice has
reduced heavy metal absorption in soybean, wheat and corn roots. Minimum tillage
seems to be better than either deep or conventional tillage in arid and semi-arid area.
It improved wheat yield 5.10 Mg ha−1, dry matter accumulation and grain yield in
wheat compared to either conventional or deep plough. Zero or no-tillage have
resulted in greater canola seed (55%), straw (32%), and chaff (20%) yields, improved
emergence, grain N and lower grain moisture in wheat, improved pea yield (12%)
and N uptake (14%), and was found to increase wheat yield, when compared to both
conventional and deep tillage. Tillage has been reported in some cases to have some
adverse effects on the plant growth and development compared to zero tillage. In
semi-arid climate, tillage reduced the crop produce when compared to no-tillage
practices. Similarly, no variation in NUE and crop yield, stand or yield of wheat
followed by cotton and yield potential and water use efficiency have been published
among the different tillage practices.
7.5.3 Weeds Infestation
Weeds are considered a major component of the agriculture system and a threaten-
ing biota which affect the crop yield. Generally, deep tillage is believed to reduce
weeds infestation by exposing the weeds seeds to upper surface, and thus break their
dormancy. However, no-tillage is considered to increase the weeds infestation in
majority of the cropping system. Thus, in areas where weed density is a major prob-
lem, deep or conventional ploughing should be made. Similarly, both conventional
and deep pre-planting tillage operations should be made for an effective control of
annual weeds like horseweed and giant ragweed. For example, glyphosate-resistant
horseweeds before plantation can only be controlled with the help of intensified till-
age, whereas in post plantation, these weeds are difficult to be controlled. The only
way to control such weeds is manual uprooting, which is not only expensive but also
time consuming. This signifies the positive impact of tillage practices for weeds
control.
7.5.4 Impact on the Environment
Tillage practices have noticeable impact on environment. One of the major bene-
fits of reduced tillage is lowering the soil erosion and runoff. The decrease in soil
erosion and runoff decreased the water pollution and contamination. It is a general
opinion among the scientists that nearly one third of global greenhouse gases
(GHG) are added by changes in agriculture and land use including deforestation.
Conversion to no-tillage or conservation tillage can sequester more C and thus
decreased the CO2 emission in the environment. Besides CO2 emission, nitrous
oxide and methane can also be influenced by tillage operation. The tilled plots
increased oxygen availability, resulting in aerobic turnover and thus increase
GHG emission.
7.6 illage Practices in Relation to Other Agronomic

T
Management
Agronomic practices including irrigation, fertilisation, date and depth of sowing

have shown stimulatory responses for tillage impacts on soil and plant perfor-
mance. Varity of tillage implements break the soil surface, loosens compacted soil
and thus can conserve more moisture. Proper tillage implement is needed and
fulfil the plant water needs. The excessive amount of water will have ill effects
like losses of valuable land, development of marshy and damply places, and losses
of nutrients. A slight slope soil will need more water, thus deep ploughing will be
needed to store more moisture. The ploughing instrument also has a strong effect
on water need. For example, the tractor drawn ploughed plots requires less water
than bullocks drawn ploughed plots. In case of minimum tillage, the water require-
ment is less than deep ploughing. Various methods of water application are rec-
ommended for different types of soil and/or tillage operation. The furrow method
of irrigation is widely used for crops sown in rows ploughed deeply. Contour
method of irrigation is mostly used in hilly areas which ploughed with shallow-
tillage equipment. However, the basin method of irrigation is used widely in
orchids, and flooding irrigation in plain areas where deep tillage practices can be
used for greater moisture conservation. In rainfed conditions, greater number of
ploughing is needed to conserve more moisture for upcoming season as compared
to irrigated areas.
Tillage practices incorporate residue, and thus proper implements should be
used based on soil types for maintaining soil health and minimising soil erosion.
Increasing the fertiliser amount needs more water to improve microbial activities
and nutrients availability. The organic source of fertilisation should pass through
bio oxidation and thus needs greater amount of water than commercial fertilisers
to fulfil the crop nutrients demand. The conventional tillage practices also have
negative impacts on soil fertility which include destruction of soil organic matter
and decreases in soil biota and its diversity, density and its functions. Conventional
tillage also decreases water infiltration rates and thus increases soil compaction.
The epigeal germinable seeds should be placed at lower seed depth than hypo-
geal germinable seeds. Thus, minimum ploughing implements is used for epigeal
germinated seed than hypogeal germinated seed. Similarly, the earlier sown
plants need greater moisture and nutrients for optimum crop growth due to pro-
long vegetative growth. Thus, to increase soil moisture and nutrient availability,
conservation tillage practices should be carried out. Unlike the conventional till-
age system, the conservation tillage improves the soil health, fertility and hence
crop production.
128 A. Khan
7.7 Tillage and Production Economics
One of the key parameters in farming system is to calculate the economics or ben-
efits of any production technology. The usage and choice of tillage implement not
only affected the soil topographic and texture but also the farmers’ economical con-
dition. The farmers in the developing countries hold small lands and have no credit
for utilisation of advanced tillage implements. However, if the farming communities
do not have financial problems, then the usage and choice of tillage implements will
be determined by the economic analysis. The economic analysis can be calculated
as value-cost ratio (VCR), benefit-cost ratio (BCR) and marginal return (MR). All
of these indices can be used interchangeably. However, if a comparison is needed to
some standard, MR is better, for profit BCR is good, and if production economics is
to be determined, a VCR may be better to use. The VCR returns you how much
money you are getting with spending a unit amount. The BCR give us an estimate
of net profit over expenditure made. However, MR returns you an increase over a
standard, i.e. control. This means the additional output resulting from one unit
increase or the use of new tillage technology when compared to a local practice or
recommended tillage implement for specific crop and locality.
References
Camara KM, Payne WA, Rasmussen PE (2003) Long-term effects of tillage nitrogen and rainfall
on winter wheat yields in the pacific northwest. Agron J 95:828–835
Chan KY, Heenan DP, So HB (2003) Sequestration of carbon and changes in soil quality under
conservation tillage on light-textured soils in Australia. Aust J Exp Agric 43:325–334
Guzman JG, Godsey CB, Pierzynski GM, Whitney DA, Lamond RE (2006) Effects of tillage and
N management on soil chemical and physical properties after 23 years of continuous sorghum.
Habtegebrial K, Singh BR, Haile M (2007) Impact of tillage and nitrogen fertilization on yield
nitrogen use efficiency of tef (Eragrostistef (Zucc) Trotter) and soil properties. Soil Tillage Res
94:55–63
Iqbal MM, Akhter J, Mohammad W, Shah SM, Nawaz H, Mahmood K (2005) Effect of tillage
and fertilizer levels on wheat yield nitrogen uptake and their correlation with carbon isotope
discrimination under rainfed conditions in north-west. Pakistan. Soil Tillage Res 80:47–57
Khan A, Jan MT, Marwat KB, Arif M, Jan A (2008) Phenology and crop stand of wheat as affected
by nitrogen sources and tillage systems. Pak J Bot 40:1103–1112
Khan A, Jan MT, Afzal M, Muhammad I, Jan A, Shah Z (2015) An integrated approach using
organic amendments under a range of tillage practices to improve wheat productivity in a cereal
based cropping system. Int J Agric Biol 17:467–474
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nitrogen and carbon in soil. Soil Biol Biochem 35(7):979–986
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age crop rotation and nitrogen fertilization on bread-making quality of hard red spring wheat.
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Papini R, Valboa G, Piovanelli C, Brandi G (2007) Nitrogen and phosphorous in a loam soil of
Central Italy as affected by 6 years of different tillage system. Soil Tillage Res 92:175–180
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tillage and land use. Soil Tillage Res 80:201–213
Sainju UM, Singh BP, Whitehead WF (2002) Long-term effects of tillage cover crops and nitrogen
fertilization on organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations in sandy loam soils in Georgia
USA. Soil Tillage Res 63:167–179
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effects on soil nitrogen and cotton and sorghum yields. Eur J Agron 25:372–382
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Res 66:153–163
Effect of Planting Dates on Agronomic
Crop Production 8
Ghulam Abbas, Haseeb Younis, Sahrish Naz,
Zartash Fatima, Atique-ur-Rehman, Sajjad Hussain,
Mukhtar Ahmed, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
The influence of planting dates on productivity of agronomic crops assumes piv-
otal significance. Optimum planting date has remained unambiguously one of
the most imperative agronomic factors to achieve higher production and is
believed to be important under changes in climatic circumstances in the present
and future scenario. Planting date is determined through occurrence of weeds,
diseases and pests attacks, and temperature of soil and environment weather
parameters, circumstances to which young seedlings and agronomic crop plants
are exposed to during various phenological stages and phases. Appropriate plant-
ing date is a main factor to enhance resources use efficiency. Additionally, an
appropriate planting date in a specific ecological setting makes possible the accu-
mulation of required thermal time essential for appropriate growth and develop-
ment of agronomic crops. An appropriate planting time is different in various
agroecological conditions. Under the warming climatic trend where crop-
growing season is usually short and quick, an increase in temperature is observed
at the end of the growing season which is unfavorable for growth and develop-
ment of crop, and sowing date assumes a higher significance. The adaptation of
an optimum planting date under changing climatic conditions is necessary as
stress under thermal trend will shrink in critical developmental phases and ulti-
mately results in decreased productivity of agronomic crops. Optimum sowing
date enhanced yield components and yield to ensure food security worldwide.
G. Abbas · H. Younis · S. Naz · Z. Fatima · Atique-ur-Rehman · S. Ahmad (*)

S. Hussain
College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
M. Ahmed
Department of Agronomy, PMAS, Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_8
132 G. Abbas et al.
Keywords
Sowing date · Productivity · Adaptation · Climate change · Yield · Optimum
growing conditions
8.1 Introduction
Food security is an imperative global challenge with respect to the continuously

growing population. At world level, arable land consists of almost 12% of the ter-
restrial land area (Humphreys et al. 2016; Muluneh et al. 2017). The productivity of
agricultural lands is significantly influenced by the application of crop management
practices like sowing date (Dai et al. 2017; Srivastava et al. 2017). Sustainability of
various agronomic crops productivity is very important in providing food and fiber
for the population at a global level and to feed the farm and domestic animals, which
might be potentially supported by suitable adaptive crop husbandry practices like
optimum sowing date, etc. (Baghdadi et al. 2014; Khan et al. 2017). Appropriate
sowing date causes the enhancement of resources use efficiencies (Bonelli et al.
2016; Luo et al. 2018).
Sowing date is an important determinant of crop yield. Sowing date is a very
essential crop management practice to increase the productivity of different agro-
nomic crops (Joshi and Heitholt 2017; Wani et al. 2018). The most advantageous
planting date is not a fixed time but changes with respect to region, season, and
cultivar. Recommendation of optimal planting date depends on the combination of
several factors including plant variety, temperature suitability, and water availability
(Balalic et al. 2012). It has a significant influence on the economic yield due to the
variations in weather conditions like timing and quantity of rainfall, humidity, dry
and wet durations, minimum and maximum temperature changes, and solar radia-
tions variability that sturdily affects phenological stages and phases and ultimately
grain yield (Dharmarathna et al. 2014; Abbas et al. 2017; Mahajan et al. 2018).
Environmental factors seriously influence plant growth and yield components; thus
sowing date plays a decisive role for sustainable grain yield and quality of several
crops (Buddhaboon et al. 2011; Pal et al. 2017). Reduction of crop yields in delayed
or early sowing time has been indicated by various studies all over the world. Source
and sink r elationship is also affected by sowing date (Zhang et al. 2016). Dry matter
assimilation and nutrients uptake under inappropriate sowing date can limit the
source and sink size.
8.2 Sowing Date and Adaptation Strategy
Adapting shifting planting date against thermal trend is very important for the
enhancement of agricultural productivity. Reason is that climate warming acceler-
ates crop development and shortens growth duration. Physiological processes like
photosynthesis rate, starch conversion rate, and nutrients metabolism are negatively
8 Effect of Planting Dates on Agronomic Crop Production 133
affected by heat stress. The adaptation of newly evolved climate smart genotypes
and optimum change in planting date can reduce the harmful impacts of warming
trend (Baloch et al. 2010; Humphreys et al. 2016). Well-established crops depend
on numerous reasons like soil water contents, soil temperature, and presence of
pests and diseases at the time of planting. Well growing conditions can be obtained
by adaptation of an optimum planting date (Fayed et al. 2015; Luo et al. 2018).
Hence, the decision on seed rate, planting density, spatial arrangement of plants, and
other crop management practices like irrigation, fertilization, and application of
pesticide set are affected by the planting date (Andarzian et al. 2015). Planting date
should coincide with the growing cycle with the possible environmental circum-
stances (Wajid et al. 2004). Earlier planting during spring growing season had
improved productivity of agronomic crops by the enhancement of water use effi-
ciency in Mediterranean regions (Kaur 2017). Increasing temperature will influence
negatively crop production in local, regional, and global levels (Faraji et al. 2009).
While direct effects are associated with increasing trend in minimum and maximum
temperature, indirect effects like water availability, changing soil moisture status,
and pests and disease occurrence are expected to be felt due to climate change
(Muluneh et al. 2017). The main significant influences are likely to be borne through
small-holder rainfed farming community that comprises the majority of the whole
farming community in the region and has a lower economic and technological capa-
bility to adapt strategies against climate change and variability. Therefore shifting
planting date increased significantly yield of various crops (Ozer 2003). Climate is
the largest individual factor for variability in agricultural production that accounts
for one-third to two-thirds of yearly worldwide in consistency in economic produc-
tivity (Morrison and Stewart 2002; Rahimi-Moghaddam et al. 2018). Planting date
adaptation under climate change is imperative because heat stress reduces produc-
tivity of agronomic crops. Crops production will be decreased under future climate
changes because it will not only bring modification to the average climatic param-
eters but also to climate variability and extremes (IPCC 2014; Abbas et al. 2017;
Adamson et al. 2018).
The adaptation of an optimum planting date can reduce the harmful influence of
climate change on the productivity of agronomic crops by avoiding the heat stress
from anthesis to physiological maturity (Ding et al. 2016; Van Oort and Zwart
2018). Only 3% in the Northern region of South Africa and 5% in the Nile Basin of
Ethiopia (Gbetibouo 2009; Deressa et al. 2009) of the surveyed farmers shifted their
sowing dates to match with the most favorable weather conditions like temperature,
rainfall, and sunshine hours. Hassan and Nhemachena (2008) determined that
almost 16% of more than 8000 households in 11 African states changed sowing
dates as response to apparent variations in minimum and maximum air temperature
and rainfall distribution. Simulation results showed that productions of maize and
peanut with the best possible planting time are generally high as compared to pro-
ductions gained with conventional sowing dates under climate warming trend (Laux
et al. 2010). Adapting shifting planting dates at the start of the rainfall season
ensures optimum growing environment and reduces danger of water shortage at
134 G. Abbas et al.
imperative crop developmental stages, thus allowing the good use of rainfall water
and potentially enhancing production (Van Duivenbooden et al. 2000).
8.3 Sowing Date and Crop Productivity
8.3.1 Effect of Sowing Date on Wheat Productivity
Late sowing time not only influences grain production, it also negatively impacts
the yield attributes and phenological stages and phases of wheat. Delayed sowing
caused the reduction of grain weight due to high temperature stress (Table 8.1).
Achievable grain production was powerfully influenced by early or delayed plant-
ing date and seasonal weather circumstances. For instance, with a planting date of
10 November, the maximum attainable grain yield ranges from 3.01 to 8.50 t ha−1
for a period of 40 years. In the middle areas of Punjab, India, the maximum attain-
able grain yield was generally at the highest with a sowing date of 20 November
Table 8.1 Yield reduction in primary cereals at early and late sowing
Crop Country/Continent Yield losses (%) References
Wheat Pakistan/Asia 38 Wajid et al. (2004)
Pakistan/Asia 25 Shahzad et al. (2007)
Italy/Europe 30 Bassu et al. (2009)
Pakistan/Asia 24 Baloch et al. (2010)
Pakistan/Asia 19 Khokhar et al. (2010)
Iran/Asia 47 Andarzian et al. (2015)
Egypt/Africa 45 Fayed et al. (2015)
China/Asia 13 Ding et al. (2016)
India/Asia 32 Humphreys et al. (2016)
China/Asia 11 Dai et al. (2017)
India/Asia 08 Kaur et al. (2017)
Australia 16 Luo et al. (2018)
Rice India/Asia 28 Chopra and Chopra (2004)
India/Asia 57 Hussain et al. (2009)
Thailand/Asia 09 Buddhaboon et al. (2011)
India/Asia 25 Jalota et al. (2012)
Sri Lanka/Asia 37 Dharmarathna et al. (2014)
India/Asia 21 Pal et al. (2017)
India/Asia 16 Wani et al. (2018)
Maize Pakistan/Asia 19 Aziz et al. (2007)
China/Asia 08 Sun et al. (2007)
Iran/Asia 74 Dahmardeh and Dahmardeh (2010)
Iran/Asia 03 Beiragi et al. (2011)
Argentina/South America 88 Bonelli et al. (2016)
India/Asia 16 Srivastava et al. (2017)
China/Asia 28 Zhou et al. (2017)
Argentina/South America 14 Abdala et al. (2018)
(average 6.40 t ha−1), narrowly followed by a sowing date of 10 November (average

6.31 t ha−1) (Humphreys et al. 2016). Baloch et al. (2010) indicated that wheat
planted on 10 November in Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan produced the maximum
yield attributes, and ultimately grain production, but was consequently reduced on
succeeding sowing dates. In Egypt, the maximum values of the number of grains
and grain weight were gained when various varieties were planted at the optimum
sowing date of 15 November (Fayed et al. 2015). In Shandong, China, lodging resis-
tance can be enhanced at a sowing date of 15 October, and resulted to a maximum
seed yield (9.81 t ha−1) (Dai et al. 2017). In the Moree areas, the maximum grain
yield was attained at a sowing date of 15 April for baseline (2452 kg ha−1) and future
climatic conditions (2306 kg ha−1). Nevertheless, future grain production is lesser as
compared to the present grain yield in Sydney, Australia (Luo et al. 2018). The high-
est mean seed yield (5.09 t ha−1) of wheat was obtained at a sowing date of 15
November. Earlier sowing produces maximum grain yield as compared to delayed
sowing, mostly because of longer period of growth and development. The daily
delay in sowing date from 20 November onward reduces grain production by
39 kg day−1 ha−1 in Punjab areas of Pakistan (Shahzad et al. 2007). The highest grain
production can be obtained with a sowing window of 1 to 10 of November
(6250 kg ha−1), and any delay of sowing date might decrease grain yield (Khokhar
et al. 2010). The most advantageous sowing window varies among regions. An opti-
mum sowing window was obtained on 5 November to 5 December in the Ahvaz
region, 5 November to 15 December for Behbehan region, and 1 November to 15
December for Izeh province in Iran (Andarzian et al. 2015). According to the com-
mon observations in particular regions, the optimum sowing of crop at an earlier
sowing date in the month of November or at the end of October, as soon as the
rainfall season begins, could provide higher grain yield as compared to a sowing
window in the month of December (if frost factor is not a risk for the anthesis stage),
as soon as water logging is not present in Italy (Bassu et al. 2009). Delayed sowing
date resulted in less photo-assimilates and plant height and the low leaf area index
becomes less because of temperature stress. In delayed sowing, the wheat cultivar
might be of less duration that can escape from stress of heat during anthesis to matu-
rity phase (Kaur 2017). The earlier planting date of 10 November produced maxi-
mum grain production of 60.59% as compared to delayed sowing date of 10
December in Punjab areas of Pakistan (Wajid et al. 2004).
8.3.2 Effect of Sowing Date on Rice Productivity
An appropriate planting time in a specific environmental situation makes possible

the accumulation of desirable thermal time essential for suitable growth and phe-
nological stages to obtain the highest achievable grain yield of rice crop. The most
favorable transplanting date varies with various agroecological setting. Under the
temperate growing circumstances in which rice-growing season is usually short
and sharp, reduction in minimum and maximum air temperature is observed later
in the growing season which is injurious to the reproductive stage; thus
136 G. Abbas et al.
transplanting time assumes a lot of significance. Appropriate sowing and trans-

planting time is imperative to achieve maximum grain yield. An optimum sowing
time of the rice crop is essential due to the following reasons. First, it ensures that
sowing to anthesis phase comes under a period of suitable average air temperature
and higher quantity of solar radiations. Second, the most favorable planting date
for every variety ensures that the cold susceptible developmental stage happens
when the night lower temperatures are traditionally the hottest. Last, transplanting
on a date which gives an assurance that grain filling stage takes place when moder-
ate autumn temperatures are well possible, the highest grain weight and good qual-
ity traits are obtained (Wani et al. 2018). Too early or too delayed transplanting
resulted in the reduction of grain production because of crop infertility and lesser
quantity of productive tillers per hill, respectively (Jalota et al. 2012). Rice plant is
thermophilic, so it is susceptible to heat stress for the period of particular stages of
development. Optimum sowing date comprises optimum temperature. Temperature
is the major driving factor for development in photoperiod unsensitive cultivars
and accumulation of growing degree days, and therefore crop life cycle depends on
the cultivar cardinal temperature like sum of temperature and base and appropriate
temperatures during various phenological stages (Mahajan et al. 2018). Also pro-
ductivity of rice under any specified environmental condition is due to yield attri-
butes that emerged in various phenological phases and growth stages during crop
duration. The maximum achievable grain production is determined by a number of
productive tillers produced in the duration of the planting to anthesis phase, quan-
tity of fertile panicles produced at the end of the vegetative stage, number of spike-
lets produced in every panicle during the formation of panicles, the number of
productive spikelets determined through the booting and anthesis stage, and the
grain weight determined for the duration of the affective seed filling phase. Every
yield component is strappingly affected by the climate circumstances the plants
experience in the respective phases the yield components are produced in. Sowing
date synchronizes the appropriate climate situations to the requirements of various
stages and phases of phenology (Dharmarathna et al. 2014). Nahar et al. (2009)
reported a significant reduction in yield components and yield due to late trans-
planting of rice nursery. Spikelet’s infertility was enhanced by the delayed trans-
planting due to stress of low temperature at panicles appearance stage. Grain yield
diminution of cultivar dhan-46 due to delayed transplanting in 10 September, 20
September, and 30 September were 4.41%, 8.86%, and 15.53%, respectively, as
compared to 1 September transplanting date. Mohammed et al. (2001) found out
that late planting in 30 August decreased grain yield by 41% as compared to an
optimum planting date of 15 July. Chopra and Chopra (2004) reported that delayed
transplanting date of 28 July and 4 August produced less grain yield. Transplanting
date at mid-July was appropriate for high grain production. The maximum grain
yield (6.88 t ha−1) was gained at a planting date of 7 July compared to delayed
planting dates. When rice is planted late, the imperative growth phases particularly
the seed filling stage can coincide with low temperature stress, resulting in higher
sterility percentage, thus the decline in grain yield (Hussain et al. 2009). Grain
yield was decreased for late sowing (20 June) as compared to early sowing (1 June)
(9.4 t ha−1) in Northwest India (Pal et al. 2017). For flooded rice production during
the dry season, grain yield was negatively influenced via the interaction between
delayed planting date and cultivar. The highest grain yield (3661 kg ha−1) was
achieved at planting date 9 November during the dry season in the eastern plain of
Thailand (Buddhaboon et al. 2011).
8.3.3 Effect of Sowing Date on Maize Productivity
Good growth and development of maize crop occurs and results in higher grain
yield if it is sown earlier as compared to delayed sowing during the spring season.
Sowing to anthesis and anthesis to maturity phase of maize happens in optimum
environmental conditions (Sun et al. 2007; Dahmardeh and Dahmardeh 2010;
Beiragi et al. 2011). Maximum yield components are obtained in earlier planting
date (Aziz et al. 2007; Ali et al. 2013). Usually, there are a lot of benefits which are
related to earlier sowing time, and this includes a longer period of gain filling phase
that provides a good opportunity for cultivars to achieve higher grain yield.
Additionally, earlier sowing time can contribute considerably to higher resources
use efficiency. Earlier sowing also allows harvesting earlier in the spring growing
season when circumstances are generally well and field and time losses could be
reduced (Bonelli et al. 2016). Earlier sowing date also enhances net returns without
additional production cost. Conversely, delayed sowing or sowing after the appro-
priate sowing window constantly resulted in reduction of number of grains and
grain weight. Late sowing reduces the efficient growing period for maize, enhanc-
ing the danger of exposure to fatal temperature stress in delay in the season prior to
maturation of grains (Zhou et al. 2017). Reduced productivity of maize in delayed
sowing could result in reduction of sowing to maturity phase, pests and disease
attack, and high temperature and drought stress for the duration of pollination and
fertilization process. Late sowing is usually accompanied by enhanced minimum
and maximum air temperatures for the period of growth duration, which speed up
crop growth and development and reduced accumulation of solar radiations that
resulted in the reduction of total dry matter production, grain set, and number of
grains. Higher grain production was gained in 1 July sowing date. Then it was
reduced to 25 and 50 kg ha−1, with a per-day delay in planting date from 1 July to
16 July and 16 July to 1 August, respectively (Aziz et al. 2007). When planting date
is delayed, the delivery of photo-assimilates to seeds (source strength) becomes
more limited than the requirement for assimilates via seeds (sink capacity) during
the period of effective grain filling (Abdala et al. 2018). Production of grain was
influenced by planting date and was diverse from 1680 g m−2 (early plantings) to
203 g m−2 (delayed planting) (Bonelli et al. 2016). The planting time obviously
showed 16.14% and 15.98% reduction of average grain production of rainfed maize
for the first and second, respectively. An average of 9.79% and 11.98% grain pro-
duction reduction from irrigated and rainfed maize was obtained under a delayed
sowing situation (25 June) as compared to optimum planting date (10 June), respec-
tively (Srivastava et al. 2017). Maize grain productivity enhanced firstly before
138 G. Abbas et al.
(early sowing dates) and after that (late sowing dates) reduced of sowing date 12
June, ranging from 8117 to 11,364 kg ha−1 in first year and 7955 to 11,272 kg ha−1
in second year of study. The maximum grain yield was gained during the 12 June
planting date in Henan province in China (Zhou et al. 2017).
8.3.4 Effect of Planting Date on Canola Productivity
Delayed planting date and heat stress decreased the number of flowers and pods
and increased pollen sterility throughout the reproductive growth phase. Delayed
sowing negatively affected the pollination and pollen tube formation (Morrison
and Stewart 2002; Kirkegaard et al. 2016). Usually, either advance or delayed
sowing date was an unfavorable influence in attaining higher grain yield. Advance
sowing generally resulted in more vegetative growth. Harvest index is reduced in
early sowing (Zhang et al. 2016). Too delay planting can reduce grain yield and
quality traits in many growing regions of canola due to heat stress affect during
grain filling period. Reduction of seed yield in canola was mainly linked with a
decrease in the number of grains and siliques. The appropriate planting time for
very early-maturing canola cultivars is the first week of October as both earlier
and delayed sowing dates can reduce the number of flowers. Nevertheless, the
early-, middle-, and late-flowering canola cultivars had the utmost potential for
production of higher number of flowers at early planting date (Hua et al. 2014).
The most excellent planting date in the evaluation of three planting dates was
determined to be 11 October as it yielded the highest grain yield of 2111.05 kg ha−1
as compared to the other planting dates 21 and 31 October which produced lower
grain yield of 1914.17 and 1806.46 kg ha−1, respectively in Pakistan (Yousaf et al.
2002). The maximum grain yield of 4.20 tha−1 was obtained through variety RGS-
003 at planting date 17 November as compared to 28 December in canola-grow-
ing areas of Iran (Safikhani et al. 2015). The advance sowing on 1 November
resulted in a maximum grain production which in turn is a result of enhancing
specific leaf area, primary and secondary branches, number of pods plant−1, and a
thousand grain weight. A maximum grain yield of 3352.35 kg ha−1 was produced
through early sowing date 1 November, whereas the late sowing date 1 December
produced the lowest 2602.84 kg ha−1 seed yield (Ahmadi et al. 2015). The higher
grain yield of 2634 kg ha−1 was gained by sowing on mid-September as compared
to sowing at the end of September (2174 kg ha−1) and first week of October
(1944 kg ha−1) in the southwestern USA (Begna and Angadi 2016). The highest
grain yield (3543 kg ha−1) was obtained in the early sowing date 6 November in
Golestan, Iran. Delay in sowing led to a higher speedy growth of canola and
reduced biomass, leaf area index, harvest index, and grain yield (Faraji et al.
2009). Optimum sowing window starting from 29 April to 9 May (average
1166.7 kg ha−1) as compared to 18 May (average 917.7 kg ha−1) provides a larger
assurance of obtaining higher grain yield in Turkey (Ozer 2003). Maximum seed
yield was gained (386 g m−2) at early sowing date 30 March as compared to late
sowing (Robertson et al. 2004).
8.3.5 Effect of Sowing Date on Cotton Productivity
Potential cultivars for maximum attain a blessed cotton yield and quality characters
might be evaluated through planting dates at various dates (Table 8.2). Both delayed
and earlier sowing harmfully influence seed cotton quality and yield. Earlier sowing
of cotton contributes more toward vegetative growth as compared to seed cotton
yield (Iqbal et al. 2012). Furthermore, advance sowing of cotton reaches anthesis
stage in the hotter month of the growing season which causes serious reduction of
seed cotton yield (Rahman et al. 2007). Delayed sowing of cotton causes anthesis
and physiological maturity at a time when temperature is most favorable. As a
result, seed cotton production and quality traits are influenced by adverse environ-
mental circumstances and shrink of growth phase (Elayan et al. 2015). Karavina
et al. (2012) revealed that changes in planting dates not only influence seed cotton
yields and quality traits but also influence the occurrence and management of pests,
diseases, and weeds. Consequently, optimum sowing time is very important to
increase cotton productivity against heat stress at anthesis stage. An appropriate
planting date gives adequate time for the completion of phenological stages and
phases of cotton in a well-timed and proficient way. Optimum sowing date also
permits the farming community to picking of cotton in optimum period and saves
from risk of delay season by pests damage mainly from those pests which damage
to flowers and bolls causing almost 70% harm to cotton crop (Poonia 2002). The
planning of sowing a cotton crop at an appropriate time prevents the risk of advance
and delayed sowing either because of unfavorable weather circumstances or dis-
eases and pest damage; both can be causing of enhancing rates of buds and bolls
loss and abortion. Advance sowing provided higher vegetative expansion as com-
pared to lint yield, whereas delayed sowing produced more and bigger bolls. In
delayed sowing of Bt cotton, too high temperature stress harmfully influenced seed
cotton production and quality features. The best sowing date in Dera Ismail Khan,
Pakistan, was 19 April; because of the maximum leaf area index, interception of
solar radiation was higher for maximum economic yield of Bt cotton (Usman and
Ayatullah 2016). The highest seed cotton production of non-Bt cotton was gained
when the crop was planted on 10 April as compared to 25 April and 10 May during
both years of study in Punjab India (Buttar and Sudeep 2007). As compared to the
usual sowing time, delayed sowing time reduced boll weight, number of bolls per
plant, strength of fiber, cellulose concentration, and sucrose conversion rate and
photosynthesis rate. In an optimum sowing time, cotton bolls in the center of posi-
tional fruit-bearing branch had the maximum cellulose quantity, sucrose conversion
speed, number of bolls, boll biomass, and vigor of fiber. Enhancing the cellulose
concentration and sucrose conversion rate could increase seed cotton yield and fiber
traits in delayed sowing (Zhao et al. 2012a, b). The seed cotton production was
2831 kg ha−1 on early sowing date (25 April) as compared to minimum seed cotton
yield of 2569 kg ha−1 produced on delay sowing time (25 May) in Pakistan (Awan
et al. 2011). The highest average seed cotton production (1649 kg ha−1) was gained
at sowing date 20 April in India (Jalota et al. 2008). Sowing too early can result in
reduced plant growth that causes lower seed cotton yield. Late planting dates
140 G. Abbas et al.
Table 8.2 Yield reduction in oilseed and sugar crops at early and late sowing
Crop Country/Continent Yield losses (%) References
Canola Canada/North America 21 Morrison and Stewart (2002)
Pakistan/Asia 15 Yousaf et al. (2002)
Turkey/Asia 22 Ozer (2003)
Australia/Australia 35 Robertson et al. (2004)
Iran/Asia 54 Faraji et al. (2009)
China/Asia 30 Hua et al. (2014)
Iran/Asia 23 Ahmadi et al. (2015)
USA/North America 27 Begna and Angadi (2016)
Iran/Asia 16 Safikhani et al. (2015)
Australia 47 Kirkegaard et al. (2016)
China/Asia 21 Zhang et al. (2016)
Cotton India/Asia 29 Poonia (2002)
Pakistan/Asia 14 Rahman et al. (2007)
India/Asia 23 Jalota et al. (2008)
Pakistan/Asia 34 Ali et al. (2009)
Pakistan/Asia 09 Awan et al. (2011)
Pakistan/Asia 29 Iqbal et al. (2012)
China/Asia 15 Zhao et al. (2012a, b)
China/Asia 26 Chen et al. (2014)
Egypt/Africa 38 Elayan et al. (2015)
Pakistan/Asia 27 Usman et al. (2016)
China/Asia 42 Khan et al. (2017)
Sunflower Portugal/Europe 45 Barros et al. (2004)
Pakistan/Asia 39 Yousaf et al. (2007)
Pakistan/Asia 28 Saleem et al. (2008)
Italy/Europe 18 Flagella et al. (2002)
Nigeria/Africa 51 Lawal et al., 2011
Serbia/Europe 39 Balalic et al. (2016)
Egypt/Africa 34 El-Mohsen (2012)
Malaysia/Asia 54 Baghdadi et al. (2014)
India/Asia 25 Sheoran et al. (2014)
USA/North America 26 Joshi et al. (2017)
Turkey/Asia 10 Ozturk et al. (2017)
Italy/Europe 40 Patane et al. (2017)
Sugarcane USA/North America 26 Garrison et al. (2000)
Australia/Australia 24 McDonald and Lisson (2001)
USA/North America 36 Viator et al. (2005)
Kenya/Africa 61 Amolo et al. (2006)
India/Asia 19 Kumar et al. (2008)
Ethopia/Africa 32 Wolde and Adane (2015)
experience lesser average temperature and solar radiation that resulted in reduced
sucrose supply in cotton leaves (Chen et al. 2014). Advance sowing of Bt cotton
resulted in plant height, higher number of bolls, boll weight, and seed cotton pro-
duction as compared to late sowing time (Khan et al. 2017). On the other hand,
delayed sowing increased vegetative growth, and therefore shrunk phenological
phases (Ali et al. 2009). Late in sowing decreases the number of bolls per plant,
fiber strength, and dry matter partition (Bange and Milory 2004). In addition, sow-
ing cotton too late results in low-temperature environment stress, which resulted in
very poor opening of bolls (Zhao et al. 2012a, b).
8.3.6 Effect of Sowing Date on Sunflower Productivity
The appropriate sowing date of sunflower can vary in various regions with various
climatic circumstances. The highest plant height, number of grains, grain weight,
and grain yield were achieved in sowing during August as compared to September
and October during the autumn season. The optimum planting window of sunflower
from the third week of August to the end of August produced oil yield as compared
to earlier August sowing dates (Saleem et al. 2008). In Egypt, the maximum average
of grain yield and attributes were achieved at a sowing date of 6 June, while a sow-
ing date study in Nigeria showed that the planting date from end of July to mid-
August had a significant influence on phenological stages and phases and ultimately
yield parameters of sunflower (Lawal et al. 2011). Various researchers had indicated
that growing degree days and achene yield in sunflower were reduced when stan-
dard spring season sowing date was late. The results in Pakistan (Yousaf et al. 2007),
Egypt (El-Mohsen 2012), and South Italy (Flagella et al. 2002) showed consider-
ably decreased grain production of sunflower with a delay in planting time because
of the decline in number of grains per capitulum and grain weight. Planting time
exerted a greatly significant influence on pollination and grain filling stage. The
earlier planting date of 25 April was shown to give a good seed yield of
2489.60 kg ha−1 as compared to delayed planting date of 15 May (Baghdadi et al.
2014). The highest attainable achene yield of 2.17 t ha−1 was attained when sun-
flower was planted in mid-January. Advancing sowing date to 20 December did not
produce any benefit not only for the grain filling but also for the yield attributes;
nevertheless, delaying sowing dates from 5 to 20 February generally resulted in
diminution in sowing to physiological maturity phase, very poor pollination and
fertilization, and acceleration of phenological stages, which eventually reduced
achene yield in Ludhiana, India (Sheoran et al. 2014). Sowing dates also signifi-
cantly affected capitulum diameter, with delaying sowing date, head diameter
increased, so that the highest value was achieved in sowing date 20 May (11.82 cm
at the anthesis stage and 22.60 cm at the stage of physiological maturity) (Balalic
142 G. Abbas et al.
et al. 2016). The maximum grain production was obtained on a sowing date of 28
April (3033 kg ha−1), and the lowest grain yield was gained on a sowing date of 12
May (2459 kg ha−1). Lessening of grain yield in delayed sowing dates was due to
reduction in capitulum diameter, number of grains, and thousand grain weight
(Ozturk et al. 2017). An advance sowing time (18 January) enhanced leaf area dura-
tion and water uptake during the critical phase of bud appearance in anthesis. The
early planting dates also augmented the number of grains m−2 with no reduction in
grain biomass, resulting in the highest grain of 2197.42 kg ha−1 and oil yield in
South of Portugal (Barros et al. 2004). The maximum production of overall and
large grains was achieved from the delayed sowing at the end of May with mean
values of 3777 and 3379 kg ha−1, respectively. The capitulum diameter of sunflower
planted from end of May to the first week of June was higher by ≥18% than sowing
in the first week of May, which partially explains the 24% enhancement in the num-
ber of grains per capitulum in the end of May and first week of June sowing in
Powell, USA (Joshi and Heitholt 2017). An optimum sowing date of 7 April during
spring season resulted in high grain and oil yields and less oil unsaturation.
Consequently, delayed planting date of early June reduced growing and decreased
oil quantity in South Italy (Patane et al. 2017). Optimum sowing date can be vary
with respect to various hybrids of sunflower (Balalic et al. 2012).
8.3.7 Effect of Planting Date on Sugarcane Productivity
The timing of planting influences significantly the productivity of sugarcane. The

optimum weather conditions for sugarcane is full-grown, in which rain fall/irriga-
tion is better distribution for the period of growing season, however, where before
harvesting ripening phase is under comparatively dry condition, and the solar radi-
ations are abundant all over. The highest cane yield (120 t ha−1) was obtained at
planting sugarcane during March as compared to April and May. The earlier the
planting period could be done, the higher the millable cane yield obtained. Earlier
planting has and advantage due to the reason that emerged cane has a longer growth
period and is better to attain full tillering and leaf canopy, prior to the beginning of
quick elongation of stalks with the commencement of optimum environment cir-
cumstances (Wolde and Adane 2015). Sugarcane planting date significantly
affected cane yield, total recoverable sugar, and sugar yield due to effects of tem-
perature and solar radiation. Highest cane yield, sugar yield, and total recoverable
sugar were gained 43.12, 5.9 tons/acre and 274 lb./ton at planting date during
August in the USA (Viator et al. 2005). There were considerable and positive rela-
tions with cane length, number of tillers ha−1, number of millable canes ha−1, num-
ber of nodes cane−1, weight of millable cane, and sugar recovery of sugarcane
planted during March and April in India. Insect pests, diseases, and weeds occurred
with delayed planting and ultimately negative quality traits (Kumar et al. 2008).
Cane yield and its components and attributes were affected negatively by delayed
planting during September and October. The optimum planting month was August,
in which maximum cane (117.21 t ha−1) and sugar yield (45.86 t h−1) were obtained
in Louisiana (Garrison et al. 2000). Changes in months of planting influenced mill-

able cane production; but quality traits were not affected significantly in Kenya.
Planting of sugarcane in April produced significantly the highest cane yield of
148.91 t ha−1, followed by May-planted crop (100.32 t ha−1) and June-planted crop
(93.80 t ha−1) which were alike in millable cane yield even though July-planted
crop had the significantly lowest millable cane yield of 58.54 t ha−1 at Chemelil
site. Planting of sugarcane during the month of July should be prevented due to the
significantly lowest millable cane yield and very poor quality traits due to more
drought stress in growing sugarcane crop (Amolo et al. 2006). The 10 January-
planted sugarcane produced the highest sucrose yield (2895 g m−2) as compared to
those planted in August (2197 g m−2) in Queensland, Australia (McDonald and
Lisson 2001).
8.4 Conclusion
Planting date is the most crucial factor that affects the agronomic crops productivity
to foremost extents. Planting date influenced significantly components and yield of
agronomic crops. Nevertheless, the appropriate planting date varies in the various
agroecological zones due to variations of topography and weather determinants.
There is a consensus in the research studies that the synchronization of the critical
phenological stages and phases with favorable weather circumstances ensures
promising crops productivity that is merely probable through adjusting the planting
dates. Planting date can enhance both qualitative and quantitative traits of agro-
nomic crops when determined accurately. Optimum planting time has optimistic
impact on resources uses efficiencies. Hence, it is very important to substantiate
appropriate planting date to synchronize with optimum growing conditions for
agronomic crops under various agroecological regions of the globe to obtain the
highest achievable yield levels and to ensure food security under climate change.
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Crop Production Under Changing
Climate: Past, Present, and Future 9
Muhammad Ijaz, Abdul Rehman, Komal Mazhar,
Ammara Fatima, Sami Ul-Allah, Qasim Ali,
and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Over the globe, crop production reduced under the influence of climate change
with increased temperature, CO2 concentration, variation in precipitation pattern,
and water scarcity. Different mechanisms of climate change have tremendous
effects on agriculture and its productivity. But phenomenon present between cli-
mate change and associated interaction with crops is much complex that we can
rely on modeling for further prediction interlinked with agriculture on a local,
regional, and global scale, while some projects like Agriculture Model
Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) have been started. However,
some studies showed contrasting results as, by increasing CO2 level, crop pro-
duction should be high to 13%, but with this level, ozone layer might be damaged
and reduce yield by 5% or maybe more. High level of CO2 reduces usage of
water which reduces rate of opening of stomata, while on other hand, high tem-
perature increased transpiration rate which will lower water by evaporation.
Future effects of climate on crop suitability and productivity have been devel-
oped by researchers; by those movements in Northern Europe, production has
M. Ijaz · S. Ul-Allah
A. Rehman · Q. Ali
College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Layyah, Pakistan
K. Mazhar
Department of Forestry and Range Management, University of Agriculture Faisalabad,
A. Fatima
Department of Environmental Science, Lahore College for women University,
Lahore, Pakistan
S. Ahmad (*)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_9
150 M. Ijaz et al.
increased while it decreased in Southern Europe. However, it is already predicted

that extreme events will be there like heat waves due to increase in temperature
in 2003 and 2010, but again these shifts can occur. Therefore, there is a dire need
to agricultural scientists (agronomists, breeders, soil scientists, entomologist,
plant pathologists, and horticulturist) so that they should produce such agricul-
ture products which can perform better even in high temperature and would bear
all expected changes due to climate variability.
Keywords
Climate change · Climate variability · Climate shift · Crop productivity · Climate
change adaptation
Abbreviations
AMeDAS Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System

ANOVA Analysis of variance
ASRS Automated storage and retrieval system
ATEAM Advanced terrestrial ecosystem analysis and modeling
ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GCM Global Climate Models
GCMs General Circulation Models
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gas
JMA-NHM Japan Meteorological Agency Non-Hydrostatic Model
MRIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
RCMs Regional climate models
REAP Resources and Energy Analysis Programme
RPA Robotic process automation
SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
9.1 Introduction
Over the globe under the influence of climate change resulted reduced crop produc-
tion with increased temperature and water scarcity. There is a higher chance of
systematic reduction of multiple sectors according to the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC). Different mechanisms of climate change have tremen-
dous effects on agriculture and its products (IPCC 2014). But the phenomenon pres-
ent between climate change and associated interaction with crops is much complex
9 Crop Production Under Changing Climate: Past, Present, and Future 151
that we can rely on modeling for further prediction interlinked with agriculture on a
global scale (Gornall et al. 2010), while some projects have been started for agricul-
ture production and improvement like AgMIP (Agriculture Model Intercomparison
and Improvement Project). But some studies showed contrasting results (Jaggard
et al. 2010) as, by increasing CO2 level, crop production should be high to 13%, but
with this level ozone layer might be damaged and reduce the yield by 5% or maybe
more. High level of CO2 reduces the usage of water which reduces the rate of open-
ing of stomata, while on the other hand, high temperature increased transpiration
rate which will lower the water by evaporation. So, the benefits of CO2 on plants
highly depend upon those varieties which brought value; this would be done by
breeders. Future effects of climate on crop suitability and productivity have been
developed by researchers; by those movements in Northern Europe, production has
increased, while it decreased in Southern Europe (Olesen et al. 2002; Falloon and
Betts 2010). However, it is already predicted that extreme events will be there like
heat waves due to increase in temperature in 2003 and 2010 (Barriopedro et al.
2011), but again these shifts can occur. So, there is a dire need to European breeders
that they should produce those agriculture products which can stand even in high
temperature and would bear all expected changes due to climate variability. Most of
the studies reported the possibilities caused by change in climate in 2050 and 2090
which describes surface temperature and impacts on different scenarios clearly. The
objective of this chapter is to explore knowledge and data about the impact of cli-
mate and its variation on crop production mainly for rain-fed crops, so strategies
and adaptability will be imposed to stand by even in harsh climate for the survival
of human beings.
9.2 ffect of Climate Change on Crop Production and Food

E
Availability Overview
Crop husbandry and food availability are the main components for determination of
food security whether an entity, a family, or even a given district. But these compo-
nents directly and indirectly affected by changes of climate. So, for food security,
climate is the main component for a region. FAO (2008) reported that the climate
will affect adversely on all types of local, national, and global food systems through
its components. It brings opportunities and impacts on crop production. It is very
important and relevant how climate would possess impacts on production of crops.
This is not only for the production of those crops which we used but also for the
employment purposes in an agriculture country. Most of the developing countries
based on agriculture directly or indirectly and depend on it for their livelihood, like
Pakistan, etc. However, if the agronomic crop yield is affected by any change in
climate, it will ultimately affect the production and available food which increase
the demand of supply due to shortage. By this chapter, we will go through the inter-
action effects of food correlated with climate change and relating ups and downs of
production of crops (Fig. 9.1).
152 M. Ijaz et al.
Fig. 9.1 Factors affecting the vulnerability of rural communities to climatic events and the reac-
tive capacity to enhance socio-ecological resiliency
9.3 Effects of Climate Change on Production of Crop
Crop production may be affected by climate change directly through physiological

and biochemical factors, which are associated with growth, development, yield, and
quality of crop (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). This section will explore the
direct effect of climate on yield and yield-related traits in crop production over the
world. Study reveals that some climate impacts are occurring more rapidly than the
previous (Parry et al. 1999). Crop production is directly affected by many features
of climatic change, orienting primarily from:
–– Increase in average temperature

–– Fluctuation in rainfall duration and amount
–– Increasing concentration of CO2 in atmosphere
–– Variation in climate and extreme events
–– Rise of seawater level
9.3.1 Average Temperature Increase
Globally, temperature is increasing in most of the regions due to climate changes.

Scientists assumed that countries present on regions having low latitude are on
major risks in low crop production due to low availability of water even in fluctua-
tion of temperature with 1 or 2 °C (Parry et al. 1999). This may be the result of high
evapotranspiration rate and low moisture level in soils. So, this event would create
irrelevant conditions for field crop productions and increased unavailability of
grasses to pasture lands, especially in tropical agricultural lands in sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA). These changes would create reduction in yield for specific area, but
their extents are still unknown. Researchers presume that changes due to variation
in climate would be drastic (Bals et al. 2008).
9.3.2 Variability in Rainfall Amount and Patterns
Climate change brings severe results with increasing temperature in tropical areas
and decreasing in temperate regions. By this phenomenon, temperate regions are
moving toward more wet and tropical toward more dry (FAO 2008). In addition,
rainstorm intensity also increases with rate of precipitations which are unpredict-
able. Due to high rainfall, soil moisture is also fluctuating due to high erosion rates
and affected crop growth and yield. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the lowest pre-
cipitation was expected to 20%, due to which most of the arable land will destroy
because of low soil moisture level, high aridity and salinity and main effect of
decreased in groundwater (Bals et al. 2008). Reduction in water level will lead
toward scarcity of water and increasing water costs and will limit the use of agricul-
ture lands for crop production based on irrigation. It is opined by FAO that decre-
ment of available water on critical stages of crops in agriculture land will impose
negative effects on food supply. Sub-Saharan Africa mostly depends on rainwater
irrigation, but fluctuation in temperature-imposed falsification of rainfall pattern
will negatively impact on crop production, which would also cause socioeconomic
and physical adversities among farmers.
9.3.3 Rising Atmospheric Concentration of CO2
At present, CO2 present in atmosphere is estimated to be 379 ppm, but it is expected

to be 800 ppm in 2100 by IPCC prediction under business scenario. They predicted
that the lowest emission scenario in the future will be 550 ppm (Schmidhuber and
Tubiello 2007). High level of CO2 is beneficial to plants, acting as a fuel in improv-
ing growth and development of plants. Concentration of CO2 in air will accelerate
photosynthesis and water use efficiency of plants and boost up the growth and dry
matter production, ultimately yielding crops (Bazzaz and Sombroek 1996). On the
other hand, an increase in the level of CO2 is beneficial for crop yields but also
caused greenhouse effect.
9.3.4 Variation in Climatic Conditions and Extreme Level
In agriculture, intense measures are not a new incidence, but they are fluently occur-
ring and expanding in areas that may cause severe damage (Schmidhuber and
154 M. Ijaz et al.
Tubiello 2007). In SSA, several studies showed an increase in frequency of extreme

events, which would cause more drastic results in agriculture for food production as
well as food security (Easterling et al. 2007). It is bothersome for the area that is
totally dependent on rain. Variation in climate, especially in severe flood and
droughts, is directly linked to reduction in economic activities (Brown et al. 2008).
It was reported that sub-Saharan Africa has gone through a chain of severe precipi-
tation processes that is linked with climate change (Wassmann and Dobermann
2007). According to recent information, flood which occurred in 2000 in
Mozambique took a great population of humans along with destruction of irrigation
infrastructure which ultimately affects 90% of crop husbandry. That causes unavail-
ability of food to many households due to loss in food security.
9.3.5 Rise in Seawater Level
Due to change in temperature, the level of seawater rose up. Temperature and high
seawater level would cause vulnerability of coastal and low-latitude agriculture
lands. They may cause salinity, extreme rainfall, and coastal deluge. Consequences
of high temperature melted the ice present on polar area and glaciers due to which
seawater level already rose up to 15–20 cm (Douglas 1997). There is a noteworthy
uncertainty regarding seawater level on how much it would rise. Recent possibilities
show that sea level might rise to half a meter in the coming 2100 which is a remark-
able change. Countries that would be at risk to high level of seawater are the Gulf of
Guinea, Southern Mediterranean, Mozambique, sub-Saharan Africa, and Gambia.
Coastal floods and salinity would affect agriculture crops and products in abovesaid
countries. It may lead to loss in production rate, farmers’ income, and food security.
There is also another possibility of exposure of land to wastewater (ESCAP 2009).
9.4 Impact of Climate Variability on Food Security
• Average temperature increase.

• Extreme high temperature in night and day.
• Heat waves on most of the region.
• Countries present in SSA.
• Reduction of soil moisture due to high evapotranspiration.
• Severe attack of pest and high rate of damage.
• Larger threats for human because of scarcity of food and unavailability.
• Dire need to repair the refrigerator to keep food safe.
• Main danger in forest fire.
Extreme Events
• Droughts.
–– Floods.
Semiarid and Subhumid Africa (Particularly the Southern Africa, Sahel, and
Horn of Africa)
• Reduced crop yields.
–– Threats to forests.
–– Damage to agricultural inputs.
–– High rate of land desertification and degradation.
–– Damage to crops and food stores.
–– Inability to cultivate land due to water logging.
Change in Rainfall Amount and Patterns

• Decrease quality and quantity of agricultural product.
–– Scarcity of water.
Sea Level Rise: East Africa, West Africa, Southern Mediterranean

• -Because of salty water, less number of farms and fisheries survive.
–– -Salinization of irrigation water and freshwater systems.
–– Aquaculture.
9.5 Climate Change: Responsible for Crop Yield
Climate modeling predicted the effect of climate on crop by evapotranspiration and

less amount of moisture in soil (Rosenzweig et al. 2002). Drought situation and
development of unsuitable land for crops along with conversion of grass land into
arid may be caused by these changes. Lobell et al. (2011) demonstrate chronologi-
cal data from about 20 thousand maize field trails which were conducted in sub-
Saharan Africa for the last 10 years; the result is that with each increase in 10 °C in
temperature after 30 °C, the yield of maize decreased by 1%. Another factor which
they described was water availability; shortage of water plant also imposes stress
causing loss in yield at 30 °C. So, they argued that high temperature even in non-
drought area caused low yield by 1% in maize field in the Africa region. With
drought stress, 100% cultivated area would face yield losses. Due to rise in tempera-
ture, population of insects and pest also able to survive and continue their produc-
tion will enhance the disease rate ultimately loss in yield percentage. In Africa, with
the average estimation, 5–8% semiarid and arid regions will undergo the destruction
process due to exasperation of climate change (Parry et al. 1999). About 2/3 of
Africa’s cultivated land turning into destruction in the coming 2025 will lead to loss
in 3% agriculture GDP annually (UNSEC 2007). Furthermore, low rate of rainfall
would result in negative impact on crop production in rain-fed areas with 50%
reduction of total yield, and in some regions, maize production might cease by
2020.
156 M. Ijaz et al.
9.6 Expected Impaction of Climate on Crop Production
Ringler et al. (2010) indicated that firstly wheat will be affected greater by climate
change than sweet potato and higher yield would be reported for sorghum and mil-
let. Precipitation and increase in temperature will emit higher concentration of CO2
into atmosphere which leads to alteration in land suitability and yield of crops.
IPCC has given a special report related to emission scenarios in 2000. They grouped
affiliated emission and socioeconomic development into four different circum-
stances, i.e., A2, B2, A1, and B1, where A1 is the highest CO2 emission scenario and
B2 stands for the lower one, while A2 and B2 are intermediate between A1 and B1.
According to these scenarios, different models are predicted in 2007 which describe
the temperature range increase from 1.8 to 4 °C by 2100. Alteration of crop yield
rate is the result of physiological changes which formed CO2 at high rate as the
result of high temperature and precipitation impacts (IPCC 2000). Predicted model
showed that till 2020, cereals will be changed slightly, and these changes will con-
tinue depending on climate variability (FAO 2002). In general, low yield will be
expected in Africa according to Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES).
The major downfall in yield is expected in 2080, with increase in temperature in A1
scenario; about 30% losses will be shown in SSA. Despite the beneficial effects of
higher CO2 concentration, effects of higher temperature and precipitation are so far.
In B1 scenario, effects on cereals are less and would never go beyond 10%.
9.7 Available Irrigation Water Analysis
Possible panorama limitation includes both shortages of surface and groundwater in

response to climate change. In this content, both sources of shortage of water will
be analyzed. Reduction in groundwater level and the surface water which evapo-
rates and loss in irrigation water are due to climatic variations. This is because of
high temperature and fluctuation in precipitations.
9.8 Low Level of Groundwater
Fixed incline in groundwater which decreased over time was expected for the
selected region of REAP, to determine the low level of groundwater. But the rates of
decline of water in future are uncertain. For identification of model regions,
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer spatial irrigation data were con-
cealed with USGS aquifer delineation and REAP boundaries on regions. By this
superimposition, an incredible presentation is provided about groundwater for use
of model correlated with irrigated acreage. Data regarding groundwater use for irri-
gation is collected from USGS water sector for 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2005 (USGS
2013). By this data, they identify and draw the picture of other country’s groundwa-
ter situation which declined over 1990–2005. Regions with high irrigation water are
facing withdrawals of groundwater level in a nonlinear fashion in the next coming
decades. Areas having possibilities of low water potential in the next decades are
reported and informed by some researchers (Steward et al. 2013; Scanlon et al.
2012; UCCHM 2014). Areas of central high plains and southern plains are at risk
for serious withdrawal of water level by 10% in 2020 and 50% in 2080, because
they mainly depend on water source.
Reduction of 20–30% water level is reported until 2080; mostly this will happen
in the central valley of California and lower Colorado River Basin, while eastern
Rocky Mountains, Southern California, Southern Mississippi, and Northwest
Pacific regions will face up to 10% reduction in water level.
Climate will directly or indirectly affect the quality and storage of food by
increasing temperature which reduces the growth period. Some researchers ana-
lyzed the effect of climate on food security by using HadCM3, SWAP, and salinity
model to determine the evapotranspiration rate, irrigation water depth, crop area,
and quality of product. Results showed that crop area should be extended in order to
increase grain yield (Droogers 2004). A study was conducted to evaluate the present
and prospect scenario related to climate and food security and availability of water
in 2020 and the 2070s. It is observed that greater crop potential will be obtained by
expanding the rain-fed area with irrigated cultivated land (Alcamoa et al. 2007).
SWAP and ADAPT models are formed to evaluate the impacts of climate change on
food and its products. They noticed that increasing crop area will improve the qual-
ity but increase food insecurity. On the other hand, low cropping area will reduce
the water level reduction and improve environmental security. Luo et al. (2003)
discover the effect of change in climate with various CO2 concentration levels by
combining DSSAT 3.5 CERES and Global Climate Models (GCM). The results
showed that the change in climate can decrease the wheat quality at parched sites.
Meanwhile, in case of climate change, parched sites proved more useful than wet
sites.
Khan et al. (2009) evaluate the crop production and water management in China
for the purpose of food security. He remarked that it is necessary to sum up climate,
environment, population, food, and energy to ensure the food security in China as
well as the whole world. It is because water management and other related problems
of water have many uncertainties due to climate change. All over the world, the
importance of food security is increasing day by day. Due to climate change, food
quality and food availability are still big provocations for scientists. Under climate
change issues, food security is always studied with CO2 concentration. To evaluate
the food security systematically and completely, it is necessary to sum up popula-
tion, crop production, change in climate, and water availability.
9.9 Knockdown of Climate Change Scheme
The results of Global Climate Model (GCM) for climate’s interdisciplinary research
had been used (MIROC5; Watanabe et al. 2010). As climate data of Asia have been
focused on Yamase airflow, therefore representative construction pathways were
used (Kanno et al. 2013). In eastern Japan to sort out regional differences in
158 M. Ijaz et al.
climatological elements, the 15 km grid mesh resolution is insufficient. In regional

climate model JMA-NHM, the data had been knocked down to 10 km mesh for
eastern Japan (RCM: Saito et al. 2007). This model utilizes the Kain-Fritsch scheme
for convective parameterization (Kain 2004). For turbulent parameterization,
improved Mellor-Yamada level 3 scheme had been used (Nakanishi and Niino
2004). From May 28 to August 31, the knockdown of key growing period was con-
ducted for present (1981–2000) and future (2081–2099) climate. For spin-up period,
the first 4 days were used and excluded from analysis. The outputs of RCMs and
GCMs by observed values are generally biased (Yoshida et al. 2012). Change in
climatological mean had been used to avoid biasness (20 years mean for present
climate and 19 years mean for future climate) rather than original data.
To compose the climate datasets, the following procedures were conducted on
the basis of previous studies (Kimura and Kitoh 2007; Yoshida et al. 2012). First, in
Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System, for 1981–2000, the gridded
and observed data was defined as the present climate (Seino 1993). Then, by using
climate differences derived from the knockdown data and Mesh-AMeDAS data, the
future climate was calculated. For daily maximum mean and minimum tempera-
tures, the differences were calculated (i.e., difference = future–present). For down-
ward shortwave radiation, relative humidity, and wind speed, multiplying ratios
were calculated (ratio = future/present). To calculate the impact of summer climate
change on rice production, this method was used.
9.10 Potential Cultivar Shift Due to Climate Change
9.10.1 Surface Water Shortage
The forest services of U.S is proposition of water yield and water needed progress
for change patterns under 2010 RPA (Robotic Process Automation) is responsible
for the shortages of surface water supply for irrigated agriculture. On the basis of
downscale approximation of temperature and precipitation, the regional water yield
was suggested annually through 2090. Water routing model of the US river system
accounts for inter-annual reservoir storage and inter-basis transfer, in which surface
water flows are simulated. Water is required in different sectors to use as public sup-
ply, domestic industrial, mining, thermoelectric, livestock, agriculture, and record-
ers of the sector level water withdrawals and consumptive use, and proposition of
water we drive including adjustment in water use efficiency. Difference between
proposed water demand and water supply by ASR after in stream flow needs are
fulfilled is calculated as potential regional; water–reductions. Surface water short-
age by Resources and Energy Analysis Programme (REAP) model region is based
on a 20-year average of a reported annual shortage of renewable water supplies by
ASR 2020, 2042, 2060, and 2080 (Foti et al. 2012).
Water supply shortfall is carried by irrigated field crop sectors. Ares which are
facing the water shortage fully dependent on the irrigated agriculture while
non-agriculture withdrawals having high marginal value of water as compared to

irrigated agriculture.
• REAP model does not include the higher-valued crops, e.g., vegetables, orchard,
and berry crops, and is considered to be secured by climate-induced reduction in
surface water supplies.
• Uncultivated pasture and non-model field crops, e.g., dry beans, sugar beets,
potatoes, peanuts, grass seed, etc., share regional water supply shortage with
modeled field crops allowing irrigated acreage share.
In 2018, surface water supply in field crop production ranges from 20% to 75%,
but these percentages are higher across Pacific and plain regions and mountains.
The river system with headwater in the central Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada
range is affected to varying degrees depending on the scenario. In other terms, with
the passage of time, contrast of water supply is increasing for irrigated agriculture,
but the most alarming impacts will occur after 2050. The irrigation water conditions
are affected to purchase price of surface water through shifts in market and capital
expenses of water supply development.
Climate change can also affect the groundwater demands with climate encour-
aged adjustment in availability of surface water and groundwater supply. The insti-
tutional limitations on groundwater and surface water distribution as well as the cost
of groundwater and surface water access will affect how shortages play out in real
time. Unfortunately, analysis cannot be alone of such detailed hydrological and
institutional oppositions. We cannot estimate functions in cost per unit of water over
water and climatic scenarios because of such complications of projecting surface
water pricing and aquifer drawdown.
9.10.2 Climate Inconsistency and Its Extreme Situations
Variation in climate can easily damage or weaken the future efforts of food security
achievement and maintain rate of natural resource-based agriculture. Livestock pro-
duction and crops are strongly affected by the rising temperature, severity of extreme
climatic events, the timing of rainfall, etc. Agriculture is already facing the chal-
lenges like degradation of lands, damage to agriculture biodiversity from pest, dis-
ease, and increasing pressure for resource base population.
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has become the dominant mode of
climate variability in many regions as it has the significant influence on the preva-
lence and seriousness of water stress and flooding tropics. Climate change is already
affecting the food-insecure regions negatively. Over the course of this country,
warming trends are proposed to accelerate intensity and frequency of severe events
which are likely to shift upward in some subtropical regions like Southern Africa;
North, South, and Southeast Asia; East Africa; the Mediterranean Basin; and Central
America.
160 M. Ijaz et al.
Precipitation is likely to become increasingly aggregated, with dry years pro-

jected to be drier and wet years as wetter. Due to greater atmospheric retention with
increasing air temperature, rainfall intensity will increase, but rainfall percentage
will decrease on a time scale. Crop growth could be affected by more hot days dur-
ing a growing season, but less frequency rainfall and extensive period between
rains, coupled with increased rate of evapotranspiration under hot temperature
(Hungtingford et al. 2005).
Flooding is likely to be intensified by the proposed large storm and heavy pre-
cipitation circumstances in climate change (Kundzewicz et al. 2008). For example,
South Asia could experience increased severity of flooding given the proposed
intensification of Indian monsoon with land cover changes which can enhance the
flooding effect coupled with climate change. In the last half of the twentieth century,
a changing pattern from rainfall intensity toward a more extreme rainfall has
enlarged flood risks in India (Goswami et al. 2006), and these effects are also
observed in Latin America as well (Magrin 2007).
More than a third of Earth prosperity is human population that is influenced by
large-scale weather patterns generated by the Asian and Southwest African mon-
soons, and ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) are prominent climate features of
low-latitude zone (Paeth et al. 2008). Future food security would be enormously
influenced by changes in characteristics of these systems due to climate change.
Although characteristics of the ENSO could be changed, there are substantial doubts
as to how that change will be visible itself. There is also uncertainty about the future
change in the intensity of West African Monsoon.
9.11 Effects of Temperature Rise
Rising temperature can affect the crop productivity which varies depending on the
characteristics of crop in relation to crop development and condition under which
crop is grown. At night, minimum temperature increases respiration losses, while at
daytime crop maturity is accelerated by maximum temperature with reducing grain
filling. The crop yield is highly affected by episodic heat waves particularly during
sensitive stages of plant growth such as reproductive stage and seedling stage.
Furthermore, crop biomass production could be suppressed by increasing the earth
temperature resulting from greater cloud and aerosol formation. Damage to crop
production caused by rising temperature remains highly uncertain even to the same
extent CO2 fertilization can offset that damage. In the light of recent evidences, N
deficiency depends upon the reaction of plant to enhanced carbon dioxide concen-
tration (Long et al. 2006). Under tropical conditions, combined crop weather simu-
lation modeling has presented yield stimulation from higher CO2 to be more offset
by elevated temperature (Challinor et al. 2007). In the region of Northern China,
East Europe, and South America where agriculture production is likely to benefit
from climate change. However, these benefits may be diminished by water shortage
and increased pest attacks.
9.12 How Important Is ENSO to Climate Change?
Large-scale weather patterns are affected by periodic (2–7 years) irregularities in

sea surface temperature over a large range of eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean
referred to ENSO. ENSO has two phases, El Niño (warm) and La Nina (cool),
which have variable effects over land areas. In Africa La Nina events generally
cause water stress in Eastern Africa and overflowing in Southern Africa, while El
Niño events do the opposite.
ENSO is responsible for severe drought in northeastern Brazil, Mesoamerica,
and flooding in the Andes. Indonesia is suffering from severe droughts, drought and
flooding in Eastern and Southern China, respectively, due to prominent activities of
ENSO from the last decades. In the late 1990s tandem agriculture, industrial output,
and forests are severely affected by El Niño and La Niña impacts. In many regions
of the developing countries like Pakistan, ENSO is positively interconnected with
outbreaks of infections and waterborne disease.
ENSO became very active during the late twentieth century in areas of tropics
and subtropics. ENSO is becoming prominent made of inter-annual climate vari-
ability. In the twentieth century, it also enhances effect over global weather patterns
that prompted concerns about El Niño like weather changing in a greenhouse world,
with serious consequences of society. Sea surface temperature is proposed to be
increased by 50 °C by 2100 in the eastern equatorial Pacific, warm climate which
can be compared with the one that is generated in ENSO.
9.13 Effect of Crop Water Stress
Severe water pressure on agriculture is expected due to the proposed increase in

temperature change in frequency, severity of extreme events, and rainfall patterns.
In the future, the region which is facing the water shortages will have to face more
water scarcity. The intergovernmental panel on climate change expected that by
2020, 75–250 million more population in Africa will suffer from increased drought
stress according to De Wit and Stankiewicz (2006). Decrease in rainfall (10%) in
semiarid areas of this region could lower surface drainage volume by 50%. By the
end of this century, water scarcity in Mediterranean Basin, parts of Mesoamerica,
and Central China are proposed to go through long-term drying trends. In South
America, Central Asia, and China increased flooding followed by severe shortage of
freshwater is expected in the wake of glacier retreat. Climate change is also associ-
ated with intensively irrigated production system, where misuse of water is already
causing shortage of regional water supply.
162 M. Ijaz et al.
9.14 Climate Change Impacts
Agriculture systems are more sensitive to climate change and extreme climatic
events as contending with a high degree of non-climatic stress, pest and disease
pressure, soil and water degradation, as well as declining soil fertility. Productivity
and food security are also suffered due to climate variability and extreme events.
Climate impact models poorly represent the indirect effect of changing climate. On
the long-term viability of agriculture systems, they are likely to create significant
additional pressure, especially where factor efficiency is low or declining. Soil ero-
sion, land degradation, increase in pest damage, and high rate of malnutrition and
disease among agriculture communities are the secondary impacts of climate
change.
9.15 Regions Vulnerable to Changing Climate
Africa, South and Central Asia, and the Mediterranean Basin are the regions which
are more exposed to the negative effects of climate change (Easterling et al. 2007).
The Andes, semiarid northeastern Brazil, and semiarid areas in Central America are
more sensitive to climate change, but the whole Latin America is not predictable to
experience a significant loss of GDP from climate change (Magrin 2007). Southern
Africa, South Asia, West Africa, the Sahel, and Brazil have significant effects of
climate change on food security, and it could occur as early as 2030 for several
crops and regions.
9.16 I mportance and Local Benefit of Traditional Farming

System
At the start of the twentieth century, there are so many native people, families, farm-
ers, and small landholders having 20% of land which are able to be plowed. But
their contribution in the economy of world agriculture is not less than 50%. Thus,
mostly agriculture products like wheat, rice, pulses, etc. are the output of small
landholder people (ETC 2009). Resource-conserving agricultural farming system is
a very reliable method for the local and traditional farmers. It is very difficult to
estimate the real numbers of farmers that use resource-conserving system, but
according to rough estimate, about 50% of peasants use this system. While with
changing climate it’s need of hour to use this farming system for food security at
national, regional, and local level. Furthermore, without using agrochemicals mostly
farmers grow consumed foods to fulfill the current demand of the population (Toledo
and Barrera-Bassols 2008).
In the developing countries, major populations are engaged in the practices of
traditional agriculture. While in Latin America almost 16 million farmers sections
that produce 41% agriculture product for local use and 21% arable land. Farmers’
areas in the Latin America are responsible for generating 61% potatoes, 77% beans,
and 51% maize at regional level. European countries like “Africa” have only 33 mil-
lion farms; all these small farms represent the whole farm which is 80% in the state.
In most of the farmer communities in Africa, females are regulating the small farms.
Meanwhile, two-thirds of farms are under 2 hectares and 90% of farms beneath
10 ha. There are many peasants that belong to poor class family, but by using limited
resources, these small landholders’ farmers produce common grains and legumes to
fulfill the demand of the nearby community. Similarly, in China region more than 75
million rice-cultivating farmers followed thousands of years of traditional method,
but after using primitive techniques, they achieved rice yield in bulk quantity as
compared to the Asian rice-growing farmers (Koohafkan and Altieri 2011).
In the present time, each region of the world has a particular agriculture system
and habitat for the growing of crops. The common phenomena of all the regions are
sharing likewise plant height, structural diversity, microclimate crop varieties, and
animal diversity. To increase the flexibility and constancy of farming system, vari-
ous scientists have used common features of world agriculture. The most important
issue of the current situation is changing of climate day by day, so this climate issue
leads to shortage of food and energy crises. On the other hand, it is necessary to
adopt self-determination and agroecological system for gaining worldwide atten-
tion (Altieri and Toledo 2005). Several researchers reported that latest and efficient
farming system for the improvement and production of healthy food (IAASTD
2009; de Schutter 2010). They also purposed that agroecology is the best way to
move toward better quality food and also improve the poorest situation of the farm-
ers. The scientists, civil society, and consultations with industry representatives
reported that by using agroecological system, small land-holding farmers attain
double food production within 10 years.
For the protection of future climatic scenarios such as energy crises, economic
issues, and food deficiency, agroecology is the best and easy way to overcome future
problems against sustainable development of food. Characterization by an incredi-
ble variety of farm crops and animal species conserved and improved by artless soil,
water, and biodiversity management promoted by difficult system of old knowledge
that used many years ago. For the sustainable supply of food in parts of the earth,
climate-smart agricultural policy is the adoptable practice for worldwide popula-
tion, although according to ecologists, traditional agroecosystems have the potential
to overcome the climate change and against financial crises for the people that are
facing many problems (Altieri 2004).
9.17 Climate Models for Traditional Agriculture
9.17.1 Establishment of Raise Fields
According to biofacts record offers the example of regularity and flexibility by

using agricultural system data. For example, researchers revealed that this system
contains the residue of other than 170,000 hectares in Surinam field (Denevan
1995). In savannas, most of the systems are raised on highlands and flooded lands.
164 M. Ijaz et al.
Thus, in many areas of the world, bad growing system used by farmers is raised.
Water management issue has been associated with this system to managing the
effect of surplus water quantity on production of different crops to actively flooded
crops during scarcity of rainfall. The source and practice have conventionally been
related to water issues and their management, either by given that prospects to mini-
mize the adverse influence of surplus water on production of various crops to
actively irrigate crops during stress period. For example, in the Valley of Mexico,
“chinampas” (floating and rectangular island used for growing of crops) are used for
the cultivation of crops under water stress condition (Wilken 1990).
The raised platform of “chinampas” (10 m long and 2.5–10 m wide) was built
with the nearby mud of superficial lakes. So, the Aztecs made their raised area that
height near about (0.5–0.7 m) upstairs from water and all the boundary of this raised
platform are covered with trees (Armillas 1971). Thus, chinampa beds were made
of discontinuous layers of bottom muck and weeds. The inside rectangular area of
the bed is firmly embedded to the lake floor. Furthermore, the thinness of the bed
guaranteed that nearby plots are evenly filtered at root level through bed. So, the
regular uses of manure, swamp muck, and marine plant conserved the soil fertility
because manure enhances the organic matter in the soil which also increases the
fertility rate. The rectangular area of “chinampas” detached from 1–3-m-wide canal,
developing a network of islands accessible only through water (Gliessman et al.
1981). Most of the farmers on the “chinampas” focused on the production of their
simple vegetables as well as food crops such as maize, wheat, rice, etc. One hectare
of chinampas area produced food crops that fulfill the need of almost 15 people per
year. For example, yield of maize crop in that area ranges from 4 to 6 t/ha.
Furthermore, three to four crops were grown on chinampa land every year that
increased the quality of life of some aquatic organisms such as turtle, frog, and
salamanders.
Waru Waru is an agricultural technique used for the growing of agricultural crops
and making of platforms of soil. The soil under fence is filled by using water to
produce immense crops under water stress and flooded conditions and the killing
frosts common at elevations of almost 4 thousand meters, However, these bed and
canal arrangements have demonstrated the distressing effect of frost and moderation
effect of temperature by encompassing the growing season of crops (Vietmeyer
1984). By using this system, during flooding excess amounts of water escape
through furrows and plant roots that remain free from injury. Similarly, during dry
season roots absorb water through capillary action from the canal. Thus, canal and
raised bed show a different effect during day and night; canal water absorbs maxi-
mum sunlight at daytime and emits heat into the atmosphere by night time; on the
other hand, raised bed temperature becomes higher than surrounding temperature
(Erickson and Chandler 1989). Using Waru Waru technique during harsh climatic
conditions leads to maximum production as compared to chemically fertilized soil
of Pampa city (Erickson and Chandler 1989).
9.17.2 Dryland Agriculture
Farmers used model over generation to increase the potential of soil to retain its
water that plant can use and ultimately reduce the drought condition and soil erosion
along with degradation in arid or semiarid situation (Barrow 2014). Land with
shortage of water, furrows, and ridges are made around the plant bed to store maxi-
mum water. These are called tied ridges which help in holding rainwater, preventing
runoff and enhancing the infiltration ability. In teff production, mostly farmers of
Tigray (Ethiopia) make contour furrows to store water in the edges. These are 2–4 m
wide and after the storm help in saving water for later crops instead of running off
(Boers and Ben-Asher 1982).
A generally used method is rainwater harvesting, consisting of the compilation
and application of runoff from small drainage areas. Simple method for tarp rainfall
water is small earthen basins, also hold soil in situ conditions. In Dogon Plateau
(Mali), basins are made with semipermanent ridges. These types of basins are also
found in the Jos Plateau of Nigeria. In West Africa, they make pits and enlarged
planting holes for flat semiarid areas. In Burkina Faso, customs of hand-dug pits for
land therapy have been effectively invigorated by plans. On steeper slopes, deep pits
are made mostly found in southwest Tanzania and many other countries spreading
over 18,000-hectare lands (Stigter et al. 2005).
9.18 E
ffect of Thrilling Climate on the Biodiversity
of Agroecosystem
In Central America, a study was shown in hillsides for checking the feature for
water storage practices. They use various types of practices like intercropping, agro-
forestry, and use of cover crops. This survey is led by the Campesino with the name
Campesino Movement, under which 100 farmer technicians are involved to hold out
similar observations of specific agroecological indicators on 1804 adjoining sus-
tainable and predictable farms. The study revealed that Guatemala, Nicaragua, and
Campesino cover 360 groups in the form of communities and 24 departments. The
results revealed that defensible plots have 20–40% topsoil, having great moisture
contents with low erosion rate; due to this they faced low economic losses (Holt-
Giménez 2002). Correspondingly in Soconusco, Chiapas, coffee systems exhibiting
high levels of vegetational complication and plant diversity suffered less damage
from Hurricane Stan than more simplified coffee systems (Philpott et al. 2008).
According to the survey conducted by researchers in the province of Holguin and
Las Tunas 40 days after Hurricane Ike hit Cuba in 2008, diversified farms exhibited
losses of 50% compared to 90 or 100% in neighboring monocultures. Likewise,
monoculture farms give less productivity as compared to agroecologically managed
farms, because agroecological farms showed faster production which is 80–90%
40 days after the hurricane (Rosset et al. 2011).
All survey showed that in farming system plant diversity is more important to
overcome the effects of climatic events and its vulnerability to plants. Biodiversity
166 M. Ijaz et al.
is essential to maintain ecosystem and its function in crop diversification used by

farmers as buoyancy for agroecosystem (Lin et al. 2008). Diversity can be brought
about by traditional farming, through new varieties. So traditional farming can form
diversity.
Traditional agriculture has several modifications in forms like genetic variety
and species variety and over different scales (inside field and landscape level as in
the case of agroforestry, crop- corridors, livestock integration, hedgerows, etc.), giv-
ing growers a wide variety of options and combinations for the application of this
strategy. Thus, traditional farmers create temporal and spatial assortments (Perfecto
et al. 2009). Farming containing diversity showed how agroecosystem is adapted
and resisted to climatic measures.
9.19 C
onservative Farming System and Its Mitigation
Perspective
On farm level, increasing diversification may reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sion and thus participate in global warming mitigation (Tscharntke et al. 2005).
Resultant of pesticide and fertilizers are being known as GHG and significantly
lessen by traditional farming in which agrochemical and other inputs don’t use on
farmlands (Niggli et al. 2009): & lower N2O emissions (due to lower nitrogen
input)—it is usually assumed that 1–2% of the nitrogen applied to farm systems is
emitted as N2O & less CO2 emissions through lower erosion (due to better soil struc-
ture and more plant cover)— in diversified farming systems than in monocultures.
Tropical small farmers used agroforestry system which is diversified and spread
in livestock farms in combination with trees used for fire wood. Traditionally, small
area of land consists of high diversity by protective soil from erosion and provides
litter as organic matter in some system of agroecosystem (Montagnini and Nair
2004).
Through different observations, it had been noticed that SAFS systems are
greatly involved in increasing growing potential of crops and mitigate GHG by
reducing soil erosion (Mutuo et al. 2005). Carbon stock is found high in tree-bearing
farmlands as compared to others without farms. Agroecosystem has a tendency to
restore carbon stock in field as other pasture lands. It is due to trees sequestering
more carbon in their surrounding as compared to others below and above the ground
(Albrecht and Kandji 2003).
It was studied earlier that carbon sequestration potential for SAFS was 2.6 for
semiarid, 3.9 for temperate, 6.1 for subhumid, and 10 MgCha−1 yr−1 for humid
areas. Erythrina poeppigiana was found good for agroforestry by adding C 0.4
MgCyr−1 in roots, 0.3 MgCyr−1 in trunks, and 1.4 MgCyr−1 in branches, and leaves
give mulch to soil (Mutuo et al. 2005). Good range of carbon for small holder SFAS
is 1.5–3.5 MgCha−1 yr−1 (Montagnini and Nair 2004). SFAS with perennial trees
and crops, i.e., cacao and coffee, might be more prominent carbon sinks than other
annual crops. Research revealed that SFAS system can also mitigate CO and NO
from soil increasing methane sink potential than other annual crops in humid areas
(Mutuo et al. 2005). Peruvian Amazon study was conducted which resulted in SFAS
with tree plantation emitting less NO as compared to other annual crops and fertil-
izers. It was observed in several other countries which also recommend that SFAS
can emit CH4 partially where other cropping systems have emitted at high rate
(Montagnini and Nair 2004).
Many scientists and researchers thought that agricultural practices done by tradi-
tional farming enhanced carbon sequestration in soil, i.e., use of agricultural manure,
intercropping, and use of trees in farms as hedges (Stigter et al. 2005). Practices
such as application of green manure and use of cover crops can boost up the soil
fertility by increasing organic matter and improve soil structure.
IPCC pointed out the mitigation process enhanced through soil organic carbon in
SFAS. It is roughly estimated that CO2 was reduced by the rate of 3.5–4.8 through
carbon sequestration in agriculture farming, while N2O was reduced by 2/3 (Niggli
et al. 2009).
Soil which is formed through oxisols by high rate of black carbon, remaining
portion of burning materials, is known as “terra preta.” In Brazil, intense population
formed poor oxisols for 2500 years by converting soil to terra preta. Black carbon is
assumed to be persistent in the environment for centuries or may be for millennia
because of its aromatic structure that can be chemically stable. Fertility level of terra
preta is calculated or estimated by organic matter present in it; values of nitrogen,
calcium, phosphorus, and pH; and its moisture and nutrient holding capacity rela-
tive to other soils. These soils are considered as a good source of storage and poten-
tial sink of carbon dioxide. In Amazon, dark earth region carbon stocks are measured
about 147–506 MgCha−1 m−1, while Belterra Regions have fewer stocks with
72–149 MgCha−1 m−1 in nearby ferralsols. These results showed significant amount
of carbon in Amazon dark earth especially in topsoil (Sombroek et al. 2003).
9.20 Conclusions
Traditional farming systems highlight the significance of improving plant diversity

and complexity in farming systems to increase yield stability and reduce liability to
extreme climatic events. Undoubtedly, the myriad of traditional systems and indig-
enous technologies still existing throughout the world comprise a globally impor-
tant ingenious agricultural heritage that reflects the value of the diversity of
agricultural systems adapted to different environments and the vagaries of a chang-
ing physical and material environment from generation to generation (Koohafkan
and Altieri 2011).
Studies showed that different plant communities are more resistant against envi-
ronmental distress (Lin et al. 2008). Crop variation also provides the strategy for
farmers who suffer windstorm, increasing temperature predictability, and decreas-
ing rainfall. Similarly, aeration, infiltration, and adding the organic matter in the soil
increase the water use efficiency (WUE) and water holding capacity of the soil.
Thus, green manure and cover crops like grasses and legumes are also added bio-
mass in the soil which increases soil organic matter. Furthermore, these cover crops
168 M. Ijaz et al.
to protect the soil from erosion (Madgoff and Weil 2004). The main objectives of
traditional agroecosystems are focused on such systems to enhance ability against
climatic stress.
It also gives the impact of climate change on crop yield, water availability, food
security, and crop water productivity. To predict the impact of change in climate,
various climate models have been developed, as climate models help to give precise
projections for future climate scenarios. These predictions indicate that temperature
will increase but change (either increase or decrease) in relative humidity depending
on the location of research. The impact of change in climate on crop production is
frequently sum up with soil water balance and water productivity. Temperature and
relative humidity will be affected by global warming, and it will have direct effect
on groundwater level and status of soil moisture. During the growth period of crop,
its yield is restrained to variety of crop, soil degradation, planting area, water avail-
ability, and growing climate. With increasing temperature and changing ambient
relative humidity, the production of crop will decrease in the future. By increasing
the irrigated area, total yield will increase but with the degradation in the quality of
food and environment. With the change in climate, plant transpiration rate and soil
evaporation will be decreased. Thus, water use efficiency (WUE) may be decreased
in the future. It will be important for food security to maintain a stable connection
with global food supplier and improvement in water productivity. Furthermore, the
aggregated distortion to agriculture from climate change over the next few decades
and across the region is more likely to arise from increased intra-annual and inter-
annual climate changes from an increased frequency of extreme events than from
changes in mean climatic conditions.
Climate scenario makes a reasonable description of the future climatic based on
a range of climatological relationships and assumption of radioactive forcing. These
future climate scenarios can be visualized by GCMs. There are tedious three-
dimensional mathematical exemplifications to show the collaborations between
lands and surface sea ice atmosphere which resulted from climate (Mearns 2000).
However, GCMs still have a significant role to motivate the aspects of current and
future climates (Solomon 2007). So, resultantly they pro-sights into climate change
impacts on a regional scale and estimate the impact of climate change on crop pro-
duction. When regional climate models (RCMs) are used to reproduce the observed
duration of less rainfall (%) monthly, it causes some troubles by Blenkinsop and
Fowler (2007). Climate models are needed to be integrated with other modeling
approaches to predict the vulnerability and climate parameters like rainfall (mm),
temperature (°C), etc.
Advanced terrestrial ecosystem analysis and modeling (ATEAM) is provided by
Metzger (2005), to qualify the vulnerability of climate change using GCM and to
protect climate change in 2080. In Australia, statistical methods were used to select
15 best models to drive annually and seasonal average projections of rainfall and
temperature by Suppiah (2007). According to historical data, climate variability,
and water stress conditions, some reasonable policy approaches are suggested to
treat the extreme climate change variability. Prediction model is used to adjust water
distributions of surface and groundwater, to improve water use efficiency in
agriculture and to build a national legal framework to manage water resources

(Khan 2008).
Based on robust decision-making to quantify the SRES, Groves and Lempert
(2007) provided a new analytical method to develop using the scenario-axis method
for decision-maker. To drive rainfall climate information using the stochastic simu-
lation method, Fowler et al. (2005) studied the Neyman-Scott Rectangular Pulse
(NSRP) rainfall scenario generation model. Xu et al. (2006) used the PRECIS cli-
mate model to predict mean temperature and rainfall increase across China. To pre-
dict climate scenarios, GCMs have been used and impacts in many cases using the
downscaling approach. GCM lacks the spatial and temporal precision necessary for
detailed regional analysis and in many cases has errors to simulate even present-day
climate and also typically has low degree of resolution. GCMs can provide reason-
able accuracy about large-scale features and other variations due to impact of cli-
mate change while having uncertainties about future climatic conditions. Different
climate models have different uncertainties. So further study on GCM will be
dependent on how to improve the sensitivity and evaluate feedback of the factors
influencing climate model.
In order to reduce the spatial and temporal error for the accurate regional climate
study, future climate models will require more detail of factors and have higher
precise latitude and longitude. Human prosperity and crop production are fully
dependent on water resources. The agricultural land and water resources in the
world depend upon the different hydrological cycles which further include natural
replacement of surface and groundwater resources. The main problem of water
shortage is its divergence. Water accessibility is an essential part of human life,
environment, and biodiversity which is also a concern of water authorities. However,
shortage of water is a great burden on the world’s population, use of land, and dif-
ferent factors.
It is a need of the hour to take important steps for effective use of available water
and developing new resources of water due to factors (climate change, demand of
water, socioeconomic effects) influencing water availability. The accessibility of
water will be susceptible to climate change due to lowering resources of water by
growing and melting of snow.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defined the impact of climate change
on food security. According to FAO food security has four different aspects like
food availability, food stability, food access, and food utilization. In agriculture, this
organization is mainly focused to protect all these four aspects. Furthermore, FAO
provides the safe healthy and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an
active and healthy life (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). However, FAO mentioned
that biotechnology is a very effective approach to improve food security and mini-
mize the environmental pressure on damaging food. Meanwhile, to fulfill the
demand of future food availability, resistance and modified crop varieties, waterlog-
ging, salinity, and thrilling climate can develop the crop planting area such as in the
degraded soil. Nowadays climate change is the biggest threat to the present and
future food demand. These climatic threats to food caused very hazardous effect on
170 M. Ijaz et al.
human health. If all abovementioned approaches are adopted regularly, there will be
an increase in food availability in the future (FAO 2002).
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Cultivation of Aromatic Rice: A Review
10
S. P. Singh, M. K. Singh, Sandeep Kumar, and U. Sai Sravan
Abstract
India is the leading country in production and export of aromatic rice (Basmati
and non-Basmati) at global level. Evidences suggest that most of the aromatic
rice genotypes are native of the Indian subcontinent. Cultivation of Basmati is
traditionally practiced in Himalayan foothill region and confined in specific
regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). The wide range of genetic diversity is
found in aromatic landraces and genotypes. Grain quality (pre- and post cooking),
fragrance, and flavor are important considerations for consumer’s preference.
In-season factors like temperature and agronomic measures that followed mainly
govern the yield and quality of aromatic rice. Introduction of improved varieties
has opened new avenues for area expansion of Basmati rice in nontraditional
areas without compromising the quality. Replacement of traditional genotypes
with the improved ones, optimal planting time, population density, integrated
nutrient management (INM), and integrated pest management (IPM) are prime
considerations suggested for improvement in productivity, quality, and profit-
ability of Basmati rice. Timely harvest, less exposure of harvested produce to
sun, and early threshing improve produce quality. The information regarding
quality standards and optimum management practices for higher productivity
and quality is meager. Yield and quality characteristics of aromatic rice vary with
management practices. Genetic diversity and environmental variability call for
adoption of location-specific best management practices to harness optimum
yield and quality of aromatic rice. Several short grain aromatic rice genotypes
are cultivated in various regions of India. Thirteen such genotypes have been
provided geographical indication (GI) tag because of their distinct quality
characteristics attributable to their native places. The issue of GI for Basmati is
S. P. Singh · M. K. Singh (*) · S. Kumar · U. S. Sravan

e-mail: manoj.agro@bhu.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_10
176 S. P. Singh et al.
c omplex because of transborder reality between India and Pakistan. Quality con-
siderations and consumer preference are key factors for a wider acceptance of a
genotype by practicing farmers. Bridging production constraints and technologi-
cal gaps will largely depend on successful extension of technology and input
availability to the farmers. This chapter includes detail status and effect of agro-
nomic management on yield and quality of aromatic rice in India.
Keywords
Scented rice · Basmati rice · Agronomic management · Geographical indication
Abbreviations
2-AP 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline
APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development
Authority
BB bacterial blight
BGA blue-green algae
BPH brown plant hopper
DAS days after sowing
DAT days after transplanting
DSR direct seeded rice
fb followed by
Fe iron
FYM farmyard manure
g gram
GI geographical indications
ha hectare
IGP Indo-Gangetic plains
INM integrated nutrient management
IPM integrated pest management
IWM integrated weed management
K potassium
kg kilogram
L/B ratio length to breadth ratio
N nitrogen
P phosphorus
ppm parts per million
PSB phosphate-solubilizing bacteria
RDF recommended dose of fertilizers
RDN recommended
SRI system of rice intensification
WBPH white backed plant hopper
WP wettable powder
Zn zinc
10 Cultivation of Aromatic Rice: A Review 177
10.1 Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa) is the staple food of the Indian subcontinent; in India the total
rice area, production, and productivity are 43.86 million ha, 104.80 million tons, and
2.39 t ha−1, respectively (GOI 2017a). The estimated demand and supply for rice
(Fig. 10.1) indicates that if India continues with the current growth rate (1.14%), it
will create a deficit of around 2.5 million tons by the year 2030. To surpass its demand
by the year 2030, a growth rate of 1.34% per annum is desired (CRRI 2011). India,
Pakistan, and Thailand are the leading countries in trade of aromatic rice. Major sup-
pliers of Basmati rice are India and Pakistan while Jasmine rice by Thailand. Other
aromatic rice in the world trade are Siamati, Khao Dawk Mali 105 (Thailand), Sadri
(Iran), Bahra (Afghanistan), Texamati, Kasmati, and Della (USA). A large number of
small- and medium-grained landraces of aromatic rice are found in Himalayan Tarai
regions that indicate their probable place of origin (Singh et al. 2000a, b). A huge
varietal diversity is found with respect to intensity of aroma and morphological and
grain characteristics in the Indian subcontinent. Ancient literature and records indi-
cate that aromatic rice was originated from the Indian subcontinent. Evidences also
suggest that aromatic rice were also grown in China and other countries of South
Asia but with less emphasis placed than the Indian subcontinent (Nene 1998).
Cultivation of aromatic rice in ancient times is found frequently mentioned in the
Hindu religious books, viz., Charaka Samhita (600 BC), Vedas and Rigveda
(1000 BC), and the oldest records (Kumar 1988; Kamal 1988; Kansara 1995).
Aromatic rice is characterized by specific pleasant aroma and includes gluti-
nous and non-glutinous endosperm types. Jasmine rice is glutinous, while short-
grained rice of India are non-glutinous. Basmati rice is mainly grown in India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh and is long to extra-long grained and slender and has
high kernel elongation after cooking and intermediate amylose content (Mahindru
1995; Ahuja et al. 1995). Jasmine rice elongate almost equal to Basmati but are
Projected demand Projected supply

140
120
100
Million tons
80
60
40
20
0
2015 2020 2025 2030
Year
Fig. 10.1 Projected rice demand and supply

sticky in nature and contain low amylose content. Non-Basmati aromatic rice of
India are short to medium grained, possess good aroma, and do not elongate much
like Basmati and Jasmine rice. Traditional aromatic rice cultivars and landraces are
usually tall, prone to lodging, photo- and thermosensitive, long duration, low
yielder, and short grained (Rani and Krishnaiah 2001). Aromatic rice in India
widely differs in their morphological characteristics (Ahuja et al. 2008). Typically
many variants grown in India are unique quality rice preferred in domestic and
international markets than other nonaromatic rice. Aromatic rice hold prominent
position among agricultural commodities exported from India and fetch high pre-
mium price (Buttery et al. 1983). A study over three decades (1980–1981 to 2012–
2013) indicated positive growth in respect to total value, value per unit, and quantity
exported for Basmati and non-Basmati rice. Instability index was found higher for
quantity (43.37%) than value (33.52%) and unit value (20.41%) for Basmati rice
exported. Export of rice from India is highly price sensitive, and the major deter-
minants are quantum of production, domestic consumption, international and
export prices, and the exchange rate (Adhikari et al. 2016). Major markets for
export of Indian Basmati are the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and
Saudi Arabia. Indian society had immense wealth, and almost all states grow aro-
matic rice native and adapted to climate. Short grain aromatic cultivars and landra-
ces are grown in several states of India. It is difficult to ascertain their precise area
under cultivation, but Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha,
and Assam have great genetic diversity and wealth of such aromatic rice. Besides
their short grain length, specific adaptations, and aroma, the cooking and eating
quality are superb. Such aromatic types are widely used by domestic consumers
because of their limited export potential. Little attention has been paid for the
development of short grain aromatic rice. Research focusing on genetic improve-
ment for high Zn, Fe, vitamins, and minerals and on colored rice may open new
path for export of these specialty rice (Rani et al. 2006).
Basmati rice is a nature’s gift to Indian subcontinent and possesses delightful
fragrance, taste, and texture which make it best among the aromatic rice of the
world. The word Basmati originated from regional name “Bas” which means aroma
due to ambience of the environment bestowing unique properties to this specialty
rice. Basmati rice is known for excellent cooking and eating qualities. Typically the
delicately curved, long-grained rice with high aroma, elongate more than twice on
cooking, and cook soft and fluffy are popularly known as Basmati rice (Bhattacharjee
et al. 2002). Traditional cultivars are low yielder and prone to lodging; thus, devel-
opment accelerated after the Green Revolution, and so far 29 Basmati varieties
have been released (APEDA 2017b). Quality characteristics of Basmati varieties
popular among farmers, consumers, and global market are described in Table 10.1.
Basmati rice are long to extra-long grained and slender with precooking kernel
length ≥ 6.5 mm, length-to-breadth ratio (L/B ratio) ≥ 3, and high kernel elongation
after cooking. The grains are pointed at both ends with gradual tapering at the end
opposite to the germination end with uniform breadth between the tapering
(Mahindru 1995). Basmati is perceived as one of the premium rice in the world
because of its high-quality standards (Table 10.2).
Table 10.1 Quality characteristics of popular Basmati rice varieties

Traditional Basmati Improved varieties
Pusa Pusa
Taraori Basmati Haryana Pusa Basmati Basmati
Quality traits Basmati 370 Basmati 1 Basmati 1 1509 1121
Kernel
Length (mm) 7.10 6.76 6.74 6.82 8.41 8.23
Breadth (mm) 1.78 1.76 1.65 1.73 1.86 1.71
L/B ratio 4.03 3.84 4.08 3.94 4.74 4.78
Milling
Hulling (%) 75.5 76.8 78.3 76.3 75.4 75.93
Milling (%) 68.5 69.0 71.3 67.7 64.03 67.60
Head rice (%) 45.5 46.0 44.7 44.2 49.23 47.13
Cooking
Kernel length 13.30 12.72 11.46 13.23 19.10 21.50
(mm)
Elongation 1.87 1.88 1.70 1.89 2.13 2.69
ratio
Aroma Strong Strong Medium Medium Strong Strong
Amylose 20.11 19.10 21.77 27.14 21.24 23.79
cont. (%)
Alkali value 5.27 4.45 6.57 5.81 7.0 7.9
Volume 3.70 3.92 3.80 3.81 3.84 –
expansion
Source: Singh et al. (2002, 2014, 2018); Srivastava and Jaiswal (2013); Gupta et al. (2004); Chavan
et al. (2017)
Table 10.2 Quality Parameters Value

standards for milled Basmati Length (precooking) >6.61 mm
rice
Breadth (precooking) <2 mm
L/B ratio (precooking) >3.5
Length (cooked) >12 mm
Kernel elongation ratio >1.7
Volume expansion >3.5
ratio
Source: GOI website: https://enam.
gov.in/NAM/home/cqp.html
Basmati rice cultivation is practiced during rainy season in India in an area of

1.55 million ha (APEDA 2017a). Basmati rice is traditionally grown in foothills of
Himalayas, and cultivation is restricted to the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India. About
two third of Basmati production is exported from India, and Haryana ranks first in
production (3.70 million tons) of Basmati rice (Flowarin 2016). Export quantum of
Basmati from India is 4.04 million tons valued at US $3312.04 million. Basmati rice
stands third (16%) among the total agricultural commodities exported, while non-
Basmati rice (10%) ranked fifth. Saudi Arabia, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq,
10 Basmati Non-basmati
Production (million tons)
4
Basmati rice (16%)
2 Non Basmati rice (11%)
0
Spices (10%)
Year
Fig. 10.2 India’s trade flow of rice export
Kuwait, Yemen, and Qatar are the largest importer and share more than 50% of the
total Basmati export from India. The trade flow of Basmati and non-Basmati rice
export from India is depicted in Fig. 10.2 (GOI 2017b).
10.2 Effect of Climate
Weather parameters play a key role in quality determination of aromatic rice. Rice
requires warm and humid climate during vegetative period and relatively cooler
temperature at grain filling stage for optimum growth, yield, and quality. Rice geno-
types having definite fragrance and flavor are highly desired among elite consumers.
The sensory properties particularly aroma are important. Factors that govern aroma
are genetic (genotype characteristics), environmental (mainly temperature), cul-
tural, and postharvest (drying process, milling, storage, and method of cooking).
In-season factors that affect flavor and aroma of cooked rice are mainly temperature
and cultural measures that followed. Sensory analysis confirms more than a dozen
of flavors and aroma in rice. Presence of >200 volatile compounds is confirmed, but
relationship of these with flavors and aromas is still little known. The role of volatile
compound, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP), is established because of the relationship
between its concentration and sensory intensity in rice. Field draining before har-
vest, harvesting at physiological maturity, moisture content, and climate conditions
are important in head rice recovery. Early draining may lead to moisture stress con-
dition before physiological maturity which in turn may affect the metabolic pro-
cesses and ultimately the volatile compounds. Early harvest (higher grain moisture
content) followed by delayed drying enhances the chance of problematic microbial
growth found associated with flavor metabolites. Decrease in aroma and flavor with
delay in harvesting is reported by several workers. Good aroma and delicious taste
of rice are obtained when harvested about 10 days earlier than its normal time. The
concentration of 2-AP usually reaches to its peak in 4–5 weeks (early-maturing
cultivars) and 4 weeks (late-maturing cultivars) after heading. The concentration

may reduce from 20 to 40% depending upon the extent of delay in harvest. Drying
temperature is a more important consideration than method of drying. Prevalence of
higher temperature during drying process reduces aroma. Similarly longer storage
(unthreshed) also leads to reduction in 2-AP compared to fresh rice sample. Effect
of degree of milling on flavor intensity has been found dependent on cultivar, mois-
ture content, or location. Storage of milled rice (paddy, brown, and white) reduces
concentration of 2-AP. However, storage at reduced temperature helps in maintain-
ing the flavor intensity attributes in comparison to higher temperature (Champagne
2008). Aromatic rice cultivars approximately contain 2-AP ranging from 0.04 to
0.09 ppm, whereas nonaromatic rice cultivars have <0.006 to 0.008 ppm. Further,
only the aromatic rice cultivars have the genetic ability to accumulate 2-AP (Buttery
et al. 1983).
Yield and grain quality of genotypes vary due to change in the climatic variables
during grain filling stage. Temperature variables exert more influence than sunshine
hours and irradiance on quality traits, viz., head rice recovery, transparency, and
amylose. Increase in temperature above a threshold value causes reduction in yields.
Study indicated 6–20% yield reduction due to increase in temperature by 2 °C dur-
ing grain filling stage. Hence, the challenge of climate change and global warming
can be addressed by research focus on genotypes adoptable to harsh environment
and adjustment in the planting season (Chia-Hsun Ho et al. 2013). Grain filling
period is prolonged from 32 to 53 days in Basmati rice due to prevalence of low
temperature. Total starch content was found unaffected, but the amylose content
increased by 21% in hulled rice. Study suggests crucial role and enhanced activity
of granulated starch synthase increased the amylose in endosperm developed at
low temperature (12 °C) than moderate temperature (22 °C). Occurrence of high
temperature (32 °C) shortened the grain filling period by 6 days compared to moder-
ate temperature and also reduced yield (6%), amylose content (22%), and total
starch (3.1%). High temperature during grain filling results in poor quality (Ahmed
et al. 2008; Ahmed et al. 2015) and reduces aroma, while relatively low temperature
during day (25 °C) and night (21 °C) improves aroma (Mann 1987) and grain elon-
gation (Khush et al. 1979). High temperature at flowering reduces pollination and
pollen germination and causes anther desiccation (Cheng et al. 2009; Mohammed
and Tarpley 2009). The optimum temperature required for grain filling and grain
development of Basmati rice is 22 °C. However, the grain weight seems less sensi-
tive to low temperature and comparatively stable at temperature range of 12–22 °C
(Ahmed et al. 2008). High night temperature lowers the yield because of increased
rate of respiration (Peng et al. 2004). Basmati rice is more susceptible to high tem-
perature than non-Basmati aromatic varieties (Chakrabarti et al. 2010). Long-
duration Basmati varieties generally possess high aroma since their grain filling
stage coincides with relatively low temperature. High relative humidity (60–70%)
and prolonged sunshine hours also affect yield and quality of Basmati rice.
Generally, aromatic rice varieties respond well to a wide range of radiations that
ranges from 300 to 600 MWh/cm2/day (Swaminathan 1999). High radiation during
panicle initiation and maturity promotes yield (Yang et al. 2008; Dobermann et al.
2000), but low radiation during grain filling adversely affects yield and quality of
Basmati rice (Vijayalakshmi et al. 1991; Takuya et al. 1999).
10.3 Selection of Varieties
Selection of specific variety for an agroecological situation is pivotal since it affects

profitability and sustainability of Basmati production. Assessment of yield perfor-
mance at various locations of India (Table 10.3) indicates that yield of Basmati rice
varies with varieties and locations. Recently released varieties like Pusa Basmati
1121, Pusa Basmati 1509, Pusa Basmati 1621, and HUBR 10–9 are fast gaining
popularity among farmers of IGP because of their greater yield potential and qual-
ity. Attempts to cultivate Basmati rice in nontraditional areas have not been much
successful because of unfavorable climatic conditions leading to inferior quality
traits. Vasumathi (an improved Basmati variety) showed better adoptability in
respect to hulling, milling, head rice recovery, length and breadth of kernel, and
amylose content in nontraditional area of eastern Uttar Pradesh than Taraori Basmati
(Zaidi et al. 2016). A newly developed short-grained aromatic variety HUR 917
yielded 4.2–4.5 ton ha−1 in IGP zone of India. This variety is semidwarf, resistant to
neck blast, and prone to lodging with good grain quality (Singh et al. 2015).
Development and dissemination of such varieties may result in replacement of
traditional tall low-yielding aromatic rice.
Table 10.3 Yield performance of Basmati varieties in the Indo-Gangetic Plain of India
Varieties Region Yield (t ha−1) References
Improved
HUBR 10–9, HUBR 2–1, Pusa Uttar 5.23–5.72 Singh et al. (2017a, b, c)
Basmati 1621, PRH 10 Pradesh Nanda et al. (2016)
Verma et al. (2017)
Pusa Basmati 1121, Pusa Sugandha New Delhi 4.12–5.10 Sharma et al. (2014)
5, Pusa Basmati 1401, Pusa Basmati Ghasal et al. (2015)
1460, PRH 10, Pusa Basmati 1509
Pusa Basmati 1, Pusa Basmati 1121, Uttar 3.99–4.84 Sharma et al. (2014)
Haryana Basmati 1, Pusa Sugandha Pradesh Panigrahi et al. (2014)
5, Pusa Sugandh 2, Pusa Sugandh 6, Mahajan et al. (2009a, b)
Pusa Sugandh 4
Pusa Sugandh 2, Pusa Sugandh 6, Uttar 3.40–4.1 Singh et al. (2013)
Pusa Sugandh 4 Pradesh
Haryana Basmati 2, CSR 30 Haryana 3.0–3.90 Abhilash (2016)
Mukesh et al. (2013)
Traditional
Taraori Basmati Uttar 2.67 Sharma et al. (2014)
Pradesh
Basmati 386, Basmati 370 Punjab 2.72–3.16 Mahajan et al. (2009a, b)
10.4 Planting Time, Method, and Geometry
Basmati cultivation in India is practiced mostly by transplanting 25-day-old seedlings

in puddle soil. Transplanting reduces weed infestation (Chander and Pandey 2001)
and improves nutrient availability to crop (Anbumani 2004). Transplanting of rice
seedling is common practice is India but is labor-intensive and requires more water
and energy during peak agricultural operations resulting in delay in transplanting
(Mahajan et al. 2004). Increase in water scarcity, labor, and energy crisis forces
Basmati-growing farmers to shift toward un-puddle DSR. Farmers are gradually
shifting to wet seeding (use of pre-germinated seeds on puddle soil) and SRI meth-
ods. Wet seeding eliminates growing, carrying, and transplanting of nursery, reduces
labor, and matures early (8–10 days). Considerable water is saved by effective weed
management in SRI method yields equal to conventional transplanting (Gill and
Gill 2017; Parameswari et al. 2014). Direct seeding saves 66% labor requirement
and 25% cost of cultivation with reduction in the crop duration by 7–10 days (Ho
and Romali 2000; Naresh et al. 2013) but harvests equivalent yield (Raju and
Sreenivas 2008). Dry seeding in water scared areas will require efficient weed man-
agement. The SRI method is advantageous because of low seed rate, shorter crop
duration, and high yield (Chen et al. 2013) and water use efficiency (Satyanarayana
et al. 2007). This method has the ability to withstand higher degree of moisture
stress and is more favorable to environment (Adhikaria et al. 2017) than conven-
tional practice of continuous flooding and dependence on inorganic fertilizers
(Uphoff 2003). Adoption of SRI gave similar yield as in conventional transplanting
with saving of water by 37.6% and improvement in grain quality (Singh et al. 2012).
Transplanting with machine under puddle condition or direct seeded fb brown
manuring with Sesbania at 30 DAS was superior in yields and monetary benefits
than DSR, zero tillage with or without brown manuring, and conventional trans-
planting (Gill and Walia 2013).
Planting geometry has a direct role on growth, development, and yield of rice
plant. Excess or deficient plant density results in considerable reduction in yield.
Optimum plant spacing facilitates proper growth opportunity to above- and below-
ground plant parts and better access to solar radiation and nutrients. Hence, it
synthesizes more dry matter, number of tillers, and leaf area index and finally turns
into higher yields. Higher plant densities have negative relation with weed dry
matter but are positively associated with the number of panicles and yields. Closer
planting geometry to accommodate desired density is highly recommended to harvest
more yields. Manual transplanting under puddle condition enhances the number of
effective tillers than line sowing of sprouted seeds under un-puddle condition.
Careful transplanting reduces injury and increases the number of effective tillers
and roots from lower nodes and nitrogen uptake in SRI. Aerobic rice also requires
higher planting density to produce more panicles in order to increase the yield.
Early transplanting produces higher number of tillers than late (Basha et al. 2017).
Time of planting adjusted to ensure coinciding of favorable temperature during
vegetative and reproductive stages is of utmost importance to achieve optimum
yield. Planting at optimum time improves crop growth and development and reduces
infestation of weeds, disease, and insect pests (Halappa et al. 1974). Early planting
coincides with high temperature at flowering, reduces anther dehiscence, and con-
sequently lessens pollen deposition on stigma (Chakrabarti et al. 2010; Matsui et al.
1997). Delay also reduces yield since it coincides with low temperature (<20 °C)
during pollen development resulting in an increase in pollen sterility (Jie et al. 2004;
De Souza et al. 2017). During grain filling stage, 25 °C temperature has been found
optimum to ensure superior quality rice (Jin et al. 2005). Besides yield, quality of
Basmati rice is also governed by genetic and environmental factors. Photoperiod
and temperature particularly during heading and dough stages affect grain quality.
High temperature during these stages enhances chalky grains resulting in poor head
rice recovery. Occurrence of high temperature at grain filling adversely affects ker-
nel development and reduces carbohydrate and cooking quality traits. As we
advance transplanting date from the 10th of July to 5th of May, the adverse effect on
milling and cooking traits of coarse- and fine-grained rice enhances. Shifting of
transplanting toward July caused more adverse effects on fine-grained rice than
coarse-grained. Study suggests transplanting of fine-grained cultivars in the month
of June for enhanced head rice recovery (Akhter et al. 2016). The optimum time of
transplanting photo-insensitive Basmati varieties in IGP zone of India is first fort-
night of July (Gangwar and Sharma 1997; Nayak and Garnayak 2000) emphasizing
nursery sowing by mid of June. Timely transplanting is advisable since delayed
transplanting (25th of July) decreases grain yield of Basmati varieties. However,
delayed transplanting improves quality traits, viz., hulling, milling, and head rice
recovery, of Basmati varieties with similar yields across the transplanting dates
(Mukesh et al. 2013). Grain yield of Basmati 370 increased by 18.59% and 9.71%
with transplanting in the 30th of June and 15th of July, respectively, over late trans-
planting in the 30th of July (Sharma et al. 2017). Early-transplanted (27th of June)
non-Basmati scented varieties, viz., Badshahbhog selection-1, Dubraj selection-1,
and Tarun selection-1, took longer duration to mature than transplanting on the 12th
and 27th of July during rainy season. Management of growing environment by
transplanting early enhances growth and yield attributes, grain yield, and harvest
index with maximum radiation use efficiency and heat use efficiency than delayed
transplanting (Netam 2017).
10.5 Nutrient Management
Traditional Basmati and non-Basmati aromatic cultivars are usually tall and less
responsive to N; INM is advisable for maintenance of soil organic carbon and pro-
tection of long-term soil fertility (Mithun et al. 2007). It enhances soil biological
activity for nutrient mobilization and mineralization and effectively recycles the
organic materials like crop residues and livestock wastes (Yadav et al. 2013). Use of
inorganic and organic nutrient sources together facilitated higher growth and yield,
nutrient removal, and net returns (Kumar et al. 2014; Patel et al. 2016, Nanda et al.
2016). Combined use of inorganic fertilizers, organic manures, and biofertilizers
(BGA + PSB) achieved higher growth, productivity, quality, and profitability of
Basmati rice (Singh et al. 2017a; Sarkar et al. 2014). Basmati varieties largely vary
in response to N; tall varieties require less N since they are prone to lodging at
higher doses, while dwarf and semidwarf respond to up to 100 to 120 kg N ha−1
(Singh et al. 2017c). Response also depends on the type of soil, soil nutrient status,
and agronomic management. Application of N in excess or less quantity affects
yield and quality of the Basmati rice. Excess application leads to lodging and more
attack of insect pests and reduces quality. Application of 60 Kg N ha−1was found
optimum (Kumar and Mahajan 2014), while Pusa Basmati 1 exhibited superior
yield attributes and yield with 120 kg N ha−1 (Malik et al. 2014). Application of N
and Zn is an important factor limiting Basmati rice yield in irrigated areas. Combined
use and interactive effect of these nutrients (120 kg N ha−1 and 14 kg Zn ha−1)
improved yield components, grain yield, and all quality parameters of kernels
except amylose content. Higher N level (160 kg ha−1) reduces quality and agronomic
efficiency of N use. Soil pH and its nutrient content play a vital role in determina-
tion of optimum doses for N and Zn (Ali et al. 2014). Conventional rice transplant-
ing is cumbersome and causes transplanting shock, and continuous flooding usually
leads to considerable N losses by leaching, volatilization, denitrification, and run-
off. Hence, DSR is an alternative though frequent dry and wet soil conditions cause
variation in the dynamics and pathways of N losses and result in varied nutrient
recoveries. Absence of transplanting shock and higher plant density produces higher
leaf area and number of tillers per unit area. High yield harvest is possible with the
use of improved varieties, proper dose, and application timings of N fertilizers syn-
chronized with the crop demand. Positive influence of raising N levels and number
of splits is noted in Basmati varieties (Haryana Basmati 2, Pusa Basmati 1, Pusa
Basmati 1121, and Pusa Basmati 1509) under DSR. Application of 110 kg N ha−1 in
four splits (basal, 20, 40, and 60 DAS) caused significant improvement in growth,
yield attributes, and grain yield than lower levels applied in three splits (Singh et al.
2017b). Application of FYM at 15 ton ha−1 produced the highest growth, yield
attributes, and grain and straw yield of Basmati varieties with comparable gross
return to INM practice (50% RDF + 7.5 ton FYM ha−1). However, use of N, P, and
K as inorganic fertilizers was more remunerative than organic and INM practice due
to their high cost (Panigrahi et al. 2014).
Soil fertility depletion has become an inevitable phenomenon in majority of soils
and locations indicating nutrient mining, reduction in organic matter, and soil aggre-
gates leading to yield stagnation or reduction. Continued ignorance of organic
manures and biofertilizers is the reason for increased nutrient stress in soil. It is
widely recognized that use of inorganic fertilizers alone or organic manures cannot
achieve sustainability of modern agricultural production systems. Organic sources
contain relatively low levels of nutrients. In order to overcome such situations, inor-
ganic and organic sources should be used in conjunction. High-yielding variety
requires more nutrients to express its production potential. The first ever bred
Basmati hybrid PRH 10 responded well to addition of greater quantities of N, P, and
K, i.e., 125% RDF (150–75-50 kg ha−1) along with 5 ton ha−1 vermicompost appli-
cation. Combined use of inorganic and vermicompost exhibited significant improve-
ment in yield attributes, yield, and nutrient uptake than inorganic sources (Kumar
et al. 2014). Integrated nutrient management is a viable alternative. Recently

released high-yielding short grain aromatic variety HUR 917 requires higher nutri-
ents than traditional cultivars. Addition of RDF (80–40-20 kg ha−1N, P2O5, and
K2O) with 10 ton FYM and BGA improved growth, yield attributes, yield, nutrient
removal, and net returns (Kumar et al. 2017a). Combined use of biofertilizers, viz.,
BGA and PSB, improved the performance of variety HUR 10–9 compared to their
alone application. Study suggests that biofertilizers can be effectively used even
with FYM available in low quantities (2 t ha−1). Integration of inorganic fertilizers
with biofertilizers BGA and PSB enhanced growth, productivity, and profitability of
Basmati rice (Singh et al. 2017a). Addition of 75% RDF with 25% RDN as FYM
improved quality parameters over supplementation of entire quantity by inorganic
or organic sources (Zaidi et al. 2016).
10.6 Water Management
Water plays a crucial role in production of premium quality rice. In transplanted

rice a thin film of water is maintained for about 2 weeks to allow proper establish-
ment of seedlings. Proper water management in SRI and DSR produces yields
similar to transplanted rice if soil moisture regime is maintained at or above field
capacity (Parameswari et al. 2014). Efficient varieties (Super Basmati and Pusa
Basmati 1) recorded equal water productivity without any yield loss when trans-
planted late. However, photosensitive varieties (Punjab Basmati 2 and Basmati
386) exhibited significant decrease in water productivity (8.4%) and grain yield
(27.1%). Grain yield of test varieties varied significantly in order of Pusa Basmati
1 > Super Basmati > Punjab Basmati 2 > Basmati 386. Significant improvement in
the quality traits of the latter two varieties is noted over the first two by delayed
transplanting (Mahajan et al. 2009b). On the contrary, delayed transplanting of
photosensitive varieties improved water productivity and quality traits, viz., head
rice recovery (%), kernel length after cooking, and amylose content though reduced
yield, than insensitive varieties (Mahajan et al. 2015). Alteration in date of trans-
planting plays a vital role in reducing water requirement by growing crop during
minimum evaporative demand.
The cutoff timing of irrigation plays an important role in determining the head
rice recovery. Withholding irrigation early results in incomplete grain filling due to
restricted translocation of assimilates from source to sink. Water expense effi-
ciency increases with delay in termination of the last irrigation. Termination of
irrigation at appropriate timing (28 days after 50% flowering) enhances yield (Brar
et al. 2009). Irrigated rice production systems utilize two to three times more water
than other cereal crops. Wet rice system requires higher quantity of irrigation water
for nursery raising, puddling, and continuous flooding after transplanting. The
extent of losses associated due to seepage and percolation varies due to soil type
and water table. Dry seeded rice is a potential alternative to reduce irrigation water
requirement and increase the water productivity. Short-duration varieties are more
suited than medium and long duration. Deep tillage increases water productivity by
improvement in root growth that enables rice plant to extract moisture from deeper
layers. Relative reduction in irrigation frequencies further augments the effect of
tillage gain (Joshi 2016). In water scarce areas, alternate crop establishment meth-
ods like DSR and SRI are useful (Gill et al. 2014) and can save irrigation water by
7% to 57% over conventional transplanting (Kaur and Mahal 2015). Aerobic rice
systems follow direct seeding in un-puddle conditions known for water and labor
saving. Effective and economical weed management is the prime concern since
such systems are subjected to tremendous weed pressure. Rice grain yield is nega-
tively correlated with weed density and dry weight. Both aerobic and transplanted
rice show similar irrigation water productivity under weed-free situation or effec-
tive weed management (Mahajan et al. 2009a).
10.7 Weed Management
Basmati cultivars are poor competitor to weeds due to their initial slow growth
(Chander and Pandey 2001). The critical period of crop-weed competition is 15–40
DAT for a medium-duration variety (Jacob et al. 2005). Direct seeded rice faces
severe weed infestation than conventional transplanting of Basmati varieties
(Mahajan et al. 2009b), while least infestation is noted in SRI method (Mandal et al.
2013). System of rice intensification is recommended for higher yield and effective
weed management of Basmati rice over drum seeding and conventional transplant-
ing method. Pyrazosulfuron-ethyl at 20 g ha−1 when applied 6 DAT fb mechanical
weeding twice (cono weeder at 15 and 30 DAS) found most effectively suppressed
the weed- biomass and density (Mandal et al. 2013). Concurrent emergence of
weeds in DSR results in poor germination and crop stand and higher weed infesta-
tion, and losses in yields may often exceed 50%. The DSR faces severe crop-weed
competition than transplanted rice. Severity depends on weed flora, season, degree
of infestation, choice of cultivar, and cultural practices that followed. The critical
period for crop-weed competition may range from 0 to 60 DAS. Adoption of crop
rotation, stale seedbed, weed competitive cultivar, and brown manuring are impor-
tant cultural techniques for weed control in DSR (Raj and Syriac 2017).
Weeds are the major constraints in rice production; weeds vary in their growth
habit and life cycle. Use of any one method, viz., mechanical, cultural, and chemi-
cal, is not enough for successful weed management. Effective and economical
weed management requires IWM strategy for sustainable rice production (Sridevi
et al. 2013). Weeds adversely affect growth, yield (Rajkhowa et al. 2007), and
quality of Basmati rice (Kumar et al. 2017a; Singh et al. 2007). Sub-optimal plant
population enhances severity of weeds and reduces grain yield. Optimal popula-
tion density (50 hills m−2) combined with two-hand weeding (20 and 40 DAT)
reduced sterile grains and weed density and ensured high grain yield and quality
of Basmati rice (Kishore et al. 2017). Manual weeding is a time-consuming, non-
remunerative, and labor-intensive practice found unsuitable for large-scale culti-
vation of Basmati rice. Use of herbicides offers scope to address such difficulties
and economically viable weed control. Application of oxadiargyl (preemergence
at 100 g ha−1) fb bispyribac-sodium (25 g ha−1 at 25 DAT) effectively enhanced

grain yield and quality of Basmati rice grown under puddle condition. The selected
herbicide should keep the weeds below the economic threshold level and most
remunerative among the available choice of herbicides (Kumar et al. 2017b).
Sequential application of herbicides (pendimethalin as preemergence at
1000 g ha−1 fb bispyribac-sodium at 25 g ha−1 + azimsulfuron at 22.5 g ha−1 at 22
DAS) in DSR caused maximum reduction in weed mass and improved the grain
yield. Farmers should select herbicides based on weed flora present in their field
which is of most important consideration (Singh et al. 2016).
10.8 Pest Management
Pest management cannot be ignored if someone has to harvest and sustain high
yields per unit area of potential rice varieties (Srivastava et al. 2010). Disease infes-
tation in rice causes an annual yield loss of 10–15%, while 25% is caused by insect
incidence (Dhaliwal et al. 2010). Rice suffers due to a wide variety of pathogens
including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes (Chakrabarti et al. 1998). The
major rice diseases are rice blast, sheath blight, bacterial blight, and Tungrovirus in
South and South East Asia (Ling 1980). Biotic stress is the major problem in pro-
duction of Basmati rice since about 100 species of insects prevail from germination
to harvest in rice ecologies adversely affecting yield and quality (Saini et al. 2015).
Most prevalent insects of rice are BPH, green leaf hopper, WBPH, bug, yellow, pink
and white rice stem borers, and leaf folders which reduce rice productivity in India
(Selvaraj et al. 2012; Siddiq et al. 1997). Balance fertilization especially N nutrition
is instrumental in susceptible rice varieties. More N is accumulated in leaf blade
than in stem and sheath blade. Thus, use of higher N increases population of BPH
and WBPH; however, resistant varieties are usually not influenced by N levels
(Baehaki and Heong 2016). Northwest region of Himalaya is highly susceptible to
BB causing enormous losses to Basmati rice. The pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae
pv. oryzae (Xoo) has been reported as a major biotic constraint in irrigated rice
ecosystems. Resistant genes identified in several Basmati landraces and Basmati
cultivars may be utilized to develop resistant varieties without compromising the
grain quality and aroma. Genetic resistance may provide the economical and most
effective control of BB (Bhat et al. 2015; Ullah et al. 2012). A 5-year study during
wet and dry seasons on pest dynamics of fine and Basmati rice suggested no differ-
ence in pest incidence between organic and inorganic rice production systems.
However, the soil quality and sustainability index improved with organic production
system after the fourth year (Surekha et al. 2010). Integrated pest management
proved best option over the sole use of pesticides for Basmati rice production in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain (Behera et al. 2013; Prajapati et al. 2016). Survey results in
southwestern Punjab indicated 10% incidence of foot rot disease in aromatic culti-
vars. Potential Basmati varieties (Pusa Basmati 1509, Pusa Basmati 1121, and Pusa
Basmati 1401) were found susceptible. Seed soaking for 12 hours in solution
carbendazim 50 WP (0.2%) + streptocycline (0.01%) fb seedling root dip for
6 hours in carbendazim 50 WP (0.2%) proved effective over seed treatment (Sandhu
and Dhaliwal 2016).
10.9 Quality Characteristics
Aromatic rice cultivars are known for premium quality due to pleasant aroma and
test. Aromatic rice contain volatile compounds, but no individual compound is
found responsible for aroma. However, the concentration of 2-AP is most correlated
with aroma (Buttery et al. 1983; Paule and Powers 1989; Lin et al. 1990). Grain
qualities of aromatic rice are determined by its physical characteristics, viz., size,
shape, kernel length and breadth before and after cooking, milling and hulling
percentage, head rice recovery, and physical appearance. Moderate amylose content
(<30%) cooks moist, is tender, and does not harden rice after cooking, while high
amylose content (>30%) makes it hard to cook and is less preferred by the consumers
(Rohilla et al. 2000). Amylose content, gelatinization temperature, and gel consis-
tency are considered vital properties for cooking and eating quality of rice (Ahuja
et al. 1995). The quality characteristics of popular Basmati varieties (Table 10.1) are
preferred by consumers; hence, standards have been fixed for export purposes
(Table 10.2). Consumers of different countries vary in their preferences for rice
characteristics. Aged rice is preferred by tropical Asian countries, but Korea, Japan,
Australia, China, and Italy consume soft and sticky Japonica rice (Yap 1987). Long
or extra-long-grained Basmati rice is preferred by the consumers of the Middle East
(Shobharani et al. 1996). Indians prefer rice which significantly elongates after
cooking and possesses strong aroma (Singh and Singh 1997).
Yield and quality traits of basmati rice largely governed by their genetic makeup
and prevailing environmental condition. Cooler temperature during maturity favors
aroma in rice (Mann 1987; Khush et al. 1979). Aromatic rice varieties usually
perform well in their native areas with best management practices. Prevalence of
low temperatures during day (25 °C) and night (20 °C) at ripening stage increases
aroma than high temperatures (Itani et al. 2004). Delay in harvesting reduces aroma
in grain but enhances amylose and protein content (Marzempi et al. 1990; Arai and
Itani 2000). Almost all environmental and management factors affect quality of
aromatic rice. Period of storage influences cooking quality of aromatic rice; cooking
time required gradually increases with period of storage and favorable effect of
aging observed on the flavor profile of aromatic rice (Bhattacharjee et al. 2002;
Zhou et al. 2001). Storage condition and temperature prevailed cause variation in
cooking, sensory, and chemical attributes. Prolonged storage enhances elongation,
volume expansion, and water absorption ratios though reduces amylose content and
alkali spreading value. Storage at 35 °C provided best sensory traits compared to
lower or higher temperatures (Butt et al. 2008; Ahmed et al. 2016).
10.10 Geographical Indications
Geographical indications are the ways to leverage the uniqueness of product.

Aromatic rice ensure unique special features when grown at specific locations
(native place). Geographical indication is an intellectual property right providing
legal protection of goods, assurance of quality, and distinctiveness as originated in
its native place where a given quality or characteristic is essentially attributable
because of its geographic origin. Thirteen aromatic rice varieties from various
regions of India have been registered as GI during 2007–2008 to 2017–2018. Many
varieties are still not registered under GI though possess unique quality features.
Registration of such commodities under GI ensures quality and premium price and
boosts their cultivation in native areas. Basmati rice possesses special aroma and
flavor and elongates more than double when cooked. Geographical locations, spe-
cific harvesting, and processing management hold prime importance for such char-
acteristics. Cultivation of Basmati in the Himalayan foothills falls under GI covering
seven states, viz., Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir). Seed production program is
also restricted to these notified states. Over 29 Basmati varieties have been released
at national level recommended for cultivation in these areas (APEDA 2017b).
Basmati rice is a quite compelling commodity economically and culturally impor-
tant for India and Pakistan. High unit price attracted many intrusions and imitators,
and a number of problems related to GI include trademarks and issue of generosity.
Joint registration between Pakistan and India may be a possible solution for trans-
border GI in case of Basmati (Rangnekar and Kumar 2010).
10.11 Constraints
Nonavailability of quality seeds, low productivity, severe attack of pest and dis-
eases, and low price of produce are identified as the major constraints in aromatic
rice production. Market constraints and restrictions result in erosion in diversity of
aromatic rice (Marothia et al. 2007). The quality of aromatic rice is the most impor-
tant aspect valued by the consumers in domestic and international market. In spite
of high market price and export potential, the area expansion and adoption by the
farmers have not reached to the desired extent. Various production, managerial,
technological, and socioeconomic issues are associated with low adoption. Such
problems vary within and between the rice-growing ecologies (CRRI 2011) listed
below:
• Traditional cultivars are poor yielder and prone to lodging.

• Nonavailability of quality seeds of improved varieties.
• Small holdings with poor use of inputs.
• Uncertainty and erratic distribution of rainfall.
• Delayed and prolonged transplanting due to dependence on monsoon.
• Water logging and poor drainage.
Table 10.4 Suggested Adjust date of sowing/transplanting to

agronomic management for coincide with required temperature
improvement in yield and during grain
aroma Filling stage
Select well-drained soils with good
fertility status
Use direct seeding and SRI methods
Select improved varieties
Adopt integrated nutrient
management
Drain out water at dough stage
Harvest crop 30–35 days after
flowering when stalk is green
Thresh at an earliest preferably a day
after harvest
Dry produce under the shade till grain
moisture content reduced to 12–14
percent
Avoid direct exposure to sun
• Imbalanced use of nutrients.

• Poor adoption of recommended technologies.
• Management of problem soils.
Climatic conditions, varietal choice, and agronomic management decisions

determine yield potential and quality of aromatic rice. Besides, postharvest manage-
ment and processing are important considerations for quality (Table 10.4).
10.12 Future Prospects
Popular short-grained aromatic rice without GI also is exported from India.

Cultivation of such rice traditionally practiced since long, but these are tall in nature,
prone to lodging, long duration (140–150 days), responsive to low nutrient, and
poor yielder. Traditional Basmati varieties are also tall, long duration, and low
yielder. However, several semidwarf and dwarf varieties have been released with
considerable yield potential. Varietal development should be the core strategy to
increase the production potential. Early-maturing, nutrient-responsive dwarf geno-
types with high aroma are required to raise the productivity level of aromatic rice.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research initiated a public-private partnership
program to boost up Basmati production as a value chain to enhance farm income
and entrepreneurship (ICAR 2017). Basmati area showed a declining trend in recent
past due to poor market price and increase in labor and input cost. Pesticides alone
share more than 22% of the input cost. This trend may be reversed by adoption of
cost-effective and location-specific technologies and development of stress-tolerant
high-yielding varieties (Singh et al. 2006). Large areas under aromatic rice face the
challenge of weather aberrations and cultivation in problematic soils. Attempts
made to popularize the cultivation of Basmati rice in nontraditional areas failed
because of poor grain and aroma quality and nonacceptance by domestic consum-
ers. Thus, varieties better equipped to tolerate abiotic stress with superior quality are
needed. Improvement in input supply system and bridging production constraints
and technological gap are urgently required with ensured market to stakeholders.
10.13 Conclusion
Aromatic rice are the specialty rice of global repute with distinct quality standards.
These are grown in IGP zone of India from centuries and contribute a significant
role in national economy and farmer’s perspective. Traditionally cultivated Basmati
and non-Basmati aromatic rice are long duration and less responsive to inputs
applied. Early-maturing, nutrient-responsive varieties with high yield potential and
quality should be popularized among farmers. Use of improved variety, optimal
time of planting, and integrated nutrient and pest management are key interventions
required to enhance the productivity level of aromatic rice. Still there is research
and extension gap besides other production constraints that limit productivity of the
aromatic rice. The GI registration for short grain aromatic rice is an encouragement
for regional growers. Possibilities for area expansion in nontraditional areas have to
be explored by development of varieties tolerant to abiotic stress particularly the
high temperature. Varietal improvement and popularization of the available efficient
varieties for specific locations are required for possible replacement of the tradi-
tional ones. However, future area expansion of aromatic rice will largely depend on
availability of improved seed, technological support, and assured premium prices.
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Direct Seeding in Rice: Problems
and Prospects 11
Hafeez-ur-Rehman, Ahmad Nawaz, Masood Iqbal Awan,
Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain, Shakeel Ahmad,
and Muhammad Farooq
Abstract
Rice is grown all over the world and it fulfills the dietary needs of large popula-
tion across the globe. However, conventional rice production system, which
involves raising of nursery seedlings followed by transplanting of those seed-
lings in puddled flooded soil, requires a lot of water, energy, and labor resources.
Flooded rice fields are also a source of methane emission—a potent greenhouse
gas. In this scenario, farmers around the world have been shifted toward water-
and labor-saving direct seeding of rice. Direct seeding also reduces methane
emission. In this chapter, we have highlighted issues of direct seeding of rice and
have proposed strategies to uplift uptake of direct-seeded rice.
Keywords
Oryza sativa · Transplanted rice · Direct seeded rice · Water saving · Weeding
Hafeez-ur-Rehman · M. I. Awan
Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Nawaz · M. Ijaz
M. Hussain · S. Ahmad (*)
M. Farooq
Department of Crop Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences,
Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Oman
The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia,
Crawley, WA, Australia

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_11
200 Hafeez-ur-Rehman et al.
11.1 Introduction
Rice is grown all over the world and it fulfills the dietary needs of the large popula-
tion across the globe. However, the conventional rice production system, which
involves the raising of nursery seedlings followed by transplanting of those seed-
lings in puddled flooded soil, requires a lot of water, energy, and labor resources.
The flooded rice fields are also a source of methane emission—a potent greenhouse
gas. In this scenario, the farmers around the world have been shifted toward water-
and labor-saving direct seeding of rice. Direct seeding also reduces the methane
emission. In this chapter, we have highlighted the issues of direct seeding of rice and
have proposed the strategies to uplift the uptake of direct-seeded rice.
11.2 Problems of Direct Seeding of Rice
11.2.1 Poor Stand Establishment
Higher yields in direct-seeded rice are often associated with earlier, optimum, and
uniform crop stands. Drought and nutrient-deficient conditions under rainfed low-
land of tropical Asia are constraints for healthy crop stands that may also be affected
by improper seedbed, seeding time, and seed depth or improper functioning of
planting machinery. Under drought conditions of rainfed lowland, rapid soil drying
reduces germination rates and poor root-shoot ratio results in poor crop stands (Du
and Tuong 2002). Under such conditions, drought-resistant cultivars with rapid and
higher germination rates, better seedling vigor, and root proliferation traits may
have high adaptability due to improved water and nutrient uptake for direct seeding
(Yamane et al. 2017). Enhanced vigor levels after seed priming also offer pragmatic
solution for earlier and competitive crop stands (Farooq et al. 2011).
11.2.2 Diverse Weed flora
Weeds are a severe threat to harvesting higher grain yields in direct-seeded rice.
Indeed, flooding is absent in direct-seeded aerobic rice which favors the prolifera-
tion of many grasses, broadleaf weeds, and sedges that are otherwise suppressed by
flooding in conventionally flooded transplanted rice. In China, a loss of ten million
tonnes (Mt) of rice usually occurs due to diverse weed flora (Zhang 2001); that
quantity of rice is quite enough to feed ~56 million people for a year. The weed flora
of direct-seeded rice mainly consists of horse purslane (Trianthema monogyna
Linn.), pink node (Caesulia axillaris Roxb.), bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon [L.]
Pers.), tall fringe rush (Fimbristylis dichotoma L. Vahl), purple nutsedge (Cyperus
rotundus L.), and benghal dayflower (Commelina benghalensis L.) (Singh et al.
2008; Mahajan et al. 2009; Chauhan 2012; Chauhan and Johnson 2010). Different
weed species found in direct-seeded rice all over the world are given in Table 11.1.
11 Direct Seeding in Rice: Problems and Prospects 201
Table 11.1 Weed species found in direct-seeded rice in various countries of the world
Weed species Countries
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa Australia, Bangladesh, China, Egypt, India, Iran, Japan,
crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.) Korea, Nepal, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Spain, Thailand, the
United States, Vietnam
Jungle rice (Echinochloa colona Australia, Bangladesh, Cote d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba,
(L.) Link) Ghana, Germany, India, Malawi, Mexico, Nepal,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vanuatu,
Vietnam
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa Sri Lanka
glabrescens Munro ex Hook. f.)
Late barnyard grass (Echinochloa Japan, Korea
oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch)
Goose grass (Eleusine indica (L.) Belize, Malaysia, Pakistan, India
Gaertn.)
Wrinkle duck beak (Ischaemum Croatia, Cuba, Malaysia, Nepal, Vanuatu
rugosum Salisb.)
Chinese sprangletop (Leptochloa China, Thailand, Vietnam
chinensis (L.) Nees)
Itchgrass (Rottboellia Belize, Colombia, Con-D, Panama, Peru
cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton)
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon Bangladesh
[L.] Pers.)
Scirpus species(Scirpus China
planiculmis Fr. Schmidt)
Dwarf arrowhead (Sagittaria China
pygmaea Miq)
Roundleaf pondweed China
(Potamogeton distinctus
A. Bennett)
Water grass (Paspalum distichum China, Con-D, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan
L.)
Vietnamese (Ludwigia prostrata Korea
Roxb)
Heartshape false pickerelweed China., Iran, Korea, Vietnam
(Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.)
C. Presl ex Kunth))
Rock bulrush (Scirpus juncoides China
(Roxb.) Palla)
Smallflower umbrella-sedge China, Croatia, Cuba, Egypt, Ghana, Germany, Nepal,
(Cyperus difformis L.) Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam
Rice flatsedge (Cyprus iria L.) Croatia, Cuba, Egypt, Ghana, Germany, India, Iran,
Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam
Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus Belize, Bangladesh, Con-D, Egypt, Mexico, Pakistan
L.)
Eclipta species (false daisy— China, Croatia, Cuba, Egypt, India, Mexico, Nepal,
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. and Thailand, Vietnam
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.)
(continued)
Weed species Countries
Lesser fimbristylis (Fimbrystylis Germany, Nepal, Pakistan
littoralis (L.) Vahl)
Red/weedy rice (Oryza sativa L. Belize, Brazil, Colombo, Croatia, Cuba, France,
var. sylvatica) Germany, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, Portugal, Suriname,
the United States, Vietnam
Sources: Buhler (2002), Rao et al. (2007), Singh et al. (2008), Mahajan et al. (2009), Chauhan and
Johnson (2010), Chauhan (2012), Matloob (2014), Nawaz and Farooq (2016), Singh et al. (2018)
11.2.3 Insect Pests and Diseases
Various species of common insect pests have been reported to attach to direct-
seeded rice crops. Rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis), green leafhopper
(Nephotettix nigropictus), gundhi bug (Leptocorisa oratoria), brown plant hopper
(Nilaparvata lugens), rice stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas), whorl maggot
(Hydrellia philippina Ferino), gall midge (Orseolia oryzae), rice hispa (Dicladispa
armigera), ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata), thrips (Thrips tabaci),
grasshopper (Dactylotum bicolor), and case worm (Parapoynx stagnalis) are major
pests of direct-seeded rice (Singh et al. 2008). The root-knot nematode population
also increases in direct seeding of rice (Farooq et al. 2011).
Diseases are considered as a major hazard in direct-seeded rice production sys-
tem and causes economic losses to the farmers. Among those diseases are sheath
blight (Rhizoctonia solani), rice blast (Pyricularia grisea), sheath rot (Sarocladium
oryzae), and stem rot (Sclerotium oryzae), while neck rot, false smut (Ustilaginoidea
virens), bacterial leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae), foot rot, rice tungro
viral (RTV), leaf streak (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola), and brown leaf spot
(Helminthosporium oryzae) are the major diseases (Das et al. 2014) of rice includ-
ing the direct-seeded rice.
11.2.4 Panicle Sterility
Absence of water layer in direct seeding during reproductive period especially flow-
ering exposes rice crops to short episodes of drought (Garrity et al. 1986; Liu and
Bennett 2010). This decreases the panicle water potential and starch contents
required for pollen viability, resulting in anther dehiscence producing large sterile
panicles (Garrity et al. 1986; Lalonde et al. 1997). This increased panicle sterility
also results in increased sterile spikelets and produces abortive, opaque, and chalky
kernels due to abnormal carbohydrate translocation in direct-seeded crop as com-
pared to transplanted one (Farooq et al. 2006a, b, 2007, 2009).
Irrigation management during this critical period with increased panicle resis-
tance to transpiration may improve spikelet fertility and therefore reduce panicle
sterility (Garrity et al. 1986). Furthermore, soil or foliar supply of B (boron) during
flowering has been associated with decreased panicle sterility in rice production
systems including direct-seeded rice (Rehman et al. 2014).
11.2.5 Varietal Development
Very little efforts have been done for varietal development for direct seeding instead
of modern cultivation method. However, breeding programs at different research
institutes for identification of plant types with adaptive traits for this culture are
underway. For wider adaptability across different environmental conditions, quanti-
tative trait loci (QTLs) for root architectural plasticity and yield stability have been
mapped in Aus population (Sandhu et al. 2015). Earlier seedling vigor offers the
advantage of uniform crop stand and competitive ability against weeds in direct
seeding culture. In a set of backcross (Swarna × Moroberekan) population compris-
ing 253 lines, 2.5–18.6% phenotypic variance for this trait was found, and genomic
regions on chromosomes 3, 4, 5, and 6 have been mapped. And two hotspots QTL
regions A and B on chromosomes 3 and 5 controlling these traits and genes for
associated mechanisms such as precursor for 1-alpha-amylase and 3-expansin,
2-glutamate decarboxylase, 1-ethylene-insensitive 3, and 3-phenylalanine ammonia-
lyase have been identified. The association of these traits with other agro-
physiological ones shows the use of these traits in marker-assisted breeding to select
the genotypes with target traits in future breeding programs (Singh et al. 2017).
Among other promising traits in plant types associated with aerobic culture sug-
gested in different research include high crop water productivity and high stress-
tolerance index (Mahajan et al. 2018), higher tillering potential with rapid canopy
development (Roy and Mishra 1999; Awan et al. 2016), early maturity, and short-
duration genotypes (Gill et al. 2006).
11.2.6 Nutrient Dynamics
Due to changes in water and land management, the nutrients dynamics are alto-
gether different in direct-seeded rice from conventional flooded system. For
instance, deficiency of Zn, Fe, and Mn including sulfur (S) is most prevalent under
high redox potential, high pH, and carbonate contents pH of aerobic soils (Mandal
et al. 2000; Gao et al. 2006, Rehman et al. 2012). Introduction of direct-seeded aero-
bic system in calcareous soils aggravates the problem, and inappropriate N fertilizer
rates and time of application may result in imbalance of these micronutrients (Gao
et al. 2006; Saleque and Kirk 1995). Under high redox potential, Fe or Mn is pre-
cipitated as Fe(OH)3, oxidized organic matter will reduce Zn adsorption, and
enhanced nitrification improves the availability of NO3 with exudation of OH−
which decreases Zn bioavailability. Further, reduced soil water contents restrict Zn
movement within soil for root uptake (Gao 2007), and the mechanisms for micronu-
trients availability such as root uptake, translocation, and bioavailability of grain are
also affected, possibly due to bicarbonate-induced inhibition of root growth and
immobilization (Dogar and Hai 1980; Forno et al. 1975). In addition, nitrogen and
phosphorus supply to plants under aerobic conditions is reduced due to changes in
soil organic matter (Willet 1991; Tabbal et al. 1992; Buresh and Haefele 2010).
Therefore, with changes in nutrients dynamics, the appropriate strategies for the
management of macro- and micronutrients need to be developed and devised for
maximum returns of direct-seeded rice.
11.2.7 Lodging
Lodging is a main threat, particularly in cereals including oat, barley, wheat (Pinthus
1973), and direct-seeded rice (Setter et al. 1997; Yadav et al. 2017). Lodging causes
yield losses and reduces the crop quality and efficacy of reaping by machinery
(Kono 1995). The problem of lodging in direct-seeded rice is more common in
tropical and sub-tropical regions of world which reduced the grain size and finally
the crop yield (Grist 1986; Kobayashi et al. 1996). It has been reported that lodging
can reduce the yield by 1 t ha−1 (IRRI 1985). Plant tallness and nature of root sys-
tems are the main drivers for lodging in direct-seeded rice; fiber root system and
growing of tall stature varieties in direct-seeded system cause more lodging.
Moreover, the large internodal distance is also the main cause of lodging in direct-
seeded rice (Sinniah et al. 2012). Although breeders are focusing on the introduc-
tion of rice varieties resistant to lodging and producing more yield, these varieties
do not have good quality (Setter et al. 1997). One of the easy ways of reducing
lodging in direct-seeded rice is the use of chemicals which reduce the internodal
length and cause the thickness of the culm diameter. In a study, the application of a
growth retardant (paclobutrazol at 50 and 100 ppm) decreased the internodal dis-
tance and culm length and enhanced the culm diameter, preventing the stem from
bending (Sinniah et al. 2012).
The identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for lodging resistance and
their further use in the breeding programs might be useful to reduce lodging-induced
yield losses in direct-seeded rice. In a study, by using the polymorphic SNP mark-
ers, Yadav et al. (2017) identified 12 QTLs which were associated with the lodging
resistance traits such as culm diameter, culm length, and culm strength on chromo-
somes 1, 2, 6, and 7. They also observed significant positive correlation between the
lodging-resistant traits and seed yield of direct-seeded rice. Hirano et al. (2014) also
identified nine rice mutant lines which have high culm strength (more culm diame-
ter and thickness) which might be useful in breeding lodging-resistant direct-seeded
rice varieties. Mu et al. (2004) reported that two pairs of epistatic QTLs for the culm
traits might be beneficial for breeding the lodging resistance in upland rice.
11.2.8 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The absence of flooding in direct-seeded rice reduces methane emission; nonethe-

less it may enhance the emission of nitrous oxide from the soil. The global warming
potential of nitrous oxide is 298 times more compared to carbon dioxide (IPCC
2007). Indeed, the nitrous oxide production rises at oxidation/reduction potential of
above 250 mV (Hou et al. 2000), and this potential has been commonly observed in
direct-seeded rice. In an experiment conducted in India, the nitrous oxide emission
was compared between the transplanted rice and direct-seeded rice. It was found
that the nitrous oxide emissions were 0.31–0.39 N kg ha−1 from transplanted rice
which was enhanced to 0.90–1.1 N kg ha−1 in conventionally tilled flat-sown/bed-
sown direct-seeded rice and to 1.3–2.2 kg ha−1 in zero-tillage direct-seeded rice. In
another study in Japan, Ishibashi et al. (2007) reported higher nitrous oxide emis-
sion from zero-tillage direct-seeded rice than conventionally tilled transplanted rice.
In southeast China, the emission of nitrous oxide from direct rice crops was 46–49%
higher than the transplanted rice (Liu et al. 2014). In crux, the nitrous oxide emis-
sion is more in direct-seeded rice than transplanted rice.
11.2.9 Heat Stress
Rice grown across hot tropical areas is flooded in nature and high temperature
exceeds the critical threshold (>40 °C) limits. Yields produced in these areas are
high due to ample and timely supply of irrigation water at this stage, and high tem-
perature effects are minimized by low relative humidity mediated by efficient cool-
ing of transpiration. These cooling effects help the plants to maintain the tissue
temperature below the critical limits (Weerakoon et al. 2008; Julia and Dingkuhn
2013).With shift toward water-saving cultivation such as direct seeding (Rehman
et al. 2015), these damages may be aggravated due to diminished transpiration-
mediated cooling effect for avoidance of heat in the absence of wet conditions
observed in flooded rice. This adds further challenge for rice scientists to improve
heat resistance under water-saving cultivation.
High temperature usually coincides with flowering, the most susceptible stage
for heat stress. This high temperature affects anther dehiscence, pollination, and
pollen germination to induce floret sterility and reduce grain yield in rice (Osada
et al. 1973; Satake and Yoshida 1978; Yoshida et al. 1981; Matsushima et al. 1982).
Jagadish et al. (2007) reported that exposure to 33.7 °C at anthesis in rice for less
than an hour may result in sterile spikelets, and effects are greatly increased if tem-
perature goes above 35 °C (Matsui et al. 1997). In addition, night temperatures are
increasing more than day temperatures with profound effects on rice (Wassmann
et al. 2010). At high night temperatures, with limited stomatal activity, rice plants
respire more and utilize more energy of stored photoassimilates to maintain itself
which results in lower yields. With yield, high night temperatures also decline the
quality by producing chalky grains considered an undesirable trait in the market and
reduces consumer preference, ultimately farmer’s profit (Lyman et al. 2013).
Nonetheless, in transition from flooded to direct-seeded rice and for successful
adoption, stability in yields and grain quality losses are great challenges. Therefore,
with future climate change, sustained rice production requires enhanced tolerance
not only to reduced water inputs but also to high temperature stress.
11.3 P
rospects for Improving the Performance of Direct-
Seeded Rice
11.3.1 Early Vigor and Rapid Crop Development
Early vigor is associated with planting good-quality seed which has rapid
emergence and high shoot and root growth with elongated mesocotyl and cole-
optiles. These seedling traits help to achieve optimal crop stands in direct-
seeded crop drilled at high seedling depth and improve anaerobic germination
tolerance (Cui et al. 2002a, b). In this regard, seed priming is a promising
technique to achieve rapid and uniform emergence of seedlings, increased
vigor, and enhanced yields (Murungu et al. 2003; Farooq et al. 2006a, b; Farooq
et al. 2008). Seed priming-induced early vigor has been associated with com-
petitive advantage for weeds, rapid crop cover due to increased leaf area and
tillering rates, higher growth rates, and reduced spikelet sterility contributing
toward improved water productivity and higher yields in direct-seeded rice
(Mahajan et al. 2011; Anwar et al. 2012; Sarkar 2012; Rehman et al. 2015;
Khalid et al. 2015). Seed priming had been also associated with enhanced stand
establishment in varieties containing QTL Sub1 for enhanced submergence tol-
erance under flooded conditions by increasing coleoptile and mesocotyl elon-
gation and increasing α-amylase activity that hydrolyzes starch molecules
(Sarkar 2012; Ella et al. 2011). Nonetheless, early growth, tillering, and crop
biomass are considered crucial for weed suppressive ability in direct-seeded
aerobic rice cultivars (Zhao et al. 2006).
11.3.2 Weed Management
There are many weed control methods which can be adopted to control weeds in
direct-seeded rice; nonetheless the farmers should adopt those weed control meth-
ods which are cheap, pragmatic, and eco-friendly. The chemical and non-chemical
methods of weed management in direct-seeded rice are discussed below.
11.3.2.1 Chemical Methods

Weedicides provide the most appropriate and cost-effective method of weed man-
agement (Hussain et al. 2008) in direct-seeded rice. Many pre-emergence (Moorthy
and Manna 1993; Pellerin et al. 2004; Rao et al. 2007; Matloob 2014; Nawaz and
Farooq 2016) and post-emergence herbicides (Khaliq et al. 2011, 2012a, b; Khaliq
and Matloob 2012; Ihsan et al. 2014; Singh et al. 2018) have been found to control
diverse weed flora in direct-seeded rice after a lot of experimentation. The pre-
emergence herbicides used for weed control in direct-seeded rice consist of nitro-
fen, butachlor, pendimethalin, thiobencarb, and oxyfluorfen oxadiazon; the
post-emergence herbicides include bispyribac sodium, pyrazosulfuron, ethoxysul-
furon ethyl, ethoxysulfuron, butachlor, penoxsulam, and acetochlor (Kaur and
Singh 2015; Singh et al. 2018; Kumar et al. 2018). Among these herbicides, pende-
methlion and bispyribac sodium have been the widely used herbicides which are
effective for the control of broad-spectrum weeds including sedges, broad-leaved
weeds, and grasses (Jabran et al. 2012a, b; Singh et al. 2018). The sequential appli-
cation of pre-emergence herbicides with post-emergence herbicides (within 15–45)
after sowing accomplished with hand hoeing and tank mixing of different herbi-
cides is the most viable approach for reducing weeds in direct-seeded rice (Khaliq
et al. 2012c, 2013, 2014).
11.3.2.2 Non-chemical Methods

The non-chemical methods of weed control in direct-seeded rice consist of:
• Prevention methods (including the use of clean certified seeds, saving of fields
from weed seeds, cleaning of the water-supplying channels, and the use of weed-
free farm machinery (De Datta and Baltazar 1996; Buhler 2002)).
• Cultural/physical methods (hoeing, harrowing, weed burning, narrow row
spacing).
• The use of competitive crop cultivars (producing more number of tillers, more
initial growth proportion, more leaf area index and specific leaf area, leaves hav-
ing more length and dense canopy (Gibson et al. 2001; Gibson and Fischer
2004)).
• The use of allelopathic cultivars (which can naturally suppress weeds through
release of allelochemicals) (Olofsdotter 2001).
• The use of stale seedbed technique (Chauhan 2012).
• Tillage at appropriate time and depth (Buhler and Gunsolus 1996; Buhler 2002).
• The use of higher seed rate to ensure high seed density which can suppress the
weeds (Hiraoka et al. 1998; Phuong et al. 2005; Anwar et al. 2011).
• The use of crop residue mulch (Purvis et al. 1985; Mason-Sedun et al. 1986;
Chauhan 2012).
• Planned crop rotation (through inclusion of allelopathic crops in rotation)
(Liebman and Gallandt 1997; Liebman and Ohno 1998).
• Intercropping (sesbania intercropping and then its killing by herbicide after one
month) (Singh et al. 2007; Nawaz et al. 2017).
• The use of cover crops which when ploughed also destroy weeds.
• Proper management of fertilizer (i.e., applying fertilizer at the right time so that
direct-seeded crop can utilize it more efficiently than weeds).
• Seed priming (as primed seeds has vigorous growth which can compete better
with weeds) (Ghiyasi et al. 2008; Anwar et al. 2012)).
• Biological methods including the use of mycoherbicides (e.g., different fungi
such as Exserohilum monocerus and Cochliobolus lunatus are suggested for
managing barnyard grass, while Setosphaeria sp. and Cochliobolus rostrata are
used to manage Chinese sprangletop efficiently (Thi et al. 1999)). However, the
range of application of these bioherbicides is limited to manage weeds in direct-
seeded rice as these fungi require water-enriched environment.
11.3.3 Fertilizer Management
11.3.3.1 Macronutrient Management

General recommendations for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) followed
in direct-seeded rice are similar as for transplanted flooded rice due to limited
research in these directions. However, due to higher N losses in nitrification-
denitrification, volatilization, and leaching in direct-seeded rice, relatively higher N
rates are suggested (22.5–30 kg ha−1) to meet the requirement of low availability
associated with soil mineralization in early seedling stages and longer duration of
crop (Dingkuhn et al. 1991; Gathala et al. 2011). Optimization of N rates depends
on soil indigenous supply, genotypic response, gains in rice yields including weed,
and water management practices. The most appropriate N rates of 110 to 180 kg ha−1
have been suggested in most of the rice-growing areas (Chen et al. 2018) which also
need to be optimized to meet the crop demand before and after anthesis for higher
N translocation rates, grain yield, and nitrogen use efficiency. For higher economics
and to avoid disease infestation and lodging, N should be applied in two or three
splits at active tillering, panicle initiation, and anthesis stages for higher grain yield
and nitrogen recovery percentages of 30–50% (Chen et al. 2018). And basal N at
sowing can be skipped due to low requirement by early-growing seedlings and to
avoid volatilization losses associated with small canopy area (Chen et al. 2018).
Application of basal fertilizers at sowing improves seedling growth and yield in
direct-seeded rice; therefore, full doses of P and K can be incorporated as basal fertil-
izers using seed-cum-fertilizer drills which improve use efficiency of these fertilizers
(Mutert and Fairhurst 2002; Haefele et al. 2016). However, in rainfed areas, P defi-
ciency can be a nutrient-limiting factor in direct-seeded rice due to high soil immobili-
zation of P, and growers usually avoid application of high-costs P fertilizers due to risk
of crop failure (Kato and Katsura 2014; Kato et al. 2016). Application of K has been
also reported to improve the number of filled grains and yield in direct-seeded rice that
may help to improve this system adaptability under aerobic conditions (Wakeel et al.
2017). To improve the soil fertility, leguminous crops should be incorporated in
between the rotations, and rhizobial strains can also be inoculated before crop cultiva-
tion to improve the nutrient availability and efficiency.
11.3.3.2 Micronutrient Management

Incorporation of micronutrients in fertilizer strategies and their timely application may
increase grain yield and quality in direct-seeded rice. To correct the Zn deficiency dur-
ing early seedling growth, it is recommended to apply ZnSO4.7H2O as basal dose using
25–30 kg ha−1 during 25–45 days after sowing. As Zn has positive interaction with N,
both can be applied in combination to reduce labor costs and enhance bioavailability of
Zn. Nonetheless for enhancing Zn bioavailability from grain biofortification perspec-
tive, soil Zn at panicle initiation or foliar Zn (0.5%) can be applied at anthesis stages
(Rehman et al. 2017). For Fe, foliar application is more effective than soil application
not only from the economics perspective but also for high grain Fe concentration and
grain yield due to easy re-translocation through phloem of foliar application. Therefore,
it is recommended to apply 1–3% FeSO47H2O solution two to three times at panicle
initiation or anthesis stages (Sadana and Nayyar 2000; Datta et al. 2003; Pal et al. 2008)
depending on the soil type. Likely, to reduce panicle fertility and high pollen viability
due to high temperature stress during reproductive period, soil (3–6 kg ha−1 as borax)
or foliar B is recommended 0.2% (w/v) H3BO3 (boric acid) in direct-seeded rice as
basal or during reproductive period (Rehman et al. 2018). Nonetheless, combined
application of B, Zn, and Fe can also be effective in correcting these micronutrients
deficiencies and biofortify the staple grains.
11.3.4 Mechanical Interventions
Direct seeding is a knowledge-intensive system. At the same time, we need “tech-

nological fixes” to popularize the system and cut labor or total production costs.
Some of the challenges faced by direct-seeded rice systems are poor germination,
need of more seed rate to compensate for poor emergence, weeds, and diseases.
Low-cost mechanical interventions are required to save water and labor resources.
For example, laser land leveling is a precursor technology for increasing water-
saving. Improved seed drills with precise seed metering system improve seed ger-
mination and reduce seed requirements as well as labor required for transplanting in
flooded systems. Locally manufactured cheap mechanical weeders can reduce the
weed pressure and cut labor costs of weeding (Ahmad et al. 2007; Erenstein 2012;
Mahajan et al. 2013).
11.3.5 Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
As the warming potential of nitrous oxide is more than that of methane and carbon
dioxide, it is necessary to reduce the emission of nitrous oxide from the direct-
seeded rice. For this, the application of nitrogenous fertilizer at the right time, in the
right amount, at the right place, and through the right source might be quite useful
to decrease the losses of nitrogen in the form of nitrous oxide from the direct-seeded
rice. Prior to the application of nitrogen fertilizer, the soil analysis for nitrogen may
also help in applying correct doses of nitrogen to direct-seeded rice, thus reducing
the losses of nitrogen associated with higher nitrogen application rates. Likewise,
applying the urea in narrow bands than broadcasting may reduce the nitrous oxide
emission. The use of urease and nitrification inhibitors might also be useful to
reduce the losses of nitrous oxide. The use of polyolefin-coated nitrogenous fertil-
izers has also been reported to enhance the fertilizer use efficiency and nitrous oxide
emission (Shoji and Kanno 1994).
11.3.6 Laser Land Leveling
Laser-assisted precision land leveling is effective in improving the yields and water-
saving in direct-seeded aerobic rice system. In a study, laser-assisted precision land
leveling caused water-saving of 12–14% in rice (Jat et al. 2009). In another study,
the use of laser leveling in rice fields decreased the irrigation time by 47–69 h/ha/
season and enhanced the yield by 7% than traditionally leveled plots (Aryal et al.
2015). In another study on rice, the total water use in traditional land leveling was
the highest (9150 m3 ha−1) than precision land leveling (6950 m3 ha−1) with 61%
improvement in crop yield (Jat et al. 2006).
11.3.7 Varietal Improvement: Breeding and Genetics Options
Very little work on the selection and breeding of varieties for dry direct-seeded
rice culture have been done except for evaluation of existing varieties, hybrids,
and promising lines developed for conventional or wet-seeded rice system
(Fukai 2002; Lafitte et al. 2002, Wah 1998; Weerakoon et al. 2011). However,
the breeding program for direct seeding should involve identification of suitable
plant types for early vigor and rapid crop development associated with tolerance
to anaerobic, drought, and low-temperature stress during germination and rapid
shoot development, weed competitiveness, high tillering capacity, high assimi-
lation transport for reduced spikelet sterility, and yield including resistance to
lodging (Dingkuhn et al. 1991; Ando et al. 2000; Cui et al. 2002a, b; Zhang
et al. 2005a, b; Fujino et al. 2008).
Recently, population with early seeding vigor traits and their QTLs have been
mapped and the association of these vigor traits with agro-physiological traits
has been found for direct-seeded rice (Singh et al. 2017). Through application of
marker-assisted breeding (MAB), candidate genes controlling seedling vigor
traits need to be identified for selection and pyramiding of other desirable traits
for direct seeding to be used in future breeding programs (Alonso et al. 2009).
The key examples of breeding program for varietal selection in direct seeding
culture are from the Unites States, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia where more than
90% of rice cultivation is by direct seeding. These countries also grow herbi-
cides-resistant rice and locally adapted cultivars for direct seeding; growing of
weed competitive cultivars in Asian and African countries can be effective and
alternatives to the unavailability of suitable weed control for widespread adapt-
ability and higher grain yield of direct-seeded aerobic rice (Kumar and Ladha
2011; Dimaano et al. 2017). Nonetheless, for successful development of breed-
ing program for direct seeding, genetic diversity in wild progenitors of Oryza
sativa and Oryza rufipogon including Aus, African, Asian, and upland germ-
plasm for selection of suitable ideotypes with desirable types needs to be
explored. For harness in breeding, marker-assisted genetics can be exploited.
11.3.8 Policy Implications Based on Entry Points
Diminishing resources of water, labor, and energy necessitate a major change in the
way we grow rice in South Asia. To best use these limited resources, a major social,
political, and scientific discourse is required. Current farming practices must transi-
tion to more resource-conserving systems in order to become sustainable (Kadiyala
et al. 2012; Devkota et al. 2013). Particularly, high water and labor input crops like
rice are problematic: conventional transplanted-flooded rice systems are now begin-
ning to be considered as unsustainable. The flooded rice systems face three major
challenges: scarcity of resources particularly water and labor, low conversion effi-
ciencies for costly inputs, and a low income-generating ability (Mahajan et al. 2012;
Rehman et al. 2013; Awan et al. 2014a).
To grow rice sustainably and profitably, farmers and policy makers must be able
to accommodate climatic aspects (climate shift, variability, and change) in the form
of extreme events (i.e., floods and droughts). Science can assist by demonstrating
the potential value of novel, enabling technologies like direct-seeded aerobic rice
systems coupled with appropriate policy settings. In order to tackle the challenges,
we require collaboration at different levels: scientific, institutional, industrial,
social, and governance (Table 11.2).
Table 11.2 Options for improving direct seeding at farm level

Scientific and Breeding of suitable varieties with ability to tolerate drought and heat.
technological Mechanical interventions for appropriate seeding, weed control, and
harvesting.
Standardization of soil and crop management practices for non-flooded
rice systems.
Site-specific nutrient management practices in particular for compensating
rundown of organic matter and nitrogen.
Study changes in weed flora.
Reducing post-harvest losses.
Institutional Awareness campaigns about non-flooded rice systems.
Capacity building of farmers, researchers, and extension workers.
Document how much of the current unused land can be used for growing
non-flooded rice.
Establish and support extension outreach programs.
Identify niches for non-flooded rice in non-rice-growing areas.
Establishing the gender sensitization roles.
Procurement of carry-over stocks.
Industrial Ensuring quality standards.
Branding of rice.
Manufacturing of agricultural machinery for weeding, precise seeding,
and harvesting.
Empowering status of women and children.
Social awareness about water conservation.
Social and Increase the resilience of farmers through education and training instead
governance of increasing their dependence through direct cash supports and softening
policies for agricultural loans.
Ensure rice quality standards.
Increase water storage capacity to store excess water during flood periods.
Remove export barriers.
Implement a better trade policy.
Integrated resource management.
Stabilization of price, demand, and supply.
In the next 10 years, our rice landscapes will be drier and more mechanized than
today. Emerging alternatives are non-flooded, direct-seeded rice production systems
that increase the resilience and profitability of rice-producing farmers. The adoption
of non-flooded, direct-seeded rice will become a major imperative (Devkota et al.
2013; Rehman et al. 2013; Awan et al. 2014a; Jabran et al. 2017). Asian farmers are
skilled in growing conventional flooded rice. We need to work with them and help
them with the introduction of these novel production systems. Change always brings
new opportunities and new risks. Some of the associated risk factors with drier, non-
flooded rice systems are as follows: unavailability of suitable rice varieties, more
weeds, poor soil fertility, a lack of appropriate production technology, and yield
penalties. Results of biophysical and sociotechnological perspective studies clearly
indicate the viability of non-flooded rice systems for South Asia. Evidently, the
adoption of non-flooded rice will save farmers about 25–30% water and require less
labor and energy. This considerably increases net profitability (Kadiyala et al. 2012;
Rehman et al. 2013; Awan et al. 2014a, 2015; Jabran et al. 2017).
The saved water, labor, and energy can be used for the following:
(a) Bringing more area under rice cultivation or

(b) Domestic/industrial purposes.
Our challenge is making rice more resource-use efficient and globally competi-
tive. Aproactive approach requires a shift in our policy settings to increase the resil-
ience of farmers and further the competitiveness of export rice. Based on our
experimental findings and foresighting, we urge policy makers to consider the fol-
lowing recommendations at different levels.
11.3.9 Designing Eco-efficient and Climate Robust Rice Systems
To feed over nine billion people by 2050, demand for agricultural production is
projected to increase by 60%. This is an exciting challenge for agronomists in the
background of climate change and diminishing natural resources. The required pro-
ductivity increase must be achieved in a sustainable way. We need robust agricul-
tural systems and eco-efficient approaches to meet the conflicting goals of increasing
productivity and environmental sustainability. Eco-efficiency is about achieving
more with less both in terms of quantity and quality, i.e., more agricultural outputs
with ever less use of land, labor, capital, water, nutrients, and energy. While the
main focus of sustainability, i.e., the ability of a system to maintain a certain rate or
level of performance, is meeting ecological goals, eco-efficiency includes both eco-
nomic and ecological aspects (Keating et al. 2013).
Resource-use efficiency that has two components, i.e., capture efficiency and
conversion efficiency, is one aspect of eco-efficiency. Close to the concept of sus-
tainable intensification, eco-efficiency is an inclusive and multidimensional
approach. Repeating “green revolution” like success seems unlikely in the midst of
population pressure, yield stagnation, and diminishing resources. So there would be
no “technological winners” this time. We need to combine efforts and technologies

specifically tailored to regional, biophysical, and societal circumstances. In the near
future, we will depend on more knowledge-intensive systems, e.g., alternate pro-
duction systems such as alternate wetting-drying and direct-seeded aerobic rice sys-
tems. We need such enabling technologies to increase the sustainability of high-input
systems (e.g., lowland transplanted-flooded rice systems) and to increase the pro-
ductivity of low-input systems (e.g., upland rainfed rice systems). The non-
conventional alternate production systems of alternate wetting-drying and
direct-seeded aerobic rice have been shown to improve the overall eco-efficiencies
of labor, water, and energy. Improving eco-efficiency of one resource, however,
often happens at the cost of declined efficiencies for some other resource(s), e.g.,
declined efficiencies for land and applied N fertilizers in direct-seeded rice systems.
Therefore, such systems are knowledge-intensive, which means that we need to
enhance the farmer skills for addressing the challenges they might face during the
adoption of alternate technologies. Therefore, just like other production factors such
as land, labor, fertilizer, pesticides, etc., knowledge is also considered a production
factor in the notion of eco-efficiency.
It is against this background that we need to design robust cropping systems to
achieve sustainable productivity increases. Robustness is the ability of a system to
effectively perform while its variables are changed. Robust cropping systems are
well-buffered against external changes such as climate change, disease pressure,
etc. Modeling cropping systems is the only way we can foresee, plan events, pro-
vide quantifiable and tractable solutions across scales, and evaluate those in terms
of their desirability by multiple stakeholders such as policy makers, business com-
munity, social-welfare agencies, and researchers. In order to design robust, produc-
tive, eco-efficient, and sustainable cropping systems, we should consider the
following factors or challenges (Meinke et al. 2009).
11.3.9.1 Demand/Supply Pressures

Food security for a population growing at alarming rate is a major challenge and
more so in the background of already limited or diminishing resources. The need to
engage/train young people in sustainable agricultural practices to tackle such chal-
lenges as greenhouse emissions, globalization of food systems, and climate change
requires evaluation of different possible scenarios that will transform our cropping
systems. Sustainable intensification of rice-based systems by growing two or more
rice crops in a year or micro-dosing of nutrients and combined use of organic and
inorganic fertilizers are examples of available options.
11.3.9.2 Complexity of Scales

Productivity increases require intervention actions at all levels. Therefore we might
need to adopt different approaches for upscaling or downscaling, e.g., breeding
efforts, matching physiological traits to a particular environment, better site-specific
management practices, addressing inefficiencies in irrigation system, and develop-
ment of national policies that encourage productivity gains.
11.3.9.3 Climate Risk Management

This is an active research area wherein we can contribute to address issues such as
drought, extreme temperatures, CO2-induced physiological changes, and conserva-
tion of resource bases, quantify genotype-by-management-by-environment interac-
tions, and yield gap analysis. We can identify opportunities and match those to our
regional priorities. We can respond to the impacts of climate variability in a number
of ways, e.g., reducing non-productive water losses in paddy systems and sustaining
high conversion efficiencies for scarce inputs of water, labor, and energy.
11.3.9.4 Improvement of Crop Models

Biological systems are inherently complex. Crop models aim at simplified represen-
tation of such complex systems. Therefore, crop models often face the dilemma of
simplicity of complexity or complexity of simplicity. There is a continuous need for
improvement of models requiring more data and accurate calibration/validation.
Some of the weaknesses of rice crop models are as follows:
(a) Inability of models to simulate short but extreme temperature stresses.

(b) Inaccurate predictions for phenology outside the optimum temperature range,
which ultimately gives doubtful results when predicting yield and the climate
change effects.
(c) Transitions between wet and dry conditions, e.g., rice-based systems, demand
of a thorough understanding and representation of C and N dynamics, and algal
growth.
(d) Lack of data within bounds of sensibility/reliability.
(e) Unaccounted for management practices or factors such as weeds, pests, dis-
eases, and capturing those in one model are a challenging task for modelers.
(f) Unavailability of accurate weather data.
(g) Improving simulation capabilities under interactive stresses, e.g., drought and
heat which affect processes such as panicle sterility.
(h) Inappropriate soil parameterization.
In order to design sustainable cropping systems, we need collaborative efforts,

which take into account the shortcomings of models and propose locally adapted
robust rice systems (Gaydon et al. 2006, 2009; Awan et al. 2014b). In this regard,
some of the proposed measures available in the literature are as follows:
(a) Multisite coordinated experiments in contrasting agro-ecological zones.

(b) Accurate characterization of phenology, especially when we introduce new
varieties or new production systems.
(c) A merge of different complementary models, e.g., APSIM-Oryza.
(d) Targeted experimentation combined with solid physiology-based modeling.
(e) Correct weather data and accurate soil parameterization.
(f) Upscaling of results to regional level.
(g) Propose adaptive measures by analyzing risks and opportunities.
(h) Cropping system level modeling instead of modeling single crops.
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Advanced Production Technologies
of Wheat 12
Haseeb Younis, Ghulam Abbas, Sahrish Naz,
Zartash Fatima, Muhammad Arif Ali, Mukhtar Ahmed,
Muhammad Azam Khan, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Cereals are grown as foods and consumed by humans. Cereals are vital source of
carbohydrates, vitamins, fats, minerals, oils, and protein. Among cereals, wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) is sown globally for its highly nutritive and useful grain.
Cultivation of wheat started from ancient times and domesticated. About thou-
sands years it has been a major staple food of many civilizations in Asia, Europe,
and Africa. Mostly, wheat crop is grown in temperate region and where average
rainfall is between 10 and 70 inches. In order to feed the burgeoning population
of the world, advanced wheat production technology should be adopted.
Keywords
Triticum aestivum · Production practices · Advanced technology
H. Younis · G. Abbas · S. Naz · Z. Fatima · S. Ahmad (*)

M. A. Ali
Department of Soil Science, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
M. Ahmed
Department of Agronomy, PMAS, Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
M. A. Khan
In-Service Agricultural Institute, Sargodha, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_12
224 H. Younis et al.
12.1 Introduction
Cereals are grown worldwide as they are annual common grasses belonging to the
Gramineae family. Most of the world’s foods consumed by human are cereals.
Major cereal crops are wheat, maize, barley rice, millet, and sorghum. Cereals are
vital source of carbohydrates, vitamins, fats, minerals, oils, and protein (Sarwar
et al. 2013). Among these cereals wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is sown globally for
its highly nutritive and useful grain. Wheat is among the top three cereals that lies
second after maize, and rice lies in the third place (Houshyar et al. 2010). Cultivation
of wheat started from ancient time. It was one of the first food crops which was
domesticated. About 8000 years it has been a major staple food of many civiliza-
tions in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Mostly, wheat crop is grown in temperate region
and where average rainfall is between 10 and 70 inches; high rainfall and high tem-
perature are not suitable for wheat because these conditions increase the chances of
development of disease (Lehone and Staple 1962).
In years 2017–2018, global wheat production was 757.9 million tons (FAO STAT
2018). The European Union was the highest wheat producer with the production of
151,600 thousand metric tons followed by China which ranked second with the
production of 129,770 thousand metric tons (Anonymous 2017a, b).
Wheat is the vital source of carbohydrates, vitamins, Zn, Fe, and many micronu-
trients for people living in developing world; it also supplies 70% of daily intake of
calorie of people living in rural areas (Cakmak 2008).
There are many factors involve in low wheat yield; these factors include insuffi-
cient and imbalanced nutrient management, water shortage, delay sowing, uneven
crop establishment, increasing fuel cost, increasing labor cost, and changing cli-
matic condition adversely affecting the productivity of wheat (Saharawat et al.
2010; Gathala et al. 2011).
12.2 Locality and Soil
Wheat is grown all over the world. It is grown from 67 N in Russia and Scandinavia
to 45S in Argentina; it can be raised in the tropics and subtropics including their
elevated regions. Due to its wide-range diversity, it has deep roots embedded in the
culture and in religion of different societies (Feldman 1995) (Fig. 12.1).
Wheat is the crop of temperate regions where average rainfall is around 500–
1200 mm. Higher rainfall causes more disease attack, and lodging also makes a
hurdle in field operation. Wheat plant loves cool season followed by sunny and
warm season. Wheat seed can germinate at the temperature range of 3.5°–35 °C, but
the ideal range for germination of wheat seed is 20–25 °C. Optimum temperature
for vegetative growth is 16–22 °C. At the time of maturity, the optimum average
temperature required is 14–15 °C, and temperature higher than 25 °C decreases
grain weight. Areas with moderate rainfall having cold winter and warm spring or
summer produced good quality and high wheat of yield.
12 Advanced Production Technologies of Wheat 225
Fig. 12.1 Top ten wheat-producing countries in the world (Source: The Statistics Portal
2017–2018)
For good wheat production, well-drained soil is required; it cannot grow well on
poorly drained and sandy soil. Wheat can be grown on sandy soil to clay soils, but
best yield can be produced from silt to clay loam soils.
12.3 Sowing Time
There are two types of wheat, e.g., winter wheat and spring wheat. Winter wheat is
sown from September to November, and spring wheat is sown from March to May.
Optimum sowing date varies from region to region. Sowing dates are region-
specific, so every region has its own optimum sowing date. In Indo-Pak region,
optimum sowing date of wheat is October to mid-November, and after this wheat
yield will decrease subsequently (Shahzad et al. 2002), and in China winter wheat
is planted from mid-September to October. Fayed et al. (2011) concluded that the
best sowing time of wheat in North Sinai region is from mid-October to mid-
November. In the case of spring wheat, Kai et al. (2012) determine the best sowing
date in Northwest China is March, but it also grows well in the month of April. In
the USA, spring wheat is planted from April to May; wheat’s optimum sowing date
plays a key role in wheat production due to risk of facing hot weather condition at
the time of grain filling. Hot weather also reduced the tillering period so late plant-
ing leads to reduction in grain yield (Refay 2011).
12.4 Sowing Methods
Sowing method is a major factor which affects the crop vigor and crop yield (Korres
and Froud-Williams 2002). For good germination, wheat crop requires a well-
pulverized and compact seedbed. One presoaking irrigation is given to the field
because its germination is heavily dependent on moisture in soil. Adequate amount
of moisture is very important so it should be sown when soil is in good water
condition. In irrigated condition the sowing is done at 3–5 cm depth after pre-sow-
ing irrigation, and in rainfed areas at adequate moisture level, sowing is done at
8–10 cm depth, and row to row distance should be maintained between 20 cm and
30 cm. For making good seedbed, different types of tillage systems are practiced
according to their situation.
12.5 Tillage Systems
Tillage and irrigation are the most important management practices. Both tillage
and irrigation affect the crop potential, crop production, and soil hydrophysical
properties (Blanco-Canqui and Lal 2007). Different types of tillage system have
different kinds of benefits and drawbacks like in conventional tillage available water
capacity and infiltration rate are increased and runoff is decreased (Wright et al.
1999), zero tillage improves soil aggregates (Lal et al. 1994), and SOC sequestra-
tion is promoted (Bhattacharyya et al. 2006).
12.5.1 Laser Land Leveling
For good yield the field should be well leveled. Well-leveled field reduces water
requirement. Seed germinate evenly reduce weed problem in field. So, leveling of
field is very important. Precise land leveling is not possible from ordinary leveler. It
largely depends on the skill of driver, and to overcome this problem, laser land lev-
eler should be used as compared to ordinary leveler. Laser land leveler articulates
good impact on water efficiency, crop yield, and farm productivity (Ren et al. 2003).
For the use of laser land leveling, at field capacity, the land was first plowed with
harrow or cultivar for pulverization. A drag scrapper equipped with laser (Trimble
TM, USA) and automatic hydraulic system attached with tractor was used for laser
land leveling (Jat et al. 2011). The field was first surveyed for recording the eleva-
tion at the distance of 10 feet before running the laser land leveler. For leveling, the
field elevation points were averaged to desired elevation. In controlled box, average
value of elevation was entered to control the scrapper at desired elevation point (Jat
et al. 2009).
In rice-wheat system, it is found that due to laser land leveling, 10–30% irriga-
tion water is saved, fertilizer efficiency is increased up to 6–7%, effective increase
in farm area was 3–6%, and yield increased up to 3–19% (Jat et al. 2009). Between
the crop yield and land levelness, there is a solid correlation. From the review of
several studies, it was determined that farm inputs like fertilizer, water, and labor
can be reduced by laser land leveler. It encourages even germination, improves crop
stand, and ultimately increases the crop yield (Rickman 2002; El-Behery and
El-Khatib 2001).
Laser land leveling also has some demerits. Laser land leveler has high initial
cost, and most of the farmers cannot afford this instrument. Laser land leveler was
less efficient in small-sized and irregular fields. It is suitable on large-size fields. To
operate laser land leveler, high level of skill is needed for adjusting the laser setting
(Latif et al. 2013).
12.5.2 Conventional Tillage System
In conventional tillage system, heavy farm machinery is used in this system and
focuses only on yield maximization. In irrigated area wheat crop is usually grown
after rice, cotton, sorghum, maize, pearl millet, green gram, black gram, etc. In
conventional tillage system, after the harvest of previous crop, the remained residue
was burned, and through preparatory tillage operations, stubbles were incorporated
for making good seedbed before sowing. In this conventional tillage system two to
three harrowing is used to break the clods and incorporating the stubble of previous
crop, after harrowing two plowings using field cultivator and one field leveling
using laser land leveler or wooden plank to make well-pulverized and compact
seedbed. Powdery seedbed is not recommended. After tillage operation, using seed-
cum-fertilizer drill, wheat will be seeded with 20 to 30 cm row spacing. Conventional
tillage system is the highest consumer of energy, and data from study indicates that
total energy spent in conventional tillage system is 5965.6 MJ ha−1. The maximum
share of the energy is 3378.6 MJ ha−1 from tillage operation in conventional tillage
system (Sharma et al. 2011).
12.5.3 Raised Bed Planting
Raised bed planting is modern technology of wheat cultivation. In raised bed

planting, the field is divided into narrow strips of raised bed or ridges separated
by furrows (Latif et al. 2013). Water is applied through furrows and crop is sown
on surface of bed. For making raised bed, soil was tilled by using two harrowing
and plowing operations three times by using field cultivator. When plowing was
done, it leveled the field by using land leveler. By using tractor-drawn bed planter,
raised beds were prepared using seed-cum-fertilizer drill; wheat seed was sown
on beds. On each bed two or three rows of wheat were seeded (Kumar et al.
2013).
Raised bed planting improved water and fertilizer use efficiency. Compared to
conventional planting, three rows of wheat sown on raised bed increase yield and
water use efficiency 0.22 t ha−1 (Aggarwal and Goswami 2003). In another study,
Zaman et al. (2017) found that in comparison with conventional tillage operations,
raised bed cultivation of wheat at irrigation conditions saves 12.30% seasonal water
and 14.30% irrigation water and increases 38% water use efficiency and 15.66%
grain yield. Sowing of wheat on raised bed increased grain yield up to 21% over flat
planting of wheat (Hossain et al. 2004). In another study, Mollah et al. (2009) indi-
cate that the number of grains panicle−1, number of panicles m−2, and 1000 grain
weight were increased on raised bed planting. Majeed et al. (2015) found that
15.06% higher grain yield is obtained in raised bed planting over flat planting at
same nitrogen rate of 120 kg ha−1. Due to over-irrigation or excessive rain, chances

of plant submergence are decreased.
Raised bed planting has some demerits. It is not suited to all crops. Heavy tillage
implements are used to increase the cost of tillage operations. Land grading is
required so that water can move on the whole length of furrow without pounding, so
continual slope is required.
12.5.4 Zero Tillage
Intensive tillage operation and high fertilizer recommendation increased the production
cost, caused low nutrient use efficiency and environmental problems, and decreased
farm profit (Chhokar et al. 2007). Extensive use of machinery and high fuel consump-
tion for tillage operations release greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Pampolino et al.
2012). So, to overcome these problems, zero tillage is adopted to decrease the cost and
raise input use efficiency. In recent years, farmers rapidly accepted zero tillage due to
reduction in production cost, improving yield quality and conserving resources (Singh
et al. 2007). It is evident that the use of zero tillage reduces the evaporation losses by
shrinkage in duration of land preparation (Tuong 1999).
Zero tillage is mostly used in rice-wheat cropping system. After the harvest of
rice crop, the field required heavy tillage operations. For wheat sowing there should
be appropriate moisture in the field. Previous crop should be harvested near the
ground, and stubble remained in soil should not be 15 cm in height, and field should
be free from weeds. Wheat crop will be seeded with the help of zero tillage seed-
cum-fertilizer drill at 20 to 30 cm row spacing. Zero tillage seed-cum-fertilizer drill
is capable of drilling seed and fertilizer directly through the surface residues at suit-
able depth (Sapkota et al. 2014). Zero tillage has advantages over conventional till-
age system, but it also has some disadvantages. In zero tillage, weeds are the major
problem for weed control, and it heavily relies on herbicides because mechanical
weeding is not done in this method. Special zero tillage planter is required for sow-
ing (Latif et al. 2013). Cavalieri et al. (2009) reported low wheat yield due to com-
pact layer formation underneath the plowing layer. Compaction of layer affects
germination.
12.5.5 Minimum Tillage
Minimum and zero tillage systems are very similar. Zero tillage has some problems
like compaction of soil upper layer and high weed density, and to overcome this
type of problem, minimum tillage can be an innovative option. Minimum tillage
focused on minimization of tillage operation at a necessary level where good seed-
bed, good germination percentage, and favorable growing condition of healthy crop
stand can be obtained. Tillage operations can be reduced by excluding operations
which do not give much benefits in comparison with their cost. In minimum tillage
for preparation of field, one harrowing and one field leveling are enough. Wheat will
be sown by using seed-cum-fertilizer drill, and 20 to 30 cm row spacing should be

maintained.
In minimum tillage soil water storage is increased by higher infiltration rate and
decreased in evaporation and protection of soil from impact of rainfall (Sarauskis
et al. 2009). In minimum tillage soil moisture is higher at sowing time and early stages
of vegetation; in minimum tillage system, thermal amplitude is reduced in the first
15 cm of soil, and soil temperature is increased by 0.5–2.2 °C (Rusu et al. 2011).
12.6 Fertilizer Recommendation
Balanced use of fertilizer is very important for good wheat production. Before
application of fertilizer, the fertility and salinity status of soil should be determined,
and fertilizer should be applied on the basis of soil test. However generally NPK
level of 105–75-75 kg ha−1 is recommended for good wheat yield (Hussain et al.
2002). In another study, Cheema et al. (2003) determine that NPK level of 150–100-
50 kg ha−1 gives maximum grain yield and further increase in NPK does not signifi-
cantly increase the yield. As compared to sole application, combined application of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium gives high wheat yield (Petkov 1983). Entire
phosphorus and potassium should be applied at the time of sowing, and nitrogen
should be applied in three split doses, 1/3 at the time of sowing, 1/3 at the time of
first irrigation, and the remaining 1/3 at second irrigation. Splitting the nitrogen in
three doses increases the nitrogen use efficiency and radiation use efficiency of
cereal crops (Fatima et al. 2018).
Micronutrients like zinc, iron, boron, and manganese are also required for good
production of wheat. These micronutrients are required in small quantity and
improve the quality of grain and increase the nutritional value of wheat crop.
12.7 Water Requirements
Water requirements of wheat depend upon type of soil, location, and environmental
condition (Miholyfalvy 1974). Generally the requirement of water for wheat fluctu-
ates between 180 mm and 420 mm (Balasubramaniyan and Palaniappan 2001) in
hot weather conditions like in Sindh, Pakistan, where water requirements reach to
375 mm (Mahar et al. 1990). In semiarid conditions application of six irrigations
increased grain yield in comparison with less irrigations (Wajid et al. 2002). Rajput
et al. (1994) determine that the maximum grain yield can be obtained from applica-
tion of five irrigations.
Sarwar et al. (2010) reported that application of irrigations at definable growth
stages (crown root, tillering, booting, anthesis, milking) can produce maximum grain
yield. Irrigation is an expensive input, so it should be applied sensibly. Crown root
initiation is one of the critical stages, increase in number of tillers and grain yield was
recorded when irrigation was applied at crown root and boot stage (Bajwa et al. 1993),
and 27% grain yield will be decreased if shortage of water occurs at this stage (Cheema
et al. 1973). If wheat plant faces water stress at tillering stage, heading stage, milking
stage, and dough stage, wheat grain yield will be decreased (Yazal et al. 1994). So, we
can conclude that five irrigations at definable growth stages (crown root, tillering,
booting, anthesis, milking) will give maximum grain yield.
12.8 Major Insect Pest in Wheat
Major insect pests of wheat are aphids, thrips, armyworms, cutworms, hessian fly,
mites, crickets, stalk borers, grasshoppers, cereal leaf beetle, wheat stem maggot,
sawfly, white grubs, wireworms, slugs, snails, and, stink bugs. The use of chemical
spray is not recommended in wheat because wheat grains are used for food and
chemical sprays have long-lasting effect. Integrated pest management (IPM) strate-
gies should be followed to overcome pest problem to control these pests. Cultural
and biological control is recommended in most of these insect can control by crop
rotation, use of early ripped cultivars, sowing at optimum time and use of natural
enemy. Aphid and hessian fly attack more in late planted wheat, so it is recom-
mended that wheat should be planted before 25 November to avoid aphid and hes-
sian fly infestation (Aslam et al. 2005).
12.9 Major Diseases of Wheat
Major wheat diseases are leaf rust (brown rust), stem rust (black rust), stripe rust
(yellow rust), common and dwarf bunt (stinking smut), karnal bunt (partial bunt),
loose smut, flag smut, powdery mildew, tan spot (yellow leaf spot or blotch),
Alternaria leaf blight, Fusarium leaf blotch (snow mold), common root rot, foot rot,
crown rot, black molds (sooty molds), and bacterial spike blight (yellow ear rot)
(Prescott et al. 1986). Management of some major diseases is as follows.
12.9.1 Rust
Rusts are the most widespread wheat disease. There are three types of rust, leaf rust
(brown rust), stem rust (black rust), and stripe rust (yellow rust). In leaf rust reddish
brown pustules appeared on leaves in clusters; later, these clusters burst and turn
into black. In stem rust brown-colored elongated pustules are formed on leaf sheath,
stalk, and leaves and later turn into black. In strip rust, on leaves and stalks, yellow-
colored pustules appeared. To control these diseases, rust-resistant varieties should
be used to avoid late sowing and high nitrogen doses; if these attacks increased, a
combination of 10 kg urea and 1875 g zineb (dithane Z-78) mixed in 500 L water
should be sprayed two times at flag leaf and flowering stage, or fine dust of sulfur
should be used at the rate of 30 kg/ha−1.
12.9.2 Loose Smut
In loose smut, black powder is produced from the spikelet, and the color of flag leaf
becomes yellow, and from the tip the leaf started to dry and become brown. Loose
smut destroys the whole spike, and yield is severely affected. To control loose smut,
resistant varieties should be used, the seed should be treated with hot water, and the
diseased earhead should be cut and abolished by burning.
12.9.3 Foot Rot
In foot rot on collar region of plant dark brown patches were formed later on plant
turn yellow and rottened to control foot rot. At the time of seedbed preparation,
heavy irrigation should be applied, and before sowing the seed should be treated
with ceresin or agrosan at the rate of 2.5 gm/kg seed.
12.9.4 Flag Smut
In flag smut, plant growth remain stunted and no year is formed on leaves and
grayish black long streaks are formed black powdery mass of spores comes out
from these streaks. Leaves affected by flag smut become twisted. Flag smut can
be controlled by growing resistant varieties; the seed should be treated with cer-
esin or agrosan at the rate of 2.5 gm/kg seed, and the diseased part should be cut
and burned.
12.10 Weed Management
Wheat production is severely affected by weeds. Due to weeds, yield reduced by

25 to 30% (Nayyar et al. 1992). Weeds not only reduce the yield, they also deterio-
rate the quality of grains. Weeds compete with wheat for nutrient, sunlight, water,
and space, and due to this competition, wheat plants come under stress (Anderson
1983). In different farming systems to control weeds, various strategies have been
adopted. Traditionally weeding is done by hand; this method is slow and laborious.
In recent years, chemical control has been increasing rapidly. Chemical control
causes environmental pollution, and it should be used carefully. Chemically broad-
leaf weed is mostly controlled by using bromoxynil + MCPA (60% EC) at 300 ml
or triasulfuran (85 WG) at 700 mlacre−1, and narrow leaf weeds are mostly con-
trolled by fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (7.5% EW) at 500 mlacre−1 or clodinafop (15 WG)
at 120 gacre−1.
12.11 Wheat Harvesting
Proper time of harvesting of wheat is when grains become hard and straw turns out
to be dry. For harvesting of wheat, usually three harvesting techniques were used;
these are manual plus thresher, reaper plus thresher, and combine harvester. Each of
them has some benefits and drawbacks (Table 12.1).
12.11.1 Manual Plus Thresher
In this method wheat is first cut manually by hand near to the ground level with
sickle. These harvested plants were secured in small bundles; those were kept under
the sun for drying. After sun drying these bundles were threshed by using mechani-
cal threshers. Manual harvesting of wheat is laborious as compared to other harvest-
ing techniques (Leonce and Saraswat 2015), and these harvesting operations are
performed when the labor demand is at its peak (Chand and Kumar 2002). AMRI
(1987) reported that 7.5% wheat losses occur during manual harvesting. These
losses are much higher than reaper and combine harvester which have wheat losses
of 4.65% and 2.2%, respectively.
12.11.2 Reaper Plus Thresher
In this method, wheat crop is harvested with the use of reaper; after the harvesting
wheat crop is threshed using mechanical thresher. Reaper plus thresher harvests
wheat crop more efficiently. Labor cost is decreased because in this method less
labor is required. Reaper can be easily used in a small field, and combine harvester
is not suitable for a small field (Pawar et al. 2008). Another benefit of reaper is that
it gives more straw yield as compared to combine harvester.
12.11.3 Combine Harvester
Combine harvester is an advanced harvesting machine. Combine harvester can har-

vest and thresh the wheat crop simultaneously. Razzaq et al. (1992) compared the
combine harvester with manual harvesting. With mechanical threshing he con-
cluded that combine harvester gives the highest yield and is more economical than
Table 12.1 Comparison of different harvesting techniques

Harvesting technique Manual plus thresher Reaper plus thresher Combine harvester
Grain losses (kg ha−1) 222.63 199.41 149.87
Grain losses (%) 4.28 3.85 2.92
Quality losses(%) 0.85 0.82 1.06
Cleaning efficiency (%) 99.11 99.14 98.90
Source: (Sattar et al. 2015)
other harvesting techniques. Combine harvester also decreased the harvesting

period. The problem of labor shortage at peak season can also be solved by using
combine harvester. It only needs four persons to harvest the crop from combine
harvester. Grain loss in combine harvesting is only 1.2%, while loss in threshing is
2.01%. Total field loss of combine harvester is low, and in comparison with reaper
with thresher, there are 4.20% and 10.57% (Pawar et al. 2008).
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of Maize 13
Sajid Hussain, Muhammad Ijaz, Mubshar Hussain,
Sami Ul-Allah, Tahira Abbas, Ahmad Nawaz,
Muhammad Nawaz, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third important cereal crop after rice and wheat grown
around the globe. Byproducts obtained from maize grains are having high value
of calories from seed. Feeding of maize grains has intensely increased in poultry
and livestock industries. It is a high-yield commodity crop as well as a source of
food security in many developing countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan
Africa. Maize growing on scientific lines under climate uncertainty is need of the
day.
Keywords
Zea mays · C4 cereal · Production practices · Advanced technology
13.1 Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) among all cultivated major and minor crops in Pakistan has a
noticeable prominence. After rice and wheat, the 3rd important cereal crop grown
around the globe is the maize (Zea mays L.). The by-products obtained from the
grains of maize are having high value of calories and proteins in fats, oil, and protein
S. Hussain (*) · M. Ijaz · S. Ul-Allah · A. Nawaz · M. Nawaz

M. Hussain · S. Ahmad
T. Abbas
College of Agriculture, Bahadur Sub Campus, Bahauddin Zakariya University,
Multan, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_13
238 S. Hussain et al.
portion of the seed. The feeding of maize grains has intensely increased in poultry
and livestock industries. The fresh or processed foods of maize grains are also con-
sumed by human beings. In the budget of any country corn industry adds a massive
share (Tiffany 2009). It is a major food source for the world and is a high-yield
commodity crop, with an average harvested area of 157 million hectares and pro-
duction of 781 mega tonnes from 2000 to 2014; it is a vital source of food security
in many developing countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa (Jones and
Thornton 2003; Bassu 2014). Furthermore, it serves as forage for the production of
biogas (Ammani et al. 2013). Maize originated in the Mexican Highlands and
spread around the world after the colonization of America. Mexico remains one of
the main producers, with an average yearly production of 14 mega tonnes from
1961 to 2014, ranked fourth in the world (Matsuoka 2002; Rebourg 2003; Reeves
et al. 2016).
Maize can be produced in an extended range of conditions, from 0 to over.
Though a variety of abiotic (soil, climate) and biotic (diseases, plagues) stresses
affect maize, its main constraints are currently climatic factors and physical charac-
teristics related to soil fertility (Ammani et al. 2013; Lone and Warsi 2009). While
in developing countries in Asia particularly in Pakistan, corn was being cultivated at
1334 thousand hectares in 2016–2017, and the productivity was 6130 thousand
tones and with an average yield of 4.6 t ha−1 (Government of Pakistan 2016–2017).
There are numerous health benefits of using maize as a source of edible oil and its
production in both the seasons as a fodder crop both in spring and in autumn. For
dry matter production, maize being C4 crop plant is considered high yielding
(FAOSTAT 2009).
It is a multipurpose crop that is used by animals, food for human also provide
uncooked product for several industries. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats with vita-
mins are major elements of maize. It delivers 20% of the world’s food calories.
Major maize products are manufactured from the grains of maize after proper pro-
cessing and making flakes, syrup, plastic, paper, fuel, as well as feed for animals. In
upcoming years the increasing population have more demands of food, and it will
be twice up to 2050 (Randhawa 2016).
It is an important cereal crop which is grown at worldwide level, and in the
United States of America, it is known as corn. The earlier historical data proclaimed
that firstly cultivation of maize was started in Central America and then later its
cultivation was began in Canada and Argentina region after the innovation of
America by peoples living in Europe during fifteenth century. Shah et al. (2007)
reported that, according to archeological accounts and phylogenetic scrutinies, the
maize crop cultivation started as early as about 6000 years ago.
Worldwide, with passage of time, demand for maize grains is increasing because
of current increasing population in the developing countries. The use of meat and
poultry in developing countries is increasing, and this increased depletion of meat
and poultry will also increase the maize kernels’ demand as feed (Paliwal 2000). On
worldwide, the developed countries are using more maize as compared to develop-
ing nations. However, predictions reveal that in future few decades by 2020, the
demand for maize in developing countries will increase due to the high urbanization
13 Advanced Production Technologies of Maize 239
and population growth. James (2003) predicted that globally, demand of maize crop
will increase by 45% up to 2020.
13.1.1 urrent Maize Distribution, Climatology, and Climate

C
Change Scenarios
Current maize distribution data were gathered from the Global Biodiversity
Information Facility and literature resources (Bassu 2014). The data were verified
for biological reasonability; furthermore, duplicate records and those without geo-
graphic coordinates were eliminated from the database. Nearly 15,000 records were
gathered and used for parameter fitting, with more than 50% of the records repre-
senting Mexico. These records geographically represent the current known global
distribution of maize. The use of native and planted (agricultural) distribution
records to adjust CLIMEX parameters could generate a better model that more
accurately reproduces the potential distribution of the species of study, allowing for
the expansion of the fundamental niche (Sutherst 2003; Shabani et al. 2012; Taylor
2012).
13.1.2 Crop-Specific Constraints
The maize and other cereal crops have abiotic and biotic constraints which limit its
growth and production. These constraints may be weed infestation, attack of pests,
diseases, drought stress and waterlogging, deficiency of nutrients, and many more
(Asada 2000; Hussain et al. 2018a, b; Joshi et al. 2005; Martineau et al. 2017). The
abiotic constraints include moisture stress, temperature stress, salinity stress, low
nitrogen stress, and other environmental factors. Abiotic stresses are vital parts of
any agroecosystem; they cause damages to the plants in different ways. However,
the severity and effect of abiotic stresses like in which kind of soil crop was grown,
climate (temperature and precipitation including relative humidity), amount of
organic matter in the soil, and vegetation cover on soil are different in different cli-
matic zones. The climate is changing day by day which can cause prevalent diseases
and induce the problem of food security (Beheshti and Behboodifard 2010;
Randhawa 2016). In abiotic constraints high temperature is a major issue threating
the agricultural productivity. The annual increase in temperature is expected to rise
by 1–3.5 °C by the year 2100. This will change the pattern of precipitation table
(IPCC 1995).
A major abiotic constraint for maize is drought stress, and it destroys the vegeta-
tive and reproductive growth of maize crop at higher extent (Jaleel et al. 2009).
There are many growth stages in the life cycle of maize at which drought disturbs
developmental processes and decreases the economic yield of the crop. Seedling
stage, postemergence growth, vegetative growth stage, flowering or reproduction
stage, and grain-filling stage can face the problem of different biotic and abiotic
stresses (Habben and Schussle 2017). The limited supply of irrigation water at
flowering stage causes significant reduction in the grain yield of the crop (Aslam
et al. 2006; Cakir 2004).
Drought influences the stomatal opening and closing by inducing the turgor pres-
sure in plants. When the total amount of moisture in the body of plant is decreased,
then water potential of leaf is lost which causes the loss of turgor pressure in plant.
Under drought stress conditions, opening and closing of stomata significantly
affected water supply. The consequence related to closing of stomata includes
reduction in cell size as well as in growth during initial crop growth stage; however
severe drought stress for long intervals reduces the process of photosynthesis, which
causes death of the plant (Cheesman et al. 2016; Jaleel et al. 2009; Killi et al. 2017).
It is stated that if the drought tolerance trials are done with other cereal crops like
pearl millet, maize, and sorghum, it results in the reduction of root length in maize
(Etienne et al. 2018; Gewin 2010; Martineau et al. 2017), while length of the roots
was not affected in other cereal crops like barnyard millet. There was significant
effect on root length in sorghum and pearl millet and the greenhouse trials to deter-
mine the consequence of drought on the maize crop; drought decreases the root
growth in maize plant specifically (Kage et al. 2004; Pace et al. 1999).
The biotic crop-specific constraints for maize are pathogen, weed, etc. Changing
climate is playing a suitable role in the occurrence of diseases by pathogens for
significantly changed future status of maize. Some bacterial diseases are economi-
cally important as they are affecting the maize crop. Possibility, about the future
significance of the bacterial maize disease which is bacterial stalk rot of maize that
has been specified so far in the literature. On the other hand, a series of diseases can
be caused by viruses in maize (CIMMYT 2004). The unexpected rainfall at or near
harvest causes the unacceptable concentrations of aflatoxin in hot climate regions
with predictable risk (Tariq et al. 2014). Critical aflatoxicosis and deaths due to
feasting of contaminated crops which occur still in nowadays through the drought
conditions in the arid to semiarid climate and tropical countries are related to con-
tamination through changes in climate (Balakrishnan and Subramanian 2017;
Cakmak 2008; Lewis et al. 2005; Ma et al. 2017). Fungal pathogens are so far domi-
nant in the case of maize diseases than diseases caused by the bacteria and viruses.
Fusarium and Aspergillus species are the causal agents of the maize crop diseases
like ear rot, and contamination of the maize grain is the related risk of mycotoxin
that is possibly highly harmful to humans and animals.
Weed is another major biotic constraint of maize crop. Witchweed (Striga her-
monthica), a parasitic weed, remains another great challenge to farmers, sometimes
leading to complete yield loss of maize in the affected farm (Pinhero et al. 2001).
The practices done to control weeds can alter the losses from 10 to 100%, and
almost 40% production is reduced worldwide due to weeds (Chikoye et al. 2004).
It is very irregularly happening that weed infestation has caused crop losses min-
imally. Weed interruption with the crop’s growth and development causes yield
losses. Infestation through weeds includes two natural marvels, allelopathy and
competition. Competition is composed of many basic components essential for
completing life cycle which are nutrients, water, and light, whereas allelopathy is
interruption through phytotoxic chemicals which are also named as allelochemicals
which plants release into the environment; this may increase weed infestation. Weed
control is responsible for the successful cultivation of maize. The first 6 to 8 weeks
after planting are very important with respect to the control of weeds, because
weed-crop competition is very critical during this period of growth for nutrients,
water, and space. Infestations of weeds cause annual yield losses in cultivated crops.
Type of weed, type of crop, and the environmental conditions determine the losses
for crop yield.
To control infestation in crop fields, different methods have been used, but to
control the weeds, frequently used methods are mechanical and chemical methods.
Flaming, hand pulling mowers, and hand hoeing are mechanical methods which are
still useful but are getting expensive, laborious, and time-consuming. Hand weeding
practice of controlling weeds is still done in underdeveloping countries in which a
lot of labor is required (Chikoye et al. 2007).
13.1.3 General Production Constraints
Maize as a staple food is grown for many years primarily for home consumption, but
now in modern days, it is cultivated as increasing commercial direction of the agricul-
tural economy. Maize production scenario has undergone many changes. The demand
for maize, as a feed resource, has been increasingly realized because of the structural
changes in consumption pattern, as a consequence of rising per capita income, which
has boosted up the demand for livestock and poultry products. It has been estimated
that the requirement for maize in the developing countries will overtake the demand
for wheat and rice by 2020 (Hammad et al. 2011). Asian maize demand will rise from
138,000000 tons in 1993 to 243,000000 tons, accounting for 60% of the global
increase in maize consumption by 2020 A.D. (Kumar and Singh 2003).
Financial constraints are overlapping in many countries like the purchase of
seeds of improved and certified cultivars and fertilizers for crop production. It is
reported through informers that farmers purchase food instead of fertilizers. Micskei
et al. (2010) who directed a study on fertilizer use in Tanzania pointed that a large
number of farmers (about 63%) could not apply fertilizers to their fields due to its
high price and 20% of the respondents had no access to such inputs. In the case of
maize, 68% of farmers do not use fertilizers due to their high rates in available mar-
kets, whereas fertilizers applied in maize are 32% which are applied directly. So, the
high cost of inputs and inefficient supply of seed of certified cultivars and fertilizers
limit farmer’s opportunities to use these important inputs (Abera et al. 2013). Mostly
pests and diseases are not controlled by farmers. Quality of farm-saved seeds and
the performance of crop may be improper measures against pest infestation and
diseases. Seed quality is also deteriorating with the nutrient stress; during seed fill it
is generally associated with defected progeny (Dornbos 1995). According to a
study, it is evident that 31% of farm-saved seeds collected from farmers had fungal
infections observed during a germination test. The physiological quality was also
sometimes poor with 10% of the collected samples having germination capacity of
less than 10% which is the minimum germination required by the formal sector for
maize. Control of fungal infection in the field by systemic fungicide sprays and
other cultural practices, for example, removing diseased plants, leads to seeds of
improved germination and field emergence (Ellis et al. 1995). Insect populations
should as much as possible be controlled during crop production since their buildup
during crop growth may extend to storage (Beebe and Corrales 1991).
A very critical constraint to scientists is participation of farmers in planning
research priorities and the evaluation of technology (Ashby 1991). This can be
achieved through involvement of farmers in the research as it involves farmer’s
native technical knowledge, their priorities and scale of identification of criteria,
and research program definition (Farnham et al. 2003). Throughout the maize-
growing regions, the markets for food grains in general and maize in particular are
very less in distribution to the whole country. In village markets, prices for grain are
2–8%. Most of maize production is sold in these local markets which are closest to
the farmers, and this production reaches to markets at less distance. The product was
further sold at low prices than prices announced by the government. Because of the
transportation, costs to main markets tend to be higher than marginal returns; due to
price difference, the farmers are still selling their product to local markets
(Ramasamy et al. 1997).
13.1.4 Socioeconomic Constraints
Socioeconomic features play a vital role in defining crop yield by having impact on
crop management economically (Somda et al. 2002). Agricultural productivity of
tribal farmers is the problem for legal ownership of land exacerbates (Panda 2008)
and it causes problem in two ways. Firstly, there is mismanagement from the land-
owners in gaining through tenants which have used resources unequally. Secondly,
farmers are given less fertile lands under agreement from the owners who keep bet-
ter quality fertile lands (Anderson 1992). Skilled farmers are mostly more with a
tendency to take in new things, although after a certain existence-stage danger
directing power is had belief to go down (Feder et al. 1985; Rahm and Huffman
1984). Belief to have relation with adoption of new things and higher the years pro-
duce amount produced because of in relation to more good at producing an effect of
input business managers in larger farms when helping grow is technology driven
(Abid et al. 2011; Feder et al. 1985). The farmers who can afford modern technolo-
gies for gaining optimum production have more resources than small-scale farmers.
Small-scale farmers cannot get the facilities like great-scale farmers which have
more tendency to taking up new got well technologies (Harris et al. 2007). According
to a survey, the yield of maize depends upon how much a farmer has invested. A big
amount of investment is needed to buy hybrid seed, fertilizers, organic manures, and
pesticides to obtain maximum productivity.
For adoption of improved maize technology bundle, there is a lot of resistance
for small-scale operators (Kaliba et al. 2000). The capability to bear all the equip-
ments and inputs needed for proper management of crop, investment in the maize
farming also has a close relation with the farm family that how much expensive
inputs can be afforded by a farmer (Sulo et al. 2012). All risk factors like capital
investment, risk-taking capacity of farmers, and new technology interventions all
depend on the annual income of the farmer (Adhikary et al. 2010; Tittonell et al.
2007; Zingore et al. 2007).
13.1.5 Policy Constraints
1 . Very intricate plan their implementation is that plans are very poor.
2. Policies are poor; research work is poor, with inadequate extension and lack of
cooperation.
3. Overlooking and poor integration of inputs in agriculture policy with the overall
policy reform.
4. To meet diverse sub-national requirements and one size fits to all.
5. Lack of policies for modernizing agriculture especially in the case of input
policy.
6. Poor marketing of agriculture product which is neglected in government

policies.
7. Lack of accountability and poor management.
8. Lack of M&E and learning of lesson – the same issues for a long time with still
no progress and the same suggestions and recommendations.
13.1.6 Key Agricultural Input Policy Concerns
13.1.6.1 Seed
• Lack of use of certified seed.
• Adherence to the safe replacement cycles of seed.
• Improved and certified seed.
• Unregulated escalating seed industry.
• Lack of Seed Act, Breeders Act, and Seed Policy.
• Lack of public-private partnerships.
13.1.6.2 Fertilizer
1. Adverse influence on the fertilizer use due to the changing prices including gas.
2. Unbalanced nutrient mix.
3. Lack of awareness of the nitrogenous fertilizer use and traditional preference.
4. Inaccurate relative expenses.
5. Soil testing is ignored.
6. Improper time for applying fertilizers.
7. Since 2009–2010 grants are increasing but lack distribution.
8. On potash Rs 500 per 50 kg.
9. On urea Rs 1400 per 50 kg.
10. Rs 14.5 billion total.
11. Plus 50% subsidy on the gas prices.
13.1.6.3 Research and Extension

The levels of investment are very low private part almost not present.
Inefficient use of ready (to be used) public resources the greater size on business
house charges able to work operation of making observations only about 3–4
parts of a hundred of total.
Not in agreement with person needs and not request adjustment to events.
13.1.6.4 Farm Mechanization

Against mechanization as labor displacing still traditional bias is taken etc.
Lack of credit to the farmers for mechanization.
According to 2011 estimate, 0.9 hp/ha as against the FAO recommendation of
1.4 hp/ha.
Misuse of subsidy through political influence.
For mechanization services, markets are developing slowly.
13.2 Production Technology of Maize
13.2.1 Botanical Description
Corn, Zea mays, its name derives from “Arawak mahizi” which means that which
can sustain life (Rueben G. Mendoza and Irene Casas). The name “corn” was used
by Europeans who called all the small-seeded cereal grains as the corn; they call the
term “Indian corn.” Same is the case if it is American grain then denoting it to the
native Americans. (Rueben G. Mendoza and Irene Casas). Corn plant is 2–20 ft
high; its stalks have multiple ears and almost 8–48 leaves. Each stalk produces ears
that contain many rows of kernels that grow off of the cob of the ear and are enclosed
by a leafy husk (Shah et al. 2007).
Zea mays belong to the tribe Maydeae of the Gramineae family. It is an annual
grass; other grasses that are included in this family are barley, wheat, maximum
production of food per unit. This production is very important for farmers from
maize appeal. Both male and female reproductive parts present on corn plant. Male
spikelet has different parts then female spikelets which are tassels, terminal flower.
These parts grow in pairs from being sessile, and they have no stalk and other pedi-
cel, a single blossom on a lean stalk. Every tassel contains some 25 million pollens
grains (Farnham et al. 2003). The female part is also called ear. One thousand ker-
nels are present in each ear of corn. Ear has also spikelet like the male tassels and
once again with one flowers. One ovary is present on each of these flowers “which
ends on a long style called as the silk.” Fine hairs are covered by end of silks and
pollens are catch by these silks pollens are blowing in the air. If only one kernel is
produced by silk, not by pollination, then the kernel will not appear. The diameter
of pollen grain is 1/250th of an inch which is caught by silk and cannot be seen with
the naked eye. Wind easily carries the pollen grains to long distances due to their
small size and lightweight features (Bennetzen and Hake 2009). The kernels and the
solid core of the ear are attached to each other, the cob which is produced by the
pollination of the silk. The pericarp or thin shell, the embryo, and the endosperm are
three parts which are present in mature kernel. The pericarp (a thin layer) is a part
of maternal tissues, and it is encircling the entire seed. The variety of patterns shows
these colors, and it is very common in the maize varieties in parts of Mexico and
Guatemala. Starch is present in the endosperm or food storage, and this starch is
digested into the sugar in the germination as well as growth (Table 13.1). Aleurone
is a very valuable scientific trait, it is a microscopic thin layer of endosperm, it can
have various color shades, and it is very advantageous in the genetic study of maize.
Fat, vitamins, and minerals are present in embryo or germ. They are differing in
shape, color, and chemical composition. For the germination of seed, a living
embryo is very essential, and the capacity of an embryo for staying alive is around
3–5 years. If maize seed is stored in cool temperature, it has a potential to last for
25 years or more (James 2003).
Husk or shuck is an outer layer which covers the kernels. This is a distinctive
characteristic of maize that is unlike most of the plants. Kernel masses are tightly
surrounded by these leaf sheaths. The number of joints on the corn stalk determines
the number of leaves in the husk. Husk is very essential for maize plant because this
husk protects the seed from wind dispersal or other natural factors; that’s why corn
is so dependent on humans for its growth. Corn is self-pollinating; its pollens are
transferred from male to female part by husk. The pollination process runs with two
sperms, in which one sperm combines with the egg and the second which produces
endosperm of every kernel fuses with a double nucleus, since wind easily carries
these pollens and causes cross pollination (Romer et al. 2012).
13.2.2 History and Economic Importance
Zea genus belongs to the Poaceae family under the Panicoideae subfamily, and
maize is cultivated in Zea mays species. Testiness is a term which is used for all the
remaining species and subspecies of wild grasses. Maize is an important cereal
grown all over the world, and in the United States of America, it is called corn. In
early history the ancient Americans considered it as a source of fast food. According
to the data, its cultivation started in Central America and later in Canada and
Argentina regions after the discovery of America. As early as 6000 years ago, maize
crop cultivation started according to phylogenetic scrutinies and archeological data
(Piperno and Flannery 2001).
Now, China is number one in producing maize crop. The United States, the
European Union, Brazil, and Mexico are also good producers of maize crop. China
and the United States produced 60% of the total maize worldwide. Among the Latin
American and African countries, maize contributes 15–20% of the daily calories in
food of the people in almost 20 countries. In developing nations 68% maize is
grown; however they contribute 46% in production which shows the significance of
improving production in such countries (Farnham et al. 2003). In 2009 in USA
planted genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize. Sweet corn are
sugar-rich varieties grown and used as diet in kernels by the human, field maize
Table 13.1 Maize varieties recommended for general cultivation
Sr. No. Hybrid varieties Institute Specification
1 MON 802 Monsanto Company Insect resistant
4 MON 832 Monsanto Company Herbicide tolerant
6 MON87460 Monsanto Company Water use efficient
7 DP-OO4114–3 Pioneer Hi-Bred Herbicide tolerant
8 SYN-EV176–9 (176) Syngenta Company Insect resistant
9 SYN-BTO11–1 Syngenta Company Insect resistant
10 SYN-IR6O4–5 Syngenta Company Insect resistant
New cultivated varieties in the world
11 Deklab 7898–2016 – –
12 DK 6999–2017 – –
13 B9545 - 2017 – –
14 White corn – –
15 Yellow corn – –
Maize varieties recommended for general cultivation
Sr. No. Hybrid varieties Institute Specification
4 MON 832 Monsanto Company Herbicide tolerant
6 MON87460 Monsanto Company Water use efficient
7 DP-OO4114–3 Pioneer Hi-Bred Herbicide tolerant
8 SYN-EV176–9 (176) Syngenta Company Insect resistant
9 SYN-BTO11–1 Syngenta Company Insect resistant
10 SYN-IR6O4–5 Syngenta Company Insect resistant
New cultivated varieties in the world
11 Deklab 7898–2016 – –
12 DK 6999–2017 – –
13 B9545 - 2017 – –
14 White corn – –
15 Yellow corn – –
Season Optimum time of sowing
Rabi Last week of October for intercropping and up to 15th of November for sole crop
Kharif Last week of June to first fortnight July
Spring First week of February
S. No Purpose Seed rate (kg ha−1) Plant geometry (plant x row, cm) Plant population
1 Grains 20 60 × 20 83,333
75 × 20 66,666
2 Sweet corn 8 75 × 25 53,333
75 × 30 44,444
3 Baby corn 25 60 × 20 83,333
60 × 15 111,111
4 Pop corn 12 60 × 20 83,333
varieties are used as fodder for animal, various corn-based human food, and as
chemical feedstocks.
13.2.3 Locality and Soil
13.2.3.1 Climatic Requirements for Maize Production

Different types of maize are produced in different kinds of climatic condition. The
height of few cultivars is very short, and some are up to 6 m in length; some culti-
vars require 60°–70 °C temperature for growth of the maize grain after the emer-
gence; others may require more than 10 months. Universally, between latitude 30°
and 55 °C, the bulk of maize is produced; at latitude more than 47 °C, there is rela-
tively less growth. Practically there the mean mid-summer temperature is less than
190 °C no maize is grown or the average night temperature is less than 13 °C during
summer months. The utmost production is had in the warmest month temperature
between 21 °C and 27 °C, while there must be 120–180 days freeze-free season.
There is no upper limit of temperature extreme for maize production, but generally
high temperature declines the yield. Maize production is maximum in areas having
annual precipitation between 250 and 500 cm. There must be l5 cm per month rain-
fall in summer for maize production without irrigation, but higher summer rainfall
may have yield responses depending upon soil moisture reserves and rainfall distri-
bution. Yield may reduce in case of heavy rainfall (Ritchie and Burnett 1971).
13.2.3.2 Weather Affect the Maize Plant Growth in Certain Periods
13.2.3.2.1 Before Planting

Even before planting, effect of weather on the maize plant starts. Determining soil
moisture reserve conditions before planting is essential. If the moisture content in
the soil is low, the crop-season rainfall requirement is high (Denmead and Shaw
1960).
13.2.3.2.2 Planting to Emergence

Seed vigor, soil moisture, soil temperature, and soil aeration are effects on period
from planting to emergence. Water is absorbed by seed and seed swells before emer-
gence. With the enhancing temperatures, they must be absorbed for earlier germina-
tion and also advance faster at higher temperatures, with the assumption of water
availability. Pathogens are developing in cold, wet weather (Mahajan and Tuteja
2005). When maize is planted in cold and wet soil, then seed rots and seedling
blights may become predominant. At 10 °C or below, germination of maize seedling
is greatly reduced, but species of Pythium are germinating at this temperature.
13.2.3.2.3 Vegetative Growth from Emergence to Flower Differentiation

Moisture in very low amount is required for initial growth during the early part of
its life. At early vegetative growth, a plant bears low temperature with about 10 °C
air temperature, which usually kills the aboveground parts (Hernadez 1980).
13.2.3.2.4 L ate Vegetative Growth from the Beginning of Rapid Stem

Elongation to Tasseling
At mature vegetative stage, temperature effect on yield is more significant and
marked. Maize grows fast at this stage, and moisture stress can reduce yield during
this period (Hernadez 1980).
13.2.3.2.5 Tasseling, Silking, and Pollination

Tasseling and silking production time is very weather-dependent. During 115 days
cultivar takes 74 days from planting to tasseling with an average temperature of
20 °C but only 54 days with a temperature near 23 °C. The rapidity of growth before
tasseling reduced due to cool nights (Hernadez 1980).
13.2.3.2.6 rain Production from Fertilization to Physiological Maturity

G
of the Grain
Due to moisture stress, yield is reduced during the ear-filling stage. If there is no
rainfall in whole year and year is dry but rainfall at ear-filling stage will increases
the maize yield but in a rainy year or wet year, heavy rainfall at this stage is very
problematic for harvesting. This is a very important factor in the soils which are
poorly drained (Hernadez 1980).
13.2.3.2.7 Maturation or Drying of the Grain

After maturity stage the grain becomes dry and comes to a moisture level at which
the crop is harvestable. Climate and cultivar qualities influence the rate of drying.
Moisture is usually increments by rain in the early drying stage and in later maturity
stages (Hernadez et al. 1980).
13.2.3.2.8 Soil
The brilliant case of crop adaptability to soil conditions is maize. Maize grows on
different kinds of soils. As prerequisites for maize production, it is necessary to take
a gander at those chemical, physical, and biological properties of soils that influence
the soil fertility. Soil having grays or browns, “reds,” and black color and sandy clay
in texture can form into corn soils that contend positively with the best corn soils
happening wherever on the world (Havlin et al. 2009).
13.2.4 Seedbed Preparation
Physical, biological, or chemical soil manipulation for improvement of conditions

that favor the seed germination resulting in seedling establishment and emergence
is known as tillage or seedbed preparation. The seedbed preparation short-period
objectives are to manage soil moisture and temperature conditions for the weed-
crop competition reduction, development, and proliferation of root system and to
lessen the energy input. The long-term goals, however, should be kept in vision
which are longtime soil fertility maintenance through sufficient water and soil con-
servation, by maintenance of organic matter and by conserving soil structure and
porosity (Lal 1979; Thierfelder et al. 2017). In the cultural methods of cultivation on
hush fallow basis and such soil fertility replenishing systems, many land prepara-
tion systems are being used. After lowering the bush and weeds, regrowth farmers
dispose the excessive vegetation by using fire. Farmers prepare mounds by the heap-
ing of surface layer to enhance effective soil depth for the plantation (Lal 1979). In
semiarid areas, bullock-driven tools are usually used for the mechanical seedbed
preparation. Mechanical tillage systems for large-scale maize production are quickly
spreading in areas where maize is grown on the flat or on ridges.
Soil tillage, mainly primary tillage, provides the foundation for production of
any crop and is the largest cost factor in the production of maize. Main objectives of
seed bed preparation are to provide the optimum conditions for seed germination
and the establishment of seedling. The field must be given three to four times inter-
crossing, harrowing, and then planking with each plow. The field is irrigated 1–1.5-
acre inch before the drilling. Light harrowing with planking is done after achieving
the field capacity to conserve the soil moisture. For the growth of maize, normal fine
soil with small clods is needed.
13.2.5 Sowing Time
Maize can be sowed in the all seasons via kharif (monsoon), rabi (winter), post-
monsoon, and spring. To achieve higher production during spring and winter sea-
sons, certain irrigation accommodations are required. During the kharif season, it is
necessary to complete the sowing 12–15 days before the monsoon. However, in
rain-fed areas, the sowing should be coincided with the monsoon. The ideal sowing
time is given below (Leij et al. 2002).
13.2.6 Seed Rate
Optimum plant stand is the key factor of resource use efficiencies, which achieves
higher productivity. Seed size, sowing method, plant type, season, etc. determine
the seed rate.
The following crop seed rate and geometry must be adopted.
13.2.7 Sowing Method
Crop establishment is very essential for ideal plant stand. Crop establishment is the
key element of the crop production. Series of stages are in crop establishment which
are seeding, germination, emergence, and final establishment, and all these depend
upon the following interactions of seed, method of sowing, soil moisture, seedling
depth, machinery, etc., but under the growing situation, a sowing method is very
important for good establishment of crop. Different methods of tillage and estab-
lishment are used for maize to sow directly through seed, but in cool weather
transplanting can be done by nursery establishment. However, crop establishment is

responsible for numerous factors via complex interaction above seeding time, etc.
Now, resource conservation technologies (RCTs) are being practiced in several
maize-based cropping systems, such practices are surface seeding, minimum till-
age, zero tillage, etc., and these are very effective and good for the environment.
Different methods of sowing are necessary for different circumstances for achieving
maximum yield as described below (Majid et al. 1986).
13.2.7.1 Raised Bed (Ridge) Planting

Commonly, the best method for planting the maize is the raised bed planting for
both monsoon and winter seasons and areas of excess water and limited availability
of water areas (rain-fed conditions). For good germination sowing must be on the
south side of ridges/beds which are directed east-west. Proper row-to-row and plant-
to-plant distance is maintained during the sowing. Raised bed (ridges) planting
technology saves 20–30% of the irrigation water along with higher productivity.
Furthermore, under temporary waterlogging or excess soil moisture which may be
due to the heavy rainfall, these furrows will play a role of drainage channels and
save crop from the moisture stress. For understanding the full potential of this plant-
ing method, permanent beds are suitable where single-pass sowing can be done
without any preliminary tillage. Such beds are also more beneficial in excess mois-
ture conditions due to the higher infiltration rate, and waterlogging injury in crop
can be avoided.
13.2.7.2 Zero-Till Planting

Maize can also be grown by no till system without using primary tillage with less
expense of cultivation resulting in high farm profitability as well as better efficiency
of resources. Under these conditions good soil moisture content is ensured at sow-
ing. Also fertilizers and seed must be band placed in zero-till system by the use of
seed-cum-fertilizer planter along with the furrow opener keeping in view the field
conditions and soil texture. This no till technology is being used largely under
maize-wheat and rice-maize systems in eastern India and peninsula. However,
appropriate planter use having proper seed metering system and furrow opener is
the key to success of this technology.
13.2.7.3 Conventional Till Flat Planting

When weeds are growing in the field in large amounts and weed control is ineffi-
cient in zero tillage and in rain-fed areas where soil moisture is very important for
crop growth, in these circumstances flat planting is usually adopted by use of seed-
cum-fertilizer planters.
13.2.7.4 Furrow Planting

Plant bears the moisture stress due to the evaporation of water from soil under raised
bed as well as flat sowing in spring season. In these circumstances, maize should be
grown in furrows for better growth, seed setting, and high yield.
13.2.7.5 Transplanting
When two or more crops are grown in one place, then it becomes very difficult to
prepare the land for sowing of winter maize due to the chance of delayed sowing.
Delayed sowing causes problem for crop establishment because of low temperature,
and the best solution of this problem is transplanting maize in winter.
13.2.8 Fertilizer Application
Appropriate soil sampling techniques must be followed for submitting the soil sam-
ples to a laboratory for analysis. In the fertilizer guidelines for maize, recommended
soil sampling techniques are available. Such recommendations as suggested by the
institute must be followed to attain the requisite results in the field.
13.2.8.1 Application Methods
13.2.8.1.1 Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen and potassium applications should not be more than 70, 50, and 30 kg per
hectare for the recommended row widths. Greater quantities can still be applied if
placed 70–100 mm below the seed or to the side and must always be involved in the
fertilizer plant combinations, but residual nitrogen present in soil or the weather
conditions will fix when nitrogen application is necessary. Young plants are first
affected by deficiency of nitrogen which are pale yellow or light green. Older leaves
start yellowing and showing deficiency symptoms which appear on leaves in
inverted V-shape (Mahmood et al. 2001).
13.2.8.1.2 Phosphorus (P)

Generally, band placement of phosphorus is at 50 mm below or 50 mm to the side
of the seed. Mostly its deficiency symptoms appear on the small plants, particularly
in low-temperature conditions. The leaves’ tips and margins’ color start turning
reddish-purple with dark green middle parts.
13.2.8.1.3 Potassium
Similar just like P application band placement of potassium at 50 mm below or
50 mm to the side of the seed in a fertilizer mixture at the time of planting is done.
Large quantities must be applied in case if it is placed 70–100 mm to the side or
below (Obreza and Rhoads 1988).
13.2.9 Irrigation
Maize is very sensitive to drought, and continuous irrigation water supply is required
for better vegetative and reproductive growth. Many processes are restricted due to
drought and lead to decrease yield. 550–700 mm or 22–27 inch is the recommended
maize CWR (crop water requirement) (DeJonge et al. 2015). There are three ways
of furrow application of irrigation: conventional furrow irrigation (CFI), fixed fur-

row irrigation (FFI), and alternate furrow irrigation (AFI). The type of furrow irriga-
tion in which two neighboring furrows are irrigated alternately during consecutive
watering is known as AFI, while in FFI method, irrigation is fixed to one of the two
adjacent furrows. CFI is the conventional method in which all the furrows were
irrigated during each irrigation. There was 7 days of irrigation interval for all treat-
ments for about 1 and 1/2 month; after that there was fortnight irrigation.
13.2.10 Weeds and Their Management
For weed management two times hoeing is done to keep crop free of weeds and to
avoid competition between weed and crop. Weeds compete with the maize crop
plants having a serious problem to crop and reduce the yield up to 35% particularly
during kharif season. Hence, for achieving higher yield, integrated weed manage-
ment should be operated timely. It is prerequisite to check the type of weed either
narrow leaf or broadleaf. Atrazine having active ingredients (Atratraf 50 wp,
Gesaprim 500 fw) being a selective herbicide is used before the emergence of weeds
at the rate of 1.0–1.5 kg ha−1 in the 600 l water. Some other herbicides like metola-
chlor at 1.5–2.0 kg ha−1 and pendimethalin (Stomp) at the rate of 1–1.5 kg ha−1 were
the efficient herbicides to control perennial, annual, and biennial weeds. Flat fan
nozzle must be used to properly cover the ground and save time; preferably three
booms are used. For uprooting and aeration of remaining weeds, one to two times
hoeing is recommended. For zero tillage operated areas practiced, there is preplant
application (10–15 days before the planting) of some nonselective herbicides like
paraquat at rate of 0.5 kg ha−1 in 600 l water or glyphosate at rate of 1.0 kg ha−1 in
400–600 l water which is recommended for avoiding the weeds. In case of heavy
infestation of weeds, the postemergence paraquat spray application is beneficial.
13.2.11 Insect Pests and Their Management
13.2.11.1 Stem Borer (Chilo partellus)

Chilo partellus (stalk borer) that happens during monsoon is a key pest. Chilo lays
eggs under the leaves 10–25 days after germination. The larva of the Chilo causes
leaf damage by entering into the whorl.
13.2.11.2 Pink Borer (Sesamia inferens)

Pink borer flourishes during the winter season. The moths of the Sesamia lay eggs
on the lower sheath of leaves and are nocturnal in nature. When larvae of the
Sesamia enter the plant, they cause damage near the base and to the stem.
13.2.11.3 Control of Sesamia and Chilo

For controlling Sesamia and Chilo, foliar spray of 0.1% endosulfan 700 ml (35 EC)
in 250 liter water 10 days after germination is very effective. Intercropping of maize
with the cowpea also reduces the attack of Chilo on maize. This one is an eco-
friendly option.
13.2.11.4 Shoot Fly (Atherigona sp.)

At seedling stage of the maize crop during both the seasons of cultivation, shoot fly
is the major pest. The minute maggots creep under the leaf sheaths and reach at the
base of seedlings. After that they start cutting the central shoot and growing point
resulting in the dead heart formation.
13.2.11.5 Control of Shoot Fly

• Crop will escape shoot fly infestation if planted before the first week of February.
• Seed is treated with imidacloprid at rate of 6 ml/kg seed in case of spring
sowing.
13.2.11.6 Other Emerging Pests

Recently some new nontraditional pest is emerging in maize crop and causing losses
like larvae of American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) which damages the cob,
while the chafer beetle (Chiloloba acuta) which feeds on the pollen of maize affects
the pollination.
13.2.12 Diseases and Their Management
During different seasons across the country, several diseases occur; if there is no
control strategy at the right time, then they lead to reduction in yield. For compre-
hending yield genetic potential of the bacterial stalk rot, Pythium stalk rot, downy
mildews, and polysora rust are the main constraints to be undertaken. There are
13% estimated losses due to these major diseases in maize of which ear rots, root
rots, stalk rots (5%), and foliar diseases (5%) cause major yield losses. The main
diseases with their control practices are discussed below.
13.2.12.1 Turcicum Leaf Blight (Exserohilum turcicum)

The disease prevails in cooler climate having high humidity. Long, elliptical grayish
green color or tan lesions (about 2.5–15 cm) appeared on the lower leaves to upward
side. The desired areas have recommendation of use of need-based sprays of man-
cozeb at 2.5 g/lr at about 8–10 days interval.
13.2.12.2 Maydis Leaf Blight (Drechslera maydis)

In areas of warm humid temperate climate to tropical climate, it is a major disease.
Elongated lesions having dark reddish brown or buff to brown borders between the
veins are formed on leaves. Size of lesion may differ with breeds and hybrids due to
diverse genetic circumstances.
13.2.12.3 Common Rust (Puccinia sorghi)

The maize-growing zones have subtropical temperate climate on highland environ-
ment; this rust attacks on maize. It attacks at the tasseling time. Golden-brown to
cinnamon-brown pustules (brownish black at plant maturity) on the leaf surfaces are
formed which are circular to elongate in shape.
13.2.12.4 B anded Leaf and Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia solani f. sp.

sasakii)
White lesions develop on leaves and sheath. This disease is dominant in hot and
humid foothills like the Himalayas. The disease appears on leaves and sheaths on
40–50-day-old plants and later spreads to ears. Stripping of lower two to three
leaves along with their sheath considerably lowers incidence. To control this dis-
ease, seed must be treated with the peat-based design at rate of 16 g/kg Pseudomonas
fluorescens or by the soil application at the rate of 7 g/l of water, thiophanate-methyl,
and carbendazim at rate of 1 g/l.
13.2.12.5 Downy Mildews (DM)

The important species which cause downy mildew in the maize are the brown stripe
downy mildew (BSDM; Sclerophthora rayssiae var. zeae) and sorghum downy mil-
dew. Narrow and yellowish stripes on leaves having well-defined margins are
formed in BSDM disease. In early morning hours, downy or wooly cottony whitish
growth is visible on lower surfaces of the lesions. Maize-Sorghum crop rotation is
avoided in the field where disease is dominant. Also maize sowing is prevented in
field adjacent to the sorghum or maize crop. Early planting of maize escapes RDM
infection. Seed must be regularly treated with the metalaxyl at rate of 2.5 g/kg seed
as well as foliar sprays of metalaxyl at 2–2.5 g/l; fungicide is recommended if there
is need for it at first appearance of disease symptoms.
13.2.13 Approved Varieties
The use of genetically modified maize cultivars is emerging among the farmers all
over the world. As such crops decrease the production cost by control of insect
pests, so farmers must use genetically modified maize cultivars to achieve maxi-
mum benefits. The production of maize is also improved from 30 mounds/acre to
about 80–120 mounds/acre due to use of hybrid maize varieties after their introduc-
tion during the 1990s. By adoption of suitable agronomic practices which help in
mitigating biotic and abiotic stress and help in filling the realized and potential yield
gap, there are too many private sector companies all over the world which have
approved and good quality hybrid seeds, i.e., Monsanto, Syngenta, ICI, Pioneer, etc.
These hybrid maize varieties have potential of producing more than 12 tons of
grains yield per hectare which is very high when compared to the local varieties
which have an average of 3.48 tons per hectare yield. The following are some
hybrids and commonly used varieties of maize.
13.2.13.1 Yield
As discussed before hybrid maize varieties have potential of 120 mounds per acre
grain production, while the local varieties produce only 40–50 mounds per acre.
13.2.14 Harvesting
Maize crop harvesting is started when grains have 20–25% moisture content. At this
stage cob sheath is completely dried. After removing from the standing crop, these
cobs are dried under the sunlight until the moisture content is below 15%.
13.2.14.1 Shelling
Dried maize grains are removed from cobs manually by hands or by use of hand-
operated or powered maize shellers. The use of shellers is safer for exclusion of
grains from cobs than the manual method. After cleaning these are stored in the jute
sacks in a cool, dry, and airy place, either on a cement floor or on wooden planks;
earthen floors are usually avoided. The temperature and relative humidity of store
room must be in between 20–25 °C and 30–50%, respectively.
13.2.15 Postharvest Handling
Drying and storing of maize on farm can help farm managers and producers to
improve economic benefits of their services. Drying and storing are necessary to
sustain the quality of grains to capture good market payments. Grain treatments
soon after the harvest of crops determine the duration of storability of grains and
have strong impact on quality when transported to the end user which may be sev-
eral days to months or even years. Thus, to achieve higher income by maintaining
the quality of maize grains, the use of good harvesting, drying, and storage tech-
nologies is necessary. Facilities of drying and storage on farm facilities let produc-
ers evade excessive unloading times. Numerous delays in the harvesting and
postharvest measures can raise the postharvest especially disease and insects or
weather threatens the crops during this period.
Disadvantages of on-farm drying and storage include the high initial costs of
equipment and additional management practices. Drying, handling, and storage
tools have a high price, and to minimize investment in such practices requires pru-
dent management throughout harvest and the postharvest period from the field to
the elevator or miller. Investment in such facilities mandates that crop managers and
producers have done a great job of maintaining quality of grains after the harvest-
ing. Otherwise, the potential return from these enterprises may not be obtained.
13.2.15.1 Economic Incentive to Reduce Harvest Losses

Many farmers are unaware of the scale of their crop harvest losses. Although the
losses can vary from year to year and crop to crop, studies have shown that it may
be more than 15% of potential yield. The cost of grain left in the field possibly is the
best impulse for assessing harvest losses. Even if the prices of corn are low, produc-
ers must obviously need to retain losses below 5% irrespective of the yield. Also,
corn grains which are left in a field become “weed” the following season and will
increase and have to be controlled, resulting in a higher cost.
13.2.15.2 Drying Considerations

Corn drying equipment consists of bin dryers, column dryers, or a combination of
these two types. To achieve the desired capacity, each system has different amounts
of heat, airflow, drying costs, and control and maintains grain quality.
13.2.15.3 Storage Considerations

Integrated pest management (IPM) practices to protect dry stored grains from insect
activity and spoilage by mold are the best option, which require complete under-
standing of the ecology of grain pests. The use of precautionary practices proves to
be good in effective pest control which includes cleaning of grain bins and the sur-
rounding area; maintaining the grain moisture contents; cleaning dried corn prop-
erly for storage, for removal of trash, and broken kernels; maintaining temperature
throughout the storage; keeping uniform airflow by maintaining the grain depth in
the bin; and proper monitoring of moisture, temperature, insect, and mold activity
during storage. By keeping in view all these practices, a postharvest IPM can prove
to be a vital approach which can substitute the traditional chemical methods. For
monitoring corn samples are collected in sealed plastic bags and taken to a nearby
farm shop or laboratory for observation. Kernel temperature, moisture, and condi-
tion must be recorded during inspection and can be compared to previous samples.
When temperatures rise above 55 °F, the corn grains are sieved to look for insects.
If conditions favor the insect or mold activity, i.e., elevated grain temperature or
moisture, then run aeration fans to thoroughly cool the corn grains. If conditions
continue to deteriorate, the grains are transferred to other bins, and a sample is col-
lected every 2–5 min during unloading. If drying is not an option, redry moist corn
to a safe level as fast as possible or sell the lot to an elevator. Attentive monitoring
of stored grain can help producers evade difficulties that too often go entirely
unseen.
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Agro-Techniques for Baby Corn
Production 14
M. K. Singh, S. P. Singh, and B. Singh
Abstract
Baby corn (Zea mays L.) is a high-value crop, gaining popularity fast, and rela-
tively recently introduced in India. Baby corn may be raised year-round, has
short duration, and is fast growing and thus opens avenues for crop diversifica-
tion. Baby corn is a suitable crop for cultivation under diverse agroclimatic con-
ditions. The agro-techniques for baby corn are different from maize, viz.,
varieties, seed rate, plant density, detasseling, fertilizer management, and har-
vesting schedule. Higher plant densities with optimum geometry are essential to
harness the yield potential. Intercropping with short-duration legumes and veg-
etables during winters gave profitable response. Removal of tassel with its emer-
gence considerably enhances the yield of baby corn. Combined approach (soil
application followed by foliar) in nitrogen management improves yield and qual-
ity of winter baby corn. Adoption of staggered planting will be helpful for con-
tinued supply for a longer period and in reducing the labor requirement during
peak period. Standardization of the improved agro-techniques for diverse farm-
ing situations is required for wider popularization of the baby corn cultivation in
India.
Keywords
Baby corn · Genotypes · Cultivars · Plant densities · Fertilizer management ·
Post-harvest standards
M. K. Singh (*) · S. P. Singh

e-mail: manoj.agro@bhu.ac.in
B. Singh
Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_14
262 M. K. Singh et al.
Abbreviations
Al aluminum
DAS days after sowing
FYM farm yard manure
ha hectare
K potassium
kg kilogram
m million
Mn manganese
N nitrogen
P phosphorus
RDF recommended dose of fertilizer
t tons
ZnSO4 zinc sulfate
14.1 Introduction
Maize is widely researched (OGTR 2008) and a highly versatile crop under varied
agroclimatic conditions. Globally, cultivated in an area of 187 m ha with an annual
production and productivity of 1060 m tons and 5.64 t ha−1 (FAOSTAT 2018), the
USA has the highest productivity of >9.6 t ha−1 (Parihar et al. 2011). Baby corn
production and market expanded worldwide; the major consumers of baby corn are
the UK, the USA, Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia, Japan, and Australia, while the
major export contribution is from Asian countries like Thailand, Sri Lanka, Taiwan,
and China; African countries, like Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa; and South
American countries, like Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras
(Anonymous 2006). Corn is exploited for four basic products, i.e., baby corn, green
cob, grain, and stover. Growing interest to obtain one or more products varies from
region to region (Castro et al. 2013). Baby corn (Zea mays L.) is an unfertilized
dehusked baby cob harvested after 2–3-cm-long silk emergence (Singh et al. 2009).
Taiwan standard recommends baby cob harvesting at 10 cm length and 1.2 cm
diameter (Galinat and Lin 1988). Usually 2–3 hand pickings are taken, and the
dehusked ears used as vegetable possess a delicate flavor and crispiness, which was
widely referred in Thailand and abroad. In fact, it is rich in proteins, sugars, and
vitamin C, while by-products such as tassel, silk, young husk, and green stalk are
utilized as cattle feed (Rathika et al. 2009, UNDP 2001). Baby corn contains nearly
89.10–90.03 percent moisture on fresh matter basis (Yodpetch 1979, Hooda and
Kawatra 2013). Proximate composition indicates dietary nutrition provided by baby
corn, i.e., 17.90 g protein, 2.13 g fat, 5.30 g total ash, 5.89 g crude fiber per 100 g
dry weight, 23.43 g total soluble sugar, 1.96 g reducing sugar, 15.60 g starch,
5.43 mg/100 g ascorbic acid, 670 mg/100 g ß-carotene, and calcium, magnesium,
and phosphorus 95.00, 345.00, and 898.62 mg/100 g, respectively, while
14 Agro-Techniques for Baby Corn Production 263
methionine, isoleucine, and leucine content 0.05, 2.85, and 0.675 mg/g, respectively
(Hooda and Kawatra 2013). Baby corn is eaten raw and used in a number of ways
as soup, salads, pasta, dry vegetable, curry, pickles, candy, jam, Chinese prepara-
tions (Asaduzzaman et al. 2014), and intercontinental dishes and for canning.
Sensory parameters, viz., color, texture, appearance, juiciness, and taste, of baby
corn are important, and the color preferred by the consumers in the international
market is creamy yellow (Ramachandrappa et al. 2004). A Korean botanist, Jason
H. Ahn, discovered baby corn in the early twentieth century; the cultivation started
in Thailand during the early 1970s and gradually pervaded in different countries.
Thailand started research on baby corn in 1976 to develop varieties with high yield,
yellow color, good row arrangement, and resistance to downy mildew and wide
adaptation to meet the specifications of the canning industry (UNDP 2001). In the
last 40 years, baby corn production proved enormously successful in countries like
Thailand, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa
also started its cultivation, and presently Thailand and China are the world leaders
in baby corn production. Recently India also started cultivation of baby corn and is
gaining momentum fast in the peri-urban areas of many states (Singh et al. 2015).
The short-duration baby corn provides opportunity for its inclusion under intensive
cropping systems and opens new vistas for crop diversification, value addition, and
economic returns (Mahajan et al. 2007). Baby corn can be grown year-round though
the maturity of the crop varies with season, i.e., rainy season (60–70 days), winter
season (120–140 days), and spring season (75–90 days), and thus suitable for crop
diversification. Winter crop is the most productive though in cooler areas time of
sowing is an important factor. Under eastern Indo-Gangetic plain of India, October
30 is found to be the optimum sowing time for baby corn than early or late sowing
(Singh et al. 2015). India having diverse climatic conditions requires location-
specific recommendations on agronomic practices. Agronomic management
suggested for baby corn varies from grain maize, and research work done in India
is at nascent stage.
14.2 Planting Density
Exploitation of potential of a genotype depends on the planting densities. Genotypes

differ in their vigor, and thus planting density is of prime importance. Baby corn
lacks tillering ability; thus, variation in plant stand cannot be adjusted by increase in
tillering. Interception of solar radiation increases with increase in the planting
density. Utilization of light, moisture, and nutrients also varied with plant densities.
Optimum planting geometry of 50 × 15 cm (133,333 plants ha−1) gave higher yield
of baby corn and green fodder (Dar et al. 2014). In general, baby corn accommo-
dates sufficiently higher plant densities (Table 14.1) compared to corn. In the case
of dual crop, the top ear is retained for grain production, and the lower ears are
picked as baby corn. Under such system the planting density 60 × 30 cm recom-
mended for corn (55,555 plants ha−1) is adopted. However, if the crop is grown
exclusively for baby corn purpose, then higher planting density is maintained
Table 14.1 Optimum plant densities and spacing

Plant populations Optimum geometry
Tested plant spacings (cm) (per ha) (cm) References
40 × 15, 40 × 20, 50 × 15, 83,333–166,666 50 × 15 Dar et al. (2014)
50 × 20, 60 × 15, 60 × 20 (133,333 plants ha−1)
45 × 30, 45 × 20, 45 × 10 74,074–200,000 45 × 10 Bairagi et al.
(200,000 plants ha−1) (2015)
50 × 33.3, 50 × 25, 50 × 20, 60,060–120,482 50 × 20 Ghosh et al.
50 × 16.6 (100,000 plants ha−1) (2017)
30 × 30, 45 × 15, 45 × 30, 55,555–148,148 45 × 15 Chamroy et al.
60 × 15, 60 × 30 (148,148 plants ha−1) (2017)
45 × 15, 45 × 20, 60 × 10, 111,111–166,666 45 × 15 Aditi (2015)
60 × 15 (148,148 plants ha−1)
45 × 25, 60 × 25 66,666–88,888 45 × 25 Singh et al.
(88,888 plants ha−1) (2015)
(85,000–110,000 plants ha−1) at a planting geometry of 60 × 15–20 cm (Galinat and

Lin 1988). Wider spacing (45 × 30 cm) showed positive significant influence on
yield components and sensory and nutritional parameters of baby corn. A signifi-
cant increase is noted in the green fodder yield at closer spacing of 45 × 20 cm or
30 × 30 cm than wider spacing, in fact, wider row spacing facilitated detasseling and
harvesting of baby corn (Ramachandrappa et al. 2004). Most of the studies recom-
mend adoption of higher plant population for baby corn production that can be
achieved by using higher seed rate of 40 kg ha−1. Keeping the wider inter-row
spacing and reducing intra-row spacing are found to be beneficial if the same plant
population is to be maintained. Such arrangement provides better opportunity to
individual plant for effective utilization of photosynthetic active radiation, moisture,
and nutrients. Experimental findings revealed that increase in the dry matter accu-
mulation, plant height, and leaf area index is associated with increase in the cob and
fodder yield of baby corn (Rathika et al. 2008).
14.3 Intercropping
Intercropping is a practice of growing two crops simultaneously with the intension

of getting higher economic return per unit area per unit time and to minimize the
risk of complete crop failure under adverse conditions. Cereal-legume intercrop-
ping has been widely discussed in the literature, and it is established that legume
crops have the ability to fix atmospheric N, thereby improving soil health.
Intercropping increases the total biomass production and suppresses the weeds by
occupying the interspaces and reducing access to photosynthetic radiation.
Intercropping leads to better resource utilization in comparison to the sole crop.
Slow initial growth phase of winter baby corn was utilized for additive series inter-
cropping with four legumes (chickpea, pea, groundnut, and lentil); results showed
greater reduction in weed density and weed biomass with 2:2 than 2:1 row
arrangement and sole crop (Sharma and Banik 2013). Intercropping of baby corn
with green gram or cowpea resulted in higher cob girth, number of cobs per plant,
cob weight without husk, cob yield, and green fodder yield over sole baby corn
(Hekmat and Abraham, 2016). Sharma et al. (2016) also observed higher baby cob
yield, ear yield, and husk and green fodder yield when baby corn is grown in paired
rows + green gram. Cereal-legume intercropping provides diversified produce and
nutritional security. In fact intercropping increases the land use efficiency; improves
total productivity, profitability, and soil fertility; contributes in crop protection; and
conserves the soil by reducing erosion. Intercropping system enhances atmospheric
nitrogen fixation by production of more root nodules, nodule dry weight, and deeper
roots of legumes when intercropped with baby corn. Results revealed that particu-
larly groundnut is most suitable for additive series intercropping with baby corn
(Banik and Sharma 2009). Moreover, it was also evaluated for production under
agroforestry system like guava and custard apple agri-horti systems and compared
with open field. Results showed that custard apple agri-horti system enhances the
baby corn growth (plant height, leaf area index, number of leaves, and dry matter
accumulation), yield attributes, and yield traits like cob length, cob girth, and cob
weight and also suppresses the growth of predominant weeds during critical period
of crop-weed competition (Hanuman 2014).
14.4 Varieties
India lacks varieties bred specifically for the baby corn cultivation. Usually the
maize cultivars are used; thus, one of the most critical aspects to cultivate baby corn
is selection of an appropriate cultivar. The desired characteristics needed in suitable
cultivars are early maturity and short stature, prolific with uniform flowering.
Hybrids are better suited than open-pollinated varieties because of their more uni-
form flowering and lesser time required for harvest. Short-stature cultivar may be
planted at higher planting density without any competition for light, inputs, and risk
of lodging. Out of 30 hybrid/composite maize cultivars evaluated for baby corn
production, hybrid “VL 42” proved superior in terms of baby corn yield, while
“early composite” gave maximum fodder yield over the others because of its taller
height (Thakur et al. 2000).
Many field corn or sweet corn varieties are used for production of baby corn.
Under favorable environment, harvesting of first cob induces the development of
new female inflorescence irrespective of the fact whether variety is prolific or non-
prolific (Silva 2001). Baby corn ear quality is the major criteria for the selection of
a variety than yield (Chutkaew and Paroda 1994). However, Kumar and Kalloo
(1998) emphasized that relevant attributes needed for baby corn production are
early maturity (<55 days), prolificacy (at least three ears per plant), synchronized
ear emergence, and yellow kernels with uniform row arrangement. In Thailand
baby corn cultivars normally bear one to three cobs/plant, and the average number
of cobs/plant in widely used varieties varies from 1.7 to 2.4 (Galinat and Lin 1988).
Baby corn ears which are light yellow in color, with regular row arrangement,
having length of 10–12 cm and a diameter of 1.0–1.5 cm are preferred in the mar-
ket (Golada et al. 2013). Hybrid Baby Corn-271 and Shuvra were found suitable
for cultivation in Bangladesh. Both the varieties produced comparable baby corn
yield over BARI sweet corn-1 and BARI Khoibhutta (Asaduzzaman et al. 2014).
The first baby corn variety VL78 was released in India in the year 2004 (Rani et al.
2017). Hybrid HM 4 is a widely recommended variety for baby corn production
and is a single-cross hybrid, highly nutritive, sweet in taste, resistant to lodging,
prolific, and responsive to high dose of fertilizers. Three to four pickings are com-
mon, and plant remains green even after pickings are over, thus providing quality
fodder. Agronomic field experimentation revealed that baby corn variety HM 4
produced higher growth, yield attributes, and yield as compared to VL Baby Corn-1
(Singh et al. 2015). Aditi (2015) evaluated three varieties, viz., 30 V92 (single-
cross hybrid), Seed Tech 740 (double-cross hybrid), and VL 42 (double-cross
hybrid), for baby corn production in Telangana region of southern India; the vari-
ety VL 42 gave higher yield and net return over the others. Castro et al. (2013)
tested the three hybrids AG 1051, AG 2060, and BRS 2020 for five production
systems: harvest as baby corn (BC), green ears (GC), mature ears/dry corn (DC),
first ear as BC and others as GC, and first ear as BC and others as DC. Cultivar BRS
2020 was found best for production of BC exclusively. Higher yields are obtained
when all the ears are harvested as baby corn. Twenty maize genotypes were grown
during rainy and winter seasons to assess their suitability for cultivation as baby
corn. Genotypes showed a lot of variation with respect to morphological and nutri-
tional traits. Among all, the single-cross hybrid HM 4 exhibited the most desirable
traits followed by the HQPM 1.Yield attributes that directly affect the production
irrespective of seasons are husked and dehusked cob yield/plant, total cobs/plant,
forage yield/plant, and number of days required for the first and last cob pickings.
Analysis of recent past indicates that use of single-cross hybrids was instrumental
in improving maize productivity. Similarly, superior maize hybrids with desirable
characteristics for baby corn production should be utilized since performance of
hybrids is better than composites (Chauhan et al. 2009).
14.5 Fertilizer Management
Mineral nutrients are essential for growth and development of any cereal crop. Out
of 17 essential plant nutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are considered
primary nutrients, and baby corn needs sufficient quantity of these major nutrients
being high-density and short-duration crop. Intensive cropped areas are often defi-
cient in zinc and sulfur, and higher productivity of baby corn may be achieved by
balanced nutrition of NPK with sulfur and zinc application (Kumar and Bohra
2014). Nitrogen is the most limiting and plays an important role in getting higher
baby cob yield as well as green fodder yield. Actually, N is an important component
of protein and nucleic acids, and thus lower nitrogen level reduces the crop growth
(Haque et al. 2001). It affects various physiological functions like leaf area
expansion, delay of senescence, and initiation of ear (Majid et al. 2017). Nitrogen
requirement of maize varies with soil type, crop rotation, and weather condition
(Bundy et al. 2011), application of 120 kg N/ha recorded higher baby cob and baby
corn yield; however, maximum green fodder yield is obtained with the application
of 180 kg N/ha (Dar et al. 2014). Asaduzzaman et al. (2014) obtained higher yield
of baby cob, corn, and fodder with application of 200 kg N/ha. Baby corn is a rapid-
growing short-duration crop and thus requires optimum nitrogen applied at critical
timings for higher productivity. The application of 150 kg ha−1 nitrogen in three
equal splits, i.e., basal, 25, and 40 days after sowing, improves yield than other
schedules of two and three splits during rainy season. The application of nitrogen up
to 200 kg ha−1 was profitable and significantly improved the fodder yields (Thakur
and Sharma 1999), in general, the application rate of nutrients varies with soil fertil-
ity status and choice of crop. Under northern Himalayan zone (Kashmir region,
India), the application of 6 t ha−1 FYM along with 150% of recommended dose of
fertilizers (225, 90, and 60 kg N, P, and K per ha, respectively) gave maximum cob
yield (without husk) and was at par to 6 t ha−1 FYM + recommended dose of N, P,
and K (90, 60, and 40 kg N, P, and K per ha) (Lone et al. 2013). The application of
150, 75, and 40 kg NPK per ha + 10 t FYM in southern zone (Karnataka, India) is
found to be optimal for high baby corn and fodder yields with good quality
(Ramachandrappa et al. 2004), whereas in lateritic soil of eastern India (West
Bengal, India), a significant increase in baby corn yield is noted with the application
of 75, 37.5, and 37.5 kg N, P, and K ha−1 (Ghosh et al. 2017).
However, the continuous and indiscriminate use of inorganic fertilizers affects
soil processes rather than showing direct toxic effect. Hence, maintenance of the
soil organic matter has profound effect on soil’s physical, chemical, and biological
properties. Use of organic manures greatly enhances the response of added fertiliz-
ers and was clearly visible (Singh and Ryan 2015). Addition of organic matter
improves the soil quality and also supplements various essential nutrients to the
plant. Application of 150% RDF through inorganic sources produced maximum cob
and fodder yields though recorded minimal soil biochemical activity, whereas the
application of 100% RDF (N, P2O5, and K2O 150, 60, and 60 kg ha−1) along with
vermicompost 10 Mg/ha exhibited higher baby corn productivity with improvement
in the soil health (Sharma and Banik 2014). Similarly, in western region (Rajasthan,
India), integrated nutrient management as 75% of the recommended NPK (90, 30,
22.5 kg ha−1) + vermicompost 2.25 t ha−1 along with seed inoculation by Azotobacter
and PSB resulted in higher green cob and fodder yield (Dadarwal 2008). Furthermore,
under acidic soil condition (pH 5.42), it is advisable to apply lime at 1.0 t ha−1 that
positively influences the growth and yield of baby corn. It helps to neutralize the soil
acidity and simultaneously increases availability of P, and other nutrients also
suppress the toxicity of Fe, Al, and Mn (Kumar et al. 2015). Addition of 25 kg
ZnSO4 ha−1 as basal along with foliar application of 0.2% ZnSO4 at 25 and 40 DAS
resulted in higher baby corn yield in zinc-deficient soils (Chand et al. 2017).
Foliar application of nitrogen as urea solution may be beneficial particularly

when applied near to anthesis. Combined approach (soil fb foliar) for nitrogen
management of winter baby corn is recently suggested by Neupane et al. (2017a).
They proposed soil application of 95% nitrogen dose (150 kg ha−1) in three splits,
viz., 50%, 25%, and 20%, as basal, at knee height stage, and at tassel emergence,
respectively. The rest 5% nitrogen quantity must be applied as foliar spray of urea
(3%) immediately after the first picking. Combined approach improved yield traits,
yield, and profitability of the baby corn genotypes. In fact winter season crop facili-
tates prolonged harvesting period, and nitrogen application near sink augmented
efficient utilization. Environmental conditions are usually found more congenial for
foliar spray during winters. Results are indicative of the fact that small fraction of
nitrogen dose if applied to winter baby corn at appropriate timings as foliar fertiliza-
tion improves yields and quality (Neupane et al. 2017b). Foliar application of P
(0.75%) at 25 and 45 DAS significantly improved growth parameters with heavier
cobs which in turn increased the cob yield of baby corn (Thavaprakaash et al. 2006).
14.6 Detasseling
Maize is a monoecious plant in which male inflorescence, the tassel, is born on the
top of the plant, whereas female inflorescence develops on the axis, as the ear
(Cheng and Paredy 1994). Tassel removal “detasseling” is a recommended practice
for baby corn production since it prevents the kernel formation; otherwise, the prod-
uct becomes useless for the market, if the kernels are formed. Detasseling results in
significant enhancement in number and total weight of ears as well as marketable
unhusked number and weight of ears (Moreira et al. 2010). Detasseling operation is
carried out as and when the tassels start emerging, which usually takes place around
40–45 days (Rani et al. 2017) depending on the variety and environmental condi-
tions. Tassel removal after its emergence enhanced 18% higher baby corn yield
compared to no detasseling (Thakur et al. 2000).
14.7 Harvesting
Baby corn harvesting is a labor-intensive operation, and thus to reduce the labor
shortage, it is advisable to split the field into small plots of nearly 0.16–0.2 ha and
follow the staggered planting by keeping a difference of 5–7 days between the
planting dates (Anonymous 2006). In general, 12–14 q ha−1 of baby corn yield is
obtained, depending upon the environmental condition and agronomic manage-
ment. Baby corn is a high-value perishable crop having high respiration rate; thus
its storage under ambient atmospheric condition is a big challenge. Research showed
that packaging of baby corn using 25 micron low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film
with two perforations followed by storage at 12.5 °C extends the shelf life (Mehan
et al. 2014).
14.8 Post-Harvest Standards
The cob harvested should be straight, unbroken, or undamaged having light yellow
to yellow in color and uniform ovary alignment and stored not more than 24 hours.
The most suitable size of baby cob is 1.0–1.5 cm in diameter, and its length varies
from 4 to 9 cm. According to cob length, it can be graded into three sizes, i.e.,
big (7–9 cm), medium (5–7 cm), and small (4–5 cm) (Anonymous 2006). As per
Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines (Codex Stan 188–1993), there are
three classes for baby cobs:
1. Extra Class – It is free from all defects, except very slight superficial defects,
provided it should not affect the appearance and quality of the produce, as well
as keeping quality and presentation of package.
2. Class I – All the parameters similar to Extra Class with the following slight
defects may be allowed like in shape, color, and texture; irregular arrangement of
underdeveloped kernels; surface due to bruising, scratches, and other mechanical
damage (affected area should not increase by 5 percent); and silk attached to and/
or broken from the cob shall be minimal without affecting the quality.
3. Class II – All the defects may be allowed as mentioned in Class I, furthermore
bruising, scratches, and other mechanical damage (affected area should not
exceed by 10 percent per cob), provided the cobs retain their essential character-
istics as regards the quality, keeping quality and presentation (Anonymous 2006).
14.9 Conclusion
Baby corn is a new introduction in India becoming popular day by day. Due to its
short duration, wider adoptability, and high economic value, this crop holds a bright
prospect in India. The agro-techniques required for its cultivation differ from the
maize crop and thus require rigorous research and validation under diverse agrocli-
matic situations. The practice of using any maize cultivar for baby corn production
should be avoided. Short stature, uniform flowering, and prolific hybrid genotypes
are suitable for the cultivation of baby corn. Potential yield exploitation depends on
the accommodation of higher plant densities with optimum geometry. Additive
series intercropping with short-duration legumes and vegetables in winter baby corn
is advantageous because of its initial slow growth. Detasseling considerably
enhances the yield of baby corn. Nitrogen management among primary nutrients is
most important and usually applied in three splits. However, combined approach
[soil application (95% RDN in 3 splits) fb 5% RDN as foliar urea spray (3%) after
first picking] in nitrogen management should be attempted under diverse situations
for possible yield and quality improvement of winter baby corn. To maintain the
supply and reduce peak workload, staggered planting may be helpful to the
commercial-scale practicing farmers. Research work done on various aspects of
baby corn meager in India; therefore, before making recommendations to the prac-
ticing farmers, validation of agro-techniques for diverse situations is required.
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of Millets 15
Ahmad Sher, Ahmad Nawaz, Muhammad Sarfraz,
Muhammad Ijaz, Sami Ul-Allah, Abdul Sattar,
Sajid Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Millet is grown in tropical and subtropical climates owing to its low water require-
ment compared with other cereals. There are four main species of millet grown in
the world known as (i) pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], (ii) proso
millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), (iii) finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.)
Gaertn.], and (iv) the foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois]. About half
of the world’s millet production comes from pearl millet which is the most widely
cultivated millet type with respect to area and production, thus ensuring food
security in Asia and Africa – two big continents of the world. In Asia, proso millet
is consumed as food crop and also for bird feeding purposes in the developed
countries. The foxtail millet is grown in Europe and Asia (mainly China). Some
other known millet genotypes include the teff millet (Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni)
Trotter); the fonios [white (Digitaria exilis Stapf) and black (Digitaria iburua
Stapf)]; barnyard millet, i.e., Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholzand and
Echinochloa frumentacea L.; the kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.); and
little millet (Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) which are locally
grown in specific countries for food purposes. Thus, millet production ensures
food security in the low income developing countries of Asia and Africa.
Keywords
Millet · Harsh environments · Africa · Food security · Breeding programmes
A. Sher · M. Sarfraz · A. Sattar

A. Nawaz · M. Ijaz (*) · S. Ul-Allah (*) · S. Hussain
e-mail: muhammad.ijaz@bzu.edu.pk; samipbg@bzu.edu.pk
S. Ahmad

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_15
274 A. Sher et al.
15.1 Introduction
Millet cultivation is highly concentrated in the rainfed arid areas of Asia and Africa
under tropical and subtropical climates due to low water requirement. It requires
just 3–5 months of rainy season to mature without any supplemental irrigation.
There are four main species of millet grown in the world known as (i) pearl millet
[Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], which has also other names as bulrush or cattail
millet; (ii) proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), having other names as common
millet, broomtail millet, hog millet, white millet, and broomcorn millet; (iii) finger
millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], having alternative names as ragi, birdfoot,
or African millet; and (iv) the foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois], also
having alternative names as Italian millet or panic. About half of the world’s millet
production comes from pearl millet which is the most widely cultivated millet type
with respect to area and production, thus ensuring food security in Asia and Africa –
two big continents of the world. The cooler, higher altitude areas of Asia and Africa
are best for the production of finger millet which is used as food crop and is also used
for making the traditional beer. In Asia, proso millet is consumed as food crop and
also for bird feeding purposes in the developed countries (Kaume 2006). The foxtail
millet is grown in Europe and Asia (mainly China). Some other known millet geno-
types include the teff millet (Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter); the fonios [white
(Digitaria exilis Stapf) and black (Digitaria iburua Stapf)]; barnyard millet, i.e.,
Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholzand and Echinochloa frumentacea L.;
the kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.); and little millet (Panicum sumatrense
Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) which are locally grown in specific countries for food
purposes. All species of millet have different physical and quality attributes and
have different growth duration, climate, and soil requirements (http://www.fao.org/
docrep/W1808E/w1808e0c.htm).
15.2 Origin, History, and Importance
The cultivation of millet at domestic level is attributed to the legendary Emperor of

China, i.e., Shennong (Yang et al. 2005). Similarly, the oldest extant Yajurveda texts
have mentioned that the millet consumption was very common during the Indian
Bronze Age dating to 4500 BC.
The common cultivation system of common millet (also known as proso millet)
was introduced 10,300 years ago in the semiarid northern areas of China. Cultivation
of common millet as a staple food crop started≈10,000 years before present in
northern China, indicating that this millet specie has been subjected to domestica-
tion independently in this region first, and then its domestication spread to other
regions of the world such as Russia, India, the Middle East, Europe, etc. Presence
of ~4000-year-old conserved bowl having well-maintained noodles prepared from
foxtail millet at the Lajia archaeological site of China provides evidence for the
15 Advanced Production Technologies of Millets 275
domestication of foxtail millet at Cishan, China, during 6500 BC (Lu et al. 2009;
BBC News 2005; Yang et al. 2012).
The earlier center of domestication of the pearl millet is the Sahel zone of West
Africa (the northern Mali between 2500 and 2000 BC). With the passage of time,
its cultivation spread into India between 2000 and 1500 BC. In 1850s, its cultiva-
tion spread to the United States, and it was introduced in Brazil in 1960s (Fuller
2003; Manning et al. 2010), followed by its further extension in the rest of the
world.
The finger millet is believed to be native of the highlands of East Africa where its
domestication was started before the third millennium BC. Later, its domestication
spread to South India by 1800 BC (Engels and Hawkes 1991; Table 15.1).
Raw millet contains about 73% carbohydrates, 11% protein, 9% water, and 4%
fat (Table 15.2). Among the millets, pearl millet is one of the most important
cereal crops in the world which ranks sixth after wheat, rice, maize, barley, and
sorghum. Being a cereal crop, millet is used for multipurposes. It is used both for
human (grain) and livestock (fodder) purpose. It is a principal source of energy,
vitamins, and minerals. It is also rich in copper, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium,
potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, and lysine
(Ensminger et al. 1983). The flour made from the seeds of millet is used for mak-
ing cakes and leavened bread or flat bread (chapatti). Its grain can also be fer-
mented to make the beverage (tella) which is used for making brandy and beer.
The grains are also used as feed for pet birds, poultry, ruminants, and pigs (Kaume
2006). Millet consumption by individuals having gluten-linked disorders is con-
sidered to be safe due to absence of gluten. Finger millet has high-iron and high-
calcium contents and contains high amount of methionine, which is a main
limiting amino acid in majority of the tropical cereal crops (Chandra et al. 2016).
The detailed nutritional profile of pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet, and
finger millet is given in Table 15.2.
Table 15.1 Top ten producers of millet in the world

Sl. No. Country Area (000 ha) Production (000 MT)
1 India 9100 11,500
2 Niger 7000 3200
3 China 870 2200
4 Mali 1750 1600
5 Nigeria 1500 1500
6 Burkina Faso 1200 1100
7 Sudan 2500 1000
8 Ethiopia 440 810
9 Chad 1100 700
10 Senegal 850 650
Source: https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=millet&graph=area-harvested; https://
www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=millet&graph=production
276 A. Sher et al.
Table 15.2 Nutritional profile of different millet types

Finger millet Pearl millet Proso millet Foxtail millet
Protein (%) 7.3 14.5 11 11.7
Fat (%) 1.3 5.1 3.5 3.9
Starch (%) 59 60.5 56.1 59.1
Ash (%) 3 2 3.6 3
Crude fiber (%) 3.6 2 9 7
Total dietary fiber/100 g 19.1 7 8.5 19.11
Total phenol (mg/100 g) 102 51.4 0.1 106
Carbohydrates (g) 72.6 67.5 70.4 60.9
Calcium (mg/100 g) 344 42 8 31
Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 283 240 206 290
Iron (mg/100 g) 3.9 11 2.9 2.8
Magnesium (mg/100 g) 137 137 114 143
Sodium (mg/100 g) 11 10 5 1.3
Potassium (mg/100 g) 408 390 195 364
Copper (mg/100 g) 0.47 1.06 0.8 0.59
Manganese (mg/100 g) 5.49 1.15 1.6 1.16
Zinc (mg/100 g) 2.3 3.1 1.7 3.51
Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.42 0.38 0.41 0.59
Source: Chandra et al. (2016)
15.3 Major Production Regions in the World
In Asia, most of the millet production comes from China and India, with small quanti-
ties coming from Pakistan, Nepal, and Myanmar. India is the biggest producer of millet
which accounts 40% of the world’s production. In India, pearl millet accounts for 2/3
of the total millet production, and its production is mainly concentrated in the drier
states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujrat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan. Finger millet is
grown in the states of Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, and in India. In Nepal and
Bhutan, finger millet is the most dominant species of the millet. Foxtail millet is mostly
grown in the provinces of Shandong, Hebei, and Shanxi in China.
In Africa, the millet production is concentrated in the countries of Nigeria, Burkina
Faso, Senegal, Mali, Sudan, and Niger; Nigeria being the largest producer. The cul-
tivation of pearl millet is also common in the southern borders of the Sahara (i.e., the
Sahelian countries and the northern areas of the coastal countries in Western Africa)
and the dry areas of southern and eastern Africa. The production of finger millet is
dominating in eastern and southern countries of Africa including Tanzania and
Uganda. In Ethiopia, the teff specie of millet is largely grown as grain crop. White
fonio specie of millet is grown at small scale in the country of Mali in sub-Sahelian
Western Africa. The black fonio specie of millet is cultivated in small pockets in
Benin, Togo, and Nigeria. The proso and foxtail millets are grown as minor crops in
Africa especially Kenya and the Eastern Africa. The kodo specie of millet is wild
form of millet in Western Africa, and its cultivated form “ditch millet” is grown
only in Asia. The millet production is concentrated in Argentina in Latin America.
In the developed countries, millet is grown at vast areas of Ukraine, Kazakhstan,

and Russian Federation (Kaume 2006). In Australia, North America, and Europe,
the cultivation of millet is limited. In these countries, millet is mainly grown as a
catch crop when the environmental conditions are not suitable for the main crop.
However, in these circumstances, even the standing crop along with seeds is grazed
by animals.
15.4 Climatic and Soil Requirements
The millets are grown under harsh environmental conditions, e.g., low and erratic
rainfall, extreme temperature, short-growing season, and infertile/acidic soils, hav-
ing low-water holding capacity (You 1993; Li and Wu 1996; Prance et al. 2005) due
to their better adaptation to extreme weather conditions. Millets have short life cycle
and deep root system; therefore it can be grown quickly when moisture is suitable,
and they can even produce satisfactory yields in arid regions where annual rainfall
is less than 300 mm which makes them more advantageous than sorghum and maize
which require 400 mm and 500–600 mm of water, respectively, for producing a
satisfactory yield. Pearl and proso millet can also tolerate higher temperature than
maize and sorghum (http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0c.htm).
Pearl millet is a short-day warm weather crop having greater resistance to drought
conditions than that of sorghum. Unlike to pearl millet, other cereal crops do not
grow very well in warm dry regions. It has the potential to germinate over varying
temperatures from 15 °C to 40 °C. However, exposure to more than 40 °C decreases
the germination percentage and rate of emergence. Optimum temperature range for
maximum net photosynthesis is between 35 and 40 °C. Pearl millet is a short-day
plant with the exception of some genotypes that are day-neutral. This crop is very
susceptible to low temperature at seedling and reproductive stages. Optimum soil
temperature for germination is 23–30 °C, and the crop complete germination within
2–4 days under favorable conditions.
The optimum mean annual temperature for growth of foxtail millet is from 8 to
10 °C with mean annual rainfall ranging from 450 to 550 mm. However, optimum
mean annual temperature for growth of foxtail millet is from 6 to 8 °C with mean
annual rainfall ranging from 350 to 450 mm (You 1993; Li and Wu 1996).
Normal average temperature required for the growth and development of finger
millet is 20–34 °C. The requisite temperature at the time of sowing is 30–34 °C and
at the time of harvesting is about 20–30 °C. The average rainfall required for finger
millet is 100 cm. Finger millet can be grown on various types of soil ranging from
heavy loam to less fertile shallow soils containing average organic matter. The opti-
mum soil pH range of 4.5–8 is required for the best growth.
Proso millet is a hot summer crop, so it is very subtle to frost and needs high
temperatures for germination and growth. The optimum temperature required for
germination is 20–30 °C (Amadou et al. 2013), and when temperatures is increased
from 30 °C, then the vegetation growth and flowering are stopped (Changmei and
Dorothy 2014). It can be planted on various types of soils including sandy loam,
278 A. Sher et al.
marginally acidic, saline, and low-fertile soils (Changmei and Dorothy 2014);
waterlogged soil should not be preferred for the farming of proso millet (Hunt et al.
2011). The pH required for excellent germination is 5.5–6.5 (Lyon et al. 2008).
Light well drainage loamy texture soils free from salinity and alkalinity are best
suited for the cultivation of millet. It also performs better on alkaline soils than
saline soils. It performs poor on clay soils and cannot tolerate waterlogging.
15.5 Production Technology of Pearl Millet

Kingdom Plantae
Unranked Angiosperms
Unranked Monocots
Unranked Commelinids
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Subfamily Panicoideae
Genus Pennisetum
Species P. glaucum
For millet cultivation, the seedbed should be prepared in anticipation of the rainfall
so that the crop can be seeded when the soil reaches at a workable soil moisture.
Generally, 2–3 plowings followed by planking are enough for producing a good
crop of millet crop. Seedbed preparation also depends upon the nature of previous
crop, soil type, soil condition, and the crop season. Deep plowing is advantageous
for perennial weed control and conservation of moisture in rainfed areas. In rainfed
areas, millet is grown for fodder purpose. For that, the land should be plowed 2–3
times followed by planking, and the millet seed should be broadcasted followed by
a planking to bury seed. However, for grain purpose, drilling is better than broad-
casting as drilling drops seeds on same depth, while in broadcasting seeds fall at
variable depth and the seeds dropped at shallow depth may require water frequently
for proper growth.
15.5.3 Sowing Time
For grain purpose, the pearl millet cultivation can be carried out from end of June to
end of July in arid and semiarid areas of Asia. For fodder purpose, it can be success-
fully grown from end of April to end of July in irrigated as well as rainfed areas in
Asia. For Africa, the best sowing time for pearl millet is October to November.
15.5.4 Seed Rate
In general, a seed rate for millet ranges from 10 to 12 kg ha−1 for grain production
and 20–30 kg ha−1 for fodder purpose (http://pakissan.com/english/allabout/crop/
millet.shtml). The seed rate of pearl millet depends upon method of sowing, purity
and germination percentage of seed, and variety and moisture contents of soil.
15.5.5 Sowing Method
Different sowing methods are used for planting of pearl millet. In Asia (especially
Pakistan), the broadcasting is most commonly practiced. Nowadays, with the rec-
ommendation of governments of different millet producing countries, drilling of
pearl millet is getting momentum. As it is small seed crop, the depth of seed
should not exceed to 2–3 cm. The sowing should be done in row spaced 40–60 cm
apart for drill sowing. Recommended optimum plant densities for tall, medium,
and dwarf millet cultivars are 100,000, 1,50,000, and 200,000 plants ha−1,
respectively.
Mostly pearl millet is grown on marginal lands which have low-fertility levels, and
the farmers also do not apply fertilizer to it. However, in case of high-yielding
hybrids, fertilizer management should be done properly to get maximum output.
90 kg of nitrogen and 45 kg of phosphorus are recommended for irrigated soils,
while 60 kg of nitrogen and 30 kg of phosphorus are suggested for rainfed soils.
(http://pakissan.com/english/allabout/crop/millet.shtml). In case of irrigated
areas, whole dose of potassium and phosphorus should be mixed in soil at the time
of sowing, but nitrogen application should be made in the form of splits. In case of
rainfed soils, whole dose of the fertilizer is applied at sowing time. However, if the
soil analysis facilities are available, the soil analysis should be done prior to applica-
tion of fertilizer. When the crop is grown for fodder purpose, the split application of
nitrogen is best for rainfed and irrigated area in the world.
15.5.7 Irrigation
The number of irrigations and its frequency vary according to the climatic and
edaphic conditions and growth period of the cultivar. Generally, 4 to 5 irrigations
are enough for successful crop production. The critical stages of pearl millet for
irrigation are flowering and grain development. However, as most of the crops are
grown in rainfed area in the world, the irrigation cannot be applied in those areas,
and the whole crop completes its life cycle on the soil moisture available from
rainfall.
280 A. Sher et al.
The most commonly weeds found in the field of pearl millet are common purslane
(Portulaca oleracea L.), swine cress (Coronopus didymus L.), horse purslane
(Trianthema portulacastrum L.), pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), Bermuda
grass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.), purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus L.), goose
grass (Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn), witchweed (Striga hermonthica [Del.] Benth),
and crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.).
As the pearl millet cultivation is concentrated in the warm and moist rainy sea-
son, weeds dominate over these crops and reduce the yield considerably by sharing
large amounts of nutrients and water. Because of greater row spacing and slow
growth at initial stages in pearl millet, weeds become more problematic for farmers
during the initial growth stages of the crop, and therefore, earlier control is neces-
sary in order to enhance the yield.
Successful production of pearl millet crop is highly dependent on good weed
control, especially during early growth stage of crop for the control of weeds emerg-
ing earlier. Preventive control measures should include planting of clean and weed-
free seed. All types of equipment used for the sowing of millet crop should be free
from weed seeds. These measures also include the weeds control along the road-
sides, ditch banks, and field margins in order to discourage the entry of these weeds
to the pearl millet fields (DAFF 2011).
Preparatory tillage for seedbed preparation prior to sowing of millet crop could
be used as an effective tool for mechanical control of weeds and sowing of this
crop in rows allows easy and efficient weed control. Two preparatory tillage oper-
ations prior to sowing of millet crop are recommended, first to encourage emer-
gence of weed seeds, then, many days later, to eradicate weed seedlings (DAFF
2011).
Weed competition is acute during early stages of pearl millet when crop growth
is slow. Thirty-five days after planting of crop are very critical in terms of weed
competition. The yield losses in this crop due to weeds competition range from 16%
to 90%. The extent of yield losses is determined by crop variety, its nature, weeds
frequency, spacing, weed infestation period, ecological conditions, and manage-
ment practices (Chaudhary et al. 2018). The nutrient depletion by weeds in pearl
millet is up to 61.8 kg nitrogen, 5.6 kg phosphorus, and 57.6 kg potassium per hect-
are (Ram et al. 2005).
In case of row cultivation (drilling) as grain crop, weeds are removed by manual
weeding, and intercultivation implements can also be used for minimizing the weed
growth. In situations (broadcasting) where intercultivation and manual weeding is
not possible, use of herbicides is the only option for weed control. However, if the
crop is grown for fodder purpose, there is no need of controlling weeds. The weed
will be automatically removed when the crop will be harvested for the fodder
purpose.
Preemergence [atrazine (0.05 kg ha−1), pendimethalin (0.75–1 kg ha−1), oxa-
diazon (1 kg ha−1), saflufenacil (0.05 kg ha−1)], and postemergence herbicides
[2,4-D (ethyl ester) (0.50–0.75 kg ha−1) can be used to control weeds in pearl
millet. Atrazine is used a preemergence or as early postemergence to control the

broad spectrum weeds in pearl millet. Pendimethalin is a preemergence herbicide
which is more effective to control grassy weeds when the crop is grown in inter-
cropping system. Oxadiazon is useful for control of annual grasses and broadleaf
weeds. 2,4-D (ethyl ester) is effective against broadleaf weeds when applied
4–6 weeks after sowing especially in sequence with preemergence herbicides.
Being a broad-spectrum herbicide, saflufenacil is useful for the control of weeds
in pearl millet crop (Ram et al. 2005; Singh and Singh 2010; Munde et al. 2012;
Reddy et al. 2014).
Improper use of herbicides may lead to the complete loss of the crop. In Indiana,
USA, the use of post-emergent broadleaf herbicides is not injurious for pearl millet,
but grass selective postemergence herbicides cause injury to this crop which should
be cared during application of herbicides (Weller 1994). If preemergence herbicide
is followed by hand hoeing at 30 days after sowing, the weed control becomes more
satisfactory.
The growing of peanut, mung bean, soybean, and cowpea as intercrop in pearl
millet has been proved to have suppressive impact on weeds. Likewise, narrow row
spacing, early-season nitrogen application, and use of higher seed rate can help
reduce weeds in millet. In a study, Kaur and Singh (2006) found that mulch applica-
tion (4 t ha−1) at 21 days after sowing in pearl millet reduced the weeds and enhanced
the yield.
The most commonly found insect pests in the field of pearl millet are shoot fly
(Atherigona approximata), pink stem borer (Sesamia inferens), stem borer (Chilo
partellus), stink bug (Nezara viridula), and grain midge (Geromyia penniseti). In
addition to these major pests, some minor pests are also found in pearl millet, these
include the black hairy caterpillar (Estigmene lactinea), leaf beetle (Lema downsei),
semilooper (Antoba (=Eublemma) silicula), and wingless grasshopper (Neorthacris
simulans). These pests are mostly found in Pakistan, India, Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia,
Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Burma, Japan, Bangladesh, China, and Indonesia.
Chinch bug (Blissus leucopterous (Say)) is an important insect pest of pearl millet
in Africa.
For the control of shoot fly, seed treatment with chlorpyrifos 20 EC, quinalphos
25 EC, imidacloprid 48 FS, or imidacloprid 70 WS is effective. It can also be con-
trolled by making the application of phorate 10 G or carbofuran 3 G in granular
form in the furrows at planting time at rate of 2.5 kg a.i./ha. Spray of endosulfan 35
EC and dimethoate 30 EC is also useful for control of shoot fly in the main field. For
control of stem borer, mixing of phorate 10 G, endosulfan 4D, or carbofuran 3 G
with sand and its application in leaf whirls might be quite effective and for the con-
trol of dust midge, dust malathion 5 D, carbaryl 10 D, or endosulfan 4 D insecti-
cides are useful. Application of malathion 5 D, carbaryl 10 D, carbaryl 50 WP, or
endosulan 35EC at the time of 50% flowering stage is found to be effective for the
282 A. Sher et al.
control of sting bug (http://eagri.org/eagri50/ENTO331/lecture03/pearl_millet/pdf/

lec03.pdf).
The corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea Boddie), sorghum webworm (Nola sorghi-
ella Riley), stink bugs-brown stink bug (Euschistus spp.), and southern green stink
bug [Nezara viridula (L.)] are believed to be important pests of pearl millet crop in
Georgia. For control of these insect pests, the cypermethrin (0.025 lba.i./acre) has
been found to be effective for the control of sorghum webworm and stink bugs, but
it gave non-satisfactory results in case of corn earworm (Buntin et al. 2007).
Hudson (1995) also observed lesser cornstalk borer [Elasmopalpus lignosellus
(Zeller)] as a pest of pearl millet seedlings, and fall armyworm [Spodoptera frugi-
perda (J. E. Smith)] was found to cause defoliation at whorl-stage of pearl millet
plants. The earworm, stink bugs, and leaf-footed bugs (Coreidae) were found to
attack grain corn.
In West Africa, important pests of pearl millet include earhead caterpillars
(Masalia spp., Raghuva spp.) and stem borers (Acigona ignefusalis Hmps. and
Sesamia spp.). Sporadic pests such as hairy caterpillars (Amsactamoloneyi Druce),
armyworms (Spodoptera spp. and Mythimna spp.), and grasshoppers (Acrididae)
reduce the crop yield during persistent droughts early in the growing season. In case
of delayed sowing, grain midge (Geromyia penniseti (Felt)) may attack millet crop
and consequently reduces the yield (Gahukar 1984).
Pearl millet is attacked by head blast, grain molds, seed and root rot, ergot (Claviceps
fusiformis), leaf spot, rust (Puccinia penniseti), smut (Tolyposporium pennicilli-
arae), and downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola) in the world. Leaf and sheath
blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani were recorded for the first time on pearl millet
in Tanzania. Ergot was identified as the serious disease on farmers’ fields infecting
especially local pearl millet cultivars in Tanzania. Resistance to ergot was identified
in ICMPES lines developed at ICRISAT. These included ICMPES28, ICMPES29,
and ICMPES45, but their yields were lower than the local cultivars (Mbwaga and
Mdolwa 1994). This necessitates the identification of some other ergot resistant
high-yielding millet varieties in the world.
Mildew, seed rots, and smut can be controlled with recommended fungicide e.g.,
thiram or captan (4 g kg−1 seed) treatment at planting. Rust might be a foremost
problem of pearl millet crop. Early sowing of pearl millet crop can be used as an
effective tool for minimizing the yield and grain quality losses caused by rust
because this disease appears in pearl millet during later stages. Early sowing will
help the crop to mature prior to disease development.
The breeders are developing disease-resistant cultivars especially against downy
mildew and rust which will be available in near future in the world. Early harvesting
of grain after maturity is of great importance in order to discourage the development
of grain molds. In case of delayed harvesting, incidences of grain molds occurrence
increases. Crop rotation is perhaps the most effective cultural exercise used for
disease control. This practice allows the farmers to keep pathogen populations
below damaging levels. Crop rotation should not be expected to eliminate disease
occurrence, but it can be considered to help in reducing magnitude of damage from
pathogens.
15.5.11 Approved Varieties and Hybrids
Although, there has been a lot of research on cereal crops for varietal development,
the pearl millet has been neglected in this regard. Several varieties have been devel-
oped in the world which has been presented in the Table 15.3.
15.5.12 Harvesting
The growth duration of different pearl millet varieties may vary from 80–110 days.
The maturity of earheads of pearl millet is not uniform especially in improved
hybrids due to tillering habit. When the seeds of crop appear brown and possess
18–20% moisture content, then crop is ready for harvesting. The matured heads are
cut manually with the help of sickles. After harvesting, the entire earheads are left
in the field for sun drying and are threshed manually. Threshing machine has yet
not been developed for this crop. The yield of pearl millet varieties and hybrids
varies among different varieties in different environmental conditions and soil
types across the globe. Under natural rainfall, the yield may vary from 2000 to
4000 kg ha−1.
Table 15.3 Approved varieties and hybrids of pearl millet grown in world
Variety/Hybrid Country
Hybrids: 86MM88; 86MM86 Pakistan
Varieties: BY-18; Y-84; Barani Bajra; Cholistani Bajra; DB-2; DBR-3 (Jattal);
DB-5; DB-2003; Composit-2003; Bajra Super-1; PARC-MS-1; PARC-MS-2;
PARC-MS-3; PARC-MS-4; PARC-MS-5
TifGrain 102 Georgia
Hybrids: GHB 538; GHB 719; GHB 732; GHB 744; GHB 744; HHB 197; India
HHB 67; RHB 121; RHB 173; RHB 177
Varieties: CZP-9802; ICMV-221; ICMV-221; JBV-2; Pusa-266; Pusa-383; Pusa
Comp.443; Raj-171
Tupatupa Malawi
Okashana 1; Okashana 2 Namibia
Kuphanjala; Changara Mozambique
Okoa; Shibe Tanzania
Kaufela; Lubasi; Kuomboka; Sepo; Tuso Zambia
PMV-1; PMV-2; PMV-3 Zimbabwe
Source: http://www.parc.gov.pk/index.php/en/csi/137-narc/crop-sciences-institue/715-maize-mil-
let-sorghum-research-program; https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/crops/fodder/finger-
millet
284 A. Sher et al.
15.5.13 Post-harvest Handling
Pearl millet grain should be dried to around 10–12% moisture content for safe stor-
age. Mostly it is attacked by storage insect pests, i.e., rice weevil, lesser grain borer,
and red flour beetle. Aluminum phosphide, one tablet (3 g) is recommended for
1000 kg seed to avoid the damage caused by the storage insect pests.
15.6 Production Technology of Finger Millet
Botanical name Eleusine

coracana
Kingdom Plantae
Clade Angiosperms
Clade Monocots
Clade Commelinids
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Genus Eleusine
Specie E. coracana
Land preparation depends upon soil condition and types of crop. Before sowing, the
land should be prepared with 2–3 tillage operation with secondary tillage
implement.
15.6.3 Sowing Time and Seed Rate
The sowing time is different in various regions according to its climatic condition.
Commonly, the sowing time of finger millet is May–July and Feb–March. For
broadcasting, the recommended seed rate is 6–8 kg ha−1. For drill sowing,
3–4 kg ha−1 seed is sufficient to achieve the desired plant population. The optimum
plant population for good yield should be 160,000–200,000 per acre. The ideal plant
density can be achieved with the help of gap filling and thinning practice in millet
field. The surplus plants can be thinned after 20–27 days of seeding. Likewise, gap
filling should be done after 20–25 days of sowing. Finger millet can also be trans-
planted. Seed rate of 2–3 kg ha−1 is recommended for transplanting.
15.6.4 Seed Treatments
Seed of finger millet can be soaked in water (1 kg seed in 1 L water) for 6 h for the
purpose of seed treatment. After soaking, the seed can be tightly tied with wet cloth
bag for 2 days. After removing, 2-day drying process should be carried out under
shade. Use these seed for planting. Seeds can also be treated with Azospirillum at
the rate of 25 g kg−1 seed. The recommended fungicides for finger millet are thiram
(4 g kg−1 seed), captan (4 g kg−1 seed), and carbendazim (2 g kg−1 seed).
15.6.5 Sowing Methods
Finger millet can be sown through i) broad casting, ii) drilling, and iii) transplant-
ing. The details of broadcasting and drilling are given in sect. 1.5.5. In areas having
sufficient moisture, transplanting method is implemented. This planting technique
results in greater yield as compared with direct seeding method. There are least
chances of lodging if crop is sown through transplanting technique. In case of adopt-
ing transplantation technique, seeds are sown in well-prepared nursery beds during
the month of May–June. Almost 2 kg of millet seeds are needed to raise adequate
seedlings for the transplantation of 1 acre field. After 3–4 weeks, these seedlings are
ready for transplantation. Irrigation application should be made prior to uprooting
operation in order to avoid root damage. After uprooting, root portion of the seed-
lings should be subjected to inoculation for 15–30 min in slurry prepared from two
packets 300 gm/acre of Azospirillum in 40 liters of water before transplanting. Two
seedlings per hill should be transplanted by maintaining distance of 25 cm × 8 cm
or 25 cm × 10 cm and depth of 2–3 cm. Field should be irrigated after 3 days of
transplanting. Transplanted field should be irrigated on regular basis up to the com-
plete establishment of seedlings if timely rain occurrence is absent.
The response of the growth of finger millet is very well after application of fertil-
izers especially to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. For irrigated soils, N, phos-
phorous and potassium are recommended at the rate of 52:80:14 kg acre−1,
respectively. For rainfed areas, N, phosphorous and potassium are suggested at the
rate of 60:30:20 kg acre−1, respectively. In case of irrigated soils, whole dose of
phosphorus, potassium, and half of recommended N should be applied at sowing
time and residual dose of N in the form of two splits after 30 and 50 days of plant-
ing, respectively. In rainfed soils, whole recommended dose of all three nutrients
can be applied at sowing.
286 A. Sher et al.
15.6.7 Irrigation
Irrigation depends upon soil and climatic conditions. Finger millet has a very less
water requirement as compared to other crops. For good plant growth and to obtain
a good yield, irrigation should be applied at tillering and flowering stage. This crop
cannot survive in waterlogged conditions, thus growing of crops on ridges and fur-
rows may drain the surplus water.
The most common weeds of the finger millet are purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotun-
dus L.), goose grass (Eleusine indica (L) Gaertn), Bermuda grass (Cynodon dacty-
lon L.) Pers., and common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.) (Mgonja et al.
2013). In early phase of crop growth, weeds should be controlled to obtain a better
growth across with high yield. In case of line sowing, two to three interculture prac-
tices and one hand hoeing is compulsory. For chemical control of weeds, apply
preemergence herbicide such as oxyfluorfen at the rate of 1.25 kg acre−1or isopro-
turon at the rate of 400 g acre−1. Apply 2,4-D sodium salt at the rate of 250 g acre−1
as post-emergent at 20–25 days after planting.
The insect pests of finger millet include the armyworm and cutworm, aphid, white
stem borer, earhead bug, grass hopper, and leaf folder. For the control of cutworm
eggs, the Trichogramma parasitoid can be released weekly 1 time in 3 weeks. The
dusting of malathion 5% at the rate of 10 kg/acre or quinalphos 1.5% at the rate of
250 ml/acre is useful when symptoms appear. For control of aphid, the methyl
demeton 25 EC at the rate of 80 ml/acre or dimethoate 30 EC at the rate of 200 ml/
acre can be used. For the control of white stem borer, apply spray of carbaryl 50 WP
at the rate of 1 kg/acre or dimethoate 30 EC at the rate of 200 ml. For the effective
control of earhead bug, install pheromone traps at the rate of 5 traps/acre at flower-
ing stage till panicles are emerged. If infestation is severe, then spray malathion
400 ml or carbaryl 600 g/acre by mixing it with 100 L of water. Application of
Entomophthora grylli at dry and humid condition gives effective control of grass-
hopper. In case of infestation, apply carbaryl 50 WP at the rate of 600 g/acre. Crop
rotation with non-cereals crops can be manipulated to control leaf folder. Field and
its surroundings should be kept clean. At the time of sowing, narrow spacing should
be discouraged. Clippering and destroying of affected leaves and plant portions
should be carried out regularly. Apply chlorpyrifos at the rate of 2.5 ml or quinal-
phos at the rate of 2.5 ml or acephate at the rate of 1 gm or carbaryl at the rate of 1
gm or cartap hydrochloride at the rate of 2 gm/L to control pests (https://www.
apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/crops/fodder/finger-millet).
The common disease of finger millet is blast produced by the fungal pathogen
Magnaporthe grisea (anamorph Pyricularia grisea) which leads towards drying out
of leaves. It can be controlled by applying fungicides, including pyroquilon or tricy-
clazone or seed dressings with trycyclozole fungicide (Mgonjaet al. 2013). Grow
cultivars having resistance against blast. Seeds should be treated with suitable fun-
gicide such as carbendazim at 2 gm/kg prior to planting. If disease symptoms
appeared, then apply suitable fungicide immediately. For the effective control of
neck and finger disease, apply second and third sprays at the time of flowering with
interval of 15 days. When 50% earheads are emerged, foliar application of
aureofungin-sol at rate of 100 ppm, followed by application of mancozeb at the rate
of 400 gm/acre with interval of 10 days, should be made. The mosaic is another
important disease of finger millet. If symptoms of this disease appear, then uproot
and destroy the affected plants. Apply methyl demeton 25 EC at the rate of 200 ml/
acre. If necessary, apply second spray after 20 days (https://www.apnikheti.com/en/
pn/agriculture/crops/fodder/finger-millet).
The recommended varieties of finger millet in the world are given in Table 15.4.
15.6.12 Harvesting
Normally crop ripens in 120–135 days after sowing. When 80% of the ears convert
into brown color, then harvesting process can be done by harvesting the earheads
with the help of sickles. After harvesting, the earheads are sun dried for 3 to 4 days
and threshed.
The yield of finger miller mostly depends upon soil types, climatic condition, and
variety of a crop. Finger millet is subjected to malting process in India traditionally.
Table 15.4 Approved varieties and hybrids of finger millet grown worldwide
Variety/Hybrid Country
PES 400; PES 176; VL 315; VL 146; VL 149; VL 124; VL Mandua- 352; VR 708; India
Akshya; PES 110; PR 202; JNR 852; MR 374
Lima; Nyika; Senga Zambia
Source: http://www.parc.gov.pk/index.php/en/csi/137-narc/crop-sciences-institue/715-maize-
millet-sorghum-research-program; https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/crops/fodder/
finger-millet
288 A. Sher et al.
It is used for infant foods and milk thickener preparations which is known as ragi
malt to be used for milk beverages. Fermented drink or beer preparation is also car-
ried out from the millet grains. Millet seeds can be stored in bags for nearly about
1 year without loss of its viability. 10–12% seed moisture is considered safe for
storage of millet grains.
15.7 Production Technology of Proso Millet

Botanical name Panicum miliaceum L.
Kingdom Plantae
Clade Monocots
Clade Commelinids
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Genus Panicum
Species P. miliaceum
The land should be cultivated 2–3 times by harrow followed by leveling of the soil
to make a good seedbed. Add compost or farmyard manure at the rate of 12.5 t ha−1
before sowing of crop.
15.7.3 Sowing Time
The sowing time is different in various regions of the world according to its climatic
condition. Mostly, the sowing time is June–July, start-up of monsoon rainy season;
the summer crop should be grown in the month of February–March. In Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India, it is sown in October–November. In Maharashtra,
India, it is planted in July, and it is planted in March in North Bihar and Eastern
Uttar Pradesh.
Seed treatment protects the seed from soil borne diseases and increases the yield.
Seeds should be treated with Azospirillum at the rate of 60 g kg−1 of seed.
15.7.5 Seed Rate and Sowing Methods
Approximately 8–10 kg seed is required for 1 hectare. The seed can be sown by
manual broadcasting and/or can be sown through seed drill in furrows at a depth of
3–4 cm.
Before final plowing, compost or farmyard manure at 5 tonnes/acre (12.5 tonnes/ha)

should be applied and plowed into the soil. The synthetic fertilizers should be
applied on the basis of soil analysis.
15.7.7 Irrigation
The crop which is planted in kharif (monsoon) does not need any irrigation. But, if
a long dry period occurs, then 1–2 irrigations must be given at the stage of tillering
to increase the yield. Commonly, first irrigation must be provided 25–30 days and
the second one on 40–45 days after sowing. The 2–4 irrigations are required for
kharif season crop dependening upon soil and climatic situations.
Weeds compete with crop for natural resources like light, water, space, and nutri-
ents. The common weeds of proso millet are pigweed, swine cress, and purple nut-
sedge. The critical period of weeds is up to 45 days after sowing. Weeding must be
done at an interim of 15–20 days. In case of line sowing, weeding can be done by
intercultural practices for weed elimination. In situation of broadcasting, the hand
hoeing is not possible, so weeds can be effectively controlled by herbicides.
When plants are 4 to 6 inch tall, application of 2,4-D amine in proso millet gives
an effective control of broadleaf weeds. Herbicide application should be discouraged
at the time of heading and flowering. Atrazine has also been found to be useful for
effective control of annual broadleaf and some grassy weeds of proso millet crop.
The main insect of the proso millet is shoot fly and armyworm. It can be managed
by using hairy varieties which are less liable to insects as compared to glabrous
varieties. The effective chemical control of these insect can be done by using a car-
bofuran 3G at the rate of 1.5 kg a.i. ha−1.
290 A. Sher et al.
The diseases of proso millet are blast, rust, and grain smut. These diseases can be
controlled by proper seed treatment with suitable fungicide and by adopting culti-
vars having resistance against these diseases.
The recommended varieties for high-yielding proso millet are Prj-1, Chandan,
Co-1, Co(Kv)-2, Vl-Madaria-207, CO-1, Co-2, Co-3, Nagarjuna, Sagar, Bhawna,
GPUP-8, GPUP-21, Pratap Chenna-1(PR-18), CO (PV) 5, CO (PV) 5, TNAU 145,
TNAU 151, TNAU 164, and TNAU 102.
15.7.12 Harvesting and Yield
When seeds of upper half of the panicle get matured, proso millet crop should be
harvested. However, seeds of lower half of the panicle should not be in green color
and have attained dough stage. Simply, when earheads are physiologically mature
and two thirds of the grains are ripe, then crop is prepared for harvesting. Generally
crop is prepared for harvesting in 65–75 days after planting. Threshing can be post-
poned till the grain has less than 13% moisture content (Baltensperger 2002). The
threshing of earheads is done by hand, crushing under the feet of bullocks or with
the help of threshing machine. The yield depends upon the variety of crop and soil
condition. The grain yield fluctuates from 1200 to 2400 kg ha−1 in irrigated fields.
To achieve safe moisture contents of 12%, the grain must be sun dried. Seeds can be
kept more than 13 months under suitable storing environments.
15.8 Production Technology of Foxtail Millet

Kingdom Plantae
Unranked Angiosperms
unranked Monocots
Unranked Commelinids
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Subfamily Panicoideae
Genus Setaria
Species S. italica
Good seedbed preparation plays a significant role for the growth and development
of foxtail millet. Land preparation depends upon nature of soil and cultivation of
previous crop. Mostly 2–3 time plowing followed by planking is required for the
seedbed preparation. In an ideal soil, the air and water can pass freely through soil,
and thus, the growth of crop will be excellent.
15.8.3 Sowing Time
Sowing date depends upon climatic conditions of different regions. Mostly, the opti-
mum sowing date is mid-May to mid-June for hilly areas, June–July for plains
areas, and December–January for rabi sowing.
Seed treatment is compulsory to protect the seed from diseases. The seed of foxtail
millet can be treated with carbendazim or thiram. The 2–3 g of carbendazim or
thiram is sufficient for 1 kg of seed. Seeds can also be treated organically by adding
Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorscens at 5 g kg−1 seed.
15.8.5 Seed Rate and Sowing Methods
Seed rate can be influenced by variety of crop. Normally 8–10 kg seed is required
for 1 hectare for line sowing and 15 kg per hectare for broadcasting. The row-row
spacing is 20–30 cm, and plant-plant spacing is 8–10 cm.
Fertilizer application should be based upon analysis of soil. The recommended fer-
tilizer rate is 40–30 kg of nitrogen and phosphorus for one hectare, respectively.
Apply full dose of P and half dose of N as a basal dose at the time of sowing. The
remaining dose of N should be applied 30 days after sowing of crop.
15.8.7 Irrigation
Irrigation is based on soil and climatic condition. Mostly 2–5 irrigation are needed
for summer crop. The excess water should be drained out to protect the crop from
lodging.
292 A. Sher et al.
The most common weeds of the foxtail millet are purple nutsedge and Bermuda
grass. In case of line sowing, 2–3 inter-cultivations and one hand weeding are
required for the elimination of weeds. The preemergence application of isoproturon
at 0.75 kg a.i. ha−1 should be done; hand hoeing 30 days after germination should be
done for broadcasted crop.
The common insects of foxtail millet are armyworms, cutworms, and leaf scraping
beetles. Damage of shoot fly may also occur in some regions. To control these
insects, endosulfan 4% at 30 kg/ha or malathion 5% at the rate of 3.2–4.0 kg ha−1
should be applied as a powder application.
The most common diseases of foxtail millet include brown spot (Helminthosporium
setariae), blast (caused by Pyricularia setariae), rust (Uromyces setariae), downy
mildew, grain smut (Ustilago crameri), and green ear (caused by Sclerospora
graminicola). For control of blast at early stages, spray mancozeb (0.2%) is recom-
mended. In case of grain smut, seeds should be treated with carboxin or carben-
dazim at the rate of 2 g kg−1 of seed. For the effective control of downy mildew,
seeds should be treated with Ridomil MZ at 2 g kg−1 seed. The infected plant should
be rouged out and destroyed.
The recommended varieties of hybrid millet are Prasad, Krishnadevaraya, SiA3156,

SiA 3088, SiA 3156, SiA 3085, Lepakshi, SiA 326, SiA 326, HMT 100–1, PS 4,
Sreelaxmi, KO 12, Narasimharaya, SiA 3088, SiA 3156, TNAU 196, TNAU 43, CO
(Ten) 7, TNAU 186, CO 1, CO 2, CO 4, CO 5, K2, K3, PrathapKangani (SR 1), SR
51, SR 11, Sreelaxmi, SR16, SiA 3085, PRK 1 and PS 4, SiA 3088, 3085, Sreelaxmi,
Narasimharaya, S-114, SiA 326, PS 4 and PRK 1, Sreelaxmi, SiA 326, etc. grown
widely in India and rest of the world.
15.8.12 Harvesting and Yield
The crop will get ready for harvesting for hay purpose after 65–70 days of sowing.
The average yield is 15,000–20,000 kg ha−1 for green matter and 3000–4000 kg ha−1
for hay. The crop mature for grain in 75–90 days after sowing, and the average grain
yield ranges from 8000 to 9000 kg ha−1.
15.9 Production Constraints of Millet
Mostly the millets are grown in developing countries of Asia and Africa without
following any improved production technology except some commercialized farms
in India. This crop is grown without any use of chemical fertilizer and irrigation on
light textured well-drained soil which are low in soil organic matter. When the
irrigation facilities are available, the farmers prefer to grow other cash crops, thus
restricting the millet cultivation to marginal lands of rainfed areas. Moreover, the
limited commercial demand depresses the farmers to use less inputs. The unavail-
ability of the approved varieties is also a major production constraint. Sometimes,
poor soil fertility, extreme drought, temperature, soil acidity, soil alkalinity, downy
mildew, cover smut and striga infestation, and loss of grains due to birds may
impact the yield of millet (http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0d.
htm#TopOfPage). Cultivation of non-improved genotypes for both seed and fodder
purpose is one of production constraints. The poor plant establishment, especially
at rainfed soils, owing to insufficient land preparation, improper sowing technique,
use of lower quality seeds and poor emergence due to hot and dry crusted soils are
some other constraints. In millet cultivation areas, particularly in the rainfed
regions, weeds become serious constraint during the months of July and August
due to commencement of heavy rains. Lack of proper weeding is another produc-
tion constraint of millet crop.
15.9.2 Socioeconomic and Policy Constraints
Several decades back, millet was used as staple by many people of the developing
countries when rice and wheat were not commonly grown. However, after introduc-
tion of rice and wheat and due to surplus production of both these crops, the depen-
dence on millet has been reduced. Now, the only use of millet is as feed for animals
and bird when grown as grain crop and as fodder when grown as fodder crop. Thus,
the market prices of millet grain are very low as compared to the production cost
incurred on production of this crop. This situation has discouraged many farmers to
exclude the millet from their cropping systems even in the extreme arid regions of
the world. Moreover, the population pressure has caused many farmers to switch
toward more economic and food crop which has tremendously reduced millet area
in the world.
Moreover, the funds allocated for millet breeding are very low in most of the
countries in Asia and Africa as comparison to other cereals like maize and wheat.
294 A. Sher et al.
Among the various species of millet, pearl millet and finger millet only (up to some
extent) have remained the topic of interest for researchers, and the other species are
ignored. Even if the technologies have been developed for resource and crop man-
agement, their adoption is poor because the farmers in severe climatic conditions
are more risk averse than farmers in promising locations. Usually, the output bene-
fits from millet are usually lower than the outputs which are obtained from other
farm and non-farm enterprises including the other food and cash crops. Although,
the hybrids have been developed, they perform well only with complete set of agro-
nomic practices and have low performance on marginal lands with low inputs. The
farmers in most of the region have also less access to new varieties of millet (http://
www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0d.htm#TopOfPage).
In many developing countries, the millet marketing channels are not well
designed due to irregular and scattered supplies, large distance between farm gate
and selling market, and less demand in urban areas. It seems to be difficult for most
of the governments to ensure sufficient farm-income support and at the same time
maintain ample stocks in anticipation of lean years owing to fluctuations in harvest
volume.
This situation necessitates that the government should make proper policies to
again boost its production in the marginal rainfed and arid areas of the world by
searching some alternate uses of this crop. The research institutes should also focus
on developing new high-yielding drought-tolerant varieties of millet which can per-
form well under a complicated set of environmental conditions in diverse soil types.
Breeders should give priority to the development of dual purpose (fodder-cum-seed)
cultivars in global breeding programs.
Web Sources
The following web sources were accessed to find the information on production
technology of millets.
• http://eagri.org/eagri50/ENTO331/lecture03/pearl_millet/pdf/lec03.pdf
• http://harvestchoice.org/commodities/millet
• http://millets.res.in/technologies/foxtail_millet.pdf
• http://pakissan.com/english/allabout/crop/millet.shtml
• http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0c.htm
• http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0d.htm#TopOfPage
• http://www.parc.gov.pk/index.php/en/csi/137-narc/crop-sciences-institue/715-maize-
millet-sorghum-research-program
• https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foxtail_millet&oldid=84464312"1
• https://www.apnikheti.com/en/pn/agriculture/crops/fodder/finger-millet
• https://www.doa.gov.lk/FCRDI/index.php/en/crop/45-finger-millets-e
• https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=millet&graph=area-
harvested
• https://www.indexmundi.com/agriculture/?commodity=millet&graph=product
ion
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of Legume Crops 16
Imran
Abstract
Climate change (drought stress, water stress, rising temperatures, rising CO, and
other GHG) is a rising threat of pests and disease that place a significant con-
straint on yields of various legume crops which small holder farmers, in particu-
lar, may struggle to overcome. Maximizing the production potential of legumes
(climate smart plants) can contribute more significantly to human, and environ-
mental security depends on associating the yield gap against environment of
rapid climate change. The successful and critical solution may develop resilient
legume varieties, demonstrating great potential in difficult conditions to combat
with climate change and to enhance food security. The efforts in this admiration
to breed lentils with vertical nodulation and nodule clusters are associated with
high nitrogen fixation. Legume varieties of mung bean (Swat I & Swat II) with
mature leaf concentration and pea varieties with waxy leaf surfaces can help to
combat heat-stress. Legumes such as faba bean, Pigeonpea, chickpea, cowpea,
field pea, lentil, greengram, blackgram, bean, and grasspea are grown in more
than 120 countries across all the continents. In the current scenerio, it is very
important to evaluate the progress of all legumes with additional efforts to screen
germplasm for heat tolerance and disease-resistance. Almost all crops of human
interest are having with advanced production technologies beyond their routine
traditional production methods. Legume crops can contribute in alleviating hun-
ger as well as malnutrition especially in the poorer countries. Fortunately legume
crops need no special attention unlike rice wheat potato and most oil seeds. Also
they can adapt to a wide range of soil and climate and demand very little nutrient
and water management. Legumes can fix atmospheric nitrogen also. Legume
production could be a great option economically, nutritionally, and ecologically.
Imran (*)
Department of Agronomy, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan
e-mail: imranagrarian@aup.edu.pk

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_16
298 Imran
Keywords
Legumes · Mung bean · Mash bean · Pigeon pea · Cowpea · Chickpea · Field pea
· Lentil · Soybean
16.1 Introduction
Food legumes are widely grown throughout the world, with a long cultivation his-
tory and a diversity of cropping systems. Legumes are important food crops that can
play a major role in achieving food security, nutrition, and human health, contribut-
ing to make agriculture more sustainable and helping mitigate and adapt to climate
change (Imran et al. 2016). With the advantages of short-growing periods and bio-
logical nitrogen fixation (BNF), food legumes play an important role in cropping
systems. Legumes can be integrated in rotations with cereals, tuber, and vegetable
crops. Such systems provide a quality food harvest after non-leguminous crops and
improve soil fertility on farms. According to FAO (1994), legumes are crop plants
belonging to the Fabaceae family (commonly known as the pea family) that produce
edible seeds and are used for human and animal consumption. However, beans
which are only harvested for dry grain are classified as legumes (Table 16.1).
Legume species used for oil extraction, e.g., soybean (Glycine max L.) and ground-
nut (Arachis hypogaea L.), and sowing purposes, e.g., clover (different species
belonging to the genus Trifolium) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), are not consid-
ered legumes. Likewise, legume species are not considered as legumes when they
are used as vegetables (e.g., green peas (Pisum sativum L.) and green beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Consequently, when common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
is harvested for dry grain, it is considered as legumes; but when the same species is
harvested unripe (known as green beans), it is not treated as a legumes. Major con-
straints in legume production are diseases and insect pest along with minimum
attention of the farmers (Wani et al. 2012). Common insect and pest of mung bean
are pod borer, whitefly, pod-sucking bug, caterpillar, jassid, and aphids. Pigeon pea
common diseases are rust leaf spot and Fusarium wilt, and occasionally sterility
mosaic virus may also attack. This disease may spread and be transmitted by erio-
phyid mite. The effected plant is totally or partially sterile and could not produce
seed. Common insect pest of pigeon pea may be moth and pod fly. These diseases
can reduce yield from 10 to 30%, depending upon the severity, pathogen, and
weather conditions (Aise et al. 2011; Imran et al. 2016). Cow pea is also susceptible
to various diseases and insect pests. Common diseases of cow pea are aphid-born
mosaic virus, Fusarium wilt, leaf smut, and scab. General insect pest of cow might
be beetles, aphids, pod borer, caterpillar, and whiteflies, seriously damaging the
crop. Certain insect can also provide access for disease organism and or transmit
them directly to plants. Therefore, understanding the relationships between the
insect and the crop will enable farmers to manage pests much better. Major insects
that damage soybean crops are stem fly, white fly, green stink bug, cut worm, and
larvae. Insects attack on all parts of the soybean plant and feed throughout the
16 Advanced Production Technologies of Legume Crops 299
Table 16.1 Several species of legumes that are taxonomically similar

Subfamily Tribe Species
Papilionoideae Genisteae Lupinus albus L.
Lupinus luteus L.
Lupinus angustifolius L.
Lupinus mutabilis Sweet
Indigofereae Cyamopsis etragonoloba (L.) Taub.
Phaseoleae Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.
Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich.)
Harms
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet
Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi and H. Ohashi
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper
Vignaum bellata (Thunb.) Ohwi and H. Ohashi
Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.
Vigna subterranean (L.) Verdc.
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Phaseolus lunatusL.
Phaseolus coccineus L.
Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray
Cicereae Cicer arietinum L.
Fabeae Vicia faba L.
Vicia sativa L.
Lens culinaris Medik.
Pisum sativum L.
growing season. A new practice to control insect attack is based on the knowledge
of the economic injury levels of the consequential insects (Anchal et al. 1997;
Akpalu et al. 2014). The economic injury level is the population of insects that is
capable of producing an amount of economic damage which is at least equal to the
cost of controlling the insects. Wise monitoring of major insects is required in order
to effectively make decision relative to insecticide application (Ankomah et al.
1996).
In this context to obtain full farm productivity of legumes in favorable environ-
ments to increase food security and overcome hunger, intercropping or relay inter-
cropping of food with other crops is another good choice. As ideal intercrops, food
can increase crop yields and economic benefits of intercropping systems, and much
more innovation will be needed in the future for adaptation to climate change and to
increasing demand for food for the overwhelming population.
300 Imran
16.1.1 Legume’s Importance and Healthy Benefits
Legumes (mung bean, mash bean, pigeon pea, cowpea, chickpea, field pea, lentil,
and soybean) are hailed as the most protective bean (Aziz et al. 2016). It has the
highest protein content among plant products. As animal protein contains all the
essential amino acids, lacking in legume protein, “soy protein” refers to the protein
found in soybeans. Soy is often used to replace the animal proteins in an individu-
al’s diet. Soybean belongs to family Fabaceae but mostly known as oil seed. In this
chapter it should be needed to know that soybean is a leguminous crop, not oilseed
(Devi et al. 2012). Soybean is the only vegetable food that contains all eight essen-
tial amino acids. Soybeans are processed to various soya products, namely, soy
flour, soy milk, cottage cheese like tofu, and fermented products like tempeh and
miso.
16.1.2 Stimulates Cardiovascular Health (Legumes and Soybean)
Soybean oil is a rich source of polyunsaturated fatty acids, including the two essen-
tial fatty acids called linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Substituting saturated fat
sources with unsaturated fats may help lower your cholesterol levels (Devi et al.
2013). Elevated serum cholesterol levels lead to atherosclerosis and increased risk
for heart disease. These two essential fatty acids are precursors to hormones that
regulate smooth muscle contractions and blood pressure. Because your heart is a
muscle, there is significance in this health benefit. Soybeans are a source of soluble
fiber, which can help lower cholesterol levels and potentially reduce the risk for
heart disease (Gaur et al. 2012).
16.1.3 Promotes Digestive Health and Prevents Colon Cancer
Mostly legumes and specially soybeans are a source of insoluble fiber, which adds
bulk to stools and helps waste pass quickly through the digestive tract (Jukanti et al.
2012). Adding soybeans to your diet may prevent colon cancer, diverticular disease,
constipation, and hemorrhoids. Soybeans have a high concentration of calcium,
which is a mineral crucial to bone health (Siddique et al. 2012). Isoflavones can
interfere as well as activate the activity of your own estrogen. Soybeans contain
isoflavones, which are substances that have a chemical structure very similar to
estrogen. During menopause, when estrogen levels drop, isoflavones bind to the
estrogen receptors in cells and ease the symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes.
The isoflavones in soybeans increase bone density in women and offer protection
against osteoporosis.
16.2 S
trategies to Improve Legume Productivity
and Profitability
Legume production technology may be almost similar and undistinguishable

throughout the world in this advance era of the Internet and make the world global
village but here are a few available technologies that can increase the productivity
and profitability of legumes (Sinclair and Vadez 2012).
16.2.1 Short-Duration, High-Yielding Varieties
Matching legume crop maturity duration to available cropping window, including

soil moisture availability, is a major strategy to avoid drought stress. Hence, empha-
sis in crop improvement programs has been to develop high-yielding, short-duration
cultivars which escape terminal drought (Imran et al. 2015b). These short-duration
varieties provide opportunities for inclusion of a given crop or variety in the crop-
ping systems with a narrow cropping window or new production niches.
The key factors for significant increase might be achieved with the following
technique:
1 . Introduction of high-yielding, short-duration Fusarium wilt-resistant varieties.

2. High adoption of improved cultivars and production technologies with mecha-
nized field operations and effective management of pod borer.
3. Availability of grain storage facilities to farmers at local level at affordable cost.
16.2.2 Improved Varieties with Drought Tolerance
A wider dissemination of drought-tolerant material would provide sustenance to the

livelihoods of farmers who are more vulnerable to shocks of crop failure. The
drought-tolerant varieties can provide cost-effective long-term solutions against
adverse effects of drought. Return on investment in breeding for drought tolerance
is likely to be higher compared to those in other drought management strategies
(Imran et al. 2015b). On the other hand, even though the potential economic benefits
of drought-tolerant breeding research are attractive, farmers may not benefit from it
if appropriate institutional arrangements are not in place for multiplication and dis-
tribution of seeds of improved varieties. This is more so in the case of large-seeded
legumes whose seed requirement is very high (Varshney et al. 2010).
16.2.3 New Niches
Legume crops have great diversity of maturity durations that enable their cultivation
in many niches and different production systems to increase production. A few
examples are given below, but there are many more in other crops and niches that
can be exploited successfully.
302 Imran
The main cropping systems involving the major food could be the following:
16.2.3.1 Faba Bean

(a) Faba bean – rice – barley intercropping with green manure – cotton.
(b) Faba bean – transplanting cotton – faba bean intercropping with green manure –
maize intercropping with soybean, sweet potatoes, or rice.
(c) Faba bean intercropping with green manure – cotton – faba bean or barley –
transplanting cotton.
(d) Faba bean intercropping with green manure – maize intercropping with cot-
ton – faba bean intercropping with green manure – maize intercropping soy-
bean or sweet potatoes.
(e) Faba bean intercropping with green manure – maize intercropping soybean –
barley intercropping with green manure – cotton.
(f) Faba bean intercropping with green manure – corn multiple cropping with
rice – barley – cotton.
The main biennial cropping patterns, generally with two crops a year, are as
follows:
(a) Faba bean – corn relay intercropping with sweet potatoes – wheat
(canola) – peanut.
(b) Wheat – cotton – faba bean – corn relay intercropping with sweet potatoes.
(c) Wheat (barley) – corn relay intercropping with sweet potatoes – faba
bean – peanut.
(d) Faba bean – early rice – late rice – canola – semilate rice.
(e) Wheat – semilate rice – faba bean – semilate rice – barley.
16.2.3.2 Pea
(a) The first year: peas – early rice – late rice.
(b) The second year: barley (wheat) – early rice – late rice.
(c) The third year: canola – early rice – late – rice.
16.2.3.3 Intercropping and Relay Intercropping

(a) Pea – maize – maize.
(b) Pea – canola – wheat.
(c) Pea – wheat – potato.
(d) Pea – barley – maize.
16.2.3.4 Mung Bean

(a) Wheat (canola) – mung bean – wheat – maize (millet).
(b) Wheat – mung bean – wheat – mung bean (sweet potato).
(c) Wheat – mung bean – cotton – wheat – mung bean (millet) (three crops in
2 years).
(d) Wheat – mung bean – sweet potato – maize – wheat – mung bean (five crops in
3 years).
16.2.3.5 Adzuki Bean

(a) Adzuki bean – maize (sorghum) – millet.
(b) Adzuki bean – maize – sorghum.
(c) Adzuki bean – spring wheat – maize (flax) – maize.
(d) Adzuki bean – wheat – wheat.
(e) Adzuki bean – millet – maize – wheat.
(f) Winter wheat (barley) – adzuki bean – winter wheat (barley) – adzuki.
(g) Winter wheat (barley) – adzuki bean – cotton (maize, sorghum, or millet).
(h) Winter wheat (barley) – summer maize intercropping with adzuki bean – spring
maize intercropped with soybean.
(i) Spring wheat – millet (broomcorn millet) – adzuki bean.
(j) Winter wheat (barley) – maize intercropped with adzuki bean – winter wheat
(barley) - maize intercropped with adzuki.
(k) Winter wheat (barley) – sunflower intercropped with adzuki bean – winter
wheat (barley) – sunflower intercropped with adzuki.
16.3 Advance Legume Production Technology
16.3.1 Seed Inoculums
Mung bean (green gram) inoculation with various beneficial microbes (PSB,
Trichoderma, Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, etc.)
has been tested and noticed to have the highest green forage, dry matter, and crude
protein. It has been reported that the highest number of plants m−2, plant height (cm),
number of leaf plant−1, pod length (cm), number of seedpod−1, number of pod plants-1,
thousand seed weight, seed yield, and harvest index was noted with the inoculation of
biofertilizer (PSB) (Sinclair and Vadez 2012; Imran et al. 2016). The nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (Rhizobia) that live on legume roots in nodules are not native to most soils.
The best way to introduce these bacteria is to inoculate the seed. Once introduced, the
rhizobia population remains active in the soil for a long time. In the presence of the
appropriate inoculant of Rhizobium japonicum, more nodules are formed on the roots
of legume plant which can fix atmospheric nitrogen from the air that is almost as effec-
tive as nitrogen applied as fertilizer to promote growth and development of the plant.
16.3.2 Method of Inoculation
Inoculum is a black powder containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria which are mixed with
ground peat or some similar carrier and applied on seed just before planting time.
Seeds are moistened with concentrated sugar solution; inoculant is applied at 1250 gm
per 100 kg seeds and then mixed thoroughly to have a uniform coating of inoculum on
the seeds. This process should be done in shady place (Imran et al. 2016). The use of
fungicide in case of seed treatment may interfere with inoculated seed and with sym-
bioses of Rhizobium system. Thus, compatible fungicides (i.e., Benlate and Dithane
Z-78 (Zineb)) with no toxicity to Rhizobia should be used. Treat seed immediately
before planting, and use inoculum dose little higher than recommended.
304 Imran
16.3.3 Method of Sowing
The method of sowing should meet three objectives: (i) adequate and uniform depth
of seed placement, (ii) adequate seed numbers and uniform distribution, and (iii)
sufficient soil-seed contact for germination. Under existing conditions, legume seed
must be planted with single row cotton drill or tractor drill because of their consis-
tency in producing good stands (Imran et al. 2016).
16.3.4 Time of Sowing (Kharif Legumes/Rabi Legumes)
Variation in yield loss due to delay in the planting is the result of variation in weather
and its influence on disease, plant height, flower abortion, amount of vegetative
growth, etc. (Imran et al. 2015b, 2016). Therefore, planting date is considered to be
one of the important factors for maximum crop yield. Late planting may result in
significant decrease in seed yield.
16.3.5 Seed Rate
Optimum seed for Kharif or Rabi legumes at a depth of 3–5 cm with 30–45 cm row
spacing or optimum space for each legume crop gives optimum population of
120,000–130,000 plants per acre. As much as 20–24 plants per meter of row are
generally satisfactory. However, within a wide range of plant populations for a par-
ticular row spacing, legume yields do not vary significantly. However, low popula-
tions result in low poding height and excessive branches but good lodging resistance.
Conversely, high plant populations result in increased lodging, high poding height,
and less branching. Generally, legumes in narrow rows have higher yielding because
they capture more of the sun’s energy which drives photosynthetic machinery of the
plant. However, wide rows are used if the varieties are tall and bushy type.
16.3.6 Irrigation
Number of irrigations varies with climatic conditions, management practices, and

length of growing season. Moisture stress during flowering, pod filling, and seed
development stages reduces yield. Usually four–six irrigations are required for
Kharif legumes and two–three irrigations for Rabi crop depending upon the rains.
Therefore, irrigation must be given at the following stages:

• Three weeks after germination.
• Initiation of flowering.
• Pod filling stage.
• Seed development stage.
Weeds complete with legume crops for nutrients, moisture, and light and thus
reduce yield. The most effective measure for developing weed control in legumes
vary, depending on the types of weeds, degree of weed infestation, soil type, weather
patterns, crop rotation, tillage methods, row spacing, and equipment available. A
good weed control program should include the combination of preventive, cultural,
mechanical, and chemical practices.
16.3.8 Preventive Measures
All these measures taken to prevent the introduction and spread of weeds include
the use of weed-free crop seed:
• Certified seed of legumes.

• Clean planting/harvesting equipment.
• Weed-free soil, seed, and farm yard manure/organic residues.
16.3.9 Cultural Control
16.3.9.1 Crop Rotation

Crop rotation reduces the weed populations of certain weeds common to a particu-
lar crop. It results in improved crop yield, quality, and improved soil conditions, and
reduces the chance of plant disease and insect infestation.
16.3.9.2 Tillage Practices

Deep and dry plugging gives a substantial control of perennial weeds. By tillage
method, weeds are buried with soil and thrown over and with the disruption of the
ultimate relationship between the weed, crop, and soil.
16.3.9.3 Mechanical (Physical) Control

Hand weeding is the most common practice and used by the farmers; two weedings
are recommended during the growing period for each leguminous crop. Mechanical
weeding by rotary weeder controls the annual weeds effectively and economically.
16.3.9.4 Chemical Control

The experimental results have shown that proper use of preemergence herbicides,
i.e., Pendimethalin 8 (Stomp), Trifluralin (Treflan), and Oxadiazon (Ronstar), can
be applied after planting before the germination of legume crop. These have been
found very effective in controlling a wide range of grasses and broad leaf weeds.
306 Imran
16.3.9.5 Integrated Weed Control

This involves the use of two or more of the abovementioned weed control tech-
niques. The combined use of more than one weed control technique is advanta-
geous, because one technique rarely achieves complete eradication of weeds.
16.3.9.6 Diseases and Insect Pest of Legumes and Their Control

About 35 diseases of economic importance are known to affect leguminous crops
throughout the world. Mostly on Kharif legumes (mung bean), fungal disease of
leaf spot, root rot, and powdery mildews may attack in wet and warm weather, while
bacterial leaf blight and yellow mosaic virus are also serious diseases in Asian coun-
tries like Pakistan and India. Common insect and pest of mung bean are pod borer,
whitefly, pod-sucking bug, caterpillar, jassids, and aphids. Pigeon pea common dis-
eases are rust leaf spot and Fusarium wilt, and occasionally sterility mosaic virus
may also attack (Imran et al. 2016). This disease may spread and be transmitted by
eriophyid mite. The effected plant is totally or partially sterile and could not pro-
duce seed. Common insect pest of pigeon pea may be moth and pod fly. These dis-
eases can reduce yield from 10 to 30%, depending upon the severity, pathogen, and
weather conditions.
Cow pea is also susceptible to various diseases and insect pests. Common dis-
eases of cow pea are aphid-born mosaic virus, Fusarium wilt, leaf smut, and scab.
General insect pest of cow might be beetles, aphids, pod borer, caterpillar, and
whiteflies, seriously damaging the crop. Certain insect can also provide access for
disease organism and or transmit them directly to plants. Therefore, understanding
the relationships between the insect and the crop will enable farmers to manage
pests much better. Major insect’s damage soybean crops are stem fly, white fly;
green stink bug, cut worm and larvae. Insects attack on all parts of the soybean plant
and feed throughout the growing season. A new practice to control insect attack is
based on the knowledge of the economic injury levels of the consequential insects
(Imran et al. 2016). The economic injury level is the population of insects that is
capable of producing an amount of economic damage which is at least equal to the
cost of controlling the insects. Wise monitoring of major insects is required in order
to effectively make decision relative to insecticide application.
In Pakistan soybean major diseases have been observed and these are anthrac-
nose, charcoal rot, purple seed stain, pod and stem blight, and bacterial blight/pus-
tule. Careful diagnosis is very important for the disease control strategies, because
more than one pathogen or a complex may be responsible for the final loss in yield
and seed quality. Thus, the collection of samples is essential throughout the growing
season (Imran et al. 2016; Imran et al. 2015a).
Major Rabi legumes like chickpea, lentil, field pea, etc. might be produce low
yield and profitability due to various insect pest and disease attack. Common dis-
eases of chickpea are blight disease (the most dangerous enemy of chickpea), root
rot, and wilting. Aphids, gram caterpillar, leaf folder, and pod borer attack and
reduce the yield of chickpea from 30 to 70% relating to the severity. Reduction in
yield could be overcome by planting disease- and insect pest-resistant cultivars and
proper seed treatment and crop rotation. Like chickpea, lentil crop is also suscepti-
ble to attack of aphids, gram caterpillar, leaf folder, pod borer, and weevils. This can
be checked by crop rotation and appropriate pesticides (Imran et al. 2016). The most
common diseases of lentil are leaf rust, downy mildew, blight, and Fusarium wilt;
sometimes root rot or root wilting may occur. Decrease in yield could be overcome
by planting disease- and insect pest-resistant cultivars and proper seed treatment
and crop rotation. Another Rabi crop, filed pea/pea attack by fungus such as, pow-
dery mildew, downy mildew, pods and leaf spots, gray mould, Fusarium wilt and
root rot attack may seriously damage the crop. Other insects that damage pea include
pea moth, pea aphids, and weevil. The damage of the crop and yield reduction can
be controlled by planting of disease-resistant cultivars and fungicide treatment and
crop rotation (Gaur et al. 2012; Imran et al. 2016).
16.3.10 Disease Management Program Should Include

the Following Methods
Preventive Measures
• Avoid planting in wet and poorly drained soils to reduce chances of the develop-
ment of soil-borne diseases (root rot).
• Harvest seed soybeans as soon as they are mature.
• Keep the crop free from weeds because they may be the hosts to any diseases.
• Plant quality and healthy seed, free of mechanical damage.
• Seeds should be stored at 8–10% moisture at 15 °C temperature to have more
seed viability.
• Crop rotation with non-leguminous crop.

• Plant early before the soil temperature rises.
• Plow down crop residues.
• Reduce plant population, increase row width, and avoid high fertility to prevent
a closed canopy, improve aeration, and increase drying in the canopy.
16.3.12 Chemical Control
16.3.12.1 Seed Treatment

To protect from soil-borne diseases, seed should be treated before planting with one
of the available fungicides: Captan, Dithane M-45, Benlate, and Tecto at 1.5–2 gms
per 1 kg seed.
308 Imran
16.3.12.2 Foliar Spray

At the appearance of disease symptoms, after field survey, foliar spray with one of
the systemic fungicides, Dithane M-45 at 1 kg ha−1 and Benlate and Tecto at 120–
150 gm ha−1 dissolved in 250 l of water, should be done after 10 to 15 days interval.
This process should be repeated two–three times depending upon the severity of
disease (Imran et al. 2016).
16.3.13 Integrated Disease Control
• Use integrated control measures, combine with high-tolerant cultivar, good

drainage, complete tillage, and seed treatment and rotation with cereals.
• Use multi-race resistance varieties or least susceptible cultivars, and avoid tall,
viney cultivars that may lodge.
16.3.14 Biocontrol
Many insect predators, parasites, and pathogens occur in legume fields that help in
keeping population of pest species below economic levels. However, experience has
shown us that beneficial insects and pathogens do not do a complete job and that
chemical control becomes necessary.
Early planted legumes tend to receive the majority of the overwhelming adult of
flies and bugs, while late planted will alleviate some of the problems with these two
insects and cutworm. Therefore, it is still more economical to plant early for high
yields and control any potential insect problems with insecticides than it is to plant
late for insect control (Imran et al. 2016).
16.3.16 Chemical Control
• For cutworm and termite, apply powder of BHC at 7 kg ha−1 or dieldrin 20 EC at

5–7 l ha−1 mixed with irrigation water.
• For other insects especially flies, thrips, and larvae, spray Dimecron 100% at
600 ml ha−1 or methyl parathion 50% at 800–1200 ml ha−1. If insects attack is
severe, spray Somicidin 20 EC at 400–600 ml ha−1 dissolved in 250 l of water for
two times, with an interval of 8–10 days.
16.4 Harvesting and Threshing
Various legume crops mature in 80 to 120 days depending upon growing season and
the variety that was planted. Senescence is the decline in chemical activity associ-
ated with aging of plants, and maturation is only loss of water from plants or seeds
which are physiologically mature. Seeds are physiologically mature when they are
no longer synthesizing food. Physiological loss of chlorophyll and acceleration of
senescence are characteristics of dry, dehiscent fruits (soybean pods). Ethylene and
abscisic acid play an important role in abscission and dehiscence of pod and often
capsule dry fruits (soybean). Oil and storage protein have reached their maximum
dry weight. At this stage seed moisture is 45–55%, pods and stems are yellow, and
leaves are yellow or have dropped. Delay in harvesting not only reduces seed qual-
ity, but it also reduces harvesting efficiency and increases shattering losses. As soon
as the pods are dry enough to open easily, harvest it, thresh after drying within
7–10 days, and threshed seed must be cleaned before storage or marketing.
16.4.1 Yield
Number of pods per plant is a function of spacing and intercepted light, while leaf
N is a principal factor in determining legume seed yield. The average farmer yield
ranges from 1500 to 2500 kg ha−1 of soybean and 1200 to 1800 of mung bean, and
mash bean varies with seed size and crop variety. At the Agricultural Research
Institute under high-level management practices, the yields range from 2500 to
3500 kg ha−1 in case of soybean crop.
16.4.2 Storage
Well-dried seed should be stored at about 8–10% moisture content and 15 °C in
tropical regions. To maintain dried seed at a low moisture level, two practices are
feasible.
These are:
• To grow legumes for seed in an area where relative humidity is low.

• To use moisture proof containers for seed storage.
For long-term benefit and effectiveness, air-conditioned storage in tropical and

subtropical areas is more suitable. Adequately air-conditioned storage should be
maintained at a temperature of 20–22 °C or less and a relative humidity of 60% or
less when the storage period is of 8–9-month duration. Poor-quality legume seeds
will deteriorate quickly in storage than high-quality seeds. In addition, the practice
of “carrying over” legume seeds should be discouraged because this crop does not
store well and the quality of seed quickly diminishes during the second over-
wintering period.
310 Imran
16.4.3 Marketing
Besides government agencies private agencies should be directed to procure the

entire produce from the farmers with high cost and effective rate.
16.4.3.1 Advantages of Legume Planting

• It has short-duration season, and farmer could utilize rice, cotton, and rainfed
fallow areas.
• Well fit in the existing cropping system without clashing with major crops.
• Economics often dictates crop sequence, but, where choices are available,
legumes should follow crops other than legumes like cereals that make better use
of the nitrogen provided by legume crops.
• Legume also provides good-quality protein which is high in one of the limiting
amino acids and lysine and is useful as a supplement to other cereals.
References
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nesium doses on the quality and yield factors of soybean in Harran plain conditions. Int J Phys
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Akpalu MM, Siewobr H, Oppong D, Akpalu SE (2014) Phosphorus application and rhizobia
inoculation on growth and yield of soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill). American J Exp Agric
4(6):674–685
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phosphorus levels under on farm condition. Himachal J Agric Res 23:112–115
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vars at different phosphorus levels. Biol Fert Soils 22:10–15
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and phosphorus fertilizer to biological nitrogen fixation, growth and grain yield of three soy-
bean varieties on a fluvicluvisol. American J Exp Agric. 10(2):1–11
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soybean to sources and levels of phosphorus. J Agric Sci 4(6):44–53
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biological and organic manures on nodulation and yield of soybean and soil properties. Aust
J Sci 7(9):1407–1415
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(2012) Innovations in agronomy for food legumes. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 32:45–64
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https://doi.org/10.1071/CP12128
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of Oilseed Crops 17
Muhammad Ijaz, Muhammad Nawaz, Hakoomat Ali,
Mubshar Hussain, Muhammad Umer Chattha,
Ahmad Nawaz, Sajid Hussain, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Rapeseed, mustard, peanut, sunflower, soybean, sesame, safflower, castor, and
cotton seed are important oilseed crops sown worldwide. The USA, Brazil,
China and Argentina are amongst the leading countries in oilseed production.
Developing countries import edible for daily consumption. Using conventional
production practices is the major cause of lower productivity. However, under
changing climate, boost in production could only be impossible by employing
advanced production technologies.
Keywords
Conventional oilseed · Non-conventional oilseed · Canola · Rapeseed
17.1 Introduction
There are many oilseed crops sown worldwide. Amongst them, rapeseed, mustard,
peanut, sunflower, soybean, sesame, safflower, castor and cotton seed are predomi-
nant. Worldwide total area sown under oilseed crops is 205.08 million ha producing
almost 423.55 million tons of oilseeds during 2009–2010 (http://www.fas.usda.gov/
psdonline). The USA, Brazil, China, Argentina and India are amongst the leading
countries in oilseed production. Oilseed crops have become more and more
M. Ijaz · M. Nawaz · A. Nawaz · S. Hussain

H. Ali · M. Hussain · S. Ahmad (*)
M. U. Chattha

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_17
314 M. Ijaz et al.
important worldwide (Agatha 2012). In 2011, the total worldwide oilseed produc-
tion taken from soybean was 264.2 million tons, 60.5 million tons from rapeseed
and 32.9 million tons from sunflower higher as compared to records in 2008 being
by 20.34%, 24.74% and 20.00%, respectively, reflecting a continuous increasing
trend of production (Krantgartner et al. 2011).
In Pakistan, the area under major field crops is located in Indus basin region.
There are some conventional major farm cropping systems, i.e., cotton, rice, wheat,
sugarcane and maize. Wheat is amongst the rabi crops, while cotton, sugarcane and
rice are kharif crops. Wheat sowing is delayed due to harvesting of kharif crops
resulting in low yield. Amongst the oilseed crops, sunflower, soybean (spring crop
or late rabi crop) and rapeseed-mustard (rabi crops) are adjusted in these cropping
systems. Sesame and soybean are kharif crops sown in the month of July and har-
vested in the month of October. In light of these realities, oilseed crops were discov-
ered to have some particular areas for their cultivation. In Pakistan, cropping system
for oilseed crops is not well developed. However, a few compartments for sun-
flower, for example, cotton-sunflower-cotton and rice-sunflower-rice, are develop-
ing (Government of Pakistan 2017).
In Pakistan, there are basically two kinds of oilseed crops sown which are (a)
traditional that includes groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, sesame and linseed and (b)
nontraditional that includes safflower, sunflower and soybean. Very minute varia-
tion has been noticed in the area and production of oilseed crops during the last
15 years except for sunflower, sesame and rapeseed-mustard. Oilseed crops are a
source of vegetable oil which provides 2.5 times more energy as compared to pro-
teins and carbohydrates; hence, oilseed crops are important for humans in nutri-
tional aspect after cereal and sugar crops. They are a source of vitamins D and E and
some essential fatty acids. Vegetable oil is preferred over ghee from artificial sources
having zero cholesterol and higher level of mono- and polyunsaturated fats.
Appetizing oil is one of the main produces of everyday use. About 70 percent of the
demand is met through import as Pakistan is not self-sufficient in vegetable oil pro-
duction. Recently, some projects have been launched by Agriculture Department of
the Government of Punjab for increasing the production of oilseed crops. Sunflower,
canola and rapeseed-mustard with high oil yield per unit area have risen as signifi-
cant oilseed crops and with the possibility to limit the gap amongst generation and
utilization of edible oil (Government of Pakistan 2017).
17.2 Constraints Regarding Oilseed Crops
17.2.1.1 Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica Spp.)

These are the following specific constrains regarding rapeseed and mustard for
increasing production:
• Utilization of marginal lands.

17 Advanced Production Technologies of Oilseed Crops 315
• Attack of aphids.
• High quantity of glucosinolates and erucic acid.
• Competition with other winter crops such as wheat, chickpea, lentil and winter
forages (Hassanien et al. 2012).
17.2.1.2 Sesame (Sesamum indicum)

Sesame-specific constrains for increasing production are:
• Losses during shattering.

• Nonavailability of high-yielding improved varieties.
• Sowing on marginal lands.
• Attack of aphids (Hassanien et al. 2012).
17.2.1.3 Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

Some specific constrains regarding sunflower production are:
• Lack of high-yielding hybrids/varieties.

• High price of imported seed.
• Lack of awareness about the crop and its production technology.
• Bird damage.
• Poor and defective marketing/procurement system (Hassanien et al. 2012).
17.2.1.4 Soybean (Glycine max)

Soybean-specific constrains regarding production are:

• Lack of awareness about soybean and its production technology.
• Marketing problems (Hassanien et al. 2012).
17.2.2 General Production Constraints
General production constrains for increasing productivity of oilseed crops are:

• Inadequate adoption of improved agronomic practices.
• Nonavailability of quality seed.
• Low seed rate.
• Poor seed viability.
• Birds, insect, pest and disease damage.
• Lack of awareness and nonavailability of modern machinery for sowing, harvest-
ing and threshing for oilseed crops.
• Poor plant protection measures.
• Lack of conducive policies (Hassanien et al. 2012).
316 M. Ijaz et al.
17.2.3 Policy Constraints
• Lack of consistent, sound and favourable government policies.

• Continuously changing fiscal and commercial policies.
• Government’s liberal edible oil consumption policy (increased domestic con-
sumption, suppressed production and encouraged illegal export) (Hassanien
et al. 2012).
17.3 Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

Scientific name: Helianthus annuus L.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae/Compositae
Genus: Helianthus
Species: H. annuus
The taxonomic classification has been in place since 1753.

The genus name Helianthus is from the Greek word helios meaning ‘sun’ and
anthos meaning ‘flower’. Locally it is known as surajmukhi (Andrew et al. 2013).
The sunflower has a shallow root system. The stem is about 3–6 cm in diameter,
with nasty hairs and slight longitudinal edges. Sunflower for the most part grows
1–3 m tall; genotypes as long as 5 m have been reported. The number of branches
varies from 1 to 12. The alternate leaves are usually large, hairy and ovate and
attached with petioles. Sunflower creates a circle moulded head called ‘capitulum’
on the highest point of stem. In each head there are 1000–4000 blossoms. Seeds
begin to develop at the outskirts and advance towards the focal point of the circle
(Khaleghizadeh 2011).
17.3.2 History and Economic Importance
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is one of the four most vital annual crops on the
world developed for vegetable oil purpose (Harter et al. 2004; Muller et al. 2011).
Evidences in Arizona and Mexico have been found which suggest that the sunflower
was cultivated by natives about 3000 B.C. Sunflower is native to North America, but
it was commercialized in Russia. In Europe, South American countries and Mexico,
sunflower oil is preferred as vegetable oil as compared to others. About 80 percent
of the world’s sunflower is cultivated by seven countries: Argentina, the former
Soviet Union, America, Eastern Europe, Spain, China and France (NSA 2013).
There are two thoughts about the origin of sunflower; one is that sunflower crop was
domesticated in the North American region and others in Southern Mexico.
However, evidences from different evolutionary sources suggest that it has only one
centre of origin, that is, Eastern North America (Blackman et al. 2011).
In Pakistan, despite the fact that it was existing as an oilseed 40 years back, its
extension in land and generation are changing because of different production and
financial limitations. Its seed contains 35–55% oil substance. Research at its pro-
duction has demonstrated that there is awesome capability of developing it under all
the soil and climatic conditions in rainfed and irrigated cultivating systems in vari-
ous agro-environmental zones. The zone of modification for this produce is in the
cotton belt (Vehari, Lodhran, Bahawalpur, Umerkot) and rice-developing regions of
Sialkot and Badin in Punjab and Sindh, individually. The normal yield in Pakistan
is 1.3 t ha−1. Right around 99% of the region is under breeds imported by various
multinational seed organizations. Anyhow, near-future crossbreeds are additionally
accessible, and the area under them is expanding with time. It has great prospects as
intercrop with sugarcane (Government of Pakistan 2017).
Sunflower is an essential oilseed crop and has effectively become successful
under various climatic conditions of the country, i.e., in the warm and cruel states of
the southern part of the country to mellow and cool atmosphere in the north. It can
possibly fill the holes between the generation and utilization of consumable oil
(Zheljazkov et al. 2012).
17.3.2.1 Locality and Soil

Sunflower crop develops in arid to semidry atmosphere. Sunflower adjusts generally
well to a wide number of soil types. Generally, sunflower development has been
restricted to soils where the clay percentage fluctuates in the range of 15–55%,
sandy topsoil to clayey soil. At present, the significant planting zones are in soils
with a clay percentage of less than 20%. Sandy to clayey soil (pH 6.5 to 7.5) is suit-
able for its cultivation (Luqueno et al. 2014). The following qualities of soils will
constrain effective sunflower production and must be avoided:
• At seedling stage, sunflower crop is sensitive to lodging due to wind. Cultivation

of sunflower on light soil should be avoided where wind erosion is expected.
• Sunflower is extremely susceptible to damage by water logging.
• Sunflower is extremely sensitive to high aluminium levels.
• Acidic soils are not favourable for sunflower and can endure a pH of 6.5 to 8.0.
17.3.2.2 Seedbed Preparation

Poor establishment of sunflower crop can cause real yield misfortunes. High soil
surface temperatures may eliminate germinating seeds or hinder extension of the
hypocotyl of young seedlings. High temperature likewise causes quick drying of
soils, decreasing of the window of chance for planting and prompting of high water
need during summer. Tillage is the traditional method of seedbed preparation but
makes the soil prone to slaking and dispersion of aggregates. One deep cultivating
with mouldboard plough followed by cultivator will increase the rate of infiltration
of water into the soil (Luqueno et al. 2014).
318 M. Ijaz et al.
17.3.2.3 Sowing Time

In picking the best planting date, various elements must be considered, for example,
dates of frost beginning and ending, soil temperature, rainfall pattern, moisture
requirement and bird damage. Sunflower can be planted two times each year: a)
spring season and b) fall season. In spring season, sunflower is planted from the
beginning of January to the end of February and in fall season from the beginning
of July to the tenth of August (Saleem et al. 2008).
17.3.2.4 Seed Rate

Seed rate relies upon the type of soil, germination of seed, time and method adopted
for sowing. Throughout the world, 3.0 to 8.0 kg ha−1 seed rate is utilized. In Pakistan,
hybrids are planted at the seed rate of 5.0 to 7.0 kg ha−1 (Seassau et al. 2012; Emami-
Bistghani et al. 2012).
17.3.2.5 Sowing Method

Sunflower must be planted in lines to get good yield. Distance of 2.25 to 2.5 ft.
between the rows and 9.0 to 12 inches between the plants should be maintained. For
sunflower sowing using kera, dibbling, or chopa method, planter or single row cot-
ton drill can be used (Babaeian et al. 2011).
17.3.2.6 Fertilizer Application

Fertilizers applied to sunflower crop depend on the fertility of soil
Nitrogen = 150 kg ha−1 (1/2 at sowing and 1/2 at first irrigation)

Phosphorus = 60 kg ha−1 (at sowing time)
Potassium = 60 kg ha−1 (at sowing time) (Jabeen and Ahmad 2012)
17.3.2.7 Irrigation
Irrigation relies upon the climate of the region. Surface irrigation or irrigation
through raised beds is suitable. Care must be taken when utilizing water system
frameworks not to make an environment positive for diseases or pathogens, for
example, powdery mildew. For sunflower, 4–5 irrigations are required. First, water
should be applied 20 days after emergence; second, 15 to 20 days after first water;
third, at the time of flowering; fourth, at seed formation; and fifth, at milking stage
(Chigeza et al. 2013).
17.3.2.8 Weeds and Their Management

Effective weed control is an essential for high yield of sunflower. It is accomplished
by integrated weed management practices. Young plants are extremely vulnerable to
weed competition. They cannot grow fast enough to make a shade, covering weeds
to defeat their growth. Hence, the first six weeks after sowing are very crucial. By
controlling weeds at this critical period, yield can be increased (Akhtar et al. 2012).
17.3.2.9 Mechanical Weed Control

Mechanical weed control can be very effective if it is done in time and with care not
to damage the crop. Synthetic weed control can be combined effectively with
mechanical technique and cultivation practice to achieve better weed control.

Mechanical weed control can be done by following these rules:
• Encourage before the sunflower is too high for implement, generally the plants
will be harmed effectively.
• To prevent harming the sunflower roots, cultivation should be shallow (less than
75 mm).
• Leave the loose soil in the rows; this will suppress weeds which grow in the row.
• Small weeds reduce effectively when dry soil is cultivated.
• Hoeing should be done during the hottest period of the day; this reduces stem
breakage.
17.3.2.10 Chemical Weed Control

The utilization of herbicides has numerous benefits, of which the most critical is
that weeds can be controlled during wet periods when mechanical operation is not
possible. Crop rotation with maize is effective for weed control in sunflower crop.
17.3.2.11 Insect Pests and Their Management

Although various diseases and insect pests may attack sunflower, it is not suffi-
ciently enough to negatively affect yield. Insects, for example, cutworms, dusty
surface beetle and army worms, may harm rising seedlings (Khan et al. 2013).
17.3.2.12 Diseases and Their Management

The primary diseases of sunflower are typically identified with climate conditions.
So as to limit yield loss due to diseases, rotate crops to incorporate non-susceptible
hosts (Khan et al. 2013).
Alternaria Blight (Alternaria helianthi)

Management
Abstain from planting close-standing sunflower crop deposit which might harbour
the pathogen.
Charcoal Stem Rot (Macrophomina phaseolina)

Management
Management practices that can stress crop should be avoided, for example, water
stress, excess nitrogen, low potassium or herbicide damage and so forth. Irrigated
crop stress can be diminished by watering during grain-filling stage. Crop rota-
tion with maize or sorghum can reduce the onset of disease. Mung bean and
soybean are susceptible crop; thus, rotating with such crops should be avoided.
Fungicide could be used effectively for its control.
Rhizopus Head Rot (Rhizopus spp.)

Management
Restricting insect, rodent, or bird damage will decrease the danger of disease.
320 M. Ijaz et al.
17.3.2.13 Approved Varieties and Yield

Mostly hybrid varieties are cultivated throughout the world. Clayey soil is most
favourable for the cultivation of sunflower. The following are some popular variet-
ies: 1. Hysun-33, 2. T-40318, 3. Agora-4, 4. SF-0046, 5. Senji, 6. S-278, etc.
17.3.2.14 Harvesting
Sunflower harvesting should be carried out when seed moisture content is 9 percent.
Moisture content less than this will reduce yield and makes cleaning of the harvest
difficult. When sunflower becomes drier, bracts and other parts of the head break
into small pieces; thus, seed would become more difficult to clean. To reduce head
shattering and harvest losses, sunflower trays can be fitted to the cutter bar. Harvest
the crop when the back of the heads turns yellow and bracts brownish (Borbely et al.
2008).
17.3.2.15 Postharvest Handling

Sunflower seed is stored at moisture content of 9.5%. Seeds at moisture content of
10–12 percent can be stored in aerated bins. Moisture content more than 12 percent
requires drying before storage. It is dried at the temperature of 71–104 °C. Seed
must be cooled before storage. Seed even at 8.5% moisture content may spoil if
stored warm.
17.3.3 Soybean (Glycine max L.)
17.3.3.1 Botanical Description

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a vegetable crop of family Fabaceae. The plant grows
up to 1.5 metres tall, depending upon variety. Erect stems are secured with thick
dark-coloured hair. Leaves are ovate, compound, alternate and trifoliate with long
petiole. The unnoticeable, stalkless white to purple flowers are borne separately or
in little bunches in the axils (where leaf meets stem). The fruit is a wide, hairy,
flattened legume, around 10 cm (3 in) long, yellow to dark coloured when com-
pletely develop and dried (Gupta 2012). The fruits are called pods measuring up
to 7 centimetres in length, containing 1 to 4 seeds which are hued yellow, dark, or
green. Soybean has different sizes and in numerous structure or seed coat colours,
including dark, brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the mature
bean is hard and water-resistant and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or
‘germ’) from harm. Seed will not germinate if seed coat is cracked. The scar,
obvious on the seed coat, is known as the hilum (colours include dark, brown,
buff, dim and yellow), and towards one side of the hilum is the micropyle or little
opening in the seed coat which can permit the absorption of water for growing
(Khojely et al. 2018).
17.3.3.2 History and Economic Importance

About 2838 B.C., soybean was originated in China. The USA has the largest region
under soybean. Other countries where soybean is cultivated are Brazil, China,
Indonesia, Korea, Argentina and Japan (NCDEX 2008). In Pakistan, soybean has
not been able to achieve a reputable place amongst the oilseed crops. Its cultivation
sustained limited to a very small acreage and displayed a decreasing trend. It con-
tains 18 to 22 percent oil and is highly desirable in the diet and has 40 to 42 percent
of good-quality protein. Soybean is the most important oil and protein crop through-
out the world. Soybean constitutes about 30.3% of the world production of edible
oils. Soybean contains 18–22% oil and 40–42% protein. Soybean is a source of
high-quality edible oil. Often, it is utilized in food industry for flour, oil, margarine,
biscuit, candy, cookies, vegetable cheese, lecithin and numerous different items.
The production of soybean in the world is almost 265.8 million tons, accounting for
nearly 57.9 percent of the worldwide production of oilseed (FAO 2011). Soybean
produces about 60 percent of vegetable protein and 30 percent of vegetable oil in the
world. The USA, Argentina, Brazil and China are the main soybean-producing
countries, accounting for about 87.8 percent of world output. The highest average
yield of soybean is 2890 kg ha−1 in the USA, and the world average yield is
2430 kg ha−1 (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2009).

Soybean requires well-drained fertile loamy soil. Minimum and maximum soil
temperatures favourable for the germination of soybean crop are 5 °C and 40 °C,
respectively. The ideal temperature for quick vegetative growth rate is around
30 °C though; temperature over 40 °C has unfavourable impact on flower initia-
tion and retention of pod. Soybean can be sown in all type of soils; nonetheless,
crop is more yielding on fertile loamy soils. Soybean isn’t delicate to acidic soils
like some number of different vegetables. The desirable pH range is 6–6.5; how-
ever, a pH range of 5.8–7.0 is acceptable. For effective generation, soil must be
overseen legitimately to permit ideal take-up of water and supplements (FAOSTAT
2015).

A few ploughings followed by planking are adequate to get appropriate tilth. It will
enhance soil moisture conservation which is needed for soil-seed interaction, seed
germination, emergence and development (Yadava et al. 2012).

Sowing time of soybean in Pakistan relies on the cropping pattern. It is sown in two
particular seasons: a) spring and b) kharif. Short-duration cultivars of soybean are
developed in Punjab and Sindh from the third week of January to the mid of
February and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) from the mid of February to the mid
of March as spring season crop. In Punjab and Sindh, spring season crop is planted
between two cotton crops or two rice crops while in KPK intercropped in sugar-
cane or after the sugarcane crop. Kharif crop is planted in Punjab from July to
August, in Sindh from June to the mid of July and in KPK from May to June.
Microclimates in various parts of areas may move sowing time to week sooner or
later (Dias and Amane 2011).
322 M. Ijaz et al.
17.3.3.6 Seed Rate

Optimum soybean plant population is 120,000–130,000 plants per acre. Forty kg
per acre seed sown with 30 to 45 cm row spacing gives optimum population. In any
case, low populations result in less number of pods, reduced pod height and exces-
sive branching yet lodging resistant. High plant populations result in lodging, more
pod height and reduced branching (Ibrahim 2012).

Soybean should be planted in rows with kharif or cotton drill. Broadcast sowing of
soybean crop is discouraged. Row to row distance for bushy determinate cultivars
should be kept 60 cm and plant to plant distance 5 cm, while for indeterminate
short-duration cultivars, row to row distance of 30 cm and plant to plant distance of
3 cm should be maintained. Soybean should be planted in well-watered condition
3–5 cm deep, properly covered with soil and compacted. Adequate seed number and
uniform dissemination should be ensured (Ibrahim 2012).

NPK ratio of 25:50:50 kg ha−1 at the time of sowing gives higher yields. Nitrogen as
urea 1.5 bags ha−1 in November, 2 bags ha−1 in December and 1.5 bags ha−1 in
January with the fertigation or by broadcasting. Adding N compost to soybeans typi-
cally diminishes nodulation and results in few measures of N being fixed. Along
these lines, nitrogen is prescribed just when satisfactory nodulation isn’t achieved. In
any case, supplemental N should not be applied within 30 days of germination rather
should be applied before flowering, which is generally early March to spring crop
and late July to autumn crop depending upon maturity of variety (Bekele et al. 2016).
17.3.3.9 Irrigation
In Pakistan, soybean is a crop of irrigated lands; it requires annual rainfall of 600–
1000 mm. Water stress affects not only plant growth but also nodulation and N fixa-
tion. During critical period of growth, water stress is detrimental to determinate
soybean than indeterminate types. The number of irrigations depends on climatic
conditions, management practices and growth period. Irrigation before sowing is
essential to provide sufficient moisture for emergence. Next irrigation is 3 weeks
after germination and others at critical stages of growth, i.e., initiation of flowering,
pod-filling stage and seed development stage (Bekele et al. 2016).

Weeds that compete with soybean for water and nutrients are bhakra, witchgrass
and crabgrass. The following methods can be used to control weeds (Dias and
Amane 2011):
Crop rotation: Crop rotation is an effective way to control population of weeds per-
sistent in soybean crop. It reduces the possibility of plant insect and disease inva-
sion. Crop rotation enhances harvest yield, quality and soil characteristics.
Tillage practices: Tillage gives a considerable control of perennial weeds. By cul-

turing strategy, weeds are covered with soil and tossed over, with disturbance of
a definitive connection between the weed, crop and soil.
Mechanical (physical) control: Hoeing or hand weeding is the most effective way
of controlling weeds. Two weedings are enough to control weeds in soybean.
Mechanical weeding by revolving weeder is effective to control the weeds
effectively.
Chemical control: The trials have demonstrated that legitimate utilization of pre-
emergence herbicides, i.e., Stomp, Treflan and Ronstar, can be applied before the
emergence of weeds. These have been found extremely successful in controlling
an extensive variety of grasses and expansive leafy weeds..

Insects and pests that harm soybean crops are green stink bug, whitefly, cutworm
and stem fly. Insects attack all of the parts of soybean plant. Some insects can like-
wise give access to disease organisms as well as transmit them to plants.
Subsequently, understanding the connections between the insects and the crop will
empower farmers to tackle them. Another training to control insect attack depends
on information of the economic injury levels of the important insects. The economic
injury levels are the number of insects that is capable to harm the crop equivalent to
the cost of controlling insect (Dias and Amane 2011).
Biocontrol
Numerous insect parasites, predators and pathogens present in soybean help in
reducing population of insect species beneath economic levels. However, practi-
cally it is proved that beneficial insects and pathogens cannot completely control the
insect pests and integrated approach is necessary.
Cultural Control
Early planted soybeans have a tendency to get most of the flies and bugs, while late
sowing will reduce these insects and cutworms. Hence, it is still more economical
to plant right on time for significant yield and controls any insect problem with
insecticide rather than to plant late for insect control.
Chemical Control
For the management of cutworm and termite attack, apply powder of BHC 7 kg per
hectare or dieldrin 20 EC about 5–7 litre per hectare in irrigation water. Dimecron
600 ml per hectare or methyl parathion 800–1200 ml per hectare in 250 litres of
water can be used to control various insects specifically thrips, flies and larvae. In
case of severe attack, spray two times with an interval of 8–10 days.

Integrated Disease Control
Around 35 infections of economic significance influence soybean throughout the
world. Diseases can lessen production from 10–30 percent, depending on the
324 M. Ijaz et al.
seriousness, pathogen and climate. In Pakistan, just six noteworthy diseases have
been observed, and these include anthracnose, charcoal rot, purple stain of seed, pod
and stem blight and bacterial scourge/pustule (Dias and Amane 2011).
Preventive Measures
As a preventive measure, the following measures should be taken:
• Harvest soybean seed when they are mature.

• To avoid odds of soilborne diseases (root rot), avoid planting in wet and poorly
drained soils.
• Crop should be kept free from weeds as they could be the hosts of diseases.
• Seeds must be kept at 8 to 10 percent moisture at the temperature of 15 ° C to get
more seed.
Cultural Control
• Cultivate crop residues.

• Crop rotation should be done with nonleguminous crops.
• Early planting should be adopted before the rise of soil temperature.
• Appropriate plant population and more row spacing should be maintained to
prevent congested canopy favourable for insects.
Chemical Control
Seed Treatment: To avoid seed-borne diseases, seed should be treated with fungi-
cides before planting. For this purpose, Captan, Benlate and Tecto about 1.5–2 g
dose for every 1 kg seed can be used.
Foliar Spray: On the onset of disease, foliar spray with one of the systemic fungi-
cides, Dithane M-45 (1 kg ha−1), Benlate and Tecto (120–150 g ha−1), dissolved
in 250 L of water must be applied after 10 to 15 days’ interval. This procedure
should be repeated 2–3 times depending upon the harshness of disease.

NARC-1, NARC-2, Williams-82 and FS-85 are approved varieties of soybean.
Generally, an average yield of about 1500 to 2500 kilogram per hectare is obtained.
Under high level of care and management practices at agricultural research insti-
tutes, yield of 2500 to 3500 kg per hectare has been taken.
Soybean matures in 90 to 120 days depending on variety and climatic conditions.
The process of senescence is the deterioration in chemical reaction connected with
maturing of plants, and maturity is just loss of moisture from the plants or seeds
which are physiologically mature. Physiological loss of the chlorophyll and
increasing senescence are qualities of dry, dehiscent fruits (soybean pods). Ethylene
and abscisic acid play key role in dehiscence of pods and abscission (Masuda and
Goldsmith 2009).

Harvesting should be done when pods, stems and leaves are yellow or dropped.
Delay in harvesting not only increases shattering losses but also reduces seed qual-
ity. When pods open easily, harvest and thresh it after drying within 5–7 days. Well-
dried seed should be stored at about 8–10% moisture content (Masuda and Goldsmith
2009).
17.3.4 Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Class: Angiosperms
Order: Lamiales
Family: Pedaliaceae
Genus: Sesamum
Species: S. indicum
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) locally known as ‘till’ belongs to family

Pedaliaceae. It is an annual kharif crop. The stem is erect, branched and 60–120 cm
tall. Sandy soil is more favourable for sesame as roots develop more profusely
imparting drought resistance. Flowers with short peduncle are born in the axils of
leaves of the upper portion of stem and branches. The fruit is called capsule measur-
ing 2.5 to 8.0 cm in length and 0.5 to 2.0 cm in width. Maturity of capsules move
from bottom towards top. Seeds are small, ovate and 2 to 4 g in weight. Seeds are
white or black in colour depending on variety (Bedigian 2003).

Sesame is known to be originated in the Ethiopian region, while others say that
centre of origin was Afghan-Persian region. Many countries are claimed to be cen-
tre of origin of sesame due to its long history dating back to prehistoric times
(Bedigian 2004). Major sesame-cultivating countries are India, China and Burma.
The largest producers of sesame are India and China followed by Burma (4.20 mil-
lion tons) and Sudan (3.00 million tons). Sesame is tropical to temperate zone crop.
India, China, Sudan and Burma contribute 68 percent of the world production and
cultivate about 75 percent of the world sesame. India cultivates one-third of the total
sesame production. Sesame seed was found in excavations in Harappa (Pakistan)
which shows that it was cultivated in 2000 B.C. In Pakistan, area under sesame has
increased unlike other oilseed crops. Out of the total area, 94 percent is in Punjab,
326 M. Ijaz et al.
2.7 percent in Sindh, 2 percent in Balochistan and 1.3 percent in KPK (Government
of Pakistan 2017).
Sesame oil is a high-quality edible oil which is used for cooking and salad.
Sesame oil does not turn rancid like other oils. This character is due to the sesamol
in the oil, which produces a strong antioxidant called sesamol on hydrolysis. Oil is
colourless and odourless. Sesame oil improves the quality of vegetable oils. In some
medicines, sesame oil is an important ingredient. Sesame contains 22% protein.
Sesame cake is used as feed for laying hens and cattle (Elleuch et al. 2007).
17.3.4.3.1 Climate
Sesame requires high temperature of 35–40 °C for vegetative and reproductive
growth. Germination and seedling growth are delayed below 20 °C and stop below
10 °C temperature. Sesame is mostly grown on light sandy soil in rainfed areas.
Sesame is a kharif crop that is generally drought resistant. It is very sensitive to
excessive rainfall and water logging (Najeeb et al. 2012).
17.3.4.3.2 Land Selection

Sesame can grow on sandy, dark alluvial and coastal plain soils. Most favourable
are light, well-drained soils which can hold suitable amount of water for proper
growth. Sesame is salinity tolerant. The optimum pH range for sesame is 5.5–8.0
(Koca et al. 2007).

Sesame requires fine, levelled and well-prepared seedbed for even seed germina-
tion. For this purpose, 2–3 ploughings and 1–2 plankings are required (Zerihun
2012).

Sesame is a kharif crop and requires high temperature for high yield. Sesame can
withstand a maximum temperature of 50 °C with minute injury. Sesame is planted
in June in irrigated areas and in rainfed areas usually after the monsoon rains but not
later than first week of August. Early planting increases onset of insect and disease
attack, while late planting reduces yield (Ashri 2007).
17.3.4.6 Seed Rate

Sesame seeds are small in size; they need to be mixed with sand or ash to ensure
even distribution of seed. Seed rate and plant-to-plant distance vary with variety and
locality. Distance between rows is kept 45 or less. When line sowing is done
3–3.5 kg ha−1, seed rate is kept, while when broadcasting is done 4.0–4.5 kg ha−1,
seed rate is kept. Optimum planting density (222,000 plants ha−1) or 22 plants per
metre is very important for high yields. Seed with germination percentage of
85–90% must be planted to ensure good germination and crop establishment
(Sarwar and Haq 2006).

(a) Hand Drill/Wheat Drill
In good moisture (water) condition, drill the seed in rows 45 cm apart. Seed place-
ment should be at the depth of 2–2½ cm.
(b) Tractor-Mounted Drill

To avoid uneven sowing depth and seed placement, speed of tractor should not
exceed 8 km per hour. Before sowing, check the drill properly (Sarwar and Hussain
2010).

Application of fertilizer is the most important factor in sesame production. Balanced
nutrient is of vital importance. At the time of sowing, apply urea (0.5 bag) + DAP (1
bag) acre−1 or urea (0.5 bag) + nitrophos (1 bag) acre−1.
17.3.4.9 Irrigation
As sesame is a drought-resistant crop, it can be grown on reserved moisture in soil
without rain or irrigation. Sesame is very sensitive to excessive moisture, rainfall
and humidity. Standing water reduces yield, and humidity encourages pathogen
attack. Three to four irrigations are required for proper growth, although a number
of irrigations depend on the environmental factors. First irrigation is done 15 to
20 days after sowing, second after 30 to 40 days, third at the time of flowering and
fourth at the time of seed formation to avoid moisture stress (Borchani et al. 2010).

Sesame seedling is slow growing; therefore, they are not able to compete well with
weeds. If subsequent weeding is required, it should be done with implements which
work at shallow depth to avoid injury to the roots. One weeding is enough that is
done a week after emergence. These weeds can easily be controlled by adopting
cultural methods and chemical methods depending on type of weed, degree of infes-
tation, weather conditions, etc. (Borchani et al. 2010).

Sesame is attacked by a variety of insects; the use of insecticides is economical for
the control of insect, while cultural methods are also used. Where there is chance of
seedling losses, seed rate is increased, and where flower-destroying insects are com-
mon, varieties that produce more flowers are grown. To avoid pest infestation, plant-
ing dates can be varied, and crop residues can be destroyed to eradicate overwintering
pest population.
The most harmful insect of sesame is till leaf roller (Antigastra catalaunalis).
This can be controlled by spraying with a recommended insecticide, e.g., By-Thiroid
50 EC at 700–1200 ml/ha or Thiodan 35 EC at 1200–1800 ml ha−1. Jassids and
whitefly may also need to be maintained as they are carrier of virus which causes
phyllody and leaf curl diseases.
328 M. Ijaz et al.

Root rot caused by Rhizoctonia phaseoli and Macrophomina spp. is a major disease
of sesame. This can be prevented by growing sesame in light perfectly levelled soil
to avoid poor drainage. Other diseases which attack sesame are charcoal rot, alter-
naria leaf spot, bacterial leaf spot, phyllody and root wilting. For the disease man-
agement purpose, healthy seed of resistant varieties should be used. Before sowing,
seed should be treated with systemic fungicide to avoid any fungal disease attack
(Singh et al. 2007).
17.3.4.12.1 Management
For the management of diseases, some important measures should be taken. Healthy
seed of resistant varieties should be used, and before sowing, seed treatment must
be done. For this purpose, one of the systemic fungicides 2 to 3 g per kilogram of
Captafol, Dithane M-45, or Benlate may be used. Cultural practices, for example,
tillage and rotation, may also be adopted. For the management of bacterial diseases,
spray the crop with 1 kg acre−1 of Dithane M-45 in 100 L of water and 500 g acre−1
of Tecto and Benlate with an interval of 10 to 15 days (Rao et al. 2002).

For better yield, only approved varieties should be sown, for example, P-37,
PR-19-9, Pb Til-90, Til-18, Til-93 and Ts-3. Many varieties are under pipeline at
Oilseed Research Institute (Sarwar et al. 2005).
Sesame crop fully matures in about 100 to 120 days. To avoid yield losses due to
shattering, sesame should be harvested well in time when moisture is adequate.
Harvesting should be done when crop is 75 percent mature and capsules turn yel-
low. For drying purpose, bundles should be made and kept in upright position. In
this way, seed gets fully matured and dried due to proper sunlight. Threshing should
be done after one week of harvesting in clear weather so that seed can be dried up
to moisture of 10 percent before storage (Langham and Wiemers 2002).
17.3.5 Rapeseed and Mustard

After cotton, rapeseed-mustard is the second most important source of oil in
Pakistan. It is grown on area of 307,000 hectares producing 233,000 tons per year.
Rapeseed-mustard oil contributes 17% to the domestic production. Brassica napus
grows to 100 cm (39 in) in length with lower leaves pinnatifid and glaucous and the
upper leaves fastening the stem. The flowers are yellow and around 17 mm (0.67
inch) across. B. napus is different from B. nigra yet can be recognized by the upper
leaves which don’t catch the stem and from B. rapa by its littler petals which are
under 13 mm (0.51 in) (Islam 2005).
Canola: Canola has less percentage of erucic acid and glucosinolates as com-
pared to rapeseed, which are unhealthy and anti-nutritive. These elements are not
present in canola-type varieties.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
Species: B. napus

Rapeseed-mustard is an important source of income for small farmers in rainfed
areas. Import can be substituted by increasing the local production of rapeseed-
mustard. Rapeseed-mustard adapts well in rainfed areas as it requires less water
about 80–240 mm. Around 30.7% of rapeseed-mustard is grown in rainfed areas.
Rapeseed was used in India as a source of vegetable oil for edible and nonedible oil
purposes as early as 4000 B.C. (Friedt and Snowdon 2009).
In Pakistan, rapeseed-mustard is the second most vital oilseed crop after cotton.
It is sown over a region of 307,000 ha with yearly generation of 233,000 tons and
contributes around 17% to the local produce of palatable oil. Rapeseed (Brassica
napus), oilseed rape and on account of one specific group of canola, is a brilliant
yellow flowering individual from the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage fam-
ily), developed predominantly for its oil-rich seed. It is the third biggest source of
vegetable oil in the world. Rapeseed and mustard crop are a rich source of oil and
protein. The seed of rapeseed and mustard contains around 46.00 to 48.00 percent
oil and 43.60 percent protein. Rapeseed dinner is an amazing food (Government of
Pakistan 2017).

Rapeseed is grown in areas with temperate environment, and it requires lower tem-
perature for vegetative and reproductive development. The growth cycle of rapeseed
may be as short as 70 days or as long as 380 days. Rapeseed and mustard crop
develops best under moderate cool temperatures up to blooming. Subsequent to
flowering, they can withstand high temperature; however, more heat and drought
stress may bring about a reduction of seed rate, crop yield and oil content (Islam
2005). Amongst rapeseed and mustard crops, raya and taramira are more tolerant to
extraordinary climatic conditions, while on other hand, sarson is vulnerable to dam-
age by freezing temperature. Rapeseed and mustard can be developed on a wide
variety of soils including both light and heavy soils. It can withstand a pH of 5.50 to
8.00. However, the most suitable soils are deep and free from hardpan and those that
permit great taproot expansion and unlikely turn into hardpan after rain, so that
seedlings may develop easily. Rapeseed is not resistant to water logging, but it toler-
ates water logging in winter particularly in the.
case of Brassica campestris. It is nonacidic in the presence of high aluminium
and manganese levels (Kumrawat and Yadav 2018).
330 M. Ijaz et al.

For quick germination and fast growth of seedlings, Brassica must be sown into a
well-founded, saturated warm aerated, well-prepared seedbed. For rapeseed and
mustard, well-levelled seedbed should be prepared with an adequate amount of
moisture at the depth of 2–5 cm. Loose seedbed with lumps larger in size is not
favourable as it dries out quickly, and germination is affected badly. A very fine-
textured seedbed is also not suitable as a hardpan is formed due to heavy rains fol-
lowed by drought. Direct drilling or zero tillage can be used for the sowing of
rapeseed. For ideal seedbed preparation, mouldbroad plough should be used 30 to
40 days before sowing and 2 to 3 times cultivator at the time of sowing followed by
planking (Kumrawat and Yadav 2018).

Sowing time of rapeseed and mustard is influenced by type of soil, variety, tempera-
ture and moisture level of the soil. Sowing time varies in different regions of
Pakistan. It is sown in mid-September to mid-October in KPK, first October to first
November in Punjab and mid-October to mid-November in Sindh and Balochistan.
17.3.5.6 Seed Rate

Yield is not influenced essentially because of varying plant densities. Alterations in
seed rate have little impact on yield. The seed rate of rapeseed and mustard relies on
technique for sowing, purity and germination percentage of seed, variety and soil
moisture content. Thin yield stands remunerate by additional expanding. Prescribed
seeding rates are 1.5 to 2.0 kg acre−1 of land. Seed rate over 2.5 kg acre−1 will bring
about tall spindly plants liable to lodging. Increased seed rate lessens weed invasion.
At NARC, it has been watched that thick harvest stand discourages an excessive
number of branching and yield develops more uniformly which encourage combin-
ing (Saha et al. 2003).

Line sowing is suitable for rapeseed and mustard sowing. A distance of 30–45 cm
should be maintained between the rows. Wheat sowing implement can be used for
this purpose with some adjustments for the placement of seed at uniform depth and
to ensure proper space between the rows (Sarkees 2013).

Fertilizer requirement for different varieties under specific conditions will vary
according to crop requirements and soil fertility status. Rapeseed and mustard
respond well to the organic manure as well as chemical fertilizers (Sarkees 2013).
Nitrogen is needed for the proper leaf development and for the retention of leaves in
an active photosynthetic state. Phosphorus reduces the time for flowering and seed
maturity. A ratio of 40:40 of nitrogen and phosphorus may be used for rapeseed and
mustard crop (Hossain et al. 2011).
17.3.5.9 Irrigation
The number of irrigations differs with natural conditions like temperature, precipi-
tation, soil compose and assortment/crossbreed. For the most part, rapeseed requires
3–4 irrigations relying on rains. Drought or water stress at the time of flowering,
formation of pod and maturity of seed influences yield; therefore, irrigation at these
critical stages is very necessary (Kumrawat and Yadav 2018).

Rapeseed seedlings are extremely vulnerable to weed in the initial couple of weeks
after planting. Weed control at this time is very important. It can be done through
culturing or chemical control (Verma and Dawson 2018).

The major insect pests of rapeseed and mustard are the painted bug and aphids.
These suck cell sap from the leaves, flowers and pods. Painted bug can be controlled
by pre-sowing application of Thimet 10-G granules 15 kg ha−1 with a soaking dose
of water. Aphid should be controlled when the number of nymphs reaches 5. For this
purpose, Metasystox 25 EC should be used at the rate of 750–1250 ml ha−1.

The main diseases of rapeseed and mustard are powdery mildew, downy mildew
and white rust. In powdery mildew disease, leaves, stems and pods are covered with
white powder of disease spores which retards the development of chlorophyll. It can
be controlled by Bayleton 20 g per 100 L of water. Downy mildew can be controlled
by spraying with Vitigram Blue at 500 g per 100 L of water. White rust spots appear
on lower surface of leaves. It can be controlled by spraying Vitigram Blue 500 g in
100 L of water.

Canola type: Dunked, Rainbow, Oscar, Con-I (early maturing, in 160 days) and
19-H
Non-canola: BARD-1, Chakwal Raya, Sultan Raya and KS-75
Hybrids: Hyola 420, Hyola 308 and Hyola 401
Local hybrids: Tarnab-I, Tarnab-II and Tarnab-III
Harvesting is a critical task for rapeseed as early harvesting may reduce seed quality
and late harvesting may increase shattering. Harvesting should be done when seed
colour has turned black and moisture is less than 15 percent. Threshing can be done
by thresher, bullocks, or tractor after which winnowing is needed to clean the seed
(Kumrawat and Yadav 2018).
332 M. Ijaz et al.

Green and moist seed is like an impurity. Proper ventilation is essential in store to
prevent heating. Seed should be dried properly at 9% moisture content to avoid
attack of insect, pest and diseases.
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Advanced Production Technology
of Sugar Crops 18
Omer Farooq, Naeem Sarwar, Tauqeer Ahmad Yasir,
Muhammad Mazhar Iqbal, Tayyaba Naz, Muqarrab Ali,
Sohaib Afzal, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
World food demand is fulfilled by approximately 150 plant species grown nearly
all the parts of this earth. Sugarcane and sugar beet are the only crops that pro-
vide sugar, a common name used for sucrose. Sugarcane is dominantly cultivated
for centuries in most of the tropical regions of the world to cover the sugar
demand (Fig. 18.1), whereas sugar beet crop is comparatively new, appeared dur-
ing the nineteenth century and was grown in temperate regions. Approximately
140 million tonnes of sugar is produced each year all over the world, and it is
increasing approximately two million tonnes per year. We can get potential yield
of both these sugar crops if we follow the advance production practices recom-
mended for sugarcane and sugar beet. The details of such production practices
are given here.
Keywords
Sugarcane · Sugarbeet · Energy crops · Production practices · Technology
O. Farooq · N. Sarwar · S. Afzal · S. Ahmad (*)

T. A. Yasir
College of Agriculture, BZU, Bahadur Campus, Layyah, Pakistan
M. M. Iqbal
Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, GOP, Chiniot, Pakistan
T. Naz
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
M. Ali
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_18
336 O. Farooq et al.
Fig. 18.1 Area and production of sugarcane in most sugar-producing countries
18.1 Advanced Production Technology of Sugar Crops
18.1.1 Introduction
Sugarcane is a perennial plant and a major cash crop and provides raw material to
many other industries. Sugarcane is well grown over the tropical and subtropical
countries worldwide for the production of sugar and other products. Among the long
list of cane-producing countries of the world, the top 10 are Brazil, India, China,
Thailand, Pakistan, Mexico, Colombia, Australia, Guatemala and the United States.
The botanical classification of sugarcane is Saccharum officinarum, and it
belongs to the family Gramineae. Several species and hybrids of genus Saccharum
of family Gramineae are called sugarcane. Those of the widely recognized are
Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum barberi.
18.1.2 History and Origin
Sugarcane is the principal sweetener that was first dominant in the subcontinent of
India more than 25 centuries ago, while China was the first country where commer-
cial sugar was first produced from sugarcane. The word “sugar” is thought to have
been taken from “Sanskrit” and Sanskrit literature from India in between 1500 and
500 B.C. This innovative name was later then changed to “sukkar” in Arabic,
“sakharon” in Green and sucre in French and concluded to sugar in English. As far
back as chronicled history goes, there are evidences of the use of sugarcane in India
and China, and there can be little doubt that primitive man cultivated it long before
then. Sugarcane existed in a wide range of types or varieties that differed exten-
sively in colour and form. There can hardly be any doubt that the improvement of
sugarcane varieties has a history as long as its cultivation. The history of sugarcane
18 Advanced Production Technology of Sugar Crops 337
was the introduction of thick curtailed varieties of Saccharum officinarum in 1791

by Captain Bligh.
18.1.3 Economic Importance
Sugarcane is a new substantial for sugar industry. It provides not only income to the
cane growers but also service to the field and industry workers. It has many by-
products, viz. bagasse, molasses, filter cake and wax. Bagasse is used for the manu-
facturing of paper and hardboard and also for livestock feed. Molasses can be used
in the production of alcohol, livestock feed and fertilizers. Filter cake is a rich source
of organic and macro−/micronutrients, whereas sugarcane wax obtained from filter
cake is used as a product in the manufacture of shoe polish. The air-dry (AD) “mill-
able” cane stalk, approximately 75% of the entire plant, contains 11–16% fibre,
12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% non-sugars and 63–73% water.
18.1.4 Choices Before Plantation
18.1.4.1 Selection of Soil

Sugarcane responds better on a fertile, well-drained soil with an abundant moisture
supply. It can be grown well on a diversity of soil ranging from sandy loam to heavy
clay, but the most suitable soil is deep clay loam as topsoil with high moisture-
retaining capacity. Sugarcane crop is tolerant to both acidic and alkaline soils to a
certain level (a pH of 6.5 is considered best), but it is also considered as a relatively
salt-sensitive crop as salinity induces water stress, which causes restricted growth
by premature wilting and scorching of the leaves and, in severe cases, death of the
plant. Similarly, waterlogged soil with no drainage is also not suitable for it.
18.1.4.2 Type of Machinery Available

Starting from the land preparation to planting and other operations, different types
of machinery are required. Among the various types of primary and secondary till-
age instruments, viz. subsoiler or chisel plough, cultivator, ridger, rotavator and disc
harrows, we choose one or more instruments depending upon the previous crop. We
use machineries for sowing, like pit hole digger and sugarcane ring pit planter,
according to our selection of sowing method, whereas other machineries used for
plant protection measures, harvesting and miscellaneous purposes include boom
sprayer and sugarcane harvester.
18.1.5 Choices at Planting
18.1.5.1 Land Preparation

Ploughing with subsoiler or chisel, twice use of cultivator before making deep
trenches with ridger and use of rotavator or disc harrow, if stubbles of previous crop
are present, help in good preparation of land before sowing of sugarcane. After
normal operations, there is requirement of a holistic approach with respect to each
planting method. For pit plantation, 100 mm water is required followed by sequenc-
ing water up to the level of field capacity level so that pits can be therefore dug. In
case of trench plantation, tractor-mounted ridger is required after pulverizing the
soil to fine particles up to the size of clayey loam (0.02 mm). For strip plantation of
sugarcane, hand tools can be of very use.
18.1.5.2 Planting Methods

• Strip planting
• Pit planting
• Trench plantation of sugarcane
• Ring pit plantation
• Chip bud technology
18.1.5.2.1 Strip Planting

In strip planting, 90/30 cm double row strips are more important. Actually, this
method replaced the narrow row methods at 60 cm because it was inefficient in
promoting the germination and has about 30–35% yield losses in comparison with
the genetic potential yield.
18.1.5.2.2 Pit Planting

Pit plantation was introduced after its successful implementation in growing fruit
trees. Pit plantation is being recently introduced for cane cultivation during the last
decades. A lot of planting geometries and their effect on the farmer economics are
under review. Plant geometry of 45 cm, 60 cm, 75 cm and 90 cm with 30 double-
budded setts has been studied. Pits in each case are mined to a level of 90 cm depth
which is then filled with farmyard manure (FYM). Moreover, a technique of diago-
nal pit plantation at different distances has been experimented. There are four obser-
vations. Firstly, cane yield in this system depends upon the number of pits in unit
area. The more the pits, the more would be the yield. Secondly, cane size remained
very thin as cane diameter revolves around 2.2 cm to 2.35 cm. Thirdly, this tech-
nique is labour intensive; however, this problem may not be a large issue in ratoon
crop. Finally, though yield is more than that of any other system, farmers may not
prefer this due to its high cost of production. It is noteworthy that pit plantation is
useful in saving 20% water resource and 30% fertilizer resource; thus, close appli-
cation in rhizosphere can be instrumental in fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) and
water use efficiency (WUE).
18.1.5.2.3 Trench Plantation of Sugarcane

Trench plantation is important in the areas of severe drought and water logging situ-
ation because planting cane at ridge side can save water and absorb water when it is
in excess. Trench plantation is being practised in planting geometries of 90 cm apart
and 120 cm apart. With less cost of production, trench planting is practised because
of its ability to refurnish farmers with great economic returns. Recently, two modern
techniques of cane plantation have been introduced; the first one is ring pit method
of cane cultivation and the second one is chip bud technology.
18.1.5.2.4 Ring Pit Method

In ring pit method, three budded sets are sown in a manually dug pits filled with the
fired trash and tops so that potash contents are higher in the system which can save
extra potash supplementation and even nitrogen resources.
18.1.5.2.5 Chip Bud Technology

Chip bud technology was first practised in Tamil Nadu, India, and it resembled the
process of nursery growing as that of in rice. Only buds at internodes are cut and
made to grow either in specialized trays or polythene bags filled with soil. Then
these seedlings are transferred to the soil (soil which is between the field capacity
and permanent wilting point). Some 6000 seedlings per acre are transferred to the
soil. The major advantages of this technology are saving water for the entire germi-
nation season and adequate organic matter readily available to the seedlings.
18.1.5.3 Appropriate Time of Planting

There are two planting seasons of sugarcane in Pakistan:
• Fall: first week of September–mid of October.

• Spring: mid of February–end of March.
18.1.5.4 Cultivar Selection

Cultivar should be selected according to the recommendation of the government
agencies because different cultivars are recommended for the specified areas and
time periods. Some early-maturing varieties (Nov–Dec) recommended for the gen-
eral cultivation in Pakistan include CP 77-400, CP 72-2086, CP 43–33, CPF-237,
HSF-240 and HSF-242 (CPF-243 for Southern Punjab only), whereas medium-
maturing varieties (Dec–Jan) that are considered the best choice for best yield in
Pakistan are SPF-213, SPF-245, SPSG-26 and BL-4 (BF-162 and SPF-234 for
Southern Punjab only), and for late-maturing varieties (Feb–Mar), L-118 and CoJ-
84 are the best choice for better yield achievement.
18.1.5.5 Seed Rate

There are two bases upon which we can choose the seed rate of sugarcane:
1. Cane weight basis

• Thick varieties: 90–100 mounds acre−1
• Medium varieties: 80–90 mounds acre−1
• Thin varieties: 70–80 mounds acre−1
2. Cane setts basis
• For normal planting, 24,000 double-budded setts per acre.
• For late planting, 30,000 double-budded setts per acre.
18.1.6 Management After Planting
18.1.6.1 Irrigation Management

Profitable cultivation of sugarcane requires plenty of water. Twenty mega-litres
of water is required on an average by the crop to fulfil its metabolic activities
and losses during the course of irrigation and evapotranspirational require-
ments and thereafter (Shrivastava et al. 2011). For the spring crop, water
requirements on an average range from 120 to 160 cm, and for fall crop, it
ranges from 200 to 250 cm.
Total irrigation requirement is 16–20 cm. Because of convenience, farmers of
subtropical region adopt flood irrigation; however, a lot of water get wasted in this
method due to uneven distribution in the field, and therefore, water use efficiency is
low. In furrow irrigation method, irrigation water is allowed to soak down in the root
zone by running small streams in between cane rows. This method of irrigation is
more efficient as the surface area for evaporation is decreased (Singh et al. 2015).
The escalating deficit rainfall scenario defines that drought is a recurrent phenom-
enon associated with tropical sugarcane farming, and the water available for sugar-
cane cultivation will be decreased in the coming years. However, on the opposite,
sufficient soil moisture availability during crop growth period is of paramount
importance to get good yield. One kilogramme of sugarcane production requires
about 125 L of irrigation water. Cane yield and actual transpiration have a linear
relationship (Carr and Knox 2011). Up to 60% productivity losses can be caused by
water shortage (Basnayake et al. 2012).
Irrigation schedule
Months No. of irrigations a
Interval (days)
March–April 3 20
May–June 5 12
July–August 3 15
Sep–October 3 15
Nov–January 2 40
Total: 16
a
Subject to the soil and weather conditions. In case of water shortage and during the months of high
temperature, apply water by alternate skip irrigation method
18.1.6.2 Earthing Up of Plants

Many aspects are responsible for the low yield of sugarcane. The cane yield is
adversely affected by malnutrition and lodging problems (Anwar et al. 2002). The
earthing up done to a height of 30 cm can increase millable cane yield by 12% over
no earthing up, while lodging can reduce sugarcane yield by 30 percent (Ahmad
1997), and these findings were further supported by recent investigations (Chattha
et al. 2006). Aslam et al. observed earthing up improved significant cane yield
(Aslam et al. 2005). The ratoon cropping is more efficient and gives better quality
juice and sugar recovery than plant cane. Excessive tillering in ratoon crop is a
desired inheritance character, but all tillers produced from the ratoon crop may not
be millable cane. In decreasing the number of excessive tillers, earthing up plays an
important role. Besides, it has added benefits of pruning/cutting of old roots, mois-
ture conservation, addition of organic matter, enhanced availability and uptake of
plant nutrients, efficient utilization of solar radiation, suppression of weeds and pre-
venting canes from lodging (Yadav and Shukla 2008). Earthing up crop to a height
of 20 cm produced higher soil volume also significantly recorded higher cane
length, cane diameter of top middle and bottom cane weight as well as cane yield
(Dougall and Halpin 2008). There were other researchers who reported that earthing
up by tractor-mounted cane ridger is effective for increase in cane yield (Ali and
Afghan 2000).
18.1.6.3 Integrated Nutrient Management

There is vital need to implement appropriate agronomic practices (like harvesting
date, height of harvesting, cutting stubble saving, off-barring) in sugarcane crop for
attaining good ratoon yield; one of the most important factor is nutrient manage-
ment affecting tonnage of ratoon cane (Rana and Singh 2003). There are 16 chemi-
cal elements which are known to be necessary for sugarcane according to the
standards of plant nutrition. Air and water cover the major portion of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Others like N, P, K, S, Ca, etc. are required in less
quantity and require to suppliant in soil is not able to supply them in sufficient
amount (ICAR 2006). Being a long duration crop with C4 metabolism, sugarcane
produces very heavy biomass and demands massive amounts of moisture, nutrients
and sunlight for its optimal production. For every tonne of cane produced, it was
expected that the crop releases micronutrients and 0.56–1.20 kg of N, 0.38–0.82 kg
of P2O5, 1.00–2.50 kg of K2O, 0.25–0.60 kg of Ca, 0.20–0.35 kg of Mg, 0.02–
0.20 kg of Na and 2.0–2.7 kg of SO4 (Zende 1990). Large amounts of nutrients are
released from the soil when we cultivate sugarcane continuously. In a virgin soil in
Australia, King et al. (1953) found that after 22 years of sugarcane cultivation, N
contents decreased from 4.8 g kg−1 to 2.2 g kg−1. The suggested dosages range from
70 to 400 kg N, 0 to 80 kg P2O5 and 0 to 141 kg K2O ha−1 (Singh and Yadav 1996).
Dosages of fertilizers recommended are usually higher in tropical states compared
to subtropical states. Saini et al. (2006) also said that for sugarcane nutrients appli-
cation recommendation of up to 400 kg N, 170 kg P and 180–190 kg K ha−1 depends
upon its duration and fertility status of the soil. Ambrosano et al. (2011) said that N
applied as leguminous green manure recovers the 19–21% N and N applied as
ammonium sulphate recovers 46–49% N by the first two consecutive harvests.
Cesar et al. (2011) stated that total nitrogen consumed by shoot from urea was
15.9%. The expected seasonal nitrogen use efficiency was 0.841 t of cane kg−1 N
(Chattopadhyay et al. 2004). Canes lacking in nitrogen show even yellowing of the
leaves, retarded growth, stalks of smaller diameter, senescence of old leaves and
premature drying (Humbert and Martin 1955). Cane yield decreases by excessive
use of nitrogen and also ultimately affects the cane juice quality (Singh and Yadav
1996). Chiranjivi Rao et al. (1974) stated that upper levels of N application in the
variety Co-6304 cause reduction in cane yield and sugar content. More use of nitro-
gen makes sugarcane juicy and soft, but it becomes prone to pests and disease. Due
to heavy top, crop tends to lodge (Verma 2004). Phosphorus is vital to accelerate the
development of shoot roots and to increase tillering, but its accessibility depends on
the fixation of natural and applied P. Improved yield, final stalk production, weight
per cane and tiller production increase by phosphorus application. At optimal level
of P application, sugar content and purity of juice are also improved (Elamin et al.
2007). Stunted stalks, reduced tillers, narrow leaves, restricted root development
and slow growth result due to deficiency of P. Hunsigi (1993) stated that deficiency
of P is shown in poor tillering and rooting, delayed “close-in” and shorter internodes
which taper quickly at the growing point. At the time of planting, phosphorus is
generally applied at a single dosage. Single super phosphate and diammonium
phosphate are sources of P and should preferably be applied in bands near the seed
pieces or “setts” to reduce fixation. But insoluble sources should be thoroughly
mixed with the soil-like powdered rock phosphate (RP). Potassium plays a signifi-
cant role in plant growth and metabolism. During moisture stress, potassium plays
a role in regulating the uptake of water and leaf stomatal opening, the maintenance
of cell turgidity and the formation of proline and is of particular importance in view
of the periodic drought conditions that affect the sugar industry. In the accumulation
of sucrose synthesis and translocation of proteins and carbohydrates, potassium is
also vital. Agronomic value of K rests with improved cane volume, girth and weight
per cane, drought and disease resistance and reduced lodging. Mostly when harvest
is delayed, K application frequently increases the percentage of sugar in the cane
and juice recovery (Hunsigi 2011). Potassium deficiency first appears on older
leaves and margins of leaves, and tips become brown with necrotic spots, which
coalesce and show typical “marginal firing” (Hunsigi 1993). Potassium increase in
plant tissues may delay sugar processing due to scale formation in pans (Hunsigi
2011). Meyer and Wood (2001) also stated that increase in potassium uptake and
exhaustibility of final molasses, colour and ash content of raw sugar might be influ-
enced by high potassium level in the juice. Fertigation can be a more effective
means of applying crop nutrients, mostly nitrogen and potassium, so that nutrient
application rates could be decreased in fertigated crops. Thorburn et al. (2003) stud-
ied the different N rates (0–240 kg ha−1 year−1) applied through drip fertigation
responses in cane and sugar production in Australia. Through drip irrigation and
application of 80 kg ha−1 of N, the cane and sugar yields did not significantly
increased, while the recommended dosage for traditional irrigation systems was
160 kg ha−1 year−1. Organic manures like FYM and composts have been convention-
ally significant inputs in crop production for maintaining soil fertility and yield
stability. Long-term studies (Joshi and Zende 1971; Singh and Yadav 1994) have
stated the need for basal application of FYM or compost for maintaining optimal
soil fertility status. Integrated use of mineral fertilizers with organic manures also
helps to capture the decline in cane yield. Several experiments have been conducted
in almost all the sugarcane-growing states to study the response of sugarcane to the
application of 25 t of FYM per hectare (Kailasam 1999). Crop residues like green
foliage of crops, cane trash and rice and wheat straw have been recycled in
sugarcane cultivation. As a result, economy in fertilizer N has been affected

(Kumarswami et al. 1995; Rana et al. 2003). The nitrogen stability studies using
15 N have provided direct indications for N fixation taking place in sugarcane. Patel
et al. (1993) observed that application of 5 kg ha−1 Azotobacter culture by root band
method at planting of sugarcane in medium black soil had creased the yield of sug-
arcane at Padegaon in Maharashtra. The culture with 250 kg N ha−1 gave an econ-
omy of 100 kg N ha−1 by producing cane more or less equal to that with 350 kg N ha−1.
Farmyard manure, compost and oil cake from groundnut, castor, mustard, mahua,
safflower, etc. are very commonly used in sugarcane for increasing cane yield and
improving soil fertility (Kumarswami et al. 1995; Rana et al. 2003).
18.1.6.4 Integrated Pest Management

Weeds, insects, nematodes and pathogen may affect sugarcane (Leslie 2004). Some
pests cause serious economic losses by reducing the value of crops to below eco-
nomic thresholds. For example, eldana (Eldana saccharina Walker) can completely
destroy the crop (Leslie 2009), rust (Puccinia melanocephala H&P Sydow) and
smut (Ustilago scitaminea H&P Sydow) reduce yields on average by 30%
(Rutherford et al. 2003), Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers can cause yield reduction by up
to 50% (Campbell et al. 2007a, b), and 60% to 80% yield losses can be caused by
high nematode populations (Spaull and Cadet 1990). Knowledge-based integration
of all methods that reduce pest levels in crops is the integrated pest management
(IPM) (Conlong and Rutherford 2009). As such, IPM covers a wide range of pest
control, and growers can use the following methods, chemical, biological, agro-
nomic and regulatory practices, to alleviate the influence of pests on yields and
quality. However, emerging farmers do not readily adopt some of these control
methods (Eweg 2005). How well the needs of this sector are currently being
addressed this should be counted to determine, and to guide future research.
Agronomic methods include those that improve soil health, thereby increasing crop
resistance to pests such as weeds and nematodes (Berry and Rhodes 2006; Rhodes
et al. 2009). Local Pest, Disease and Variety Control Committees (LPD&VCCs) use
controlling approaches such as diagnostics (threshold values and surveillance) and
regulations governing orders for plough-out and seed cane transport, as well as bios-
ecurity (prevention of the introduction of new pests). For the latter, before permit-
ting external sugarcane consignments from being planted, imported varieties are
screened, thus becoming a control method that prevents pests spreading into the
local industry (van Antwerpen 2005).
18.1.7 Management at Maturity and Harvesting
18.1.7.1 Right Method of Cutting

The Australian sugar industry has constantly wanted to improve the efficiency
of harvesting since the beginning of harvesting machinery in the 1970s. Finding
the balance between minimizing sugar losses, maintaining cane quality and
optimizing throughput to manage harvesting costs is a major challenge for the
industry in the past. The advantages of improved moisture retention and better
weed control without the need for continuous cultivation are brought by the
adoption of green cane harvesting. However, finding a balance between effec-
tive cane cleaning to minimize extraneous matter (EM) levels and excessive
cane loss is the challenge created by adopting green cane harvesting. Customers
expect to deliver high-quality cane from high-quality sugar drive growers and
harvester operators. However, this results in increased sugar losses because it
can push harvesting machinery beyond its capabilities. To make simpler har-
vesting process, mechanical harvesters/cutters were developed to deal with the
diminishing supply and increasing cost of labour, stating that physical and all
the above-mentioned properties, however, depend on the plant species, variety,
stalk diameter, maturity, moisture content, cellular structure, plant height,
stalk-cutting direction and bending-plant knockdown.
18.1.7.2 Manual Harvesting

In many countries, even today, various types of hand knives or hand axes are used
for manual harvesting. Among the numerous tools, the cutting blade is usually
heavier and easier to use and facilitates efficient cutting of cane. Improper harvest
of cane leads to loss of cane and sugar yield, poor juice quality and problems in
milling due to unnecessary matter. So, manual harvesting requires skilled
labourers.
18.1.7.3 Mechanical Harvesting

In view of diversion of labour to other remunerative works in industry, con-
struction, business, etc., harvesting labour is becoming scarce and costly.
Because of non-availability of canes, due to shortage of harvesting, labour mill
stoppages are common. Many mills are expanding their crushing capacities,
and most of the new mills are of higher crushing capacity. Therefore, daily
requirement of cane is increasing, hence greater demand for harvesting labour
to harvest the sugarcane for mills. Added to this, most of the present-day agri-
cultural labourers are not interested in field operations involving much drudg-
ery. Thus, in the coming years, the labour position deteriorates further.
Therefore, adoption of mechanical harvesting of cane in the future is inevita-
ble, so mechanization is unavoidable. In countries where sugarcane cultivation
is highly mechanized like Australia, Brazil, the United States, South Africa,
Taiwan, Thailand, etc., huge harvesters are employed for cane harvesting. In
these countries, large farms owned by either mills or big farmers grow sugar-
cane on large plantation scale. The working capacity of mechanical cane har-
vesters varies with the size (2.5 to 4 ha per day of 8 h). The limitation of
mechanical harvesting machines is the use of such machineries in small, irreg-
ular and fragmented holdings, diversified cropping patterns and limited
resource capacity of small and marginal farmers in several countries.
18.1.7.4 Scheduled Harvesting
18.1.7.4.1 Crop Age

Based on maturity (age), group harvesting is done. Farmers who grow a specific
variety are usually familiar with the harvesting time. Even based on crop age, most
sugar factories give cutting orders to farmers. Since planting time, crop manage-
ment practices, weather conditions, etc. affect maturity, there is no scientific method.
However, there are certain physical and morphological parameters upon which in
the field crop maturity can be directed, like calculating brix reading. For example,
cane is not fully mature, if the brix reading of lower internode is much higher in
comparison to upper internodes. Cane is said to be matured once the said difference
is less than or equal to 1.0 unit. Many physicobiochemical indicators for cane matu-
rity have been reviewed by Solomon et al. (2000).
18.1.7.4.2 Cane Plant Parameters

There are some cane parameters that confirm its maturity, like when its foliage turns
light green to pale yellow with shedding and drying of lower leaves and when the
growth of stalk has completely ceased and the moisture contents of sheath drop
from 85 to 72% or even less, while nitrogen content of leaves is 2 to 1.25% or even
less.
18.1.7.4.3 Cane Juice Quality Parameters

Similarly, there are many juice quality parameters that are good indicators of cane
maturity. Among these, brix, sucrose contents, reducing sugars and NPK contents
are very important. Cane maturity has achieved when brix is more than 18, sucrose
contents are more than 16, level of reducing sugars falls from 0.4 to 0.2% or even
less and purity is higher than 85, whereas optimum NPK concentration at maturity
should be around 200, 300 and 1000 ppm (NPK, respectively) in cane juice.
18.1.8 Yield Estimates
Sugarcane is the prominent cash crop of Pakistan, but average yield of this crop is
far below than the required estimates to attain self-sufficiency in its production. The
yield of sugarcane is quite low, 500–800 mounds acre−1, considerably less than the
potential yields. The gap between potential and actual yield is very wide due to poor
management practices, higher costs of inputs, low prices of output, delay in pay-
ments, postharvest losses and lack of scientific knowledge which were the major
problems in sugarcane production (Nazir et al. 2013) including lack in adopting
updated production technology by farmers. The traditional methods are usually
employed by most of the farmers in the management of sugarcane. Production pro-
cess is not mechanized and is mostly labour intensive. Majority of the growers do
not follow modern practices like proper use of FYM, inter-culturing, fertilizer
application, sprays and timely irrigation. The problems of postharvest losses include
improper handling, harvesting and inadequate transport facilities (Nazir et al. 2013).
In order to fulfil the existing gap between actual and potential yield, the productivity
of sugarcane could be enhanced through the substantial government policies like
pricing and marketing facilities for the farmers. The industry is not working within
research domains of sugarcane improvement; rather, adhocism is being adopted by
this sector. Without proper transfer of production technology, adequate credit sup-
plies and utilization of cess funds, it would be impossible for researchers to evolve
varieties having better yields and disease resistance. The need of the hour is to adopt
improved plant protection and agronomic practices. The need in improvement of
better milling and processing practices cannot be overemphasized (Akhtar 2000).
18.1.9 Cane Processing and Utilization
Sugarcane is grown, generally as a perennial crop, in tropical and subtropical areas.

The world of sugar production has undergone massive changes in the last decade
which have resulted in the emergence of many technological changes as technolo-
gists strive to develop more efficient and cheaper processes. Food, feed and energy
are the major products of the sugarcane plant; sugarcane fibre and bagasse fuel the
cane-processing plants and provide electricity to local grids through cogeneration
(Clark and Edye 1996).
According to Clark and Godshall (1988), processing has traditionally taken place
in two stages:
1. Extraction of juice from sugarcane and conversion to raw sugar (94–98%

sucrose), at factories (mills) in areas where sugarcane is grown.
2. Refinement of raw sugar, shipped from areas of production to areas of consump-
tion, to white and brown refined products (white sugar of 99.9% sucrose).
The sugarcane plant cannot be stored after harvest: sucrose begins to decompose
shortly after the stalk is cut. The two-stage production process evolved because of
the need to convert cane rapidly into a product that could be stored.
A third major traditional process has been the production of “plantation white”
sugar, a white sugar of over 99% sucrose produced directly from sugarcane. The last
two decades have seen changes and new trends in these traditional systems, as con-
sumption of sugar in the tropical producer countries increases (and decreases in the
United States because of replacement by cheap corn syrups) and as these producer
countries, and their growing food processing industries, demand higher-quality sug-
ars. Most notable are the increase in refining done in the tropics and the new pro-
cesses for production of high-quality white sugar directly from cane juice.
18.1.10 Production and Trade
According to Pakistan Economic Survey 2017–2018, the sugarcane crop production

at 81.102 million tonnes showed an increase of 7.4% over the last year’s production
of 75.482 tonnes in the country (Table 18.1). Its production accounts 3.6 percent in
agriculture’s value addition and 0.7% in overall GDP. Sugarcane crop that was cul-
tivated on an area of 1.31 million hectares compared to last year’s area of 1.22 m ha
witnessed an increase of 7.8% (GOP 2018).
The contribution of the Punjab in the total cane production is around 60%, Sindh
about 30% and NWFP 10% (Table 18.2). About two-thirds of the total production
of sugarcane is used in the production of centrifugal sugar every year, while the
remaining harvested crop is used for the preparation of non-centrifugal sugar (Gur)
and for seed purpose.
In Pakistan, the sugar industry has grown from 2 sugar mills in 1947–1950 to the
current 77 sugar mills: 39 sugar mills are located in the Punjab, 32 in Sindh and 6 in
NWFP. If these mills are to be run at full capacity, it would require about 65 million
tonnes of sugarcane, which is still a dream. The sugar production capacity of these
mills is above five million tonnes, which has so far not been achieved, due to short
production of sugarcane crop. The sugar sector is operating at only 60 to 70%
capacity. There is a strong competition among the mills for acquiring more sugar-
cane. The middleman is very strong in this setup and exploits the situation in his
favour. Sometimes the mill has to pay over and above the minimum price announced
by the government. The sugar mills in Sindh usually have to face this kind of situa-
tion, due to short supply of sugarcane. However, in the Punjab the size of crop is
large and the situation is somewhat better. In NWFP, a large part of the sugarcane is
used for production of non-centrifugal sugar (Gur), and the situation is even worse
because of the low supplier of sugarcane to the sugar mills (Khan and Jamil 2004).
The export of sugar has been increased continuously from 23,980 million tonnes
in 2008–2009 to 399,309 million tonnes in 2016–2017. There was 21266.4 million
rupees foreign exchange earned through sugar export in 2016–2017. Along with
sugar, there were Rs. 1217 million exports of molasses during 2016–2017. The
export of molasses has also continuously increased in the last 10 years (Table 18.3).
Table 18.1 Area, production and yield of sugarcane

Years Area Productio Yield
(000 hectare) % change (000 tonnes) % change (Kgs/ha.) % change
2013–2014 1173 – 67,460 – 57,511 –
2014–2015 1141 −2.7 62,826 −6.9 55,062 −4.3
2015–2016 1131 −0.9 65,482 4.2 57,897 5.1
2016–2017 1218 7.7 75,482 15.3 61,972 7.0
2017–2018 (P) 1313 7.8 81,102 7.4 61,768 −0.3
Source: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2017–2018
348
Table 18.2 Area and production of sugarcane by province

Province Area (“000” hectares) Production (“000” tonnes)
2015–2016 2016–2017 2017–2018 2015–2016 2016–2017 2017–2018
Punjab 705 792 810 41,988 48,030 48,350
Sindh 313 320 325 17,984 18,195 18,250
NWFP 117 113 115 5498 5275 5400
Baluchistan – – – – – –
Total 1149 1225 1250 65,470 71,500 72,000
Sources: Provincial Agriculture Departments and FAS/Islamabad, 2017–2018
O. Farooq et al.
Table 18.3 Import and export of sugar and molasses

Export of sugar Export of molasses Import of sugar
Quantity (mil. Value (Rs. Quantity (mil. Value (Rs. Quantity (mil. Value (Rs.
Year tonne) mil.) tonne) mil.) tonne) mil.)
2008– 23,980 639.68 936,338 7486.6 125,743 4505.41
2009
2009– – – 961,300 7784 370,000 14811.00
2010
2010– – – 86,437 892.1 1,031,919 58669.01
2011
2011– 48,672 2575.40 55,608 578 17,221 1166.83
2012
2012– 1,064,215 51692.07 225,221 2747.3 7308 500.64
2013
2013– 647,333 29638.23 197,342 2510.4 9824 535.37
2014
2014– 708,356 32685.50 83,229 1010.4 10,056 631.43
2015
2015– 293,541 13817.63 73,062 874.4 535 28.52
2016
2016– 399,309 21266.44 101,410 1217.1 8923 535.45
2017
Source: PSMA, Annual Report (2017)
In squat, there is need of the hour to establish more research institutes for the
development of crop production and increased recovery from the crushed cane in
order to attain autarky in sugar and earn more foreign exchange.
18.2 Advanced Production Technology of Sugar Beet
18.2.1 Introduction
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) is a sugar-producing, biennial tuber crop, predominantly

grown in most of temperate regions of the world. It belongs to Amaranthaceae fam-
ily, also recognized as the goosefoot family. The plant usually comprises three main
parts, namely, crown, neck and roots. The crown produces leaves that, by photosyn-
thesis, formed sugar which is finally stored in the roots. Sugar beet has tap root
system that is white in colour, conical in shape, fleshy and having a flat crown in
appearance. In composition, roots contain sugars (about 12–20% depending upon
the cultivar used and crop husbandry), water contents (75%) and pulp (5%) that is
water insoluble. Sugar beet shared 30% (approximately) in world sugar and has
higher sugar contents as compared to sugarcane. Among the main sugar beet-
producing countries of the world, currently, Russia is the largest producer, followed
by France and the United States (FAOSTAT). In Pakistan, during 2016, sugar beet
was grown on an area of 2889 hectares with total production of 117,546 tonnes
(FAOSTAT). Sugar beets exclusively grow in temperate zones. Foliage has dense
green colour and many in number. Plant attains a height of approximately 35 cm in
general, while the average weight ranges between 0.5 and 1 kilogramme.
18.2.2 History and Origin
The sugar beet is derived from many years of breeding the domesticated beet (Beta
vulgaris L.). It is said to get its name from the Greek letter beta because the swollen,
turnip-like root resembles a Greek B. However, the oldest known beet type, chard,
was domesticated by at least 2000 B.C. and was grown by both the Greeks and
Romans. Chard was originally used medicinally and for its dense foliage growth as
a pot herb much like spinach or some of the Chinese leaf vegetables that are used
today.
For the first time, sugar beet was cultivated in gardens to use as a vegetable crop
about 2000 years ago. However, this practice of sowing sugar beet in gardens has
been ended now from years. The selection as vegetable was opted possibly from
different Beta species that at that time were growing along the coasts of the
Mediterranean. While in the whole Europe started from Middle Ages onwards it
was mainly utilized as cooking purposes.
18.2.3 Economic Importance
The largest producer of sugar beet is Europe that accounts for about 75% in the total
beet sugar production, whereas the United States and Asia both make up 19% in the
total sugar beet production, while Africa and South America account for the rest
(Draycott 2006). France is the top producer of sugar beet (33.795 million tonnes)
with the highest per hectare yield (84 t ha−1), whereas, currently, in Pakistan, it is
only cultivated in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province, and the area under crop is
very low (0.117 MT) with low average yield (40 t ha−1) (FAOSTAT) mainly due to
lack of modern production technology, rising prices of farm inputs and marketing
problems (Iqbal and Saleem 2015). Statistic and economic analysis discovered that
sugar beet can give higher net returns (Rs. 9000 ha−1) in comparison to sugarcane.
18.2.4 Choices at Planting

Seed germination is dependent on specific soil moisture condition in which seed
imbibition occurs to initiate the germination process. Optimum absorption of mois-
ture to seed requires better seed-soil contact (Bewley et al. 2013; Smýkal et al. 2014).
Soil cultivation practices have strong impact on seed germination. Positive soil com-
paction impact is reported on some crops, but it is important to know what degree of
soil compaction is beneficial (Hakansson et al. 2002; Romaneckas et al. 2009b).
Sugar beet usually grows in 45–50 cm apart rows, and plant population should be
80–100,000 plants ha−1 for better crop yield. Sugar beet can’t compensate the area
more than 50 cm, so growers must maintain the row spacing to avoid the yield loss
(Jaggard 2011). Pelleting technique is frequently used in sugar beet to alter the seed
shape suitable for the drill machine. Moreover, seed coating is also being used to
facilitate the pesticide application around seed (Hill 1999). Therefore, better under-
standing of soil-seed contact is needed for successful crop production. Many
researchers have defined seed-soil contact on their own way to highlight the impor-
tance of seedbed preparation and its role to mature the crop (Brown et al. 1996).
Previously, the soil characteristics like bulk density, porosity, compaction, etc. were
used to estimate the seed-soil contact. But Brown et al. (1996) reported that due to
highly heterogeneous soil structure it’s not easy to estimate the actual seed-soil
contact. Due to this, they used the modelling techniques which were further
explained by Zhou et al. (2014).
Currently, X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) has been used to quantify
the soil structure allowing 3D visualization of seedling development (Blunk et al.
2017). X-ray CT has been also used to examine the root architecture and its devel-
opment (Mooney et al. 2012; Pfeifer et al. 2015). Advantages of this technique have
been further expanded to analyse the effect of seed priming within seed (Gagliardi
and Marcos-Filho 2011; Devarrewaere et al. 2015). Blunk et al. (2017) used this
approach for precise seed-soil contact calculation in sugar beet and found the best
strategy to estimate the seedbed preparation.
18.2.4.2 Cultivar Selection

Yield is highly dependent on interaction of genotypes to environmental factors.
Better understanding of this interaction and suitability of genotypes leads towards
better crop production. Many studies have reported the yield and quality (sugar
contents, brix) differences in various sugar beet genotypes (Balakrishnan and
Selvakumar 2008). Globally, many sugar beet varieties were studied, and variation
was recorded in terms of sugar yield and in some other allied traits. Ahmad et al.
(2012) reported the superiority of SD-PAK09/07 among 11 varieties of sugar beet
under study. This cultivar showed the highest sugar yield, sugar contents and beet
root yield as compared with other cultivars. Refay (2010) added that Samo-2 variety
performed better as compared with other varieties in Saudi. Similarly, Radivojevic
et al. (2013) studied 17 locally available sugar beet varieties in Serbia and con-
cluded the highest yield in Marcus, while cultivar Esprit gave minimum sugar yield.
The best selection of variety as per climate is the basic management strategy for
good sugar beet yield.
18.2.4.3 Planting Time

Planting time is very important for successful crop production as it defines the
growth period of crop and its response to environmental conditions which varies
from one region to another. It has significant impact on seed germination, growth,
yield and quality characteristics of sugar beet. Phonological response of plants is
dependent on threshold temperature below which growth may cease, and this
mechanism differs among plant species (Ash et al. 1999; Bellin et al. 2007). Seedbed
moisture and soil temperature affect the sugar beet seed germination as it germi-
nates easily in 20–23% soil moisture, while 15–25 °C soil temperature is considered
optimum for sugar beet (Copeland and McDonald 2001; Spaar et al. 2004). Early
planting favours better accumulation of sugar in sugar beet roots as compared to
late-sown crop in which winter season checks the sugar accumulation (Metcalfe and
Elkins 1980). October-sown sugar beet performed better as compared to November-
sown crop under climatic condition of Egypt (EL-Kassaby and Leilah 1992).
Similarly, Ghonema (1998) added that October-planted sugar beet exhibited
improved growth in terms of leaf area index, root characteristics and sugar yield as
compared with September-/November-sown crop. Leilah (2005) at Egypt reported
that sowing sugar beets on first October resulted in significant increases in length,
diameter and fresh weight of roots, foliage fresh weight, root/top ratio as well as
root, top and sugar yields ha−1. Meanwhile, the highest TSS, sucrose and purity
percentages were found with planting sugar beets on first September.

Underground part of sugar beet is the main economic component which greatly is
influenced by sowing method. Therefore, the soil near the root zone of the sugar
beet significantly affects its growth and sugar contents. Studies showed that laser-
levelled soil along with deep ploughing enhanced sugar beet root length and its
diameter as compared with other treatments (El-Maghraby et al. 2008). Different
methods are being used to grow sugar beet like flatbed planting and ridge sowing.
In flat bed method, the top soil is ploughed and levelled for seed sowing, while, in
case of ridge sowing, the soil is scrapped in defined region to raise seedbed. Both
sowing methods affect the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties, which
affects the sugar beet yield. Furthermore, sugar beet is also sensitive to stagnant
water which may be avoided to choose the sowing method. Direct sowing of sugar
beet is also found better as compared with transplanting of seedlings (Garg and
Srivastava 1985). Sugar beet gave the highest yield with more sucrose contents
when grown on east-west ridges (Narang and Bains 1987). El-Kassaby and Leilah
(1992) added that sugar beet enhanced root diameter and weight when grown on
sides of ridges. Contrary to this, study revealed that fault and ridge sowing did not
affect the root yield, sucrose contents and sugar yield. Zahoor et al. (2007) found
that planting techniques significantly affected the germination, petiole length, num-
ber of beets, leaf area, top yield and root yield.
18.2.4.5 Sowing Depth

Seed germination and its emergence are influenced by soil aeration, temperature
and physical impedance to move through the seedlings. It is highly needed to sow
seed at proper depth to get good plant population in the field for optimum crop
yield. Study revealed that sugar beet germination was affected by soil depth and
germination of deeply (6 cm) sown seed was less than that of sown in 0–5 cm soil
depth (Romaneckas et al. 2009a). Khan (2013) added that seed planted in depth of
1 to 1.25 inches showed maximum germination and seedling emergence.
18.2.5 Management After Planting
18.2.5.1 Integrated Nutrient Management

Plant nutrition is an important factor on which basic success of crop is dependent.
Fertile soil favours the growth of plant as compared with unfertile soil due to the
nutrient availability. Soil organic matter is the material which binds the moisture
and nutrients to reduce its wastage. Intensive cropping with fertilization of inor-
ganic nutrients has greatly influenced the soil organic matter. Many sources of
organic matter are available like farmyard manure and compost which should be
added along with inorganic nutrient for integrated nutrient application. This strategy
not only improves the soil organic matter status but also provides nutrition to crop
on sustainable bases. Balakrishnan and Selvakumar (2008) explained that integrated
nutrient management treatment enhanced sugar beet yield as compared with sole
inorganic application. Another study revealed that application of 120 kg ha−1 inor-
ganic nitrogen along with 20 t FYM meets the nutritional demand of sugar beet crop
and enhanced its yield as compared with other fertilization techniques (Bhullar
et al. 2010).
18.2.5.2 Irrigation Management

Sugar beet yield can be affected by over- as well as under-irrigation as both may
induce stress for plants which leads towards lower crop yield. Water stress in early
growing period of sugar beet is the major cause of lower crop yield (Abdollahian-
Noghabi 1999). Many researchers highlight the importance of irrigation for sugar
beet and reported that irrigation after every 3 weeks enhanced crop yield than irriga-
tion after every 7 weeks (Besheit et al. 1996; Abo-Shady Kh et al. 2010; Hassanli
et al. 2010). Isoda et al. (2007) further added that optimum irrigation management
in sugar beet not only enhanced the yield but also resulted in improved root sugar
contents. Therefore, first irrigation should be given in such a way that water should
not flow over the ridges. Depending on the soil type and rainfall, irrigation schedul-
ing is required. Irrigation scheduled at 75 and 50 mm evaporation produced the
highest yield of sugar beet. Under this scheduling, 10–12 irrigations are required to
grow a luxuriant crop of sugar beet (Shukla and Awasthi 2013). Irrigation require-
ment of sugar beet is fairly low; not more than 4–5 irrigations amounting to 37.5–
60 cm would be required for the purpose (Gupta et al. 2013).
18.2.5.3 Pest Management

Pest management is very much important to be safe from the economic losses in
potential sugar beet yield. In this regard, the first step is to establish a best pest man-
agement strategy for the identification, and the next step is effective pest scouting
and estimation of their damage for the crop. The last option in this regard is to
devise control measures to maintain high economic returns. Management options

for the control of such pest include:
• Cultural practices (that include cultivation approaches, alteration in planting

geometry, selection of resistant varieties, irrigation management, crop rotation
pattern, etc.)
• Biological control (that include effective use of biological organisms, predators
and parasites).
• Chemical control (exploiting insecticides, weedicides and other chemicals for
the control of pathogens and pests).
There is a long list of insects that feed or damage the beet crop including aphids,
armyworms, beet leafhopper, cutworms, Empoasca leafhoppers, flea beetles, grass-
hoppers, leaf miners, salt-marsh caterpillar, seed-corn maggot, spider mites, web-
worms, whiteflies and wireworms (Becker et al. 2013). Among all these insects of
beet crop, the most popular insects are flea beetles (Chaetocnema concinna), thrips
(Thrips spp.), capsid bugs (Lygus rugulipennis) and beet leaf miners (Pegomya hyo-
scyami). For the good crop stand and best yield, the aforementioned management
approaches should be exploited. Recommended insecticides after proper insect
scouting should be applied for achieving good results. Insect damage is usually
associated with the onset of moderate temperatures (15 to 27 °C). Monitoring of the
crop field during such weather conditions should be increased, and if required,
insecticide should be applied according to the recommendation of the experts.
Similarly, there are many diseases, namely, aphid-borne viruses, Cercospora leaf
spot, curly top, Erwinia soft rot, Phytophthora and Pythium root rots, powdery mil-
dew, Rhizoctonia root and crown rot, rhizomania, Rhizopus root rot, Sclerotium root
rot, seedling diseases and whitefly-borne viruses, which are common in different
beet-producing areas of the world (Becker et al. 2013). Among the management
measures, definitely prevention is the best choice for the all growers anywhere. In
case of controlling disease, soil health plays a vital role, so soil health should be
mainly focused. It must be properly nourished and have enough organic matter con-
tents. One important step is the correct diagnosis of plant disease because most
diseases have a properly well-established management protocol. In many cases,
aphids attain beet yellows virus along with beet mosaic virus mainly from overwin-
tering beets, whereas, beet western yellows virus and beet chlorosis virus have a
very extensive host range. For the control measures, remove such overwintering
hosts (during beet-free times) along with plants to avoid migrating aphids (vector-
free timings, generally during May and June). Once a field has been affected with
viral diseases, planting again in that field can cause severe economic loss. So, next
time, sowing at least 5 miles away can save such losses.
Weeds are the worst pest of sugar beet that competes with crop for water, space,
light and nutrients (Gupta 2004; Qasem and Foy 2001). Furthermore, sugar beet has
no good competitive ability, so weed control is necessary. Yield reduction from
weeds depends upon on the density, type and competitive ability of the persistent
weed species. Early emerging weeds have better chance to grow taller and occupy
the area and are considered as the most competitive and can cause even complete
yield loss (up to 100%). For such type of weeds, complete weed control program is
required. Preventive approaches are often considered the best for such conditions
starting from seedbed preparing cultivation till interculture operations (Norris et al.
2003). When all other weed control options fail, chemical control is very much
important and often gives the best results. In weed control option, we can exploit
pre-emergence or post-emergence selective herbicides available in markets accord-
ing to type of weeds prevailing in the field. The most common weeds present in
sugar beet crop are black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus), small nettle (Urtica
urens), fat-hen (Chenopodium album), common orache (Atriplex patula), cleavers
(Galium aparine) and knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare). Sugar beet is a long-season
crop that remains in the field for many months. So, long-season weed control is dif-
ficult because herbicide applied early in the season may not last till harvesting.
Therefore, complete weed control systems include the use of preplant herbicides
along with some post-emergence herbicides also. There are several herbicides reg-
istered for sugar beet, but no single chemical can give complete weed control.
Therefore, combination of two or more herbicides may have yielded good results.
So, summarizing all these pest management options, prevention is the best option
that one can adopt. Providing the best sanitation conditions can prevent crop from
all types of pests.
18.2.6 Management at Maturity and Harvesting
What is the proper stage of harvesting the roots that is acceptable for its processing?
Earlier, there has been a belief that sugar beet experiences a specific ripening point
that was known as “sugaring-up” (Ulrich 1955). Later on, it was proved that sugar
as a proportion of the root’s dry matter touches a maximum during early August
(Milford 1973), and after that, sugar and non-sugar dry matter are added in an
equivalent proportion.
Nonetheless, on a fresh-weight basis, it is a natural process for sugar proportion
to enhance gradually during summer and early autumn. However, maximum limit of
sugars and its time of achievement can widely fluctuate from place to place and
season to season, chiefly because of the lowering of soil moisture and rainfall. So,
practically, the ideal time for sugar beet harvesting is after passing mid of August
when on a fresh-weight basis, sugar concentration reaches its maximum value, that
is, about 14%. And this is the least percentage; a processor can think to run his fac-
tory. If not harvested at the aforementioned time, beet keeps on growing as long as
the environmental conditions allow, but with the passage of time, these conditions
become unfavourable for beet growth.
Table 18.4 Area, yield and production of sugar beet

Production
Year Area (ha) % Change Yield (tonnes ha−1) % Change (tonnes) % Change
2005 2813 42.9797 120,902
2006 3101 10.24 30.10 −29.96 93,345 −22.79
2007 2046 −34.02 40.86 35.74 83,600 −10.44
2008 1926 −5.87 33.28 −18.55 64,095 −23.33
2009 2300 19.42 40.44 21.52 93,010 45.11
2010 1479 −35.70 36.06 −10.82 53,336 −42.66
2011 800 −45.91 26.13 −27.56 20,900 −60.81
2012 1300 62.50 47.85 83.14 62,200 197.61
2013 2500 92.31 52.00 8.68 130,000 109.00
2014 2700 8.00 41.48 −20.23 112,000 −13.85
2015 3200 18.52 39.03 −5.91 124,900 11.52
2016 2889 −9.72 40.68 4.23 117,546 −5.89
Source: FAO (2016)
18.2.7 Yield Estimates
The area under sugar beet production in Pakistan was 2813 ha in 2005 which
decreased to 800 ha in 2011. There was 45% decrease in cultivated area in 2011
than the previous year. However, after 2011, it is continuously increasing and
reached to 3200 ha in 2015. In 2016, there was a slight decrease in cultivated area
to 2889 ha, indicating 9.7% decrease than the previous year. The sugar beet yield
was 43 tonnes ha−1 in year 2005 and 41 tonnes ha−1 in 2016 (Table 18.4).
18.2.8 Production and Trade
Sugar beet is produced annually on the order of 400 million tonnes, in temperate
climates. Sugar beet is the second most important sugar crop next to sugarcane that
covers 30–40% world sugar (Clark and Edye 1996). The production of sugar beet in
Pakistan was 120,902 tonnes in 2005, but due to decrease in cultivation area, it was
decreased to 20,900 tonnes in 2011. However, a continuous increase has been
observed in sugar beet production after 2011, and production again reached 117,546
tonnes in 2016 (Table 18.4; FAO 2016). Sugar beet has many benefits compared to
sugarcane due to short duration with high sucrose contents. The primary product is
sugar (sucrose); other products include feeds (molasses and beet pulp) and raffi-
nose, pectin and arabinan. Recently, production of paper from sugar beet pulp has
begun (Draycott 2006).
Being sugar beet as a renewable resource, a range of chemicals is available from
chemical and microbial reactions on process streams and sugars. Chemical transfor-
mations include production of sucrose mono-, di- and polyesters, polyurethanes,
carboxylic acid derivatives and thermally stable polymers. Products of microbial
processes include polymers to be used as biodegradable plastics and others for food
and nonfood use (levan, dextran). Basic chemicals, including citric acid and lactic
acid, and amino acids, notably lysine, are produced from sugar sources. The produc-
tion of ethanol, as fuel or as beverage, is well known (Clark and Edye 1996).
In this regard, sugar beet might be an excellent alternative to sugarcane around
the globe by enhancing processing facilities in the existing sugar mills. The policy-
makers and governments should emphasize the attainment of self-sufficiency in
sugar production by increasing sugar beet production.
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of Potato 19
Tanveer Ahmad, Rana Muhammad Sabir Tariq,
Qumer Iqbal, Sajjad Hussain, Aamir Nawaz,
and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the important tuber crop cultivated worldwide.
Multimillion people use potato as staple food in various developing countries.
Potato plant belongs to the family Solanaceae. Its tubers develop as an under-
ground stem that is edible and rich in nutrition. Its productivity could be increased
through employing advanced production technologies under climate uncertainty.
Keywords
Solanum tuberosum · Production practices · Advanced technology
T. Ahmad
Department of Horticulture, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan
R. M. S. Tariq
Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Q. Iqbal
Fiblast, LLC, Tuskegee, Alabama, USA
Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
S. Hussain
A. Nawaz
Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
S. Ahmad (*)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_19
364 T. Ahmad et al.
19.1 Introduction
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the important tuber crop cultivated worldwide. Its
consumption on daily basis is more than a billion people in more than 125 countries.
Multimillion people use potato as staple food in various developing countries
(FAO 2009). Potato plant belongs to the family Solanaceae. It is a perennial herb
bearing white-purple flowers and small green fruits among some cultivars, each
containing about 300 seeds. Its tubers develop as an underground stem that is edible
and rich in nutrition. It bears auxiliary buds and scars of scale leaves.
Potato crop can be raised from seeds and pieces of tubers (vegetative propaga-
tion). The dormant buds present on the surface of tubers (called eyes) give rise to
new shoot under suitable growing conditions. Although sprouted tubers of potato
are not recommended and liked by consumers and processing industries, it is desir-
able to get sprouted tubers for propagation. About 80% of the total plant biomass of
potato is consumable indicating good economic potential (Osaki et al. 1996).
Morphologically, potato tuber looks round-oval in shape having multiple sizes
and colours. These characters largely depend on the genetics of the cultivar. They
are considered as main quality attributes for marketing. Quality potatoes are rather
smoother, free from sprouts or any visual disorder.
Potato tuber constitutes only 20% dry matter, and the remaining part is water
content. This factor is also dependent over multiple features like the type of cultivars,
soil, temperature, location, maturity and postharvest storage conditions (Burton
1989). Dry matter of potato accounts for 70% of starch as major constituent. Other
components include proteins, vitamin, minerals and some trace elements (Table 19.1).
Potato starch consists of amylose and amylopectin. Ratio of amylose/amylopectin
is variable among potato cultivars (Fig. 19.1). These nutrients play a crucial role in
processing operations and quality estimation, because processing performance is
modified and improved by several biochemical and physical means. For the benefits
of humans, potato cultivars having slow starch digestibility are being developed. They
will be helpful for the treatment of glycogen storage disease, diabetes mellitus, etc.
Carotenoids and phenolics are the potential antioxidants in potato. Carotenoids
range as low as 50–100 μg/100 g in white flesh and higher as much as 2000 μg/100 g
in dark yellow-orange flesh. Phenolic compounds in potato are chlorogenic acid
Table 19.1 Average composition of a Elements Quantity

potato tuber, per 100 g, after boiling in skin Water 77 g
and peeling before consumption (USDA,
Carbohydrates 20.13 g
National Nutrient Database)
Energy 87 kcal
Protein 1.87 g
Fat 0.1 g
Calcium 5 mg
Potassium 379 mg
Phosphorus 44 mg
Iron 0.31 mg
Niacin 1.44 mg
Thiamine 0.106 mg
Riboflavin 0.02 mg
19 Advanced Production Technologies of Potato 365
Fig. 19.1 Basic structural design of (a) glucose units, (b) amylose and (c) amylopectin. (Pérez
and Bertoft 2010)
(30–60 μg/100 g FW), while the total anthocyanin content may be 40 mg/100 g
(Brown 2005).
The total sugar content in potato varies from 1 to 7 g kg−1. Immature tuber con-
tains high concentration of the reducing sugars (glucose, fructose) but decrease with
the passage of time at the ending season. Hence, starch-sugar conversion is an
important phenomenon during postharvest storage. It is an important criterion for
the potato crisp industry. This evaluation has become more sophisticated with the
development of analytical techniques as they provide detailed information about the
physiological and nutritional function of the potato components.
Children and pregnant females can safely use potato as source of dietary fibre
and energy. Glycaemic impact, glycaemic index and digestibility are the key nutri-
tional characteristics that are considered technically important in human health.
Better nutritional benefits can be obtained from potato by selecting suitable variet-
ies, storage and the processing techniques.
Apart from nutritional use, potato is used for the manufacturing of biode-
gradable packaging, pharmaceuticals, vaccines and fermentation process
(Singh and Kaur 2016).
19.2 Taxonomic Status
The taxonomy of Solanum (section Petota) is rather intricate due to sexual compat-
ibility among species, auto- and allopolyploidy, interspecific hybridization, mixing
of sexual and asexual reproductive fashions, species divergence and phenotypic
plasticity. Hence defining species and distinguishing them becomes more difficult
(Camadro et al. 2012; Spooner 2009). Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic have also been
identified in potato. Regardless of ploidy, endosperm balance number (EBN) has
been assigned to their species. This number is assigned on the innate ability of the
species to hybridize with others (Hanneman 1994; Johnston et al. 1980). The EBN
is considered as a strong post-zygotic barrier in crossing phenomenon, whereas
unilateral incompatibility is pre-zygotic hybridization barrier. In this barrier, styler
tissue inhibits pollen tube elongation, but the reciprocal cross is successful when
366 T. Ahmad et al.
self-compatible species play a role of female (Spooner et al. 2014). Hawkes (1956)
provided the first modern taxonomic treatment of ‘Petota’ followed by Correll
(1962), Hawkes (1963, 1990), Bukasov (1978) and Spooner et al. (2014). Up to
1990, potato species were characterized by morphological features only. Later, the
taxonomic boundaries were more critically refined by using a range of molecular
markers (Spooner et al. 2014). Harlan and de Wet (1971) introduced the gene pool
concept. It is summarized as the degree of relatedness and can be classified on the
basis of the degree of hybridization among species.
The concept of gene pool includes three gene pools, viz. GP-1 (primary), GP-2
(secondary) and GP-3 (tertiary). The first gene pool, i.e. primary gene pool, comprises
biological species. In the secondary gene pool, wild relatives crossable with some
manipulations are included, whereas GP-3 mainly contains those species which allow
gene transfer through radical techniques (de Haan and Rodriguez 2016). As regards
production trends, the annual production of potato exceeds 376 million metric tons.
China being the world’s leading potato producer has contributed more than 80% rise
in global potato production during 1990–2002 (Wang and Zhang 2004).
As compared to other tuber crops, potato has evolved due to its higher yields and
nutritional value. Moreover, developing countries have added a large share of potato
production as compared to the developed countries (FAO 2010). Potato ranked
fourth among the most important crops after rice, wheat and maize. It is cultivated
over 20 million hectares throughout the world. Since the 1960s, Africa and Asia
started adding more contribution in potato production; until in 2005, the collective
production of Asia, Africa and South America has exceeded that of the USA and
Europe (FAO 2008). Over three decades (1981–2011) Afro-Asian countries have
raised the production area up to 300% in total area under potato cultivation, and
until now, about 50% of the worldwide potato cultivation area lies only in the Asian
countries, i.e., 96 million hectares (Figs. 19.2 and 19.3).
Largest potato producers on global scale include China, India and Russia with an
output of 88 MT, 45 MT and 30 MT, respectively. The average yield per hectare is
18.9 metric tons. The yield gap is more prominent in Africa, i.e. only 14.2 t ha−1, as
compared to 18.3 t ha−1, 21.1 t ha−1 and 25.9 t ha−1 in Asia, Europe and the Americas,
Fig. 19.2 Tuber dry weight variations worldwide

19 Advanced Production Technologies of Potato
Fig. 19.3 Chronological time series map with some of major events of global potato diffusion
367
368 T. Ahmad et al.
respectively. Potato processing industries are well established in the USA and
Europe. They generally process the potatoes for the fast food, snacks and related
food industries. The global demand for fries has been increased by 71.5% from the
top ten potato-exporting countries since the first decade of the twenty-first century.
Overall international potato trade indicates the higher demand for seed potato,
starch and French fries (Bradshaw and Ramsay 2009).
19.3 History
Potato and its wild relatives have been primarily originated from western South
America. Further emergence and diversity of the gene pool arisen along 45°
south in Chile to 12° northern latitude in Colombia (Hawkes 1990). Wild fami-
lies of potato have plentiful wider distribution range as compared to the com-
mercial cultivars. They are found in northern Patagonia to the southern USA and
the western Atacama Desert to eastern South America (Hijmans et al. 2002;
Spooner et al. 2004).
19.4 Origin, Domestication and Diversity
The geneticists, archaeobotanists and taxonomists have tried to explore different

hypotheses about evolutionary origin of potato for nearly nine decades, but it has not
yet been finalized (Spooner et al. 2014). However, its cultivated species (Solanum
tuberosum, Solanum ajanhuiri, Solanum juzepczukii and Solanum curtilobum) are well
documented. Chilotanum and Andigenum groups of S. tuberosum have been distrib-
uted under different geographical patterns and are the result of specific evolutionary
pathways. The Chilotanum group (2n = 4x = 48) of S. tuberosum has contributed most
towards the Europe and North American gene pools, and they have been core partici-
pants of breeding programs in these regions. More than 99% of the current European
cultivars carry the Chilean cytoplasm (van der Berg and Groendijk-Wilders 2014).
Nonetheless, the level of intraspecific diversity within Chilotanum group seems
modest when compared to that of Andigenum group (Contreras and Castro 2008).
There are two popular hypotheses known about the origin of Chilotanum group
landraces (Spooner et al. 2012). First, hypothesis explains that they have been origi-
nated individually in southern Chile including Solanum magpie (Ugent et al. 1987).
The second hypothesis explains they were originated in Andean origin with primary
introduction into Chile. Later on, it adapted Andigenum landraces and Chilotanum
landraces (Hawkes 1990, 1999; Salaman 1946; Simmonds 1964, 1966).
Distribution of potato germplasm has occurred historically throughout the
world by merchants. In 1562, potato was introduced in Canary Island (Hawkes
and Francisco-Ortega 1993) and, 11 years later, in Spain, in 1573 (Hamilton
1934; Hawkes and Francisco-Ortega 1992; Salaman 1937). Later they were
introduced into France from Canary Island in 1574. The potato reached England
in 1586 by Sir Francis Drake (Salaman 1949). Later it was taken to Ireland in the
end of the sixteenth century (Salaman 1949). Portuguese sailors introduced pota-
toes in India in the start of the seventeenth century. During this time, British
brought them to Sri Lanka (Nunn and Qian 2011). Potato also reached in Bermuda
(1613) and later in Virginia (1621) by British merchants (Graves 2001). Dutch
settlers brought the potatoes to Taiwan’s Penghu Islands in the year 1603. Potato
cultivation was very quickly promoted in China when the Ming dynasty was at
its end. In the end of the eighteenth century, Captain James Cook and the French
explorer Marion du Fresne firstly introduced potato into New Zealand (Harris
and Niha 1999).
19.5 General Recommendations for the Production of Potato
Potato has the richest genetic diversity, and these variations possess a wealth of
valuable traits, such as nutritional value, taste, climatic adaptations and resistance to
insect pests and diseases. In varietal selection, farmers should promote the stable
varieties that are adapted to the existing climatic conditions and resistant to the
insect pests. They should be acceptable in local market, and their production trends
should be popular in the existing area. Avoid the susceptible varieties with poor
storage characteristics. Focus the latest breeding programs on achieving long-term
benefits including high, stable yield, improved nutrition and good storability.
19.5.1 Seed Selection and Production
Quality seed is prerequisite for the better development of potato as it had been
remained among a key hindrance to the extensive adoption and production of
improved varieties. It is sometimes the costliest input that exhausts 30–50% of the
input requirements of potato. General parameters for assessing the seed quality are
purity, seed size, physiological stage, health and other physical aspects.
19.5.2 Seed Production
Potato seed is ideally produced in the coolest areas to avoid insect vectors of viruses,
specifically, and other pathogens, generally. If potato crop is raised round the year,
the farmers can set a ‘potato-free’ period in order to break the life cycles of insect
vectors of viral diseases. Physiological stages of seed tuber are the following: Phase
I, dormant period; Phase II, apical sprouting; Phase III, period of normal sprouting;
Phase IV, period of thin sprouts; and phase V, incubation – too old seed tubers.
Storage system and the time period of storage are critical for the retention of the
potato seed quality. Storage area should base upon good air circulation and adjust-
able light. Potato seed should be at least 3 months old before it is planted. Tubers
should be healthy and free from injuries to avoid storage diseases like late blight,
bacterial rot and silver scurf. Pre-sprouting of seed potatoes before 1 month of
370 T. Ahmad et al.
planting date favours the quick emergence. In the tropics, if there is no refrigerated
storage capacity, then seed potatoes should be stored under diffused light. It is better
for maintaining the sprouting capacity. It also encourages the early sprout develop-
ment. Avoid the exposure to the direct sunlight, and keep at 2–4 °C for long-term
storage. For planting, the best stage is Phase III, the ‘normal multisprouting’ phase.
Uniform sprouting may be achieved by putting bulked seed potatoes in trays.
19.5.3 Seed Size
Using seed of uniform size is necessary in potato cultivation. Difference in size var-
ies the canopy size, hinders the cultural practices and affects the average yield. Seed
size should be ranging from 25 to 50 mm or weighing between 30 and 80 g. Planting
the larger seeds makes the potato prone to night frost injury and drought stress.
Large tubers, however, should be divided into smaller sections, but it should be done
at least a fortnight before planting. Healing temperature should be maintained
between 10 and 22 °C. Sanitation is necessary to avoid the secondary cycles of
pathogens. Crop rotation should be practised for 3–4 years. Diseased volunteer
plants should be rogued out to avoid further contamination. They also ‘arm’ the
insect vectors to spread various diseases. Such plants are best to be buried in a pit
outside the field. Disinfect storage structures every year by spreading lime. Clear
the potato residues and older sacks, as these can promote the proliferation of potato
tuber moths and diseases.
19.5.4 Soil Fertility
Soil health and availability of minerals are necessary for optimum crop produc-
tion. Soil organic matter, chemical composition, physical properties and bio-
logical activity describe the soil fertility level or fitness for the sustainable
production. Application of fertilizer requirements needs to be correctly esti-
mated. For this purpose, a soil test should be conducted to assess the physical
and chemical properties.
Application of farmyard manure (FYM) is advantageous for potato production.
It promotes the nutrient uptake to the crop plants, increases the uptake efficiency of
inorganic fertilizers and improves crop yield and soil health. Potato responds best to
the farmyard manures as compared to other crops. It is best if provided at the rate of
10 tons per hectare (t/h−1). However, reduce nitrogen applications by 30%, when
FYM is applied at the above-mentioned rate. Fresh and incompletely decomposed
manure should be avoided as it becomes active too late and delays crop maturity and
may transmit diseases (e.g. Rhizoctonia solani). Hence preference should be given
to the completely decomposed and dry form of FYM. Potato plant response to the
applied fertilizers indicates a large degree of variance, and it depends upon the field
conditions. N/P/K ratio is usually practised as 1:1:1.
Fig. 19.4 Growth stages of potato
19.5.4.1 Nitrogen
It varies from 100 to 300 kg ha−1 for potato. Excessive application of N stimulates
haulm growth, delays tuber formation, decreases dry matter and increases reducing
sugars, protein and nitrate that are indicators of poor quality (Fig. 19.4). Nitrogen
should be applied before, or at, planting time. The second split of nitrogen should
be given 3–5 weeks of crop emergence.
19.5.4.2 Phosphorus
It promotes development, maturity and early tuberization. Moreover, the dry matter
content and storage quality of tubers are also improved. It is mostly applied at
100 kg ha−1 or may be increased on phosphorus-fixing soils. It should be applied
before or during planting. It is not mobile as that of nitrogen and, hence, should be
applied near root zone of the crop.
19.5.4.3 Potassium
Potassium improves yields and tuber quality. It reduces the internal blackening and
mechanical damage. It also facilitates the plant for increased stress tolerance. It is
also recommended to apply potassium before or during planting.
19.5.4.4 Magnesium
Magnesium application matters most when potato is planted on acidic soils.
However, its uptake can be adversely affected with higher doses of potassium. It is
also affected when nitrogen is excessively supplied in the form of ammonium.
19.5.4.5 Calcium
Calcium is required for acidic soils as the deficiency may lead to the failure or
reduced sprouting of potato seed (FAO 2009).
372 T. Ahmad et al.
19.6 R
ecent Technological Developments in Potato
Production
19.6.1 Conventional Breeding Strategies
The importance of conventional breeding keeps independent importance along with

latest technological development. It is still in practice in order to minimize the
threats of insect pests and diseases and to maximize the yield potential. Potato
industry also focuses on the selection of cultivars for desired industrial traits like dry
matter, colour, texture, amylose/amylopectin ratio, yield, etc. Cultivar selection has
enabled the continuous development of many genetically modified (GM) potatoes
with the desired traits like high amylose/amylopectin content and higher antioxidant
levels. However, some countries do not permit the transgenic potato varieties for
food because of related health and environmental concerns. However, they have
found a space in non-food industrial applications (Singh and Kaur 2016).
Latin American researchers are working on the development of disease-resis-
tant cultivars of potato against late blight, viruses, abiotic stress and quality
traits. For this purpose, cultivated potato and landraces are mutually used to
develop more efficient variety. For example, in 2000, INIA Uruguay crossed S.
bulbocastanum, S. circaeifolium and S. microdontum for late blight resistance.
Furthermore, the University of the Republic (Dueller) and INIA mutually devel-
oped 4x S. tuberosum hybrids from Solanum commercial and Solanum
chacoense. It was a heat-tolerant and bacterial wilt-resistant cultivar in which
Phureja was used as a bridge (González et al. 2013; Narancio et al. 2013). In
Brazil, Embrapa also developed pre-breeding lines against bacterial wilt dis-
ease. It was accomplished by using wild species S. microdontum, S. sparsipilum
and S. chacoense. Similarly, CIP has enhanced late blight resistance in 4x S.
tuberosum hybrids from wild species. National University of Colombia (UNC)
has contributed modern diploid Phureja varieties with enhanced dormancy
(Peña et al. 2015; Duarte-Delgado et al. 2015). Higher nutrition has been an
important objective of potato breeding programs. Diploid cultivar groups
Stenotomum, Phureja and Goniocalyx contain relatively higher levels of nutri-
tional compounds (Burgos et al. 2009; Paget et al. 2014).
19.6.2 Role of Genetic Engineering for Sustainable Production

in Potato
Wild potato has adapted to diverse environments having a range of species. This
adaptation has made these wild species a valuable genetic resource. Recently,
potato genome sequence has been published, revealing detailed insight at genome
level. This analysis works as important tool for the identification of genes of
interest and their possible uses in the future breeding programs and genetic engi-
neering (Potato Genome Sequencing et al. 2011; Duan et al. 2017; Hazzouri
et al. 2015; Xu et al. 2011; Zhou et al. 2015).
Most recently, genome analysis of 201 potato varieties (wild and cultivated
potato) has been accomplished to reveal their agronomically important genes from
section Petota from North and Central America to southern South America. Common
feature to the previous research was the higher genetic diversity of wild potatoes.
Furthermore, by exploiting known quantitative trait loci (QTL), 609 selected genes
were identified presumably associated with artificial selection, including those cor-
related with the loss of bitterness in tubers and involved in the tuberization, two
major domesticated traits of potato (Li et al. 2018).
Potato starch keeps its own industrial importance. It affects the functional prop-
erties of the processed potatoes. Its ratio in the tubers largely depends upon the type
of cultivar and the growing conditions (Noda et al. 2004). Hence, potato tubers
obtained from multiple genetic sources must offer physicochemical differences and
the starch properties as well (Singh 2008). Potato starch offers higher level of retro-
gradation (77%) (Przetaczek-Roznowska, 2017) as compared to other crops like
barley (3.3–30%), corn (59%) (Kong 2016) and rice (20.5–92.3%) (Kong 2015).
Hence, the recent studies have indicated the screening of potato cultivars for the
assessment of the starch contents. A detailed profile of 29 potato cultivars has been
proposed and estimated by microsatellite markers. Results indicated that apparent
amylose content (AAC) of the starch thus obtained ranged from 18.9% to 29.4%.
Pasting and gel texture properties were also different significantly among these acces-
sions. Wide genetic diversity was also found in the retrogradation and retrogradation
percentage, gelatinization temperatures and enthalpies of gelatinization. Overall, the
multiple starches screened in the experiment exhibited interesting physiochemical
properties that could be an informative tool for the processing industries (Ahmed et al.
2018). Carotenoid contents are generally higher in other vegetables as compared to
potatoes, but overexpression of certain genes in potato has made it possible to express
the higher carotenoids in potato by using genetic engineering.
A carotenoid gene crtB has been incorporated in S. phureja and S. Tuberosum
through LBA4404 strain of Agrobacterium tumefaciens by electroporation.
Expression of this gene has resulted into the 4–7 times increased ratio of carot-
enoids (Ducreux 2005). These carotenoids chiefly contained b-carotene, lutein and
violaxanthin. Similarly, the expression of LCY-b gene in potato has raised the
b-carotene content by 1.9-fold.
Role of multigene engineering in transgenic potatoes has enabled to express
three genes, encoding crtB, crtI and crtY from Erwinia. It resulted in 3600-fold
increase of carotenoids as compared to the wild types of potato (Diretto et al. 2007).
Other elevated carotenoids included lutein (23-fold increase) and zeaxanthin (5.8-
fold increase). The use of genetic engineering in potato has provided 50% of the
recommended daily allowance of vitamin A.
374 T. Ahmad et al.
19.7 Principles of Potato Plant Health Management
Potato crop is prone to several biotic and abiotic risks. Diseases are spread by all
possible means including soil, seed, farm implements, insect vectors, irrigation
water and contaminated sacks. Frequent use of pesticides harms the environment
and the consumer health. Even some farmers apply pesticides more than ten times
in the same season just to combat the late blight.
It is generally advised to adopt a pesticide alternative plan that should be based
on agroecological practices. The most recommended is the regular field monitoring
to detect the early sign and symptoms of pests or diseases. For example, adjust-
ment of planting date in accordance to the aphid populations would be a wise deci-
sion for the prevention of viral diseases. Other than fungicides, the use of biological
control and resistance varieties and the crop rotation are among the best practices
for successful potato cultivation. Some key points should be considered for potato
crop as follows:
• Always develop a target approach for a specific pest so as to cast minimum

adverse effects on the ecosystem and the crop itself.
• Always identify the most appropriate time and recommended dose for the insect
pests and disease by using decision support system.
• Always use the specific tools and equipment designed for pesticide spray for
each type of crop. It is necessary to make the judicious use of the pesticides and
to avoid handling risks of the pesticides.
• Promote the establishment of the pesticide laboratories. They will help to verify
the active ingredients (FAO 2009).
19.7.1 Current Developments in the Potato Health Management
19.7.1.1 Late Blight

It is a disease of high concern for centuries, but its management has been a question
mark still today. It is caused by the Phytophthora infestans. The R-genes encode
R-proteins, which elicit a hypersensitive (HR) response in plants. This phenomenon
restricts the systemic infection of invading pathogen towards other parts of the host.
The Mexican wild species S. demissum has been mostly used as donor of R-genes
against late blight disease (Vleeshouwers et al. 2011). So far, a series of R-genes
from r1 to r11 genes have been identified in S. demissum, which has been exten-
sively used for European potato breeding programs (Malcolmson and Black 1966).
As the commercial potato varieties are tetraploid and highly heterozygous, the
undesirable characters are also transferred during classic breeding programs.
However, the use of genetic engineering techniques for late blight protection offers
more advantage for potato sustainability.
Most recently, transgenic crops have expressed different categories of proteins
including membrane-bound proteins, transcription factors, N-glycosylated proteins,
signal proteins and R-proteins or disease resistance proteins. These biotech crops
have offered a great contribution towards sustainable production by increasing

yield, nutritional value and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Some of the pro-
teins are quite difficult to purity as they are not expressed under normal biotech
procedures. They are known as ‘interactable’ proteins (Bushey et al. 2009).
VNT1 proteins are the R-proteins, secreted by wild potatoes. They are effective
for inducing hypersensitive response against late blight pathogen P. infestans. It has
been reported that Rpi-vnt1 (from P. infestans) belongs to the class of interactable
proteins (e.g. Avr-vnt1). It protects the host plant from late blight by hypersensitive
response (Stefanczyk et al. 2017).
Habig et al. (2018) solved this mystery by explaining that hazard potential of
VNT1 is not possible at any view point. Its efficacy was assessed from its past of
harmless use, the mechanism of action, dietary intake levels and its expression at
minimum and maximum levels. It was clarified with the parallel theories already
reported about their consumption in other diets. It was further explained that VNT1
proteins are homologous to other R-proteins. Such R-proteins have already been
incorporated in other edible crops and kept a long-lasting history of nontoxic con-
sumptions. Moreover, it was found these proteins don’t share characteristics with
the allergens that have been identified so far. Hence, it has been accepted that VNT1
(R-proteins) that are incorporated into potatoes against late blight protection are
merely nontoxic for human, as do the others (Habig et al. 2018).
19.7.1.2 Early Blight

Early blight causes defoliation in potato plants. Wale et al. (2008) described that
early blight, caused by Alternaria solani, can reduce the quality and quantity of the
tubers by 20–30%. Management of this disease was based upon the application of
fungicides. They could be either protectants like chlorothalonil and dithiocarbamates
or curative/systemic like difenoconazole, tebuconazole and azoxystrobin. But disad-
vantage of these fungicide treatments was low efficacy after the establishment of the
pathogen (Wale et al. 2008). Hence recent development in the early blight manage-
ment is the pesticide alternative approaches. These methods involve the optimization
of plant innate immunity by using external abiotic or biotic inducers. These external
agents might contain avirulent pathogens, non-pathogenic microbes, cell wall frag-
ments of virulent strains, plant extracts or some safe chemicals like synthetic elici-
tors. Several inducers have been practised for elicitation of defence response against
A. solani. For example, the increased activity of chitinase and 1,3-b-glucanase was
noticed after the foliar application of salicylic acid at 1.5 mM and beta-aminobutyric
acid at 15 mM in susceptible tomato plants (Wale et al. 2008; Choudhary et al. 2007).
Recently, various low doses of abscisic acid, 2,4-D and H2O2 have been success-
fully used to control this pathogen in combination with recommended fungicides.
This strategy has been proven successful for the management of early blight by
applying low but repetitive doses of 2,4-D, abscisic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
This application has induced the defence response in host plants by elevating the
various secondary metabolites including peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase
and polyphenol oxidase. This activity was started after 24 h of application and lasted
for at least 15 days (Nassar and Ibrahim 2016).
376 T. Ahmad et al.
19.7.1.3 Soft Rot

The FAO estimates that tuber and root crops are wasted up to 40–50% during stor-
age each year (FAO 2013). Soft rots, particularly caused by bacterial pathogen
Pectobacterium carotovorum, impart great losses to the potatoes in storage
(Czajkowski et al. 2015). The real issue behind the management of this disease has
been practical failure in early detection and monitoring of this malady at early stage
of the infection. Early identification was not normally possible as tubers cannot be
easily accessed for visual inspection due to the large store houses. Moreover, the
characteristic odour of soft rot was not felt at early stage. It was detected at later
stages when disease has progressed beyond the economic threshold level. Hence the
development of detection technologies has been a challenge for farming commu-
nity. Although detection technologies like gas chromatography or gas
chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) have been introduced to detect the
gases/volatiles produced as a result of soft rot (Lyew et al. 2001; Kushalappa and
Zulfiquar 2001), these studies had some technical disadvantages. First is the practi-
cal nature of the instruments that does not provide monitoring mechanism for regu-
lar inspection (most probably lab techniques but not for the store houses). Moreover,
these techniques were expensive and require trained staff. Hence a question was
under consideration for the early detection of soft rot in reliable manners.
Recent development in the early detection of soft rot is the invention of ‘elec-
tronic nose’ or ‘eNose’. This device is similar to the biological olfactory system. It
is designed from low-cost chemicals and hence cheaper and easily accessible (sub
$50). It can provide simple and speedy answer regarding the identification of soft
rot volatiles. No doubt the development of electronic nose will revolutionize the
protection status of potato tubers in storage (Rutolo et al. 2018).
19.7.1.4 Colorado Potato Beetle

The most significant insect defoliator of potatoes is the Colorado potato beetle
(Leptinotarsa decemlineata). It is becoming an exceptional challenge in crop pro-
tection including potato (Alyokhin et al. 2013). Failure in the success of control
strategies is due to its broad host range. It can feed over ten wild and cultivated
Solanum species (Jacques 1988).
This pest has been targeted with insecticides since 1864 (Gauthier et al. 1981).
With the passage of time, it has progressively developed the resistance against all
major pesticides historically used for its control (Alyokhin et al. 2008). An over-
looked phenomenon aiding the proliferation of Colorado potato beetle might be the
hormesis, also called as hormoligosis. This phenomenon occurs when a high dose
of a detrimental chemical becomes a stimulatory dose for various biological traits of
the pest.
Current development for the control of this invasive pest is the genome sequenc-
ing that is recently proposed by Schoville and co-workers (2018). This research was
aimed to get insight into the revolutionary adaptation of Colorado potato beetle in
diverse climate and the pesticide resistance. Scientists could generally elaborate two
distinct factors that facilitate its rapid evolutionary change. The first factor is the
transposable elements that comprise at least 17% of the genome. These elements
have potential to evolve this insect more rapidly as compared to other Coleoptera.
The second factor is high levels of nucleotide diversity in hurriedly rising popula-
tions. The reason behind the feeding adaptation is obvious in gene expansions and
differential expression of digestive enzymes in gut tissues, along with expansions of
gustatory receptors for bitter tasting. Duplications in the RNAi pathway might
explain the high sensitivity of Leptinotarsa decemlineata to dsRNA.
19.7.1.5 Green Peach Aphid (Vector of Potato Viruses)

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, is a very polyphagous cosmopolitan spe-
cies that also colonizes potato plants. It is not generally involved in the significant
crop injury process, but it is a proficient vector of potato leaf roll virus and potato
virus Y; both viruses pose a great threat to the potato production.
Similar to Colorado potato beetles, this aphid has also developed resistance to a
variety of insecticides (Fig. 19.5). So far it has been reported that green peach aphid
has established resistances (Fig. 19.6) to 69 different chemicals in 43 world regions,
and this number is increasing (Whalon et al. 2011).
Recently, exceptional phenotypic plasticity of M. persicae was investigated by
genome sequencing. Assessment thus made shows that one clonal lineage reacts
to host plant species of different families. It was shown that genetically alike indi-
viduals are capable of colonizing distantly related host species through differen-
tial regulation of genes belonging to aphid-expanded gene families. Multigene
clusters can jointly upregulate in single aphid within 2 days upon host switch
(Mathers et al. 2017).
60
Reported resistance cases
Cumulative number of failing chemicals
50
Number of Database Entries
40
30
20
10
0
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
Fig. 19.5 Progression of insecticide resistance in the Colorado potato beetle. (Whalon et al. 2011)
378 T. Ahmad et al.
80
Reported resistance cases
Cumulative number of failing chemicals
Number of Database Entries
60
40
20
0
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005
Fig. 19.6 Progression of insecticide resistance in the green peach aphid. (Whalon et al. 2011)
19.8 A
dvances in Potato Weed Management Using Expert
Systems
Precision agriculture or site-specific crop management has been aimed to conserve

the resources and farm inputs while maximizing the potential of the applied inputs
at low costs. Weed management has also been a goal of precision agriculture. It is
accomplished by detecting and removing the weeds on target sites only. It is benefi-
cial as it requires lesser amount of the herbicides, and the potential risk to the eco-
system could be minimized. Recent advances in potato weed management system
are development of expert system based upon computer vision for the management
of weeds. It has been presented by Sabzi and co-workers in 2018. Initially, this sys-
tem will be able to identify the potato plants and its three kinds of major weeds
including Secale cereale, Xanthium strumarium and Polygonum aviculare. This
system will identify these weeds and will be able to spray on specific sites (weed
clusters). Mechanism of the system is developed by using two metaheuristic algo-
rithms for the adjustment of the performance. The first is the cultural algorithm. It
will be able to increase the computational efficiency by using five most operational
features. The second feature is the harmony search algorithm. It will be used to find
optimal configuration of the running network. Initial experimental results have
shown exceptionally good performance at 98.38% accuracy taking less than 0.8 s
execution time on an average.
19.9 Effect of Climatic Change on Potato Production
The concentration of atmospheric ozone (O3) has been reported to increase by 1%

while that of carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.4% on annual basis. These projections suggest
that CO2 concentration will reach 540/970 ml in atmosphere in future. It also sug-
gests that ozone will be double by the year 2100 (IPCC 2001). These gases cast
direct effects on the quality and quantity of the crop plants including potato
(Mulholland et al. 1997). Initially, the positive role of elevated CO2 levels in C3
plants has been suggested as it will facilitate the carbon assimilation and certain
biological traits including growth and yield (McKee et al. 2000; Vandermeiren et al.
2002). Higher concentration of CO2 counter-effects the O3-induced injuries to the
affected plants (Mulholland et al. 1997) except the plant growth which has not been
rescued well (McKee et al., 1997). Conversely, O3 induces leaf senescence, foliar
injuries, yield loss, low photosynthesis rate and overall reduction in dry matter con-
tent (Ojanpera et al. 1998; Mulchi et al. 1986). Potato possesses large sink organs
for the storage of carbohydrates. This phenomenon promotes the potato potential as
a test crop for climate change studies particularly response under alternating CO2
concentrations. The famous European CHIP project was conducted on multi-sites
that provided a detailed insight into the effects of modification in the atmospheric
CO2 and O3 levels on the quality of potato tuber and foliage. Overall it was con-
cluded from the experiment that ozone has decreased the yield by 5%, while CO2
has increased the tuber yield by 17% (Craigon et al. 2002). Mutual regulatory effects
of both gases on potato further suggested stimulating information. However, potato
quality was positively affected by ozone exposure by enhanced concentration of
vitamin C and reduced concentration of the reducing sugars. These indicators are
considered good for potato-processing industry. Higher CO2 level at the same time
period can neutralize the positive effect of ozone on reducing sugars, but it couldn’t
regulate the same for vitamin C. Moreover, starch concentration is decreased by O3
in potato tuber, but this quality is gained by increasing starch concentrations and dry
matter in the presence of CO2. Reduction in nitrate and glycoalkaloid contents is
generally assumed as positive for assessing the tuber quality. This quality is reduced
with the reduction in citric acid level of potatoes under high CO2 concentration.
Overall, it was suggested that changing environment will cast a positive effect on
potato production and it might improve the biochemical and nutritional characters
in potato.
19.10 Value Addition and Growth of Potato Industry
Potato processing has been known since 200 AD, when they were cultivated in the
mountains of Peru. They were frozen during night and thawed in daylight. This
practice was repeated until the moisture content was reduced to optimum require-
ment to preserve the potatoes for long-term use. Dehydrated products of potato
were used as diets for military during World Wars I and II (Talburt 1975). Potato
starch was extensively made since 1831 in the USA. Later it was well consumed in
380 T. Ahmad et al.
Europe, Canada and Asian countries (Salunkhe and Kadam 1991). At the time, it
was not developed to a greater extent, until the quality was improved by updating
peeling and frying techniques. French fries are the product of World War II. They
were prepared by Belgians. Frozen potatoes were commercially formed for the first
time. They were blanched, fried twice, frozen and stored. They were heated in oven
for consumption (Gould 1999). But modern tendencies, quality needs and consumer
demand have inspired the modern developments in processing and innovation for
the concept-driven technologies (Welti-Chanes et al. 2005). Recently, potato-pro-
cessing industry has given a great concern to the nonthermal processing techniques.
Well-known nonthermal technique is high-pressure processing (HPP) (Sun 2005).
Demonstration of liquid and solid metastable phases in the food products has opened
various new series of possibilities in pressure shift freezing and pressure-induced
thawing for potatoes (Urrutia-Benet et al. 2007). The effect of ohmic pretreatment
on the oil uptake of potato slices during frying and subsequent cooling has been
previously documented (Salengke and Sastry 2007). Treated potato slices were
heated by two methods. One was the direct sandwiching of slices between two elec-
trodes. The other was heating in a 0.11% salt solution. These investigations indi-
cated that ohmic pretreatments without a liquid medium as in direct sandwiching
have reduced the oil uptake during frying and subsequent cooling of potato slices.
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Advanced Production Technology
and Processing of Jute 20
Md Mahbubul Islam
Abstract
Jute (Corchorus spp.) is a kind of fiber which is obtained from two species
Corchorus capsularis L. and Corchorus olitorius L. (annual and short day plants)
of the genus Corchorus belonging to the family Tiliaceae. It is one of the most
cheapest and economical vegetable fiber after cotton obtained from the skin or
bast of plant’s stem. Recyclable, 100% biodegradable, and ecofriendly jute has
low extensibility and high tensile strength. Jute is the versatile natural fiber
widely used as a raw material in many textile, nontextile, packaging, construc-
tion, and agricultural applications. It has been used since ancient times in Africa
and Asia to provide a cordage and weaving fiber from the stem and food from the
leaves. Several historical documents (Ain-e-Akbari by Abul Fazal in 1590) dur-
ing the era of the great Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) states that the poor
villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Jute is grown in Bangladesh,
India, Myanmar, Nepal, China, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Brazil,
and some other countries. It can be grown in any intermediate soil other than the
extreme sand and extreme clay soil. Jute crop is attacked by various diseases and
insects under field conditions. Stem-rot, anthracnose, wilting, soft-rot, dieback,
black-band, and powdery mildew are the common fungal diseases of jute. Hairy
caterpillar, semilooper, stem weevil, yellow mite, and the indigo caterpillar are
the major pest of jute. Jute-based cropping patterns are Jute-T.aman-Wheat,
Jute-T. aman-Potato, Jute-T.aman-Potato+Amaranthus, etc. are usually prac-
ticed. Quality of jute fiber has direct relationship with the stage of harvest. The
plants usually harvested at the early flowering stage in order to obtain good-
quality fiber are really in greater demand. There are two stages of grading jute
fiber, one for the home trade and another for the export trade. Grading factors for
jute are color, length, firmness of fiber, luster, strength, clearness, freedom from
defects, and the amounts of root end which will have to be cut off. The national
Md. M. Islam (*)

Agronomy Division, Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_20
388 Md. M. Islam
average yield of jute fiber is 2.07 t.ha−1. However, with improved package of
practices, it is possible to get 2.5–3.5 t.ha−1 of fiber. Normally jute stick yields
double than fiber. The average total variable cost (TVC) per hectare was calcu-
lated to Tk. 79,541; the average total cash cost (TCC) per hectare was about 69%
of the TVC, amounting to Tk. 55,616 in the case of tossa jute production at farm
level.
Keywords
Jute · Corchorus capsularis L. · Corchorus olitorius L. · Cultivation methods ·
Diseases and insects management · Harvesting · Postharvest processing · Retting
· Rebbon retting · Fibre grading · Cultivation cost
20.1 Introduction
Jute (Corchorus spp.) is now universally recognized as the English version of the
current Bengali word “Pat,” a kind of fiber which is obtained from two species
(annual and short-day plants) of the genus Corchorus belonging to the family
Tiliaceae. It is a common term used both for plant and the fiber obtained from the
bark of the plants, Corchorus capsularis L. and Corchorus olitorius L. There are
over 30 species, which belong to the genus Corchorus. Also known as the Golden
fiber, jute is a natural fiber with silky and golden shine. It is one of the most cheapest
and economical vegetable fibers after cotton obtained from the skin or bast of plant’s
stem. Recyclable, 100% biodegradable, and eco-friendly jute has low extensibility
and high tensile strength. Jute is the versatile natural fiber widely used as a raw
material in many textile, non-textile, packaging, construction, and agricultural
applications.
In 1970–1980 decades, about 15–16 lakh hectare of the total cultivable land was
occupied by jute, which has now (2010–2011) been reduced to about 6.00 to 6.76
lakh hectare. However, national average yield is increased from 1.59 to 1.98 tons
per hectare (BBS 2012). It happened due to use of high-yielding jute varieties and
production technologies, which together contributed toward higher yield. Improved
technologies such as improved seed, line sowing, recommended fertilizer, and plant
protection measures increase the fiber yield of jute by 20, 23, 27, and 13%, respec-
tively, over conventional practices. Jute is still contributing about 4% GDP to the
national economy and earns about 5% of foreign exchange as well (Table 20.1).
Jute dicotyledenous is the fiber-yielding plant of the genus Corchorus, family
Tiliaceae. Jute was once known as the golden fiber of Bangladesh, since it was the
most important cash crop for the country. Jute fiber is produced mainly from two
commercially important species, namely, white jute (Corchours capsularis L.) and
tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.). The center of origin of white jute is said to be
Indo-Burma including South China and that of tossa Africa. The word jute is prob-
ably coined from the word jhuta or jota, an Orrisan word. However, the use of jutta
potta cloth was mentioned both in the Bible and Monushanghita-Mahabharat. This
20 Advanced Production Technology and Processing of Jute 389
Table 20.1 Nutritional Nutrients Boiled

values of saluyot Moisture (%) 80.4–84.1
(Boiled/100 g edible portion)
Food energy (cal.) 43–58
Protein (g) 4.5–5.6
Fiber (g) 1.7–2.0
Total carbohydrates 7.6–12.4
(g)
Ash (g) 2.4
Calcium (mg) 266–366
Phosphorus (mg) 97–122
Iron (mg) 11.6
Sodium (mg) 12
Potassium (mg) 444
Vit. A (I.U.) 6390
Thiamine (mg) 15
Riboflavin (mg) 28
Niacin (mg) 1.5
Ascorbic acid (mg) 95
indicates the ancient uses of jute materials by the people of these areas. Jute grows
under wide variation of climatic conditions and stress of tropic and subtropics.
It is grown in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, China, Taiwan, Thailand,
Vietnam, Cambodia, Brazil, and some other countries. Bangladesh used to enjoy
almost a monopoly of this fiber commercially; its share in the export market was
80% in 1947–1948, but in 1975–1976, it fell to only 25%. This fall in the world
market was due to the fact that many countries had started growing jute and allied
fibers.
Two species of jute (Corchorus capsularis L. and Corchorus olitorius L.) are
being cultivated in Bangladesh. Capsularis (deshi) has maximum use as vegetable
than Olitorius (tossa) due to its bitter taste. Jute leaves are being used as vegetables
in Africa, Middle East, and Southeast Asia, including Bangladesh for a long time.
Besides, it is also used as herbal medicine to control or prevent dysentery, worm,
constipation, etc. Jute leaves are being used as health food in Japan. Jute leaf is rich
in vitamins, carotinoids, calcium, potassium, and dietary fibers.
This vegetable popularly known as “saluyot” is a favorite vegetable of the
Ilocanos. Saluyot thrives almost anywhere in the Philippines, requires little care in
cultivation, and can be grown year-round. Vegetables are not just rich in nutrition
but include lots of health benefits like protecting us from various diseases. Nutrition-
wise, vegetables are low in calories yet are high in vitamins and minerals. They are
also good sources of fiber. Fiber maintains the intestinal tract in good health. Some
fiber may even reduce the risk of certain cancers and health diseases (Hepzibah
2008).
Jute is a plant with many uses. All plants in the Corchorus genus are considered
jute, although two have particular economic and culinary value, C. olitorius and C.
capsularis. The leaves of these plants are simple, and they may have slightly
390 Md. M. Islam
serrated edges. When harvested young, jute leaves are flavorful and tender; older
leaves tend to be more woody and fibrous, making them less ideal for consumption.
Jute leaves are the leaves of certain jute plants, used as a food source in Asia, the
Middle East, and parts of Africa. In addition to adding a distinct flavor to food, jute
leaves also have nutritional value, and they act as thickeners in soups, stews, and
sauces. Jute leaves may also be called saluyot or ewedu, depending on the region of
the world in which one is cooking. It is possible to grow jute for its fresh leaves in
some parts of the world, and some specialty stores also stock it in fresh, frozen, or
dried form, depending on their location and size (Islam 2013a, b) (Table 20.1).
Jute is a rain-fed crop and its fiber comes from the stem and ribbon (outer skin)
of the jute plant. The fibers are first extracted by retting. The retting process consists
of bundling jute stems together and immersing them in low, running water. There
are two types of retting: stem and ribbon. After the retting process, stripping begins.
In the stripping process, nonfibrous matter is scraped off, and then the workers dig
in and grab the fibers from within the jute stem. It is one of the most cheapest and
economical vegetable fibers after cotton, obtained from the skin or bast of plant’s
stem. Recyclable, 100% biodegradable, and eco-friendly, jute has low extensibility
and high tensile strength. Jute is the versatile natural fiber widely used as a raw
material in many textile, non-textile, packaging, construction, and agricultural
applications. Jute is a type of vegetable fiber used to make items such as rope, twine,
carpet, rugs, hessian cloth, and much more (Table 20.4).
Jute is one of the cheapest and the strongest of all natural fibers and considered
as fiber of the future. Raw jute is the natural fiber which is extremely eco-friendly.
Bangladesh is the biggest producer of natural jute or raw jute fiber both in quantity
and quality. The recent mapping of the genome of the jute seed by several
Bangladeshi scientists working in collaboration has opened up a new horizon for the
jute sector. Jute fiber has high tensile strength and low extensibility, which ensure
better breathability of fabrics. Jute fiber is also used in the production of fabric
which enhances its use in various fields of textile. Jute mills or jute industries need
raw jute for continued production of ropes, jute yarn and twine, jute burlap bags and
jute sacks, etc. Jute hessian and jute sacking are the two important types of jute
goods which are mainly used for packaging agricultural products. Today, jute has
numerous more uses and is used to make paper, nonwoven textiles, geo textiles, and
many others. Indeed, the product is so versatile that it is said to have thousands of
uses and more and more uses are being discovered each day. Certainly, due to it
being environmentally friendly, it is likely to replace some of the synthetic products
which are creating hazards to our earth.
20.2 The Historical Background of Jute
20.2.1 White Jute (Corchorus Capsularis L.)
Several historical documents during the era of Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542–1605)
state that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple
handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, who used to spin
cotton yarns as well. History also states that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes
and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses.
20.2.2 Tossa Jute (Corchorus Olitorius L.)
Tossa jute is an Afro-Arabian variety. It is quite popular for its leaves that are used
as an ingredient in a mucilaginous potherb called molokhiya, popular in certain
Arab countries. The Book of Job in the Hebrew Bible mentions this vegetable pot-
herb as Jew’s mallow. Tossa jute fiber is softer, silkier, and stronger than white jute.
This variety astonishingly showed good sustainability in the climate of the Ganges
Delta. Along with white jute, tossa jute has also been cultivated in the soil of Bengal
from the start of the nineteenth century. Currently, Bangladesh is the largest global
producer of the tossa jute variety.
20.2.2.1 Jute in Ancient Times

Jute has been used since ancient times in Africa and Asia to provide a cordage and
weaving fiber from the stem and food from the leaves. In several historical docu-
ments (Ain-e-Akbari by Abul Fazal in 1590) during the era of the great Mughal,
Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) states that the poor villagers of India used to wear
clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the
weavers, who used to spin cotton yarns as well. History also states that Indians,
especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times
for household and other uses.
Chinese papermakers from very ancient times had selected almost all the kinds
of plants as hemp, silk, jute, cotton, etc. for papermaking. Qiu Shiyu, researcher of
the Harbin Academy of Sciences and expert of Jin history, concluded that Jews used
to take part in the work of designing “jiaozi,” made of coarse jute paper. A small
piece of jute paper with Chinese characters written on it has been discovered in
Dunhuang in Gansu Province, in northwest China. It is believed it was produced
during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) (Islam and Ali 2017a, b).
20.2.2.2 Period from the Seventeenth Century

The British East India Company was the British Empire Authority delegated in
India from the seventeenth century to the middle of the twentieth century. The com-
pany was the first Jute trader. The company traded mainly in raw jute during the
nineteenth century. During the start of the twentieth century, the company started
trading raw jute with Dundee’s Jute Industry. This company had monopolistic
access to this trade during that time. Margaret Donnelly I was a jute mill landowner
in Dundee in the 1800s. She set up the first jute mills in India. The Entrepreneurs of
the Dundee Jute Industry in Scotland were called The Jute Barons.
In 1793, the East India Company exported the first consignment of jute. This first
shipment, 100 tons, was followed by additional shipments at irregular intervals.
392 Md. M. Islam
Eventually, a consignment found its way to Dundee, Scotland, where the flax spin-
ners were anxious to learn whether jute could be processed mechanically.
Starting in the 1830s, the Dundee spinners learned how to spin jute yarn by
modifying their power-driven flax machinery. The rise of the jute industry in Dundee
saw a corresponding increase in the production and export of raw jute from the
Indian subcontinent which was the sole supplier of this primary commodity.
Period-1 During the ancient period from the year 1855, the era of great Mughal
emperor Akbar, poor villagers of India were used to wear jute clothes. Since ancient
times, ropes and twines, used by Bengali Indians, are made up of white jute for
varied household applications. Also, Chinese papermakers have used all forms of
plants like jute, hemp, and cotton to make paper.
20.2.2.3 Period from 1855

Calcutta (now Kolkata) had the raw material close by as the jute growing areas were
mainly in Bengal. There was an abundant supply of labor, ample coal for power, and
the city was ideally situated for shipping to world markets. The first jute mill was
established at Rishra, on the River Hooghly near Calcutta in 1855 when Mr. George
Acland brought jute spinning machinery from Dundee. Four years later, the first
power-driven weaving factory was set up.
By 1869, five mills were operating with 950 looms. Growth was rapid and, by
1910, 38 companies operating 30,685 looms exported more than a billion yards of
cloth and over 450 million bags. Until the middle 1880s, the jute industry was con-
fined almost entirely to Dundee and Calcutta. France, America, and later Germany,
Belgium, Italy, Austria, and Russia, among others, turned to jute manufacturing in
the latter part of the nineteenth century.
In the following three decades, the jute industry in India enjoyed even more
remarkable expansion, rising to commanding leadership by 1939 with a total of
68,377 looms, concentrated mainly on the River Hooghly near Calcutta. These mills
alone have proved able to supply the world demand. The earliest goods woven of
jute in Dundee were coarse bagging materials. With longer experience, however,
finer fabrics called burlap, or hessian as it is known in India, were produced. This
superior cloth met a ready sale and, eventually, the Indian Jute Mills began to turn
out these fabrics. The natural advantage these mills enjoyed soon gave Calcutta
world leadership in burlap and bagging materials and the mills in Dundee and other
countries turned to specialties, a great variety of which were developed.
Period-2 During the period from the seventeenth century to the middle of twenti-
eth century, the British Empire authority was delegated by the British East India
company which was the first jute trader. The raw jute was traded by this company.
During the start of twentieth century, Margaret Donnelly was a jute mill landowner
in Dundee who had set up first jute mill in India. The first consignment of jute was
exported by East India Company in the year 1793. In the country, Scotland, flax
spinners were trying to learn whether jute can be mechanically processed. In the
beginning of the year 1830, Dundee spinners have determined spinning of jute yarn
by transfiguring their power-driven flax machinery. The major jute growing areas
were mainly in Bengal at the Kolkata side. When Mr. George Acland had brought
jute spinning machinery from Dundee to India, the first power-driven weaving fac-
tory was established at Rishra, on the River Hooghly near Calcutta in the year 1855.
By the year 1869, five mills were established with around 950 looms. The growth
was so fast that, by the year 1910, 38 companies were operating around 30,685
looms, rendering more than a billion yards of cloth and over 450 million bags. Till
the middle of year 1880, jute industry has acquired almost whole Dundee and
Calcutta. Later in the nineteenth century, manufacturing of jute has started in other
countries also like in France, America, Italy, Austria, Russia, Belgium, and Germany
(Islam and Ali 2017a, b).
20.2.2.4 Jute Industry After 1947

After the fall of British Empire in India during 1947, most of the Jute Barons started
to evacuate India, leaving behind the industrial setup of the jute industry. Most of
the jute mills in India were taken over by the Marwaris businessmen.
Period-3 During the period from the nineteenth century till 1947, outstanding
expansion in jute industry has been noticed in the nineteenth century. Throughout
the year 1939, around 68,377 looms were established on the River Hooghly near
Calcutta. The prime commodities woven by jute are coarse bagging materials, pro-
duced by finer fabrics, also known as hessian or burlap. The handlooms established
in Calcutta give this place world class leadership in burlap and other bagging
materials.
East Pakistan after partition in 1947 lacked a jute industry but had the finest jute
fiber stock. As the tension started to rise between Pakistan and India, the Pakistani
felt the need to set up their own jute industry. Several groups of Pakistani families
(mainly from West Pakistan) came into the jute business by setting up several jute
mills in Narayanganj of then East Pakistan; the most significant ones are Bawanis,
Adamjees, Ispahanis, and Dauds. After the liberation of Bangladesh from Pakistan
in 1971, most of the Pakistani-owned jute mills were taken over by the government
of Bangladesh. Later, to control these jute mills in Bangladesh, the government built
up Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC).
Period-4 During the period after the year 1947, after getting independence, most
of the jute barons had started to quit India, leaving the set up of jute mills. Most of
them were taken by Marwaris businessmen. During the year 1947, after the parti-
tioning, East Pakistan had the finest stock of jute. The tension had already begun
between India and Pakistan; now, Pakistani people felt the need of jute industry.
From then onward, different groups of Pakistani families have joined the jute busi-
ness by establishing many mills in Narayanganj. The Pakistani were, in general,
Bawanis, Adamjees, Ispahanis, and Dauds. In the year 1971, the liberation of
Bangladesh took place from Pakistan; thus, most of the jute mills were taken over
by the Bangladesh government. Later, government had built BJMC (Bangladesh
394 Md. M. Islam
Jute Mills Corporation) to control and handle jute mills of Bangladesh (Islam and
Ali 2017a, b).
20.3 Description of Jute Crop
20.3.1 White/Deshi Jute (Corchorus capsularis L.)
It is generally 1.5 to 3.7 m tall, can withstand water logging in later stages, is herba-
ceous annual, and has 3–5 month duration for fiber yield depending upon sowing
time. Its stem is cylindrical, green to dull coppery red to pink, periderm in the basal
portions in later stages.
Its plants may be branched or unbranched; axillary buds may or may not develop
into branches.
Leaves are glabrous, 5–13 cm by 2.5–8.2 cm length and bright, ovate oblong,
acuminate, coarsely toothed, lower most pair of serrations enlarged, and end in
hairy appendages. Petiole is 4–8 cm and varies from green to pink in different vari-
eties; stipules are 0.5–2.0 cm or more, foliaceous in some varieties, and have tip
colored or green.
Flowers are small generally in extra axillary cymes in groups of 2–5 or more;
0.3–0.5 cm long and 0.5–0.6 cm wide; sepals 5, colored or green; petals 5, yellow
or pale yellow; stamens 20–30; anther yellow to pale yellow; ovary rounded,
5-carpelled, syncarpous, ovals axile, usually 10 in each locales in 2 rows, giving
about 50 ovules in each ovary; style 2–4 mm; and stigma pubescent. Anthesis occurs
1 or 2 hours after sunrise.
Capsules are rounded, 1.0–1.5 cm in diameter, wrinkled, rarely smooth, muri-
cate, 5-locular; seeds are 7–10 in number in 2 rows in each ocular, without trans-
verse partitions, 30–50 in each fruited.
Seeds are small, chocolate brown, 4–5 faced about 300–350 seeds per gm.
20.3.2 Tossa Jute (C. olitorius L.)
The plants are generally 1.5–4.5 m tall; cannot withstand water logging; and is her-
baceous annual, 4–5 months’ duration depending on time of sowing; flowers are
premature if sown very early.
Stems are cylindrical, green, light or dark red, fewer shades of color than capsu-
laris and has no periderm but lenticels in later stages. Its plant is branched, but
branches normally develop less vigorously.
Leaves are glabrous, 7–18 cm by 4–89 cm, oblong, acuminate coarsely toothed,
and lowermost pair of serrations more enlarged than in capsularis and hairy append-
ages longer. Petioles are 4–9 cm, various from green to dark red; stipules are 0.5–
1.5 cm or slightly more, tip colored or green, and base colored except in the full
green types.
Flowers are generally in extra axillary cymes in groups of 2–5, about 1 cm in
length, 2–2.5 times the size of capsularis flower; sepals 5–6, colored or green, tips
prolonged in flower buds; petals 5–6, yellow-colored, entire or split; stamens 30–60,
anthers yellow, ovary inengated, 5-varely 6-carpelled, syncarpous, ovales axile,
usually 40 in each locales in 1 row giving about 200 ovales in each ovary, style
3–5 mm, stigma globular, entire, pubescent. Anthesis occurs within an hour or less
before sunrise. Capsule elongated, 6–10 cm long, 0.3–0.8 cm in diameter, ridged
lengthwise, 5–6 locular, seed 25–40 in single row in each loculus, with transverse
partitions between each seed and 140–200 in each fruit.
Seed smaller than those of capsularis, green to steel grey to even black, about
450–500 seeds per gm (Fig. 20.1).
20.3.3 Geographical Distribution
Jute is grown in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, China, Taiwan, Thailand,

Vietnam, Cambodia, Brazil, and some other countries. Bangladesh used to enjoy
almost a monopoly of this fiber commercially. Although jute is grown in almost all
the districts of Bangladesh, Faridpur, Tangail, Jessore, Dhaka, Sirajganj, Bogra, and
Jamalpur are considered the better growing areas (Alim 1978; Islam 2010a, b, c;
Kundu et al. 1959) (Tables 20.2, 20.3, and 20.4).
20.3.4 Uses of Jute
With the rise in sales of synthetic fibers, traditional jute markets have been lost, and
researchers have sought to develop new products. One application is manufacture of
Fig. 20.1 Two types of jute. (a) Corchorus olitorius L. (Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/Image:Corchorus_olitorius.jpg) (b) Corchorus Capsularis L. (Source: http://art-handbook.
com/surfaces.html)
396 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.2 Botanical comparison of Corchorus capsularis L. deshi jute and C. olitorius L tossa
jute
Corchorus capsularis L. (deshi jute) C. olitorius L (tossa jute)
General Generally 1.5 to 3.7 m tall, can withstand Plants generally 1.5–4.5 m tall;
water logging in later stages, herbaceous cannot withstand water logging;
annual, 3–5 month duration for fiber yield herbaceous annual, 4–5 months
depending upon sowing time. Its stem is duration depending on time of
cylindrical, green to dull coppery red to sowing, flowers premature if sown
pink, periderm in the basal portions in very early
later stages
Stem Cylindrical, green to dull coppery to pink; Cylindrical, green, light or dark red,
periderm in the basal portions in later fewer shades of color than
stages capsularis; no periderm but
lenticules in later stages
Branching Branched or unbranched; axillary buds Branched, but branches normally
habit may or may not develop into branches develop less vigorously
Leaves Leaves are glabrous, 5–13 cm by Leaves are glabrous, 7–18 cm by
2.5–8.2 cm length and bright. Ovate 4–89 cm, oblong, acuminate coarsely
oblong, acuminate, coarsely toothed, toothed, lowermost pair of serrations
lower most pair of serrations enlarged and more enlarged than in capsularis and
end in hairy appendages. Petiole 4–8 cm, hairy appendages longer, petiole
various from green to pink in different 4–9 cm, various from green to dark
varieties, stipules 0.5–2.0 cm or more, red, stipules 0.5–1.5 cm or slightly
foliaceous in some varieties, tip colored or more, tip colored or green, base
green colored except in the full green types
Flower Flowers are small generally in extra Flowers generally in extra axillary
axillary cymes in groups of 2–5 or more; cymes in groups of 2–5, about 1 cm
0.3–0.5 cm long and 0.5–0.6 cm wide; in length, 2–2.5 times the size of
sepals 5, colored or green, petals 5, yellow capsularis flower, sepals 5–6,
or pale yellow, stamens 20–30; anther colored or green, tips prolonged in
yellow to pale yellow, ovary rounded, flower buds. Petals 5–6. Yellow,
5-carpelled, syncarpous, ovals axile, entire or split. Stamens 30–60,
usually 10 in each locales in 2 rows, anthers yellow, ovary inengated,
giving about 50 ovules in each ovary; 5-varely 6- corpelled, syncarpous,
style 2–4 mm; stigma pubescent ovales axile, usually 40 in each
locales in 1 row giving about 200
ovales in each ovary, style 3–5 mm,
stigma globular, entire, pubescent
Anthesis One or two hours after sunrise An hour or before sunrise
Capsule Capsules rounded, 1.0–1.5 cm in diameter, Capsule elongated, 6–10 cm long,
wrinkled, rarely smooth, muricate, 0.3–0.8 cm in diameter, ridged
5-locular, seed- 7-10 in 2 rows in each lengthwise, 5–6 locular, seed
ocular, without transverse partitions, 25–40 in single row in each loculus,
30–50 seeds in each fruit with transverse partitions between
each seed and 140–200 in each fruit
Seed Seeds are small, chocolate brown, 4–5 Seed smaller than those of
faced about 300–350 per gm capsularis, green to steel grey to
even black, about 450–500 per gm
Table 20.3 Total area Area

and production of jute (Million Production (000
in Bangladesh Years hectare) tons)
1970s decade 1972–1973 2.215 1181.00
1973–1974 2.196 1088.00
1974–1975 1.417 630.00
1975–1976 1.277 714.00
1976–1977 1.603 873.00
1977–1978 1.805 973.00
1978–1979 2.052 1150.00
1979–1980 1.874 1065.00
1980–1981 1.569 897.00
1980s decade 1981–1982 1.412 842.00
1982–1983 1.425 886.00
1983–1984 1.435 946.00
1984–1985 1.484 928.00
1985–1986 2.614 1571.00
1986–1987 1.908 1221.00
1987–1988 1.245 780.80
1988–1989 1.270 799.40
1989–1990 1.338 835.00
1990–1991 1.462 914.10
1990s decade 1991–1992 1.449 945.10
1992–1993 1.235 885.60
1993–1994 1.288 782.30
1994–1995 1.402 929.50
1995–1996 1.356 910.35
1996–1997 1.253 883.00
1997–1998 1.427 1057.00
1998–1999 1.181 821.00
1999–1900 1.008 711.00
2000–1901 1.107 821.00
2000s decade 2001–2002 1.128 859.00
2002–2003 1.079 800.00
2003–2004 1.008 794.00
2004–2005 0.965 1035.00
2005–2006 0.500 990.00
2006–2007 0.500 990.00
2008–2009 0.474 895.00
2009–2010 0.456 889.00
2011s decade 2010–2011 0.803 1523.00
2011–2012 0.760 1441.00
2012–2013 0.681 1371.00
2013–2014 0.666 1357.00
2014–2015 0.673 1352.00
2015–2016 0.725 1374.00
2016–2017 0.737 1496.00
2017–2018 0.790 1454.00
Source: BBS (1991, 1998, 2004, 2017) and Choudhury (1998)
398 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.4 Contribution of Deshi jute Tossa jute

jute fiber crop Green plants 34 mt/ha (100%) 46 mt/ha (100%)
Green leaves 5304 kg (15.6%) 5060 kg (11.0%)
Green ribbons 13,688 kg (40.2%) 17,802 kg (38.7%)
Green wood 15,028 (44.2%) 23,138 kg (50.3%)
Dry leaves 1326 kg (2.9%) 1242 kg (2.7%)
Dry ribbons 3788 kg (11.2%) 5111 kg (11.11%)
Dry wood 4250 kg (12.5%) 7636 kg (16.6%)
Dry retted fiber 2006 kg (5.9%) 3128 kg (6.8%)
strong, durable fabrics made from 20 to 30% jute and 70 to 80% cotton blends. Jute
is the second most important vegetable fiber after cotton; not only for cultivation,
but also for various uses. Jute is used chiefly to make cloth for wrapping bales of
raw cotton and make sacks and coarse cloth. The fibers are also woven into curtains,
chair coverings, carpets, area rugs, hessian cloth, and backing for linoleum. While
jute is being replaced by synthetic materials in many of these uses, some uses take
advantage of jute’s biodegradable nature, where synthetics would be unsuitable
(Pan et al. 2004). Examples of such uses include containers for planting young trees
which can be planted directly with the container without disturbing the roots and
land restoration where jute cloth prevents erosion occurring while natural vegeta-
tion becomes established.
The fibers are used alone or blended with other types of fibers to make twine and
rope. Jute butts, the coarse ends of the plants, are used to make inexpensive cloth.
Conversely, very fine threads of jute can be separated out and made into imitation
silk. As jute fibers are also being used to make pulp and paper, and with increasing
concern over forest destruction for the wood pulp used to make most paper, the
importance of jute for this purpose may increase. Jute has a long history of use in
the sackings, carpets, wrapping fabrics (cotton bale), and construction fabric manu-
facturing industry (Maulik 2001). Traditionally, jute was used in traditional textile
machineries as textile fibers having cellulose (vegetable fiber content) and lignin
(wood fiber content). But, the major breakthrough came when the automobile, pulp
and paper, and the furniture and bedding industries started to use jute and its allied
fibers with their nonwoven and composite technology to manufacture nonwovens,
technical textiles, and composites. Therefore, jute has changed its textile fiber out-
look and steadily heading toward its newer identity, i.e., wood fiber. As a textile
fiber, jute has reached its peak from where there is no hope of progress, but as a
wood fiber jute has many promising features.
Geotextiles are another area which made this agricultural commodity more pop-
ular in the agricultural sector. It is a lightly woven fabric made from natural fibers
which are used for soil erosion control, seed protection, weed control, and many
other agricultural and landscaping uses. The geotextiles can be used more than a
year and the biodegradable jute geotextile left to rot on the ground keeps the ground
cool and is able to make the land more fertile (Maulik 2001; Madhu 2002). Methods
such as this could be used to transfer the fertility of the Ganges Delta to the deserts
of Sahara or Australia. Moreover, jute can be grown in 4–6 months with a huge
amount of cellulose being produced from the jute hurd (inner woody core or paren-
chyma of the jute stem) that can meet most of the wood needs of the world. Jute is
the major crop among others that is able to protect deforestation by industrializa-
tion. Thus, jute is the most environment-friendly fiber starting from the seed to
expired fiber, as the expired fibers can be recycled more than once. Diversified by-
products which can be cultivated from jute include uses in food, cosmetics, medi-
cine, paints, and other products. Jute leaves are also a very popular vegetable and
medicinal food item in Bangladesh, India, and so many countries of the world. The
Yoruba of Nigeria call jute leaves “ewedu”. It is made into a common slimy soup in
some West African cooking traditions (Islam 2013a, b) (Table 20.1).
20.4 Cultivation Methods of Jute
20.4.1 Land, Soil Type
Jute already has been pushed to the marginal land. The marginal lands are those
which lay extreme low and extreme high. All the intermediate lands including
extreme low lands are covered by the irrigated rice. However, jute cannot be grown
in the extreme low lands; for obvious ground, it is thriving in the high and medium
high lands. In the lands of higher elevation, irrigated rice cannot be grown for the
involvement of added cost of water supply. Jute crop in no way can be pushed
within the block of irrigated rice, as it is a dry land crop. If you push jute crop within
the block of irrigated rice, the leaching in moisture will affect its root breathing,
proper uptake of nutrient elements will be affected, plant growth will be stunted,
and yield will be reduced drastically. So, high lands are the only choice for cultiva-
tion of jute in the present circumstances. Besides, the lands by the riverside, ditches,
or canal are the better choices for jute, because excess water can be easily leached
out from these lands. To concern soil type, silt is the best. However, it can be grown
in any intermediate soil other than the extreme sand and extreme clay soil. The
extreme sand is not suitable, because its water holding capacity is very poor and jute
plants suffer from moisture stress in this soil. In the extreme clay soil, proper root
growth cannot take place due to hardness of soil, which ultimately affects plant
growth.
20.4.2 Land Preparation
Jute seed requires fine tilt for its proper germination, as its seeds are very small in
size. Number of plough also varies depending on soil type. If it is of light soil, three
ploughs may be enough. For heavy soil, increased number of ploughs must be
needed. The main point is that the soil is to bring to fine tilt by plough and harrow-
ing. Number of plough may vary from 3–6 depending on the texture of soil. During
land preparation, weeds and plant debris are to be collated and removed from the
land. Otherwise, the crop field will be heavily infested by weeds and it will involve
400 Md. M. Islam
excess weeding cost. Jute field also needs proper leveling of soil. During land prepa-
ration, the land should be supplied with organic matter before 2–3 weeks of planta-
tion. This also may be applied on the time of opening of the land. Remember, the
soil of Bangladesh is miserably deficient in organic matter and its importance is
noteworthy. For the physical health of soil and to make nutrient elements available
to the plants, it plays a vital role. The real picture of organic matter content of
Bangladesh soil is really disappointing. Most of the cultivable lands are certainly
deficient in organic matter. You are to replenish this soil with the supplement of
organic matter and to be supplied during land preparation. The chart below depicts
the status of organic matter content in Bangladesh soil.
20.4.3 Climate
20.4.3.1 Temperature
Temperature directly affects photosynthesis, respiration, cell wall permeability,
absorption of water and nutrient, transpiration, enzyme activity, and protein coagu-
lation. Jute is grown in a wide range of temperature. It can thrive well with a mini-
mum temperature of 15 °C to maximum temperature 38 °C and may increase up to
46 °C. Generally, the temperature of Bangladesh remains between 7 °C and 12 °C
during winter and maximum range of 23.88 °C to 31.55 °C during summer season.
The IPCC-WG-I Third Assessment report mentioned the global average surface air
temperature has increased by 0.6 °C over the twentieth century, which has been
mainly attributed due to atmospheric causes of green house gases. The trend of
global temperature increase during the last two decade was 0.15 °C/decade. IPCC
has also projected the rise of temperature by 1.4–5.8 °C over the period 1991–2100.
During the last decade, there was increase of temperature due to climate change.
But the fall of humidity will cause wilting of jute plant with nutritional disorders.
Some diseases may be uncounted as to the raise of temperature specially originated
from thermophilic organism. The limit of survival of living organism has generally
been reported to be between −35 °C and + 75 °C, but for plant the range is much
narrower, which may be 15 °C to 40 °C. So under the predicted temperature due to
climate change, the crop will suffer from disease infestation (Table 20.5).
20.4.3.2 Rainfall
The annual rainfall varies from 1419–4338 mm, which is more intensive in the east-
ern and southern region with less in the north and western part of Bangladesh.
Climate change will cause more intensive rainfall pattern in eastern and southern
region and scarcity of rainfall in the northern-western part of the country. Average
precipitations are projected to increase in June–August up to 12.5 percent by the
2020s and about 20 percent by the 2050s. Jute is sown between March and April and
remains in the field up to July, i.e., occupied by pre-monsoon to Monsoon season.
Early precipitation exceeding 750 mm will delay sowing period of jute and ulti-
mately crop yield. Generally, rainfall at 250–300 mm during March to April is most
suitable for growing jute in the field (Kundu 1959) (Table 20.5).
Table 20.5 Change in Monthly Average Temperature and Rainfall of Bangladesh (Khandaker
1991)
Average of 1987–1990 Year 2007
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
Mean daily Mean daily Rainfall Mean daily Mean daily Rainfall
Months maximum minimum (mm) maximum minimum (mm)
January 23.29 11.22 1.41 24.19 12.00 103.98
February 24.47 13.21 19.64 25.79 15.09 297.39
March 28.79 17.16 59.59 31.00 18.24 182.88
April 30.93 21.05 196.65 33.04 23.22 852.18
May 30.66 22.09 217.10 32.43 23.82 1248.09
June 30.90 23.75 349.29 32.35 25.69 1548.42
July 29.94 24.69 578.43 32.71 25.82 3956.28
August 30.65 24.71 325.12 32.29 26.10 1762.17
September 30.43 23.99 292.07 31.70 25.61 2346.09
October 29.66 23.50 281.14 31.30 24.40 1942.71
November 27.81 18.94 61.48 28.64 19.02 137.40
December 24.47 14.15 3.00 26.48 14.26 0.00
Maximum and minimum temperature increased highly during jute growing sea-
son March–April to July–August. The highest temperature 2.77 °C increased in the
month of July. In contrast, the highest minimum temperature of 2.17 °C increased
in the month of April. Within 17 years of age, the maximum temperature increasing
range was 0.83 °C–2.77 °C and that of minimum was 0.08 °C–2.17 °C. Month-wise
increasing temperatures were higher during the jute growing season.
On the other hand, rainfall increased vigorously within this study period of 17
years. The highest increased rainfall of 3377.85 mm was observed in the month of
July. The increase in temperature increases the rainfall. The increasing range was
−3.00 mm to 3377.85 mm. Monthly, increases in rainfall were higher in the jute
growing season also (Table 20.6)
20.4.3.3 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is a significant factor in plant growth and developed specially the
intensity and duration of light is most important for the physiological process in
plant. Both species of jute are of photoperiodism short-day plant; the critical light
period seems to be near about 12.50 hours.
White jute is a highly photosensitive plant of which tossa is more sensitive than
white; the crops fall victim of short-day length when sown early. Jute exhibits short-
day flowering behavior with critical day lengths generally being about 12 h for
Corchorus capsularis L. varieties and 12.5 h for C. olitorius L. (Sen Gupta and Sen
1946; Kundu 1959). Temperature and soil moisture are the other factors which
affect flowering and stunt or limit the growth.
Photoperiod is the dominant factor controlling flowering and hence growth habit.
There was relatively little effect of temperature on flowering even though night
temperatures below 200 C markedly delayed emergence and initial growth. Thus,
effect of light intensity or quality may be involved (Johansen et al. 1985).
402 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.6 Increased in monthly average temperature and rainfall after 17 years of Bangladesh
After 17 Years
Temperature (°C)
Months Mean daily maximum Mean daily minimum Rainfall (mm)
January 0.90 1.22 102.57
February 1.32 1.88 277.75
March 2.21 1.08 123.29
April 2.74 2.17 655.53
May 1.77 1.73 1030.99
June 1.45 1.94 1199.13
July 2.77 1.13 3377.85
August 1.64 1.39 1437.05
September 1.27 1.62 2054.02
October 1.64 0.90 1661.31
November 0.83 0.08 75.92
December 2.01 0.11 −3.00
Table 20.7 Status of organic matter content in cultivable lands of Bangladesh soil
Very low Low Medium High
45% 17% 21% 17%
20.4.4 Land Preparation
Jute seed requires fine tilt for its proper germination, as its seeds are very small in
size. Number of plough also varies depending on soil type. If it is of light soil, three
ploughs may be enough. For heavy soil, increased number of ploughs must be
needed. The main point is that the soil is to be brought to fine tilt by plough and
harrowing. Number of plough may vary from 3–6 depending on the texture of soil.
During land preparation, weeds and plant debris are to be collated and removed
from the land. Otherwise, the crop field will be heavily infested by weeds and it will
involve excess weeding cost. Jute field also needs proper leveling of soil. During
land preparation, the land should be supplied with organic matter before 2–3 weeks
of plantation. This also may be applied on the time of opening of the land. Remember,
the soil of Bangladesh is miserably deficient in organic matter and its importance is
noteworthy. For the physical health of soil and to make nutrient elements available
to the plants, it plays a vital role. The real picture of organic matter content of
Bangladesh soil is really disappointing. Most of the cultivable lands are certainly
deficient in organic matter. It is to replenish this soil with the supplement of organic
matter and to be supplied during land preparation. The chart below depicts the status
of organic matter content in Bangladesh soil (Table 20.7).
20.4.5 Plant Nutrients
All living organisms take nutrients from the basic food of carbohydrate, protein,
fate, minerals, and water from the natural resources. If you are to supply processed
food to plants, crop husbandry must not be a profitable enterprise. However, plants
uptake basic nutrient elements from the soil and manufacture their own food. When
the soil is deficient in these basic nutrient elements, you are to supplement it. Out of
17 essential nutrient elements, Bangladesh soil is deficient in six elements in its
present condition. Those are N, P, K, S, Zn, and Mg. You are to supply these five
elements. You will be disappointed to know that in the near future you will need to
supply more nutrient elements for your crop. Due to intensive cultivation,
Bangladesh soil is getting deficient of nutrient elements.
At the present situation, jute crop for its potential yield requires N, P, K, Zn, S,
and Mg nutrient elements. Required doses of fertilizers are given in Table 20.8.
When planted with application 5 tha−1 of cow dung, the fertilizer doses become
a bit different. Then one is to follow the following recommendation (Tables 20.9
and 20.10).
20.4.6 Time of Seed Sowing
Jute is a photoperiod-sensitive and short-day plant. Any early planting provides pre-
mature flowering and reduces plant growth and yield of fiber. It accomplishes its
vegetative growth in the long days and induces flowers in the short days. In
Bangladesh condition, day length goes above 12 hrs from 22 March and 12.50 hrs
from 14 April. So, all the varieties, except O-4, can be safely planted after 22 March
and O-4 to be planted after 14 April, because O-4 is more sensitive to photoperiod.
Table 20.8 Variety-wise fertilizer requirement and time of application (when sown without appli-
cation of organic matter)
Variety Urea TSP MP Gypsum Zinc sulfate
On sowing 45 DAS On sowing On sowing On sowing On sowing
(kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1)
Deshi
D-154 83 83 25 30 45 11
CVL-1
CC-45
CVE-3
BJC- 55 55 25 40 – –
7370
BJC-83 110 110 50 40
Tossa
O-4 83 83 25 30 45 11
O-9897 100 100 50 60 95 11
OM-1 88 88 50 40 95 11
O-72 83 83 51 80 100 11
404 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.9 Variety-wise fertilizer requirement and time of application when planted with appli-
cation 5 tha−1 of cow dung
Urea TSP MP Gypsum Zinc sulfate
At sowing 45 DAS At sowing At sowing At sowing At sowing
Variety (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kgha−1)
(Deshi)
D-154 27 88 – – – –
CVL-1
CC-45
CVE-3
BJC- 55 55 – – – –
7370
BJC-83 55 55 – – – –
(Tossa)
O-4 27 88 – – – –
O-9897 45 100 – 10 50 –
OM-1 33 88 – – 50 –
O-72 28 83 – – –
a
For each 1000 kg dry cow dung, the doses of urea, TSP, and MP will be reduced by 11, 10, and
10 kg, respectively
DAS Days after sowing
Table 20.10 Time and amount of fertilizer application of jute fiber production (medium soil
fertility and medium production target. kg/ha)
Dry cow dung Chemical fertilizer (Amount and time of application)
Zinc
Urea TSP MP Gypsum sulfate
At After
2–3 weeks sowing 45 days of
Variety before sowing date sowing At sowing date
White jute: CVL-1, a
83 83 25 30 45 11
CC-45, CVE-3,
BJC-7370, BJC-83
Tossa jute: O-4
O-9897 (Tossa jute) a
100 100 50 60 95 11
OM-1 (Tossa jute) a
88 88 50 40 95 11
O-72 (Tossa jute) a
83 83 50 40 95 11
White jute: CVL-1, 5000 27 88 – – – –
CC-45, CVE-3,
BJC-7370, BJC-83
Tossa jute: O-4
O-9897 (Tossa jute) 5000 45 100 – 10 50 –
OM-1 (Tossa jute) 5000 33 88 – – 50 –
O-72 (Tossa jute) 5000 61 61 – 10 50 –
a
At the time of cow dung application
Sowing should be ensured within a month thereafter. However, some new varieties
such as CC-45, BJC-7370, BJC-83, O-9897, OM-1, and O-72 can be planted
15 days earlier without any fear from premature flowering, but that is not suggested,
since growth of jute plant is also related to thermal sensitivity. It provides luxuriant
growth under temperature between 30 °C to 40 °C and relative humidity over 70%,
and growth rate becomes stunted gradually when temperature comes below
30 °C. So, planting too early obviously brings no beneficial effect; rather it involves
extra cost due to management, nutrient, and soil moisture.
Planting around 30 March, the Corchorus capsularis L. varieties yielded opti-
mum fiber and provides facilities for other crops to fit into three-crop pattern.
However, some recently developed high-yielding varieties can be sown about
1 month ahead. To concern C. olitorius L. varieties, the conventional variety like
O-4, planting should be done after 14 April, but less photoperiod-sensitive varieties
are to be planted starting from 15 March (Islam and Rahman 2008).
Jute sowing is dependent either on residual moisture or on natural rainfall. From
this aspect, jute growing areas fall into two main categories: (i) early sowing areas,
namely, greater Rangpur, part of greater Dhaka, Comilla, and Mymensingh district;
and (ii) late sowing areas, namely, Faridpur, Jessore, Kushtia, Rajshahi, Pabna,
Bogra and part of Dhaka, Cumilla, and Mymensingh. Jute varieties bred previously
could not sow usually earlier than late March with C. capsularis and before mid-
April with C. olitorius L. varieties for their sensitivity to flowering. For the same
reason, the varieties could not be adjusted to a three-crop pattern. But nowadays, the
scenario of jute-based cropping pattern showed a great change (Table 20.11).
20.4.7 Seeding Rate
For seeds having 80% viability, the required rate of seed is 7–8 kg ha−1 for all deshi,
5–6 kg ha−1 for all tossa, and 11–12 kg ha−1 for all kenaf and mesta varieties. When
viability% of the seeds is below the recommended ISTA standard of 80%, then what
is to do with these seeds? ISTA says when a lot of seed has germination below 80%,
these should not be used in the field. Remember, jute seeds have no other alternative
uses. It is to sow seeds even if it is of 50% viability. However, to adjust the seeding
rate, it can adjust the seeding rate through the following mathematical derivative:
Seed rate adjustment = Rec. G% × Seeding rate) ÷ %SG

where Rec. G is the ISTA standard germination %, i.e., 80%, and SG is the germina-
tion% of the sample of seed lot. For jute crops, seeds which emerge out from the soil
provide normal growth of plants and have no variation in yield. Similarly, when the
germination percent of any seed lot is higher than the recommended one, then the
uses of those seeds could lower than the normal seeding rate.
To get optimum plant population and desired yield, seeding rate was optimized,
and it was found that seeds having 80% viability, 5 kg ha−1 of tossa jute, 7 kg ha−1
of deshi, and 12–15 kg ha−1 of kenaf and mesta seeds could offer desired population
and optimum yield. For seed crop, seed rate depends on the soil condition and plant-
ing methods followed. As a thumb rule, for deshi jute, 4.0–4.5 kg ha−1 in line sowing
406 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.11 Released year, date of sowing, and yield at farmers’ field of some jute varieties
developed by BJRI
Released Yield at farmers
Name of variety year Date of sowing field (t/ha)
White jute (Corchorlus capsularis L.)
1. D-154 (2) 1961 30 march-30April 2.25–2.50
2. CVL-1 1977 30 march-15April 2.50–3.00
3. CVE-3 1977 30 march-15April 2.00–2.25
4. CC-45 1979 15 Feb-15April 2.50–2.75
5. BJRI Deshi pat-5 (BJC-7370) 1995 15 march-15April 2.40–2.60
6. BJRI Deshi pat-6(BJC-83) 1995 30 March-30 April 2.20–2.40
7. BJRI Deshi pat-7 (BJC-2142) 2007 15 March-30 April 2.50–2.75
Tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.)
1. O-4 1967 15 April-15 may 2.30–2.50
2. O-9897 1987 10 March-30 April 2.70–3.00
3. BJRI Tossa pat-3 (OM-1) 1995 15 March-30 April 2.50–2.80
4. BJRI Tossa pat-4(O-72) 2002 10 March-30 April 2.60–3.00
5. BJRI Tossa pat-5 (O-795) 2008 15 March-30 April 2.70–3.20
6. BJRI Tossa pat-6 (O-3820) 2013 01April-30 April 2.50–2.80
7. BJRI Tossa pat-7 (MG-1) 2017 15 March-15 April 2.70–3.30
and 5.0–5.5 kg ha−1 in broadcast sowing should be maintained. On the other hand,

for tossa jute, 3.0–3.5 kg ha−1 in line sowing and 4.0–4.5 kg ha−1 in broadcast sow-
ing should be maintained. As jute seeds have no other alternative uses, it is to be
sowed even if it is of 50% viability by adjustment of the seed rate (Islam and
Rahman 2008):
• C. capsularis (white) 7.00 to 8.00 kg per hectare.

• C. olitorius (tossa) 5.00 to 6 kg per hectare.
The seed rate in the case of line sowing depends on the spacing and a plant to
plant distance. However, the following seed rates are recommended for line
sowing:
• C. capsularis (white) 5.00 to 6.00 kg per hectare.

• C. olitorius (tossa) 3.00 to 4 kg per hectare.
20.4.8 Seed Sowing Methods
Jute seeds can be sown in either line or broadcast methods of plantation. The yield
of crop will be at par in both the methods. However, line-sown jute crop increases
sowing cost and reduces management cost like weeding, thinning, entomological
and pathological cares, and harvesting cost. Moreover, line-sown crop will provide
a bit higher quality of fiber. Considering all the advantages and disadvantages, line
sowing method is better than broadcast sowing.
20.4.9 Intercultural Operations
The seed rate of jute, therefore, is very high. Although it is possible to raise a good
crop of jute with much lower seed rates under favorable conditions, this high seed
rate is considered necessary for the following reasons: (i) the germinating seedling
is very delicate and often cannot singly break through the soil crust that may form
when there is rain soon after sowing and therefore requires the help of other seed-
lings for emergence; (ii) until the regular monsoon sets in some time in jute, the
young crop is often subjected to long periods of drought as the northwester showers,
on which it depends, are irregular; therefore, in the event of mortality of seedlings
during drought, an adequate population is ensured; and (iii) the thick stand in the
initial stages helps to check the growth of weeds in the field.
During the first 2 months of the crop, a large number of plants have to be thinned
out gradually. When the plants are about 3–9 in. high, a hand or bullock-drawn rake
(bida or anchra) is drawn over the land to thin out the plants and loosen the soil
slightly. This operation may be repeated twice at an interval of about a fortnight.
Weeding is important in jute cultivation. Jute fields should be kept free from weeds.
After the initial thinning with a rake, the crop is weeded with the hand-hoe (Khurpi)
twice or thrice; weeding is accompanied by thinning. The plant should be thinned
out so as to leave a space of about 5–6 in. between them. With more spacing, the
height and thickness of plants increase; with too much spacing, however, the plants
bring forth branches, which are not desirable (Kundu 1959, Jute in India).
20.4.9.1 Weeding
Weed possesses a major problem in jute cultivation and weeding operation consti-
tutes about one third of the total cost of production. Some of the major weeds are
found in jute field as listed here: Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Echinochloa
colonum, Digitaria sanguinalis, Cyperus iria, Eleusine indica, and Panicum disti-
chum. Two experiments were conducted with deshi and tossa jute varieties at
Manikganj, Kishoreganj, Chandina, and Monirampur, Faridpur, and Rangpur dur-
ing 2011–2012 with a view to generate information about weeds in jute field and
their related affairs. The first experiment results showed that species, viz.,
Khudesama, Mutha, Durba, Fuskabegun, Katanotey, Anguli, Knotgrass/Gitlaghas,
Gaicha, Nuniasak, Matichech, and Helencha, were infested in deshi jute-growing
areas. Among the growing weeds, six major species at Manikganj and five at
Kishoreganj and Chandina were observed. Manikganj, Kishoreganj, and Chandina
jute fields were highly infested by Mutha which was followed by Durba. In another
experiment of tossa jute growing areas, the weed species, viz., Khudesama, Mutha,
Basketgrass, Durba, Fuskabegun, Knotgrass/Gitlaghass, Chechra, Chapra,
Nuniasak, Shialleza, Gaicha, Shaknotey, Chanchi, and Hajardana, were found.
408 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.12 Intercultural operation that are to be recommended by BJRI

Time of
Intercultural operation operation
(a) First weeding, mulching, and simultaneous thinning. 10–15 DASa
(b) Second weeding, mulching, and simultaneous thinning 25–30 DAS
(c) Third weeding, mulching, and simultaneous final thinning and topdressing 40–50 DAS
of urea fertilizer followed by hoeing
(d) Entomological care When
necessary
(e) Pathological care When
necessary
DAS Days after sowing
a
Among the infested weeds, eight major species were observed at Monirampur, ten
at Faridpur, and four at Rangpur station. Jute field of Monirampur station was highly
infested by Khudesama, whereas Faridpur and Rangpur were infested by Mutha.
From the two separate experiments, it was observed and calculated that 22 types of
weeds, viz., Khudesama, Basketgrass, Mutha, Durba, Fuskabegun, Katanotey,
Shaknotey, Chapra, Shialleza, Knotgrass/Gitlaghass, Borododhia, Sutododhia,
Chechra, Hajardana, Gaicha, Chanchi, Nuniasak, Helencha, Anguli, Matichech,
Borosama, and Angta, are grown which were identified at both deshi (Manikganj,
Chandina, Kishoreganj) and tossa (Monirampur, Faridpur, and Rangpur) jute-
growing stations. Timely weeding and thinning are most important operations to
obtain a good establishment and healthy crop. First weeding, mulching, and simul-
taneous thinning at 10–15 days after sowing (DAS); second weeding, mulching, and
simultaneous thinning at 25–30 DAS; third weeding, mulching and simultaneous
final thinning and topdressing of urea fertilizer followed by hoeing, 40–50 DAS,
and entomological and pathological care as and when necessary are most effective
for higher yield. Besides, one tana batch between 60 and 70 DAS and one kata batch
around 80–90 DAS provide good effect (Table 20.12).
20.4.9.2 Thinning
Thinning is an essential operation, which must be carried out in a timely manner. In
a broadcast plot, if the seedlings are much crowded, light raking precedes manual
thinning. Raking is never done in wet soil and is dropped altogether if the seedlings
are not too crowded. When seedlings are about 10 cm tall, thinning is convenient.
Normally first thinning is done when seedling are 20 to 25 days old, by which time
seedlings can withstand the operators’ treading. During the first thinning operation,
the gat left between plants is less than the desired final spacing. The second or final
thinning is done about 30 days crop age when plants are spaced 10–15 cm apart. In
broadcast plots, the minimum plant-to-plant spacing is 10 cm and maximum 15 cm.
When the soil is highly fertile, close spacing is undesirable since harvestable plants
grow faster and become tall. Their foliage forms a canopy that suppresses the growth
of the shaded plants, which then remain thin and short. Such dwarfed plants soon
shed their leaves and succumb to microbial attacks. In fertile soil, wider spacing of
15 cm is preferable. Plots with different population could yielded similar i.e., 49,504
plants yielded 24.8 md per acre, while 120,980 plants also yielded 24.3 md per acre.
In such a situation, fiber from plots having a larger population gives better quality.
Thus, spacing should aim at larger number of plants with basal diameter within the
range 1.2 to 2.0 cm. A quick growing, tall but thin plant is ideal. This is discussed at
length in the section dealing with quality (Tables 20.13 and 20.14).
Table 20.13 An analysis of jute plant population from seed to plant harvest
At seedling stage (crop population)
By seedling dead due to different environmental factors 100,000 seedlings
Damaged at time of weeding- 100,000 seedlings
Uprooting by thinning- 600,000 to 800,000
seedlings
Subtotal- 800,000 to 1000,000
seedlings
At matured plant stage (crop population)
Damage made by disease and insect attack- 100,000 plants
Damage made by human and animal- 50,000 plants
Uprooting and cut-out by tana and kata batches- 100,000 plants
Subtotal 250,000 plants
Total population maintained at field
Dead, damage, uprooting, and by cutting 1050,000 to 1250,000
seedling and matured
plants
Total viable seeds were 2025,000. From this amount of population seedlings and matured
plants cut-out at different stage of jute crop (dead, damage, uprooting, and cutting). So at
harvest, the field population remains about 205,500 to 197,500.
Table 20.14 Seed rate to field plant population of jute crop at harvest
%
Seed 100
Germination % of seed 80
Tossa or white jute seed rate per hectare 5 kg or 7 kg, so viable seed 2,025,000
number (80%)
Emergence capacity at field 60%
Rate of seedling dead 5% 60–5 = 55%
Seedling damage at weeding 5% 55–5 = 50%
Uprooting seedling by thinning 30% 50–30 = 20%
Damage made by disease and insect attack and by human and animal 5% 20–5 = 15%
Plant cut-out by tana and kata batches 5% 15–5 = 10%
At farmers field, population remains 10% of 2025,000 202,500
At farmers field, population remains 15–17% of 2,025,000 300,000 to
350,000
410 Md. M. Islam
20.4.10 Jute Weeds and Chemical Control
Post-emergence Herbicides If jute field is infested with grassy weeds, selective

herbicides are quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl at 650 ml/ha at
12–15 days after sowing was found very effective for Khudesama (Echinochloa
colonum) and Anguli ghas (Digitaria sanguinalis). On the other hand, Ethoxy
Sulfuran 15 WG at 200 g/ha at 12–15 days after sowing was found very effective for
Mutha (Cyperus rotundus).
Presently, jute has been identified as a major segment for herbicide use in the
following table. Only after 2009, herbicide application was started mostly in jute of
Bangladesh; at present, 20 products of only fenoxapro-pethyl, metamifop, and
quizalofop-p-ethyl have been found to be recommended suitable for weed control
for jute crop, which were mostly used against lower infesting weeds.
20.4.11 Jute Crops Diseases and Their Control
Jute crop is attacked by various diseases under field conditions. Seed, root, and all
other plant parts are infected. As a result, the yield of fiber and seed are greatly
lowered. Loss in yield of fiber due to incidence of fungal diseases could be as high
as 60% in severe cases—stem-rot (Macrophomina phaseolina), anthracnose
(Colletoirichum corchori), wilting (Rhizoctonia solani), soft-rot (Sclerotium rolf-
sii), and dieback (Gloeosporium spp.). Black-band (Botryodiplodia theobromae)
and powdery mildew (Oidium spp.) are the common fungal diseases of jute. Apart
from these, there are two other important diseases, one is root-knot caused by
nematode (Meloidogyne javanica and M. incognita) and the other is leaf yellow
mosaic disease caused by virus. Yield loss by nemalode disease has not been ascer-
tained. The yield loss due to mosaic disease is as high as 70%. If secondary infec-
tion occurs by the vector, white fly (Bemisia labaci), the yield loss is around 20%
(Table 20.15). Pictorial views of different diseases of jute crop are given in
Fig. 20.2.
Table 20.15 Jute diseases

Disease (English name) Causal pathogen (scientific name) Disseminate by Damage
Foot rot or wilt Rhizoctonia solani Soil Extensive
Stem-rot Macrophomina phaseolina Seed, soil, air Extensive
Anthracnose Colletotricum corchori Seed, soil, air Harmful
Soft-rot Sclerotium rolfsii Soil Extensive
Black-band Botrydiplodia theobromae Seed, soil, air Moderate
Dieback Gleosporium sp Seed and air Moderate
Powdery mildew Oidium sp. Air Moderate
Leaf mosaic virus Virus Seed and white fly Harmful
Root-knot disease Meloidogyne javanica/M. incognita Soil Harmful
Fig. 20.2 Pictorial view of different diseases of jute crop
On the other hand, jute suffers from a number of diseases, most of which are seed-
borne (Fakir 2001). Among the seed-borne diseases, only virus causes the leaf music,
while rests were caused by fungal pathogens. Among the seed-borne fungal diseases,
stem-rot, black-band, and anthracnose are caused by Macrophomina phaseolina,
Botryodiplodia theobromae, and Colletotrichum corchori, respectively, and frequently
transmitted from seed to plant to seeds (Ahmed and Ahmed 1969; Fakir et al. 1993).
In fact, M. phaseolina alone can cause up to 10% yield loss (Ahmad 1968). Even
60–70% jute plant may die in the field due to stem-rot if no control measure is taken.
The fungal jute pathogens, viz., M. phaseolina, B. theobromae, Corchori, Fusarium
rolfsii, and Rhizoctonia solani, are responsible for seed rot, post- and pre-emergence
damping off, seedlings blight, and transmission of the diseases to standing crops caus-
ing considerable yield loss and deterioration of quality of fiber (Ahmed and Islam
1980; Biswas et al. 1985). The fungal diseases may be controlled by using seed treat-
ment with Provax-200 (0.04%) and garlic paste (125 g/kg seed weight), and at mature
stage, fungicides like Dithane M 45, Mannar, and Onthane may be used as foliar
spray. Some of the important methods for controlling of diseases are discussed below.
412 Md. M. Islam
The fungal diseases except wilting, soft-rot, and powdery mildew are primarily
seed-borne. Root-knot disease is soil-borne, but leaf mosaic disease is primarily a
seed-borne one. The fungal diseases which occur in jute also attack kenaf and mesta
crops in the field. Leaf mosaic disease mainly occurs in C. capsularis L. It does not
occur in C. olitorius L. jute. Diseases may be checked by adopting the following
measures:
1. Land free from root-knot nematodes and soil-borne fungal pathogens should be
selected.
2. During preparation of land, root system and other plant parts should be removed
from soil and burnt.
3. Seed free from pathogens with high percentage of viability should be treated
with a fungicide (Provax-200 at 0.4%, i.e., 4 gms/kg of seed) and sown.
4. Diseased plants should be uprooted on sight during thinning, weeding, and after-
ward up to full grown stage.
5. Leaf mosaic-infected plants should be removed from early seedling stage to
flowering stage and insecticide Diazinon 60% E.C at 5 cc/10 liters of water
should be sprayed against the vector.
6. Plants should be sprayed with a fungicide Dithane M-45 at 0.2%, i.e., 18.56
gms/10 liters of water as a preventive measure.
7. Rotation with rice, wheat, millet, mustard, and pea should be practiced.
8. In nematode-infected soil, Mesta (var. S-24) should be grown as an alternative
fiber crop.
9. In leaf mosaic-affected zones, CVL-1, a tolerant C. capsularis L., and recom-
mended C. olitorius L. varieties should be grown.
In jute field, the incidence of many diseases is found to occur from seedling stage
to late stages. These are seedling wilt, stem-rot, black-band, anthracnose, and yel-
low mosaic. Any severe incidence may affect yield by 50%. As we all know, preven-
tion is better than cure. For this purpose, we can treat seeds before sowing. To treat
seed, we are to use Provax-200 (0.4%), i.e., for each kg of seed buy 4 g of Provax-200.
Still you may find diseases in grown-up plants; you are to uproot diseased plants at
your first sight before further dispersion. You can also take chemical control mea-
sure in that you are to spray Dithane M-45 at 10 g with each 10 liters of water. Crop
rotations also provide effective result.
20.4.12 Jute Crop Insects and Their Control
Jute has great influence on the agro-ecology and socioeconomic life of the people.
The intensive cultivation of high-yielding varieties and fertilizer-responsive culti-
vars of jute brought forth the problems of insect, pests, and mites. A relatively less
important pest turned out to be major one. So all stages of growth of the crop for
seedlings to harvest including the flowers and seed pods are subjected to attack by
pests. Hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma oblique (walker), which is considered as a
sporadic pest on jute has become a major threat to jute crop. Semilooper, Anomis
sabulifera (guen); stem weevil, Apion corchori (Marshall); yellow mite,
Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks); and the indigo caterpillar, Spodoptera exigua
(Hubner) are the major pests of jute. Tossa (Corchorus olitorius) jute occupies 80%
of the jute growing areas as agonist 20% by the white jute (C. capsularis), but,
unfortunately, the incidence of major pests is more on tossa than white jute.
Jute crop is infested by a number of insect pests. Among which, field cricket, jute
hairy caterpillar, jute semilooper, yellow mite, and jute stem weevil are important.
The jute hairy caterpillar occurs from mid-April and continues up to the end of
August. Eggs are laid on the lower surface of leaf and young caterpillars remain in
clusters. They eat jute leaves and defoliate the plants. Hand-picking at young gre-
garious stage is the most effective control measure. If not, chemical control measure
by Diazinon 60% EC or Nuvacron 40% EC or Ecalux 25% EC can be sprayed. To
every 12 liters of water, mix 18 ml of insecticide. Field infestation by the jute semi-
looper begins from mid-April when jute plants attain height of 60 cm and continues
up to mid-August. It affects young leaves and plant buds. Chemical control measure
is similar to that of jute hairy caterpillar. Incidence of field cricket is common in jute
field. It reduces the seedling number by cutting young seedlings of 5–12 cm length.
If you anticipate the incidence of field cricket, then a preventive measure becomes
effective. During final land preparation, you are to apply heptachlor 40% powder at
10 pounds ha−1 or dieldrin 20% EC at 22 pounds.
Infestation of yellow mite is also important. This insect is not visual by naked
eye. It starts from mid-May and continues up to end of July. It attacks the apical
buds and causes damage by sucking the plant sap and in a consequence affects plant
growth and reduces yield. Chemical control measures are better. Kelthan 42% EC
or Torc 55% EC or Nirot 50% EC can be sprayed. In that, to every 12 liters of water,
add 18 ml insecticide. Jute stem weevil is another insect pest to jute crop. A full
grown weevil lays eggs on the apical bud and leaf bud when the jute seedlings attain
5 cm in height. It affects the apical growth of plants. Metasistox R 50% EC or
Diazinon 60% EC or Nuvacron 40% EC can be sprayed with every 12 litre of water
mixing insecticide by 18 ml (Table 20.16).
Table 20.16 Jute pests and their attack periods

Pest (English name) Scientific name Attack period
Field cricket Brachytrupes portentosus Last march-last may
Apion Apion corchori Mid-march to crop harvest
Semilooper Anomis sabulifera May-mid august
Hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Last April-mid-august
Indigo caterpillar Lapygama exigua Sowing to mid-April
Mealy bug Pseudococcus filamentosus Mid-July to crop harvest
Mealy bug Pseudococcus virgatatus Mid-July to crop harvest
Yellow mite Poliphagotarsonemus latus Mid-may-last September
Red mite Tetranychus bicculatus Mid-June to crop harvest
Spiral borer Agrilus acutus Mid-June to crop harvest
414 Md. M. Islam
Jute, the major cash crop of Bangladesh, is liable to damage by various insect
and mite pests at all stages of growth of the crop from seedling to harvest. All
parts of the plant including the flowers and seed pods are subjected to be attacked
by the pests. About 12 species of insects and mites are considered as key pests of
jute in Bangladesh. Their attacks are responsible for greatly reducing the yield
and deteriorating the quality of fiber. The overall loss is believed to account for
more than 12 percent of the potential production. However, the extent of damage
varies from year to year and area to area. The loss is mainly attributed to the fol-
lowing key pests:
1 . Field cricket (Brachytrypes portentosus Licht.)

2. Jute hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua Walker,)
3. Jute stem weevil (Apion corehori Marsh.)
4. Jute semilooper (Anomis sabidifera Guen.)
5. Yellow mite (Polyphagotaersonenws latus (Banks) Ewing.)
6. Mealy bug (Pseudococcus virgatus Ckll.)
Field Cricket (Brachytrypes portentosus) The adult insect is blackish-brown in

color and measures about 5 cm in length, and the hind legs are enlarged. It occurs in
the field from the time of sowing to late May and causes damage to seedling of jute
plants. As a result, the plants are lost in patches or the entire crop of the field is badly
damaged. In such a situation, resowing becomes necessary. Damage increases when
drought conditions prevail early in the season but decreases after heavy rainfall.
Seedling jute plants over 18 cm escape the attack (Fig. 20.3).
Fig. 20.3 Adult field cricket

Control
1. In localities where infestation occurs every year, higher seed rate may be used,
thereby increasing the initial plant population to offset losses due to field cricket
attack. Thinning should be done at a late time when the plants are about 20–25 cm
tall.
2. Wherever possible, infested fields should be flooded with water from nearby
tanks, streams, or river.
3. Late sowing is preferred where field infestation occurs every year.
4. As and when field cricket burrows appear in the jute field, “hole treatment” with
recommended insecticide, Dursban 20 EC 3 ml/l or 3.5 lit/ha 40 WP 2 g/l.
Vitanon 60 EC 1.60 lit/ha is advised.
Jute Hairy Caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua) It is a major pest of jute in Bangladesh.

The adult insect is a pale buff-colored, medium-sized with black spots on the wings.
The infestation starts from the middle of May and continues up to the end of August.
Eggs are laid in clusters on the lower surface of the mature jute leaf. The young
caterpillars remain gregarious for about 6 days on the lower surface of the leaves.
Afterward, they gradually disperse all over the field and defoliate the plants. In case
of serious infestations, the top shoots are also eaten up. Once the caterpillar has
swarmed the field, nothing but bare stems will remain. As a result of infestation, the
plants become stunted in growth and yield is reduced. The loss in fiber yield may
vary from 75 kg to 200 kg per acre depending on the intensity of infestation.
Jute hairy caterpillar is omnivorous. Besides jute, it attacks cotton, ground-nut,

cauliflower, cabbage, radish, peas, soybean, and many other leguminous crops
(Fig. 20.4).
Fig. 20.4 Jute hairy caterpillar

416 Md. M. Islam
Control
1. Hand-picking of egg masses and early instar larvae when they remain in a gre-
garious state and killing them by burning or in kerosinized water is considered to
be the easiest method of control.
2. After harvest, the land should be ploughed well so that the pupae which remain
in the soil or crevices are exposed to natural enemies.
3. When the caterpillars are spread in the entire field, chemical control measures
are necessary using recommended insecticide Hayzinon 60% EC or karate 2.5
EC, Riva 2.5 EC 1 ml/L.
Among the parasites and pathogens of jute hairy caterpillar, Apanteles obliqua,
Eurytoma spp. can control 40%–45% caterpillar in natural condition and Tachinids
can control about 35% caterpillar in the field. A considerable number of pest larvae
suffer mortality due to virus and fungal infection. These native biological control
agents play important role in the reduction of jute hairy caterpillar population.
Jute Semilooper (Anomis sabulifera) It is a serious pest of jute in Bangladesh. The

adult moth is of dull brown color having darker spots and wavy lines on the fore-
wings. Field infestation begins from middle of May when the plants are 60–90 cm
tall and continues up to the end of July. A full grown larva is a typical semilooper
and about 4 cm long. The female moth lays eggs singly on the ventral surface of the
young leaves. Soon after hatching, the larva becomes active and feeds on young
leaves. There are 2–3 generations of jute semilooper during the jute season. As they
grow, the larvae feed on leaf buds and top shoots. As a result of infestation, growth
is inhibited and side branches develop. The loss of fiber is about 75 to 100 kg/acre
and the quality of fiber is reduced. Control measures should be adopted when the
infestation reaches 20 per cent (Fig. 20.5).
Fig. 20.5 Jute semilooper

Control
1. If perches are provided for insectivorous birds, they will eat up large number of
semiloopers and help in controlling the pest considerably.
2. A nuclear polyhedrosis of jute semilooper causes natural mortalities and the field
infections may gain momentum under favorable conditions. The infected larvae
can be detected easily. The diseased larvae gradually turn yellowish in color and
become sluggish. Before death, the larvae stops feeding and migrate to the top of
jute plant where it hangs by one or two pairs of prolegs. After death, the body
contents get disintegrated into yellowish or whitish fluid. In this condition, it
ruptures liberating the body contents including the polyhedra over the food plant.
Under such conditions, insecticidal treatment should be avoided.
3. Telinid fly, Tricholyga sorbilans, parasitizes jute semilooper larvae during June
and July. The larvae of the parasite feed on the internal tissue of the host. The
parasite is effective in reducing semilooper population.
4. Spraying with any one of the recommended insecticides, Hayzinon 60 EC or
Nokon 60 EC or Ekalux 25% EC, will give satisfactory control.
Stem Weevil (Apion corchori) It attacks jute plants at all stages of growth from
seedling to harvest. The adult insect is a small dull black weevil measuring about
2 mm in length. The rostrum is short cylindrical and gently curved. The female
weevil bores on the stem and deposits eggs singly. After hatching, the grub feeds on
the bark and internal tissues of the stem. As a result of injury, mucilaginous and
gummy substances accumulate around the wound cementing the larval excreta with
the adjoining tissues.
On retting, it does not dissolve away and forms a “knot” with black stain on the
fiber. This constitutes an important defect in the fiber quality. In the early growing
period, the weevil attacks the top shoot for laying eggs. The activity of the grub
damages the top shoot and, as a result, side branches develop, deteriorating the qual-
ity (Fig. 20.6).
Control
1. The removal and destruction of infested plants during early season will give
effective control of the pest.
2. Removal of bon-okra (Triumfetia rhomboidea) and other shrubs and bushes dur-
ing winter offers a possible reduction of Apion population.
3. C. olitorius L. jute is less susceptible to Apion. An increase of jute cultivation
will minimize jute weevil damage.
4. A high percentage of jute weevil grubs are attacked by two important parasites,
Entedon sp. and Bracon greeni. The parasites are very useful in controlling the
pest as they cause a high mortality of the grubs.
418 Md. M. Islam
Fig. 20.6 Stem weevil (Apion corchori)
5. It is desirable not to stack the harvested jute for more than 3 days. Quick steeping
of harvested jute will destroy the immature stages.
6. Infested C. capsularis L. plants should be sprayed with any of the recom-
mended insecticides for a control. Metasystox 25 EC or Hayzinon 60% EC or
Dimecron 60 EC can be sprayed with every 12 liters of water mixing insecti-
cide by 18 ml.
Jute Yellow Mite (Palyhagotarsonemus latus) It is very small in size and cannot be
seen by naked eye, but the symptom of its attack can easily be recognized. Generally,
mite infestation begins in mid-May and continues till the end of July. However, late
infestation may occur up to August. It attacks the apical leaves and cause damage by
sucking the plant sap. As a result of infestation, the young leaves crinkle, dry up,
and fall down. The vertical growth of the internodes gets suppressed and side
branches develop. In case of heavy infestation, the top shoot dies and apical branches
appear resulting in great loss in yield and deteriorates the quality of fiber (Fig. 20.7).
Control
1 . The population of jute yellow mite is greatly reduced following heavy rainfall.
2. Spraying with lime-sulfur in the ratio of 1:20 has been found to give satisfactory
control. A second spray within 40 hours after the first spray is recommended for
adequate control.
3. Green neem leaf extract of Azadirachta indica in the ratio of 2:5 has been found
to give effective control against jute yellow mite. Dry leaf extract using boiling
water (100 gr + 1 liters water) for 15 minutes is of particular importance for
Fig. 20.7 Yellow mite-infected plant
miticidal activities. However, a second spraying within 40 hour is recommended

for a satisfactory control.
4. Spray the infested fields using recommended miticide Kelthan 42% EC or torque
55% WSC or Nerot 50% EC when the infestation is serious.
Mealy Bug (Pseudococcus virgatatus) The infestation appears in mesta and kenaf
field in July. The adult is elongate to oval in shape and pink in color. They form
colony and remain covered by waxy filaments. Both adults and nymphs feed on
plant sap causing swelling of the terminal shoot. Such infestation reduces the plant
height and induces side branches. The injury, thus, caused formation of “witches’
broom,” due to which the fiber bundles rest separation at the time of retting
(Fig. 20.8).
Control
1. At the beginning of attacks, the tops of infested plants should be removed and
destroyed.
2. Infested fields should be sprayed with any of the recommended insecticides.
Spiral Borer (Agrilus acutus) It is a key pest of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) in
Bangladesh. It has recently been causing considerable economic concern in the pro-
duction of kenaf. In a normal season, field infestation of spiral borer starts in mid-
July or more precisely 70–80 days after planting. At the time of initial infestation,
420 Md. M. Islam
Fig. 20.8 Mealy bug
the plants are about 120–130 cm tall and continue till harvest. The larval stage is
responsible for the damage. It burrows upward around the stem in a spiral fashion
leading to the reed becoming wiry and brittle or remains attached to the stick during
extraction of fiber, thus causing deterioration of the quality of fiber. It has been
observed that nearly 65 per cent of borer attacks occur within the lower 1 meter and
92 per cent within 2 meters above soil level. This information may conveniently be
utilized for its economic control.
Control
1. The incidence of the pest can be reduced by varying the time of sowing. Its infes-
tation tends to decrease gradually with the shifting of sowing time beyond the
month of April.
2. Spraying of any one of the insecticides Hayzinon 60% EC or vitanon 60 EC or
Eka 25% EC is recommended. Covering the lower portion of the plant upto 2 cm
above soil level will give effective and economic control.
20.4.13 Irrigation in Jute Production
Water management should be done carefully. The crop sown in March–April may
face draught in May. When the soil is well-mulched, draught may affect a little,
because well-mulched soil conserve moisture. For this purpose, one is to loose the
upper soil thoroughly during the first and second wedding so as to conserve mois-
ture for a long time. Remember, stagnant water affects the growth of jute seedlings
more than the draught. Normally, a wet-foot condition in the jute field at any stage
of growth is not conducive to healthy root breathing, affects cation-exchange capac-
ity, and affects growth of crop with a consequence decrease in yield. Therefore,
stagnant water is to drain out as soon as possible.
Jute is a rainy reason crop. There is no need for irrigation if raised under rainfall
conditions. But rainfall also varies widely in different areas in the country. Recently,
it is observed that weather is changing. The rainfall does not occur in time. So, if
moisture is not enough in the field after sowing the seeds or before sowing of seeds,
light irrigation is given and, later on, this crop is irrigated when the plants are 10 to
12 cm tall and three or four leaves are formed; subsequent irrigation is given to the
crop according to sowing time and season. The field should not be irrigated much,
but care should be taken that the field does not become dry and compact and the root
development is checked.
Every crop needs a certain amount of water for its growth. Water stored in soil
may always not be sufficient to face the requirement. Hence, rainfall or artificial
application of water is necessary. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to
the crop for its growth. Benefits from proper irrigation include (i) increased yields,
(ii) improved crop quality, (iii) controlled time of planting and harvesting so as to
obtain a more favorable market price as well as maximum utilization of land with a
planned cropping pattern, (iv) reduced damage by control of high air temperature,
(v) increased efficiency of fertilizers and reduced cost of application, and (vi) a
stabilized farm income.
20.4.14 Drainage in Jute Fields
All crops need a certain amount of water for proper growth, but the excess water is
harmful. The excess water need to be removed from the field. Removal of such
excessive and unuseful water from the field is known as drainage.
Jute is the principal cash crop of Bangladesh. There are two species of jute,
namely, “deshi jute” (Corchorus capsularis L.) and “tossa jute” (Corchorus olito-
rius L.). Deshi jute is generally grown in the medium high and medium low land
and can withstand waterlogging/excess water for a certain period, while “tossa jute”
is grown in medium high and high land and cannot withstand waterlogging/excess
water. Growth of both the species of jute (particularly “tossa jute”) is generally
affected due to waterlogging. Therefore, yield of jute is reduced unless excess water
is removed by appropriate drainage system.
Jute grows well in rich loam, well-drained, and permeable soil. Heavy, clay, lat-
erite, and poor sandy soil is not suitable for jute cultivation. In presence of excess
water and absence of drainage facility in the jute fields, the following problems
arise:
1 . Reduced growth of jute plants.

2. Incidence of diseases and pests.
3. Increased toxicity of undesirable elements.
4. Increased alkalinity and salinity of the soil.
5. Root system cannot develop well.
6. Reduced growth of beneficial microorganisms.
422 Md. M. Islam
Therefore, drainage of excess water is necessary for optimum production of jute.

Jute grows well in moderate rainfall and humid atmosphere. It is generally sown in
the residual moisture after pre-monsoon showers during March to May. However,
grand growth period occurs during “Monsoon” or “wet period” (June to September).
20.4.15 Jute-Based Profitable Cropping Patterns
To fit jute as fiber crop in the cropping sequence, multiple trials were conducted and
it was found that the sequences below performed better than the existing patterns of
different areas of the country:
1. Jute-T.aman-wheat
2. Jute-T.aman-potato
3. Jute-T.aman-potato+Amaranthus
4. Jute-radish-potato+lalshak+sweet gourd
5. Jute-mungbean-wheat+lentil
6. Jute-mungbean-lentil+mustard.
7. Jute-T.aman-chilli+tomato+coriander
8. Jute-T.aman-garlic
All the above patterns are agronomically feasible and economically viable. In
high land areas, incorporation of C. olitorius L. high-yielding varieties in place of
C. capsularis L. varieties in different cropping patterns generates higher income to
the jute growers.
20.4.16 Harvesting of Jute Crop
Harvesting of the crop at pre-bud or bud stage gives best quality fiber; however, the
yields are low. Hence, as a compromise between quality and quantity, early pod
formation stage has been found as best for harvesting. Harvesting is done by cutting
the plants at or close to the ground level with sharp sickles. In flooded lands, the
plants are uprooted. The harvested plants are left in the field for 2–3 days for the
leaves to shed. Next, the plants are tied into bundles 20–25 cm of diameter and the
branching tops are lipped off to rot in the field.
20.5 Processing of Jute
The jute is second in world’s production of textile fibers. Jute is almost entirely a
market-oriented crop. As much as 90% of crop produced is necessarily to be sold
and only 5% is retained by the farmers for domestic purposes. The growers usually
market the fiber in the immediate postharvest period. The peak arrival months are
September and October.
Flow chart of jute processing
20.5.1 Bundle Stalk
The crop is ready for harvesting when it is in small pod stage. If harvested before,
the fiber is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fiber is stronger but is coarser
and lacks the characteristic luster. The plants are left in small heaps at different
places in the field for 2 to 4 days when most of the leaves get dried up. After this
period, the plants are tied into bundles. At the time of bundling, most of the leaves
are shed on the ground. The color of the fiber is darkened if the leaves are allowed
to remain during the process of retting. It is also thought that drying of the plants
before retting facilitates the separation of the fiber. The bundles are then taken for
424 Md. M. Islam
steeping in water. In lowlands where jute plants may be standing in water, steeping
is carried out immediately after harvest.
20.5.2 Retting
It is a process by which fibers in the tank get loosened and separated from the
woody stalk due to the removal of pectinals and other mucilaginous substances.
This is usually affected by the combined action of water and microorganisms. The
tied bundles of jute stalks are taken to the tank or ditch for retting. The bundles are
steeped in water at least 60 to 90 cm in depth. Jute bundles rot better when steeped
out at a depth of 15 cm to 23 cm below the surface in slow flowing clean water. The
retting process is completed in 8 to 30 days.
When the barks separate out easily from the stick, wood retting is completed.
When retting is complete, fibers are ready for extraction. Fiber must be extracted as
quickly as possible; otherwise the quality will suffer.
20.5.3 Stripping (Fiber Extraction)
This is a process of removing the fibers from the stalk after the completion of ret-
ting. Generally the fibers are removed from the stalk by any of the three methods. In
the first method, single plants are taken and their fibers are taken off. This method,
though very slow, results in good quality of fibers as it is free from pith, etc. The
second method implies taking off a handful of stalks breaking at one end and strip-
ping off the fibers by dashing it in a to and fro motion in water. The third method
consists of washing the stalks first by standing in waist deep water and then strip-
ping afterward. None of the above methods is efficient as they are slow and the
recovery is also low.
The fiber bundles lie beneath the bark, surrounded by gummy materials in the
living plants. To obtain the fiber from the stem, these entirely soft tissues must be
softened, dissolved, and washed away. This is done by steeping the stem in water;
the bundle of stalks are laid in the ponds, ditches, or slow moving streams, weighted
down the stones leaves, or clods of earth, and left for 5–15 days. A plentiful supply
of water for retting is required. Approximately 2800 gallons are needed to pond-set
one ton of green stalks. The optimum water temperature for retting is 26.7 °C.
Retting is caused by microorganisms which soften the tissues and gums, then con-
tinue and extending outward so that the outer cells of the cortex are the last to dis-
integrate. Retting is better if the stems are uniform in thickness. The type of water
which is used for retting has an influence on the value of the fiber. The best place for
retting is slow running streams which are free from pollution as possible.
The fiber is taken from the water as soon as possible when the daily examination
of the stems shows that the bark can be removed easily from the rest of the stem.
This stage is called stripping. A bunch of stem is held in one hand and the root end
tapped lightly with a mallet. This action frees the fibers at the root of the stalk. The
laborers then grasp the fibers and, by jerking and lashing the stems about in water,
loosen the rest of the fibers, pick off odd pieces of bark, wash the fiber, and squeeze
the excess water out. The fiber is then collected and laid out on bamboo racks to dry
for 2–3 days.
20.5.4 Washing and Drying
Before hanging for drying, the extracted fibers are washed in clean water. The dark
color if present can be removed to a great extent by dipping the fiber in tamarind
water for 15 to 20 minutes and then washing in clean water. Five kilograms of ripe
tamarind fruits in two buckets of water will give the necessary solution to treat about
5.5 to 7.5 quintals of fiber. The fibers are hung on bamboo railings for drying which
takes 2–3 days. After drying, the fibers are ready to be sold in the market. The fiber
extraction is done during the months of August and September.
The yield of the crop depends upon the quality of the soil and the attention which
the fiber has received in its various stages. The fiber content of plant generally
ranges between 4.5 to 7.5% of the green weight with an average of 5.5%. The nor-
mal average yield per hectare in India is estimated at about 11 to 21 quintals.
20.5.5 Jute Retting
Quality of jute fiber has direct relationship with the stage of harvest. It was observed
that if the plants were harvested just before flowering, quality of fiber improved but
the yield decreased a little bit. On the contrary, if the plants were harvested during
the fruiting stage, yield increased but the quality deteriorated. However, little loss in
yield because of early harvest was compensated by the higher value of the improved
quality fiber. The plants should be harvested at the early flowering stage in order to
obtain good quality fiber which is really in greater demand.
Most of the evolved technologies are being disseminated to the jute growers
through Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) by organizing workshops,
training programs, booklets, leaflets, various mass media, etc. and are being prac-
ticed by many jute growers of Bangladesh. Of these (1) preparation of “rets”; (2)
acceleration of retting speed; (3) reduction of fiber cuttings; (4) improvement of
fiber strength; (5) improvement of fiber color, luster, and texture; (6) retting meth-
ods for the water-scarce areas; etc. are worth mentioning. At present, poor logistic
supports are provided to strengthen the dissemination and motivational activities of
the evolved technologies to the jute growers for the production of good quality
fibers.
426 Md. M. Islam
20.5.5.1 Factors Influencing Jute Retting

The major factors affecting jute retting are as follows:
(a) Type of bast fiber plant

(b) Age of the plant
(c) Fertilization of crop
(d) Retting method
(e) Retting water
(f) Temperature and pH of retting water
(g) Depth of retting water
(h) Type of weighting material
(i) Activators
20.5.5.2 Stripping of Plants

Retting is a kind of fermentation process in which the cortical and phloem tissues of
the bark of the plants containing the fiber strands are decomposed by the joint action
of microorganisms, mostly bacteria and water. Immediately after steeping the plants
under water, the soluble carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, etc. start leaching out of
the plants, and water becomes very rich in aerobic bacterial contents. This water
together with these bacteria enters the plant tissues through stomata replacing the
intercellular air. At this stage, because of the fermentation of the soluble carbohy-
drates, organic acids are formed, pH decreases, and the retting water becomes very
low in oxygen content. Butytric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid, etc. have been identi-
fied as some of these acids. In such a condition of retting, mostly micro-aerophillic
bacteria start multiplying, entering the tissues and decomposing the cementing
materials mostly pectinous in nature connecting the fiber strands. At this stage, the
pH value increases because of the formation of buffering organic compound and the
retting of the plant is completed.
The enzymes by which the microbes actually carry out the decomposition have
also been studied. They have been found to be mostly of pectin polygalacturonase
and pectin methyl esterase in nature.
The defoliated jute plants are allowed to ret. in a nearby pond or canal or ditches
or river. It takes 16–20 days for completion of retting. On completion of retting,
fibers are to be extracted manually, washed properly, and dried well in sun normally
on bamboo bar. Then get the fiber ready for marketing.
20.5.5.3 Improved Method of Jute Retting

Jute retting is a process by which jute fibers are extracted from the jute plants,
Corchorus Capsularis and Corchorus olltorius. It constitutes a very important part
of the whole process of raw jute fiber production. The quality of jute fiber greatly
depends on this process. Fiber strength, specky areas, runners, unretted or barky
fibers, cuttings in the basal pans, entangled woody cores, dark or shamla color, and
presence of dirt or dust are some of the characters which are considered in assessing
the quality of jute fiber.
Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) recommended the following ideal

location-specific jute retting methods for the production of quality fiber at farm
level. The methods are being disseminated by field service personnel for mass adop-
tion by the jute growers.
20.5.6 Selection of Land for Jute Cultivation
Land for jute cultivation having facilities for retting water nearby should be prefer-
ably selected so that there may not be any problem of retting water for jute retting
after the harvest.
20.5.7 Assorting
While harvesting, the thick, thin, small, and big jute plants should be assorted and
bundled separately. The bundle weight should normally be about 10 kg. The bundles
of thick, thin, long, or small plants should be retted separately in separate jaks (rets).
The bundles should be tied loosely. Retting takes longer time if the bundles are tied
tightly. The retting microbes and water cannot enter easily in tight bundles.
20.5.8 Defoliation
The bundled jute plants should be kept stacked for 3–4 days in the jute field for
defoliation. During this period, the leaves defoliate and the plants become ready for
the next operation.
20.5.9 Malleting or Immersion of the Bottom Parts Under Water
After defoliation, the bottom parts of the jute plants (45 cm from the bottom) should
be immersed under water for 4–5 days or they may be mallet by a wooden beater.
After this operation, the bundles should be steeped under water for retting. Either of
the two methods reduces the percentage of the cuttings (hard basal parts) of the
fiber. It should be noted that these two methods should be practiced separately.
20.5.10 Selection of Retting Water
Transparent, clear, and mild streaming water is ideal for retting. Such water is nor-
mally found in some beels, haors, or vast water sources of canals, etc. Retting should
be conducted in such water if found nearby.
428 Md. M. Islam
20.5.11 Preparation of Jak (Ret)
While preparing the jaks, the bundles of jute plants should be arranged in such a
way that there remains ample space for the easy movement of water and retting
microbes. Jaks are to be made in different layers of jute bundles. In one layer, the
bundles are to be arranged side by side lengthwise, then in the second layer they
should be arranged crosswise perpendicular to the first one, and in the third layer
they should be placed as like as the first one and soon.
20.5.12 Application of Urea
Application of urea (0.01 percent of the green weight of plants) accelerates the ret-
ting speed and improves the fiber color when retting is conducted in stagnant water
of small ponds/ditches. About 1 kg of urea may be applied in 100 bundles of green
jute plants, each bundle weighing 10 kg. The urea may be added either in a water
solution or sprinkled directly in the layers of the jute bundles in the jaks.
20.5.13 Immersion of Jaks (Ret)
It is found that the retting microbes are plenty in the upper surface of retting water
and the temperature is also favorable therein. So the jaks should be immersed in such
a way that they do not go so deep as to come in contact with the clay of the bottom
of retting pools. There should be about 10 cm of water above the jaks. For immersing
the jaks earth chunk, logs of banana or mango tree or any other green logs should be
avoided as they convert the fiber color into shamla (dark). Stone boulder or concrete
slabs are ideal for immersing the jak under water. Polythene-wrapped earth chunks
can also be used safely as it protects the plants to come in contact with clay. Water
hyacinth, rice-straw, any kind of aquatic weeds, etc. should be used to cover the jaks
properly. It is recently found that if the jaks could be covered very thoroughly with
any water weeds, no extra weight for steeping the jak is at all needed.
20.5.14 Determination of End Point of Retting
Determination of the proper end point of retting is very important. Fibers become
weak if over-retted, while under-retted fibers are barky and of poor quality. So ret-
ting is to be stopped all the time when the fibers are well-separated and strong. To
ensure it, retting plants should be tested for end point of retting after 10/12 days
from the day of steeping. It may be done by taking 2/3 plants out of the jaks, peeling
fiber strands, and examining them for proper separation of the fibers and strength.
The test may also be done in a better way by cutting 3-4 cm retted bark from the
middle part of the retting plant and putting it in a small bottle filled with water. The
bottle is then shaken well and the dirty water is drained off. The bottle is again filled
with clear water and the fibers are examined for separation. If the fibers are found
well-separated, retting is to be considered complete. It is to be noted that slightly
under-retted fiber is better than over-retted fiber. Over-retted fibers are of no use.
20.5.15 Fiber Extraction
The fibers can be extracted from the retted plants in two ways: (1) by taking one or
two plants at a time sitting on the dry land and (2) by standing in knee-deep water
and using a bamboo frame, a bunch of plants is taken out of the jak and the fibers
are extracted from the whole bunch at a time by breaking the jute sticks at about
45 cm from the bottom. In either of the two ways, if the bottom parts of the retted
plants are scraped off by hand prior to extraction or beaten with a wooden beater, the
amount of cuttings are reduced significantly. Better fibers are obtained if extraction
of fibers is done on the ground taking single or two plants at a time.
20.5.16 Washing of Fibers
After extraction, the fibers are to be washed thoroughly in clean water so that broken
jute sucks, cuticular layer of barks, clay, or any other dirts get free from fibers.
20.5.17 Drying of Fibers
After washing, the fiber should be dried well in a bamboo frame or by hanging in
any way, so that it does not come in contact with mud or dust. Fibers should not be
dried spreading on the ground. Mud or dust not only lowers the quality of the fiber
but also creates health hazards to jute mill workers. Jute fibers are to be dried well
before storing. Wet fibers are much susceptible to microbial degradation which
weakens the strength. So, wet fiber should never be stored.
20.5.18 Removal of Shamla Color (Dark Color)
The shamla fiber (if produced due to improper retting practices) could be converted
to bright and normal fiber if they are immersed in 2.5% tamarind water solution or
acid mixture (0.25% sulfuric acid, 0–25% hydrochloric acid, and 0.6% oxalic acid).
But the treated fibers should be well-washed in clean water so that no trace of tama-
rind or acid solution is left in the fibers. It will weaken the fibers on storage.
20.5.19 Ribbon Retting
In certain areas of Bangladesh, jute grows very well, but for want of sufficient ret-
ting water, the fiber produced is of very poor quality. To solve this retting water
430 Md. M. Islam
problem, ribbon retting is evolved. Since the barks of the jute plants produce fiber
and if barks are taken off from the jute plants at green stage (just after harvest)
before retting and they are retted instead of the whole plants, the water requirement
is reduced to almost half.
Bangladesh Jute Research Institute evolved a new technology of Hand ribboning
with bamboo hook. Through this technique, ribbons (bark of the plants) can be very
easily separated out from the woody core in green stage.
20.5.20 Hand Ribboning Technique
About 180-cm-long bamboo (borak) is to be taken and a TJ-shaped notch would be

cut at its one end. The other end of the bamboo is to be strongly fixed in the ground.
Several bamboo hooks of this kind may be fixed side by side at a distance of
90–120 cm or as needed, so that several workers can work side by side. One long
thin bamboo (muli) should be tied with the hooks (fixed the ground) which would
help in keeping the jute plants leaning on it. Prior to keeping the plants on the frame,
8–10 cm. At the basal parts of the jute plants are to be smashed by a wooden
hammer.
At the mallet area, barks of the plants are separated in two halves, and the woody
core is placed in the middle of the hook. Now the two halves of the barks are taken
around the two notches of the hook and drawn inward with a sudden forceful pull.
This will throw the woody core (jute stick) to a long distance in front, leaving the
barks or ribbons of the plants in the hands of worker (operator). Three to four plants
could be ribboned in this way at a time.
20.5.21 Power-Operated Jute Ribboner
Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) developed a power-operated jute rib-

boner considering the labor and time requirement compared to bamboo hook rib-
boner, single roller ribboner, and double roller ribboner for jute plant ribboning. The
advantages of newly developed power-operated jute ribboner were easy to use, less
human energy-consuming, and less time-consuming. The jute ribboner requires
only five labors and 3.5 hours for one bigha’s jute plant ribboning. The power jute
ribboner development is a breakthrough for jute of Bangladesh.
20.5.22 Advantages of Ribbon Retting
1 . Lesser amount of water is required for retting.

2. The quality of fiber improves.
3. The jute sticks remain stronger since it is not retted.
4. Minimum transportation cost is involved.
5. Retting requires lesser lime and space.
6. Cutting-free best quality fiber fetches better price.
Before retting, ribbons should be arranged into ring form. If retting water is not
available in the nearby places, ribbons may be retted in big earthen vats, filled with
clear water. One may ret. 30 kg of ribbons in one of such big earthen vats.
If shallow small pond/ditches or canals are available in the nearby places, the
ribbons may be retted by putting the ring of ribbon in a bamboo pole and steeping
under water lying with two bamboo poles fixed in the bottom of the pool. Retting
may be conducted in artificially made small ditches dug around homestead of the
farmers or in jute field covering the ditches with polythene sheets. The ditches may
be filled with clear water from tube well or from any other water sources.
20.5.23 Acceleration of the Retting Speed
The retting speed of ribbon may be accelerated in the following two ways:
1 . By applying urea at 0.01% of green ribbon.

2. By adding one bucket full of retting effluent of any retting pool.
The retting effluent can also be made by retting some small pieces of jute plants
in a small earthen pot and used in artificially dug ditches.
20.5.24 Determination of End Point of Retting
Ribbon retting requires half the time than the whole plant retting. After 7–8 days
from the day of sleeping the ribbons in water, it should be tested to determine the
end point. This may be done touching 1–2 ribbons from the retts, washed and exam-
ined for fiber separation.
20.5.25 Retting Methods for Water-Scarce Areas
In some areas of Bangladesh, jute grows well especially in the northern part of the
country but for want of sufficient retting water the fibers produced in these areas are
very inferior in quality. Attempts have been made to solve this problem by evolving
methods of retting the ribbons (green bark of the plant) instead of retting the whole
plant and by providing retting water facilities by excavating roadside canals, new
retting tanks, and re-excavating the available derelict tanks in the strategic jute-
growing areas.
It is observed that if the barks of the green jute plants called ribbons are retted
instead of the whole plants, retting problem of the water-scarce areas can be greatly
solved in which the advantages are achieved, viz., (i) it requires much less water, (ii)
432 Md. M. Islam
retting time is reduced to almost half, (iii) cuttings are almost eliminated, and (iv)
fiber quality is greatly improved.
Attempts were made to extract ribbons from the plants using two types of
machines called decorticators or ribboners. One was Japanese type and other was an
American type.
The efforts were made to produce a hand ribboner machine which would pro-
duce ribbons without breaking the stick and also be very cheap. Box method, sandle
method, cylinder method, roller method, bamboo hook method, etc. were tried.
Finally, the bamboo hook method was evolved by BJRI followed by Single Roller
Ribboner and Double Roller Ribboner for ribboning green jute plants. The ribbons
thus obtained were made into ring form and allowed to ret. in earthen vats, polythene-
lined artificial ditches, low deep shallow water, etc. If 0.01% urea or 1% retting
effluent was used in ret., the retting speed was much accelerated. Good quality
fibers were obtained when the plants were harvested a few days earlier than the
average flowering time and immediately ribboned. Although the rather younger
plants gave lower fiber yield, it was likely that the quality of the fibers would com-
pensate the loss of yield.
20.5.26 Dry Ribbon Retting
In order to continue retting throughout the whole year avoiding cold season of
3 months only, attempts were made to dry the green ribbons, keep in store, and ret
in the convenient time other than jute retting season. Thus, the pressure on retting
water and time could be greatly reduced.
It was found that dry ribbon retting took longer time than green ribbon retting.
Addition of 0.01% urea to the retting liquor accelerated the retting speed. The fiber
quality from such dry ribbons was not good enough. It was observed that the fibers
obtained from handmade dry ribbons were better in quality than those of machine-
made dry ribbons. It was also observed that fibers obtained from old dry ribbons
were comparatively inferior to those of freshly dried ribbons.
20.5.27 Reduction of Jute Cuttings
It is usually observed that about 30–45 cm portion of the basal parts of jute fiber is
hard and not uniformly relied due to uneven composition in different portions of the
jute plants and improper retting. The hard basal parts of the fiber are commercially
known as jute cuttings and are cut off prior to Pucca grading and bailing. In
Bangladesh, about 15–30 lakh bales of cuttings are produced. Cuttings cannot be
processed in the way the normal jute are processed. It needs re-retting or softening
prior to uses. So, it is a national problem which affects the economy of the country.
If there would have been no cuttings or if all the jute cuttings could be converted
into normal fiber, the country would have been greatly benefited economically as
the price difference between the cuttings and the normal fiber is very significant. For
instance, according to market report, the price per bale of BWA cuttings was Tk.
525/− while that of BWA fiber was Tk.1425/−. So the income through jute export
could be increased by about 20–40% if these cutting problems could be solved. The
problem of production of jute cuttings could be solved at farmers’ level by adopting
appropriate cultivation and retting technologies. The appropriate technologies are
summarized below:
1. Harvesting jute plants at appropriate time: For better quality and yield of jute
fiber, plants may be harvested at the just flowering stage. Late harvesting leads to
the production of fiber with more cuttings.
2. Malleting or steeping the bottom parts of the plant after harvest: After harvest-
ing and defoliating, 40–45 cm portion of the bottom parts of the plants should be
mulched by a wooden hammer or be kept immersed in water for 4–5 days prior
to steeping the plants under water for retting. Through either of the processes, the
problems of cuttings could be solved greatly.
3. Determination of the end point of retting: One cannot tell in advance when the
jute plant will be completely retted as retting is being accomplished by the joint
action of water and its microbes. Retting time depends on the quality of retting
water, quantity and type of microbes, age of the plants, and the temperature of
water. So the end point of retting should be correctly determined.
4. Proper extraction of retted fiber: If the basal parts of the retted jute plants are
scraped off by hand or beaten with a wooden hammer during the time of extrac-
tion, percentage of cuttings is greatly reduced.
5. Retting the thick and thin plants separately: In the jute field, there are different
kinds of plants. Some are tall and thick and some are small and thin. Cuttings
may be greatly reduced if the thick-tall and thin-short jute plants are bundled and
retted separately. Thin and short plants require shorter period for retting than tall
and thick plants.
6. Intensification of the cultivation of C. olitorius L. jute: It is observed that lesser
cuttings are produced in C. olitorius L. than C. capsularis L. jute. So cuttings
may be minimized by intensifying the cultivation of C. olitorius L. and reducing
the cultivation of C. capsularis L. white jute.
7. Ribbon retting: If plants are ribboned prior to retting, cuttings in the basal por-
tion of the fiber are completely eliminated.
20.6 Fiber Quality and Grading
20.6.1 Quality of Fiber and Economic Significance
The quality of jute fiber is judged by its suitability for the production of various
types of yarn and its behavior in the manufacturing process. The fiber which spins
into the finest yarn is considered to be of very good quality.
Jute fiber is marketed in bundles of fiber hanks. A fiber hank is composed of
about 10–15 fiber reeds obtained from 10–15 plants. Each fiber reed is composed of
434 Md. M. Islam
thousands of fiber strands made of ultimate fibers with lignin and pectin substances,
the cementing materials. Commercially, fiber quality is assessed by taking a hank
out of a lot, spreading the individual reeds on the ground, and then assessing the
different characteristics by “look and touch” method.
20.6.2 Fiber Characteristics
The different characteristics of the fiber which are usually taken into consideration
for the assessment of quality usually include root content, color, luster, strength,
defects, etc. They are described below.
20.6.2.1 Root Content

These are hardy incompletely decomposed basal or root areas of the fiber. It occurs
more in white jute than in tossa jute. For processing in the factories and before
export, these, constituting about 12.5 to 39.0 cm, are cut away and separately sold
at a much cheaper price.
20.6.2.2 Length
Differences in quality are generally associated with differences in the total length of
the fiber strands. With increase in their average length, the mass of unit length of
strands increases. It has been observed that the fiber which feels heavier in the hand
tends to have higher spinning quality.
20.6.2.3 Color and Luster

The natural fiber color of white jute is white creamy and that of tossa jute is golden.
Any adverse deviation from the natural color is considered to be bad. Luster is a
characteristic of shine when light falls on the fiber. The fibers shine more, are of
better quality.
20.6.2.4 Strength
This is a very important characteristic. The stronger the fiber, the better the quality.
No product can be made from weak fiber. The strength is divided into five levels,
viz., very strong, strong, sound, average, and any strength.
20.6.2.5 Fineness
The finer and stronger the fiber, the better the quality.
20.6.3 Fiber Grading System
The existing jute and allied fiber grading systems and the names of the different
grades of fibers, as being practiced in the different major producing countries, are
given below.
Grading is done after the barky ends are cut off. There are six grades both for
white and tossa jute. The characteristics specified for various grades are given
below.
There are two stages of grading, one for the home trade and another for the
export trade. Grading factors for jute are color, length, firmness of fiber, luster,
strength, clearness, freedom from defects, and the amounts of root end which will
have to be cut off. The preliminary grading is done by kutcha balers.
20.6.3.1 Kutcha Balers Grading of Raw Jute

Grade Characteristics
Tops : Very strong fiber, excellent color, and luster free from all defects
Middles : Strong, sound fiber, average color for the district, free from specks,
runners, and hard crop end
Bottoms : Sound fiber, medium strength, free from hard-centered fiber
B-bottoms : Sound fiber, medium strength, not suitable for higher grades
C-bottoms : Medium strength fiber, any color, free from runners and cropiness
X-bottoms (cross : Weak harse Jute, free from tangle Jute and stick jute of any sort, free
bottoms) from dust and cutting
20.6.3.2 Characteristics of Different Grades of White Jute

BW : White/creamy white. Fiber of the finest texture. Very strong and very good luster.
special Completely free from any defect, clean-cut, well-hackled, and entirely free from red
ends
BWA : White to light cream. Fiber of fine texture. Strong and very good luster. Completely
free from any blemish. Clean-cut, well-hackled, and entirely free from red ends
BWB : Light cream to straw color. Fiber of good texture, strong and good luster, free from
blemish. Clean-cut and well-hackled excluding red ends
BWC : Light grey/light reddish to straw color. Clean fiber of sound strength and average
luster. Free from hard specks and croppy, hard gummy tops. Well-cut, well-hackled,
free from black roots, red soft ends permissible
BWD : Any color, average strength, occasional bark and specks. Slightly croppy and
gummy tops. Well-cut and well hackled, red ends permissible
BWE : Any color, any strength, but free from perished fiber. Free from any unretted jute
and sticks but bark and hard center permissible. Rough cut and well-hackled
20.6.3.3 Characteristics of Different Grades of Tossa Jute

BT : Uniform color, golden/red fiber of the finest texture. Very strong and very good
special luster. Completely free from any defect. Clean-cut and well-hackled
BTA : Uniform color, slight grey to golden fiber of fine texture, strong and good luster.
Completely free from any blemish, clean-cut, and well-hackled
BTB : Light to medium grey/coppery grey. Clean, sound fiber of good texture, and good
average luster from blemish, clean-cut, and well-hackled
436 Md. M. Islam
BTC : Mixed color, average strength, occasional bark and soft speck but free from runners.
Slightly croppy and gummy tops permissible. Free from any black hard tops,
well-cut, and free from black root ends
BTD : Mixed color, average strength, occasional bark and speck, but free from runners,
croppy and gummy tops permissible. Rough cut and well-hackled but free from black
root end
BTE : Any color, any strength but free from perished fiber. Free from unretted jute and
stick but bark and hard center permissible. Rough cut and hackled
Scoring System of Fiber Grading

Scoring systems of fiber grading can be done by using numbers for different proper-
ties of fiber. Out of 100, 30 marks for fiber strength, 25 marks for fineness, 20 marks
for cleanness, 15 marks for color, and 10 marks for brightness.
20.6.4 Yield
Fiber and Stick Yield

The national average yield is 2.07 tons of fiber per ha. However, with improved
package of practices, it is possible to get 2.5–3.5 tons of fiber yield/ha from improved
jute varieties. Normally, jute stick yield is double than fiber.
20.7 Cost of Jute Cultivation
Bangladesh is earning about 5–6% foreign exchange through exporting raw jute and
jute goods. Huge number of people is working in jute trading and jute industries. A
big amount of money rolling is also involved in the process. According to world
market, it is notable feature that in recent years demand for tossa jute has been
expanding steadily. Tossa jute fiber which is of higher strength and has superior
qualities than white jute and kenaf is also getting higher good value and demand in
the exporting countries. As a result, the jute growers are accelerating C. olitorius
(tossa) jute cultivation over C. capsularis (white) to get better quality and price of
jute fiber. Therefore, it is important to know the situation of jute fiber production at
farm level under changing circumstances. With this end in view, cost and return for
jute fiber production at farm level are enumerated by conducting survey experi-
ments in different areas of Bangladesh. It is needless to mention that the economics
of jute and allied fiber is undoubtedly a milestone in the way of development of the
farmers’ income, as well as Bangladesh economy. The bulk of the farmers are
engaged to produce jute and allied fiber. So this study is a modest attempt to under-
stand the economics of jute and allied fiber crops in some selected areas of
Bangladesh.
The average yield of jute fiber was found 2744 kg ha−1 and average jute stick
yield was 6042 kg ha−1. The average total variable cost (TVC) per hectare was cal-
culated to Tk. 79,541; the average total cash cost (TCC) per hectare was about 69%
of the TVC, amounting to Tk. 55,616 in the case of tossa jute production at farm
level (Tables 20.17, 20.18, and 20.19).
Table 20.17 Cost items for Parameters Jute

jute cultivation Variety O-9897
Sowing/planting time 20/04/16
Harvesting time 16/08/16
No. of ploughing and 3&3
laddering
Seed rate (kg/ha) 6
Fertilizer rate (kg/ha)
Urea-TSP-MoP-gyp.- ZnSO4 160–50–80-100-0
No. of weeding 3
No. of irrigation –
Labor (days/ha)
Human 230
Animal –
Family labor (no./ha) 96
Hired labor (no/ha) 130
Mechanical cost (Tk./ha) 3952
Total variable cost (Tk/ha) 96,702
Total cash cost (Tk/ha) 42,400
Main product yield (kg/ha) 2793
By-product yield (kg/ha) 6244
Gross return (Tk/ha) 1,22,732
Gross margin (Tk/ha) 26,030
Benefit cost ratio 1.27
Products price (Tk/kg): Fiber = 35.00 Stick = 4.00
Mechanical cost = Tk. 18/decl. For paddling, Tk. 16/
decl. For normal soil ploughing Tk. 375 per day for
Jute season
438 Md. M. Islam
Table 20.18 Average cost Average cost

analysis of tossa jute Item (Tk/ha)
production of different Human labor:
locations
Family 23,925
Hired 42,500
Total: 66,425
Land preparation:
Power tiller 3878
Seed:
Own
Purchased (kg/ha) 2363
Total: 2363
Fertilizer (kg/ha):
Urea 3100
TSP 1045
MoP 400
Gyp –
Zinc –
Total: 4545
Manure:
Own –
Purchased –
Total:
Pesticide (Tk.) 635
Irrigation 1125
Transport 513
Total: 2273
Interest on working capital at –
10% (4 months)
Rental value of land –
Total variable cost (Tk/ha): 79,541
Total cash cost (Tk/ha): 55,616
Table 20.19 Average return Item Average

analysis of tossa jute Production (kg/ha):
production of different
Fiber 2744
locations
Stick 6042
Price of fiber (Tk/kg): 37
Price of stick (Tk/kg): 4
Gross return:
Value of fiber 1,02,241
Value of stick 24,243
Total: 1,26,484
TVC (Tk/ha): 79,541
TCC (Tk/ha): 55,616
Gross margin (Tk/ha):
Full cost basis 46,944
Cash cost basis 70,867
Benefit cost ratio:
Full cost basis 1.56
Cash cost basis 2.33
References
Alim A (1978) In: A handbook of Bangladesh jute. Effat Begum, 18, Garden Road, Karwan Bazar
West, Tejgoan, Dhaka-1215. Bangladesh pp: 1–67
BBS (2012) Statistical year book of Bangladesh, 2011. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics
Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the Peoples of Republic of Bangladesh
Choudhury R (1998) Jute in Bangladesh (area, production and productivity through half a century,
1947-97) jute and jute fabrics, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Jute Res Inst April–June 25(1):5–7
Food http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute
Hepzibah on July 24th, 2008, Saluyot (Jute Leaves): the wow vegetable. http://healthmad.com/
nutrition/saluyot-jute-leaves-the-wow-vegetable/
Islam MM (2010a) Jute (a compilation of popular articles) (Bengali). In: Sultana N (ed) Dynamic
Publication, Dhaka, pp 165
Islam MM (2010b) Technological advances in off-season jute seed production. J Expt Biosci
1(1):75–82
Islam MM (2010c) Seed quality and its future assurance in public sector of Bangladesh. The
Guardian, A national monthly of your choice, Dhaka XX(6):49–51
Islam, M.M.(2013a). Advances in jute and allied fibers post-harvest processing technologies in
Bangladesh: adoption constraints, prospect and future thrust. Res Web Pub 1(2):20–30. http://
www.researchwebpub.org, http://www.researchwebpub.org/wjsr/abstract/2013/September/
Islam%20and%20Rahman.htm
Islam MM (2013b) Biochemistry, medicinal and food values of jute (Corchorus capsularis L.
and C. olitorius L.) leaf: a review. Intern J Enhanced Res Sci Technol Eng 2(11):35–44. http://
www.erpublications.com/our-journals-dtl-pdf.php?pid=1&id=70
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Technol 4(4):254–268. http://www.ejournalofscience.org/Download_April14_pdf_4.php
Islam MM, Ali MS (2017a) Economic importance of jute in Bangladesh: production, research
achievements and diversification. Intl J Econ Theory Appl 4(6):45–57
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J Biol 3(6):34–46
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crops. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Manikmia avenue, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh, p 82
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water stress and nitrogen on flowering and growth in jute. Field Crop Res 12:397–406
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and allied fibers. International Jute Organization, germplasm project-phase II. IJO (International
Jute Study Group), Dhaka
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Calcutta, India, p 395
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What are jute leaves? http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-jute-leaves.htm
Tea Production in Bangladesh:
From Bush to Mug 21
Mohammad Shameem Al Mamun
Abstract
Tea is a popular beverage made from the leaves of evergreen shrub Camellia
sinensis, family Theaceae. It is an important cash crop as well as exportable com-
modity in Bangladesh. The first tea garden of Bangladesh was opened in
Chittagong in 1840. Bangladesh tea grows in three fairly divergent ecological
zones – namely Surma valley in greater Sylhet, Halda valley in Chittagong and
Karatoa valley in Panchagarh. Now, there are 162 tea estates having about 60,179
hectare of tea plantation producing about 67.38 million kg of finished tea per
annum with an average yield of about 1270 kg per hectare in Bangladesh and the
tea sector contributes 0.11% of GDP. Twenty one high yielding and quality
clones and five hybrid seed stocks of biclonal and polyclonal were released by
Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI). Fertilizer policy for mature tea and
young tea was upgraded. Integrated pest management method was optimized and
decision analysis was developed. Awareness on MRL of pesticides was created
and safe harvest index was optimized. As there is no surplus khas land available,
the only possible alternatives are: intensive cultivation of comparatively young
and mature tea areas; extension on the available virgin areas with high yielding
cultivars; uprooting and replanting on un-economic plantation; setting up small
holding tea plantations in CHT, Panchagarh, Dinajpur, Thakurgaon, etc. These
approaches will bring a significant increase in tea production to meet the internal
consumption as well as to earn foreign exchange through export of tea.
Keywords
Bangladesh tea · Tea science · Tea industry · Tea production · Tea management
M. S. A. Mamun (*)
Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, Srimangal, Bangladesh

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_21
442 M. S. A. Mamun
21.1 Introduction
Tea is a popular health beverage in the world, produced from the leaves of evergreen
shrub Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze. It is globally one of the most popular and
low-cost beverages, next only to water. Tea is consumed by a wide range of age
groups in all levels of society. More than three billion cups of tea are consumed
daily worldwide. Human civilization has hitherto discovered three nonalcoholic
stimulating beverages, namely, coffee, cocoa and tea. Of these, tea is regarded as the
most popular temperance drink. Its use as a beverage has been vogue long before the
Christian era, and it is deep rooted in Chinese mythology. Nowadays, tea is one of
the most common and inexpensive golden beverages consumed in the world.
The legendary history of tea dates back to 2737 BC and attributes its discovery
to the Chinese Emperor, Shen Nung. It originated in China and has spread its popu-
larity in Southeast Asia. Firstly, tea is used as medicine in China in the fourth cen-
tury. The word “tea” is derived from t’e – Amoy language. Then “cha” is derived
from Cantonese language. With the spread of Buddhism, tea was introduced in
Japan around 600 AD. The substantial production of tea in China, Japan and USSR
is mainly for home consumption. Dutch trade introduced tea to Europe in 1610. It
became a popular drink in England in 1664. Tea was introduced to the West only in
1700 AD. Extensive commercial plantations were developed in India, Indonesia and
Sri Lanka before 1900, later in East Africa except Malawi, to meet a growing
demand in western countries. Tea cultivation in Eastern Africa began in 1880 in
Malawi, 1903 in Kenya, 1904 in Tanzania and 1909 in Uganda. Kenya now ranks as
the third largest tea producing country. From India the crop was introduced to Sri
Lanka in 1867. The French found indigenous tea being used in Vietnam and began
to grow the crop commercially in 1890. In the New World, Brazil acquired Chinese
tea in 1812, but new seed from India and Sri Lanka was introduced in the 1920s.
Argentina, which now ranks ninth in world production, began with the seed intro-
duced from Russia in 1920.
It was first named Thea sinensis and is now known as Camellia sinensis.
According to Nguyen Ngoc Kinh (1979), tea can be classified into the following
four types: (i) Chinese big leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. macrophylla), (ii)
Chinese small leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. bohea), (iii) Shan tea (Camellia
sinensis var. shan) and (iv) Indian tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica).
According to Muraleedharan (1991), tea plant originates from the triangle formed
by Naga, Manipuri and Lushai along the border between Assam and Burma,
stretching to China, and southeast to the hilly areas of Burma to Thailand, Vietnam
and Bangladesh.
21.2 The Scenario of Tea Production in the World
Nowadays, tea has gained popularity worldwide. At present, the global production
of tea is about 5159 million kg produced in an area of 3.84 million ha in more than
50 countries of the world (ITC, 2015) (Fig. 21.1). Currently there are 50 tea-growing
21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug 443
Fig. 21.1 World map showing tea-producing countries
countries, but only 12 countries are the main producers, namely, Bangladesh, China,
India, Indonesia, Japan, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Russia (former Soviet Union), Kenya,
Malawi, Uganda and Argentina. China stands first with 1980 million kg of tea pro-
duction (38.38% of total tea production in the world) followed by India with 1185
million kg (22.97%). The three largest producers (India, China and Kenya)
accounted for 71.4% of the total world production. In the last two decades, tea pro-
duction in the world has increased by 2.55% per year. The total area of stable yield-
ing tea plantations in the last 15 years is 2.34 million ha, of which Asia accounted
for 86.7%, while Africa only covered 8.64%. According to recent statistics on tea,
the latest scenario of world tea is outlined in Table 21.1.
21.3 Genesis of Tea Industry in Bangladesh
The geographical location of growing tea is only restricted to some green specks
between 21°30′ and 25°10′ north latitude and between 91°10′ and 92°41′ east lon-
gitude. It is predominantly an agro-based evergreen crop in Bangladesh and a peren-
nial crop grown as a monoculture on large contiguous areas. Bangladesh tea industry
dates back to 1840 when a pioneer tea garden was established on the slopes of the
hills in Chittagong. In 1854, commercial tea growing was established at Malnicherra
Tea Estate in Sylhet. It was extended to Lalchand Tea Estate (Habiganj) and
Mertinga Tea Estate (Moulvibazar) in 1860 in the nineteenth century. The early his-
tory of tea cultivation in Bangladesh is linked with that of the tea industry of Assam.
Tea cultivation in Bangladesh developed concurrently with the Northeast India tea
during the early part of the nineteenth century (Table 21.2).
444
Table 21.1 The scenario of world tea in respect of area, production, export and yield (ITC 2015)
Area Production Export
Country 000ha % Postn mkg % Postn mkg % Postn Yield (kg/ha)
China 2112 54.96 1st 2230 43.23 1st 301 16.10 3rd 751
India 578 15.04 2nd 1191 23.09 2nd 208 11.12 4th 1690
Sri Lanka 188 4.89 3rd 328 6.36 4th 318 17.01 2nd 1684
Kenya 187 4.87 4th 399 7.73 3rd 499 26.69 1st 2106
Vietnam 128 3.33 5th 170 3.29 5th 130 6.95 5th 1348
Indonesia 123 3.20 6th 129 2.50 6th 68 3.64 7th 1032
Turkey 77 2.00 7th 130 2.52 7th 6 0.31 10th 1921
Bangladesh 60 1.56 8th 67 1.30 10th 1 0.07 12th 1270
Japan 48 1.25 9th 82 1.59 9th 4 0.19 11th 1733
Argentina 40 1.04 10th 93 1.80 8th 86 4.60 6th 2338
Uganda 29 0.75 11th 54 1.05 11th 46 2.46 8th 2039
Tanzania 23 0.60 12th 33 0.64 12th 27 1.45 9th 1416
Others 250 6.51 – 253 4.90 – 176 9.41 – 771
Total 3843 100 – 5159 100 – 1870 100 – 1546
M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.2 Development trends of tea industry in Bangladesh in respect of area, production and
yield (BTRI 2015)
Year Tea area (ha) Production (“000”kg) Yield (kg/ha)
1947 28,734 18,364 656
1957 31,287 25,549 817
1970 42,688 31,381 735
1980 43,732 40,038 916
1992 47,781 48,930 1024
1998 48,735 55,824 1145
2001 50,037 56,821 1136
2003 50,700 58,304 1150
2005 51,922 60,140 1158
2007 53,208 58,660 1094
2008 53,518 58,658 1096
2009 54,000 59,990 1097
2010 55,000 60,040 1180
2011 56,846 59,130 1210
2012 57,210 62,520 1245
2013 58,719 66,260 1325
2014 59,609 63,880 1239
2015 60,179 67,380 1270
Tea is a long-established plantation crop of enormous importance to Bangladesh

meeting the entire domestic demand of this cheapest health beverage. Bangladesh
tea is grown in the two fairly divergent ecological zones, namely, (i) Surma valley
in greater Sylhet and (ii) Halda valley in Chittagong zone (Fig. 21.2). Recently tea
area is opened in Korotoa valley in Panchagarh district (extreme northwest of
Bangladesh). Now, there are 162 tea estates having about 60,179 ha of tea plantation
producing about 67.38 million kg of finished tea per annum with an average yield
of about 1270 kg per hectare in Bangladesh, and the tea sector contributes 0.11% of
GDP (BTB 2015). It is now ranked 8th, 10th and 12th positions in the world in
respect of area, production and export, respectively (ITC 2015).
Tea in the past was mainly an export-oriented commodity. But due to increased
tea-drinking habit, population growth and rapid urbanization, domestic consumption
has been rising to a noticeable extent. If it continues at this rate and production can-
not be kept fast apace, export will soon shrink to a standstill and even tea may have
to be imported in the near future. To overcome this situation, production must be
increased vertically and simultaneously land area must be extended horizontally.
21.4 Genesis of Bangladesh Tea
Like many other crop plants, it is believed that tea plants originated somewhere in
the north of China, probably in Central Mongolia. Tea was used as early as 3500 BC
in China mainly as a medicinal drink. Later it became a common beverage. With the
446 M. S. A. Mamun
Fig. 21.2 Tea growing regions in Bangladesh
spread of Buddhism, tea was introduced in Japan around 600 AD. Tea was intro-
duced to the West only in 1700 AD. Bangladesh tea industry dates back to 1840
when a pioneer tea garden was established on the slopes of the hills in Chittagong.
It was mentioned that one account credits the discovery of the tea plant in Sylhet to
Muhammad Warish, a native of the area. The early history of tea cultivation in
Bangladesh is linked with that of the tea industry of Assam. Tea cultivation in
Bangladesh developed concurrently with the Northeast India tea during early part of
the nineteenth century.
The early history of tea in Bangladesh is the history of tea in Northeast India—
to be more precise, the Surma valley. Malnicherra was the first tea garden in Sylhet
established in 1854 and started commercial production in 1857. As previous
Bangladesh tea zone had been an extension of Northeast Indian tea, the tea indus-
try used to receive scientific support from the Tocklai Experimental Station,
Assam, India (Alam 1992). In early 1859, there were 48 tea estates in Sylhet and
Chittagong. By 1901, there were 21 plantations in Chittagong; unfortunately, not
all of them have survived. Between 1925 and 1945, another 30 tea estates were
established. Bangladesh tea industry has undergone a radical metamorphosis
throughout the last century, and consequently the genesis of Bangladesh tea may
be divided into three distinct eras of enterprise, i.e. Era of British Enterprise
(1840–1947), Era of Pakistani Enterprise (1947–1971) and Era of Bangladesh
Enterprise (1971 to date).
21.4.1 Era of British Enterprise (1840–1947)
The Europeans were obviously the pioneers of tea plantation in this region and had
marked the modest footstep of British enterprise in plantation industry after the
indigo cultivation during the mid-eighteenth century. Toward the close of the nine-
teenth century, the development of tea industry was directed toward the creation of
many limited liability companies such as M/S Duncan Brothers & Co. Ltd., James
Finlay & Co., Octovious Steel & Co. Ltd. and M/S Macneill & Co. Ltd. in 1870. By
1903, there were 15 European planters in North Sylhet, 102 in South Sylhet
(Moulvibazar) and 26 in Hobigonj district of greater Sylhet. During this era, the tea
industry was dominated by British entrepreneurs.
21.4.2 Era of Pakistani Enterprise (1947–1971)
In 1947, Pakistan began with a total of 133 tea estates covering 30,364 ha planta-
tion with production of 18.82 million kg having 622 kg per ha average yield and
7% of production of Indian tea. After 1947, the tea industry faced many problems
leading to slow progress. Ten years after the creation of Pakistan, in 1957,
Pakistan government established a separate tea research station at Srimangal to
support its tea industry. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, was the first
Bangali Chairman of tea board (1957–1958). He declared the independence of
Bangladesh in 1971 and lead the liberation war and later he was honoured as
“Father of the nation”. The significant changes were occurred regarding field,
factory and labour welfare in the tea industry during the period (1957–1958).
Home consumption was around 13.64 million kg up to 1955. After that, home
consumption went up rapidly, and the government imposed 3% mandatory exten-
sion of tea area per year in 1961. Ten years later, by 1970, tea area was extended
to 42,658 ha, and production was increased to 31.38 million kg.
21.4.3 Era of Bangladesh Enterprise (1971 to Date)
During liberation war in 1971, our tea industry suffered colossal damages which
resulted in poor management, high vacancies, insufficient inputs, dilapidated fac-
tory machinery, inadequate maintenance, etc. leading to lower yield and poor qual-
ity of tea. But the industry soon got a big push on behalf of the government through
a massive development programme with the financial and technical assistance of the
British ODA and EEC. After emergence of Bangladesh in 1973, Bangladesh Tea
Research Station (BTRS) was upgraded to Bangladesh Tea Research Institute
(BTRI). Later Project Development Unit (PDU) was established in 1980 as devel-
opment unit under Bangladesh Tea Board. BTRI and PDU are the research and
development organs of Bangladesh Tea Board under the Ministry of Commerce of
the government.
448 M. S. A. Mamun
21.5 Management Category
Tea estates are grouped into four classes, viz., A, B, C and U, in accordance with the
productivity level. Tea gardens in Bangladesh are under diverse management own-
ership. At present, 27 tea estates are managed by Sterling companies consisting of
Messrs. James Finlay, Duncan Brothers (Bangladesh) Ltd. and Deundi Tea Co. Ltd.
and 13 TEs run by the National Tea Co. (NTC), which is a public limited company
where the government-owned institutions have the majority of shares. There are 120
TEs which are either proprietary or owned by local companies, and 4 estates are
managed by Bangladesh Tea Board under the Ministry of Commerce.
21.6 Small Holding Tea Cultivation
Beginning from 2000, small, marginal and bigger farmers and investors are showing
interests in tea farming on the plain land in the sub-Himalayan district as a cash
crop. Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, on the guidance and directives from the
Bangladesh Tea Board, looked for newer suitable land for tea cultivation. On the
onset of the new millennium, a new tea area has been opened at Panchagarh district
in Bangladesh which can be called the extented foothills of Darjeeling. Right now,
Panchagarh and Thakurgaon have already planted about 2265 ha of tea. Moreover,
tea was also extended in a small-scale area of Thakurgaon, Chittagong Hill Tracts
(CHT), Lalmonirhat, Nilphamari and Dinajpur covering 160 ha, 122 ha, 17 ha,
8.6 ha and 2.0 ha, respectively.
A joint project of Bangladesh Tea Board and Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank
entitled “Development of Small Holding Tea Cultivation in Northern Bangladesh”
has been completed in 2002–2009. Furthermore, another project entitled “Small
Holding Tea Cultivation at Chittagong Hill Tracts” has been completed by the gov-
ernment (Ahammed, 2007). Now there are nine registered tea estates in Panchagarh
and Thakurgaon districts. The tea planters/small growers of northern Bangladesh
produced 5.45 million kg of tea from 2265 ha area in 2017. At present, three devel-
opment projects such as northern Bangladesh, Lalmonirhat and CHT projects under
Bangladesh Tea Board are going on to expand tea plantation at small holding level.
21.7 New Tea Area Surveyed
The feasibility study for growing tea in small holding at Jamalpur, Sherpur,
Mymensingh and Thakurgaon has been done by BTB in 2004. It is found that
8522 ha of land is suitable for growing tea in these areas. These lands are unused
now, which can be effectively used for tea maximizing the income of the families.
Besides, an area of 7822 ha is suitable in Lohagara to Cox’s Bazar, Satkania to
Banskhali and Sitakunda to Mirsharai areas. These lands can also be brought under
small holding tea cultivation.
21.8 Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI)
To solve the various problems on tea cultivation and manufacturing of tea and dis-
seminate the proven technology of tea science to the tea industry for placing the
industry on sound scientific footing, the Bangladesh Tea Research Institute, an
organ of Bangladesh Tea Board under the Ministry of Commerce (former Pakistan
Tea Research Station) was established at Srimangal on 28 February 1957. Now
BTRI is one of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) institutes of
Bangladesh. There are three major research departments that encompass six
research divisions such as Soil Science and Biochemistry under the Department of
Chemistry, Botany and Agronomy under the Department of Crop Production,
Entomology and Plant Pathology under the Department of Pest Management.
Besides, there are two more research divisions, namely, Tea Technology and
Statistics and Economics divisions. The technological know-how and innovations
are regularly disseminated through publications like Tea Journal of Bangladesh,
annual reports, circulars, pamphlets, annual course, Management Training Centre
(MTC), regular advisory services, workshops, seminars and group tea tasting ses-
sions at different times of the year.
Some research innovations in relation to the development of tea science in
Bangladesh are as follows:
• Released 21 (BT1-BT21) high-yield and high-quality clones of tea

• BT2 having “good touch of flavour” a unique characteristic reminiscent of
“Darjeeling flavour”
• Five hybrid tea seeds of biclonal and polyclonal stocks developed
• Standardized vegetative propagation techniques for tea
• Standardization of quality and specification of Bangladesh tea
• Formulation of fertilizer policy for tea and ancillary crops
• Upgraded fertilizer policy on the basis of yield profile
• Rehabilitation of soil, soil fertilizer and plant relationship analysis and
understanding
• Critical values of nutrients in tea soil determined
• Replacement by urea as a cheap nitrogenous fertilizer
• Use of rock phosphate as economy fertilizer in lieu of triple super phosphate (TSP)
• Standardization of cultural practices including planting, spacing, pruning, pluck-
ing and mulching
• Crop loss assessment for major pests and diseases assessed
• Management of various insect, mite and nematode pests, diseases and weeds of
tea and ancillary crops
• Awareness on MRL of pesticides in tea created
• Safe harvest interval of different pesticides determined
• Resistant agro types and varieties against major tea pests identified
• Investigation into the manufacturing problems and improvement for tea
processing
• Cost of production of tea analysed
450 M. S. A. Mamun
21.9 Tea Cultivation in Bangladesh
21.9.1 Tea Ecosystem
Tea ecosystem is an agro-ecosystem comprising tea plant, shade tree and other
ancillary crops along with various abiotic elements. The life processes of biotic
community are critically balanced with the tea biosphere, which includes climate
and soil.
21.9.2 Climatic Factors
Tea is a crop of wide adaptability and grows in a range of climates and soils in vari-
ous parts of the world. Tea ecosystem is an agro-ecosystem comprising tea plant,
shade tree and other ancillary crops along with various abiotic elements. The life
processes of biotic community are critically balanced with the tea biosphere which
includes climate and soil. The climate of tea area in Bangladesh can be classified
regime-wise under four important parameters, rainfall, temperature, humidity and
sunshine, which are responsible for successful tea culture (Sana 1989).
Rainfall Rainfall is the most important weather parameter that distinguishes cli-
matic variations in Bangladesh. The qualitative and quantitative rainfall pattern in
Bangladesh is zonal. The rainfall and its distribution are the most important factors
that affect the productivity of tea. The annual rainfall ranges from 1400 to 5000 mm.
The tea-growing areas of Sylhet, Chittagong and Panchagarh fall in the wet area.
The tea zones of Bangladesh experience dry season from November to April, while
the rainy season continues from May to October, and above 80% of average annual
rainfall is obtained during June to September in different tea valley circles. The
amount of annual rainfall is higher in North Sylhet circle and is lower in the lower
western valley, the Luskerpur valley circle.
Temperature The ideal ambient temperature for growth of tea is considered to be

18–25 °C. Seasonal temperature should not be lower than 13 °C and higher than
30 °C. In Bangladesh, temperature becomes generally highest in April to May,
drops slightly during monsoon period, and gradually falls after September or
October. Prolonged drought occasionally occurs after November or December when
rain is meagre.
Humidity Vapour pressure deficit indicates the dryness of the air and has a close
relationship with the growth and yield of tea. Relative humidity is generally the
highest during night, eases in the morning and is lowest during midday. Average
monthly humidity approaches 90% during the monsoon months of June through
October falling to 65% for March. The overall relative humidity in Sylhet and
Chittagong tea zones varies from 56% to 80% and 68% to 80%, respectively.
Sunshine The intensity and duration of sunshine have also an important influence
on the growth potential of tea plants. Its impact on productivity of tea is less than
that of rainfall. It appears that the winter dormancy in tea occurs only in those tea
areas that are at higher latitude as tea is very sensitive to the day length (photope-
riod). Day length is the shortest in December, the average lowest being 10.6 h to
average longest in June, being 13.7 h. The tea zones of Sylhet and Chittagong are
however experiencing less evaporation than the tea zones of Panchagarh of
Bangladesh.
Favourable Condition Tea plant prefers mild forest condition. Warm and humid
condition having 26–28 °C temperature, more than 2000 mm annual rainfall and
70–90% relative humidity are suitable for tea cultivation. Besides, day length should
be about 12 h; soil should be acidic (pH 4.5–5.8) and sandy loam and have sufficient
nutrient content. Tea plants cannot tolerate water logging condition. Neither extreme
nor trace rainfall regime is not favourable for tea.
21.10 Tea Soil Management
Tea plant requires a warm and humid climate. Tea soils are highly weathered,
extremely acidic and of low fertility status. In tea soils of Bangladesh, the overall
content of nitrogen and organic matter varies, respectively, from 0.07% to 0.09%
and 1.0% to 1.2%. The critical values have been fixed at 0.1% for nitrogen and at
1% for organic matter. The amount of available phosphorous, magnesium and base
saturation is low. The minimum level (critical limit) of nutrient status of tea soil
should be 10 mg/g for P, 80 mg/g for K, 25 mg/g for Mg and 90 mg/g for Ca. The
C-N ratio should be 10. It is observed that there is a low content of nitrogen and
organic matter in the tea soils of northern Sylhet and Chittagong, which might be
due to leaching and surface runoff during monsoon. On the contrary, the low flat
areas of Luskerpore and parts of Balisera and Mono-Doloi circles are subjected to
obstructed drainage that reduces the proper utilization of nitrogen there.
Tea Soil Tea is grown within the tropics and subtropics in different types of porous,
well-drained acidic soils (pH 3.3–6.0) in adverse agroecological condition. Tea soils
in Bangladesh are highly weathered, extremely acidic, and low fertility status. The
soils are medium loamy textured with low content of organic matter and nitrogen.
Besides, tea soils of Bangladesh contain over 85% aluminium in the exchangeable
sites. The critical values have been fixed at 0.1% for nitrogen and 1% for organic
matter. The minimum level (critical level) of nutrient status of tea soil should be
10 μg/g for P, 80 μg/g for K, 25 μg/g for Mg and 90 μg/g for Ca. The C-N ratio
452 M. S. A. Mamun
should be 10. The most suitable tea soil is thought to be light, friable and well
drained having soil pH ranging from 4.5 to 5.5.
Fertilizer Application The need for a balanced mixture of nitrogen, phosphorus

and potash (NPK) is high in the early stage of growth of tea plants for the develop-
ment of their frame and root system (Plate 21.1). For young tea, NPK mixture in the
ratio 2:1:2 has proved to be beneficial under Bangladesh condition (Table 21.3). A
huge amount of nutrients are being lost from the soil due to high rainfall, leaching
fixation, pruning, plucking, volatilization, evapotranspiration, etc. So, the different
essential nutrients in the form of inorganic fertilizer must be added to the soil in
order to enrich the soil with balanced nutrients and make up the deficiencies of
nutrients in the plant. The application of dolomite was started in early 1980s, which
not only supplies the essential nutrient magnesium but also raises the pH of the soil.
During the 1960s triple super phosphate (TSP) was mainly used as phosphatic fertil-
izer to replenish the deficiencies of phosphorus of tea.
NPK fertilizers should be applied per plant with the growth and development
of the seedlings. Considering two starting and end points from 1000 to 3000 kg
yield per hectare in a plantation, the fertilizer requirements are given below
(Table 21.4):
Plate 21.1 Fertilizer application in tea plantation
Table 21.3 Recommended doses of fertilizer application for young tea

Fertilizers kg/ha
Age of the plants (year) N P K Cow dung/compost
0 TSP 30 g and cow dung/compost 2 kg (pit application only)
1 80 40 80 1 kg/plant
2 90 45 90 1 kg/plant
3 120 40 80 5 ton/ha
4 135 45 90 5 ton/ha
5 150 50 100 5 ton/ha
Table 21.4 Fertilizer Nitrogen 1st split 50–158 kg (Urea 110–300 kg)

schedule per hectare for 2nd 60 kg (Urea 130 kg)
mature tea split
Phosphorus 20–40 kg (TSP 44–88 kg)
Potash 1st split 30–75 kg (MP 60–150 kg)
2nd 30 kg (MP 60 kg)
split
Besides, in order to fill up nitrogen deficiency and to increase growth of foliage,

2 kg of urea mixed in 100 l of water should be sprayed to the foliage. In addition,
1% potash with urea should be sprayed to fill up potash deficiency. To fill up the zinc
deficiency, 200–400 g of ZnSO4 in 100 l of water should be sprayed. To reduce the
acidity of soil, 400–500 kg of available dolomite per hectare should be broadcasted
during the light pruning year.
21.11 Tea Botany
21.11.1 Plant Habitat
Tea plant is an evergreen and perennial crop. The botanical name is Camellia sinen-
sis. Tea plant grows to a height of 10 m in natural condition if pruning is not per-
formed (Plate 21.2). A tea bush can give economic yield commercially up to
50–60 years in favourable conditions. Botanically tea plants are known as Camellia
sinensis (L) O. Kuntze. Tea is a cross-pollinated highly heterogenous crop and is
almost self-sterile. There are two distinctly recognized varieties, namely, sinensis
and assamica. A subspecies of Camellia sinensis subspecies lasiocalyx is also rec-
ognized. These varieties or subspecies interbreed with ease and there exists not
much reproductive barrier. As tea is almost a self-sterile species and as a conse-
quence an outbreeding species, a wide range of variations exist in present-day cul-
tivated tea. The seedling population of Bangladesh tea consists of a hybrid and
mixed population varying from one extreme to the other. However, the majority of
the population belongs to the dark leafed type.
21.11.2 Propagation and Nursery Management
Tea is propagated either by seeds or vegetative parts (clones). Tea seeds are col-
lected from seed baries. Tea seeds are sown at 20 cm × 20 cm by triangular method.
Prior to planting, soil of seed or cutting nursery should be kept free from disease and
nematodes. Shade is essential for seed baries. Shade frame may be constructed by
bamboo splits at a height of 60–70 cm in each bed. Fertilizers (urea, TSP and MOP)
may be applied at 2:1:2 ratio for the growth and development of seedlings. Saplings
are produced by vegetative propagation using improved planting materials, i.e.
454 M. S. A. Mamun
Plate 21.2 The antique

tea plant as a small tree
clones. Cutting is produced using nodal stem having a complete leaf and a dormant
bud from the mother bush of desired clones. Cuttings are planted in primary beds,
and after sprouting 2–3 leaves in 3–4 months, cuttings are to be transferred to the
nursery bag in the secondary bed (Plate 21.3). Shade frame may be constructed in
the cutting nursery by using bamboo splits at a height of 150–180 cm. Water should
be given in the nursery regularly. The nursery should always be kept free from
weeds. Pesticides should be applied for the control of pests and diseases of tea seed-
lings when it is required.
21.11.3 Clone
Clone is defined as a population of plants raised from a single mother bush propa-
gated vegetatively, i.e. grown from stem, leaf, root or vegetative part of the plant. In
case of tea, it is internodal cutting. Clonal selection offers a useful tool for improv-
ing yield and quality of tea. Clonal selection method is a useful and very common
method of developing improved planting materials of tea in all tea-growing coun-
tries. While undertaking a selection programme, age of section, yield, seed source,
etc. should be considered first. Then preliminary selection of mother bush is done
on the basis of certain morphological characters such as plant type, frame and size
Plate 21.3 A secondary nursery bed of tea under agronet
of the bush, branching habit, density of plucking points, leaf size, leaf colour, tex-
ture, incidence of pest diseases, etc. Thereafter assessment of yield and quality of
individual bush followed by its rooting ability is done. Once this screening is done,
field trial to compare yield and quality is carried out against standard clone(s).
Clonal selection is a time-consuming and lengthy process. From initial selection to
release of clone, it takes as long as 8–10 years. Clonal selection work at BTRI
started in 1959 and has been continuing till date. Through the process, so far 21
outstanding vegetative clones in the BT series (Bangladesh tea), namely, BT1, BT2,
BT3, BT4, BT5, BT6, BT7, BT8, BT9, BT10, BT11, BT12, BT13, BT14, BT15,
BT16, BT17, BT18, BT19, BT20 and BT21, have been released from the institute.
Source of selection, year of release and characteristics of BTRI-released clones are
shown in Table 21.5.
Planting Materials Agrotypes, clones and seeds are used as planting materials of
tea (Plate 21.4). Four agrotypes of tea, namely, Assam, China, Burma and Manipuri,
are popular in Bangladesh (Sana, 1989). The plants were raised from seeds until
twentieth century, but today, vegetative propagation has become the most widely
accepted practice. Four types of biclonal seed stocks, viz. BTS1, BTS2, BTS3 and
BTS4, released from Bangladesh Tea Research Institute (BTRI) are disseminated to
the tea industry for the good quality and yield than ordinary seeds (Plate 21.5). To
increase the yield and quality of tea, BTRI has released so far 21 own clones by
clonal selection and breeding parallel to develop the seed variety. BT1, BT2, BT3,
BT5, BT7, BT9, BT11, BT13, BT14, BT16, BT17, BT18, BT19, BT20 and BT21
are the standard clones. BT10 and BT12 are under high-yielding clones. BT4, BT6
Table 21.5 Source of selection, year of release and characteristics of BTRI-released clones
456
Source of Released Pruning Nursery Drought Planting Tea quality in CTC

Clone selection Year General habit recovery rooting tolerance preference process
BT1 Baraoorah T. E. 1966 Leaf size medium, semi-dark Very Very good Moderate Cooler face Above average,
green, compact bush with an good and flat area coloury, bright and
excellent spread, early flushing brisky liquor
BT2 Rajghat T. E. 1975 Leaf size medium, dark green, Very Very good Very high Hot and cooler Above average,
orthotropic, good spread with good face and flat coloury liquor with
early and uniform flushing consistent touch of
flavour
BT3 Rajghat T. E. 1975 Leaf size medium, light green, Good Moderate Moderate Cooler face Above average,
(Udnacharra) good spread, early flushing and flat coloury and brisky
liquor
BT4 Baraoorah T. E. 1981 Leaf size smaller, dark green, Very Moderate High Hot and cooler Excellent, coloury,
glossy, compact with a good good face and flat bright, brisk, full and
spread creamy liquor
BT5 Hybrid line 1987 Leaf size medium to large, Very Very good Moderate Not too hot Above average,
(BT1 × TV1) semi-dark green, compact bush good to high face; cooler coloury and brisky
with an excellent spread, early face and flat liquor
flushing.
BT6 Hybrid line 1987 Leaf size small to medium, light Good Moderate Moderate Cooler face & Excellent, very
(BT1 × TV1) green, compact. flat coloury, brisk, full &
very creamy liquor.
BT7 Rajghat T. E. 1991 Leaf size larger, dark green and Good Good High Hot and cooler Above Average,
(Burmache-rra) quite glossy, compact face and flat coloury, brisk with
good strength
BT8 Baraoorah T. E. 1992 Leaf size small to medium, dark Good Very good High Hot and cooler Average, coloury and
green, glossy face and flat brisky liquor
BT9 Daragaon T. E. 1994 Leaf size medium, semi-dark, Good Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
green, compact face and flat coloury, thick and
brisk liquor
M. S. A. Mamun
BT10 Doloi T. E. 1995 Leaf size large and broad, light Good Moderate Moderate Cooler face Average to above
green, compact bush with a very and flat average, coloury,
good spread and thick shoots bright and brisk liquor
BT11 Hybrid line 1999 Leaf size medium, dark green, Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average, very
(B207 × TV1) orthotropic, with a dense plucking good face and flat coloury, brisk, liquor
table with a lot of strength
BT12 Hathimara T. E 2000 Leaf size small to medium, dark Very Very good Very Hot and cooler Above average,
green, glossy, compact bush good High face and flat coloury, bright and
brisky liquor
BT13 Shumsher- 2000 Leaf size large and broad, light Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average, useful
nugger T. E. green, compact bush with dense good face and flat colour, brisky liquor
plucking points and thick shoots with good strength
BT14 Hybrid line 2002 Leaf size medium, semi-dark Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average, bright
(BT1 × TV9) green, plagio-orthotropic, fast good face and flat & brisky liquor with
growing, vigorous bush with good useful strength
brunching and flushing habit
BT15 Hybrid line 2002 Leaf size medium, semi-dark Very Very good High Hot and cooler Excellent, coppery
(BT1 × TV1) green, semi-orthotropic, compact good face and flat bright infusion, strong
21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug
bush with early flushing habit liquor with useful

strength, briskness and
creaming down
BT16 Shumsher- 2003 Leaf size large and broad, light Very Very good Moderate Not too hot Above average,
nugger T. E. green, compact table, thick good to high face; cooler coloury, bright and
plucking shoots face and flat brisky liquor with good
strength
BT17 Hybrid line 2006 Leaf size medium, dark green, Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
(BT2 × TV1) glossy, erect leaf pose, compact good face and flat coloury with good
bush with vigorous growth habit strength and briskness
(continued)
457
458

BT18 Amo T.E. 2010 Leaf size medium to large, light Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
green, glossy, semi-erect leaf good face and flat coloury with good
pose, compact bush with vigorous strength and briskness
growth habit
BT19 Amo T.E. 2016 Leaf size medium to large, light Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
green, glossy, semi-erect leaf good face and flat coloury with good
pose, compact bush with vigorous strength and briskness
growth habit
BT20 Amo T.E. 2016 Leaf size medium to large, dark Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
green, erect leaf pose, compact good face and flat coloury with good
bush with vigorous growth habit. strength and briskness
BT21 Mirzapore T.E. 2018 Leaf size broad, long, dark green, Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
glossy, semi-erect leaf pose, good face and flat coloury with good
compact bush with vigorous strength and briskness
growth habit
BTS1 BT1 × TV1 1985 Leaves medium, erect to Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
semi-erect, light green to green good face and flat coloury with good
strength and briskness
BTS2 B207/39 × TV1 1985 Leaves slightly darker than BTS1, Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
medium to large, horizontal good face and flat coloury with good
BTS3 BT1 × TV19 2001 Leaves light green, medium to Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
large, semi-orthotropic good face and flat coloury with good
BTS4 B207/39 × TV19 2001 Leaves semi-dark green, quite Very Very good High Hot and cooler Above average,
glossy, semi-orthotropic good face and flat coloury with good
M. S. A. Mamun
Plate 21.4 Tea agrotypes and BTRI-released clones
Plate 21.5 Tea seeds and tea clone
and BT15 are good cup quality clones. In a recent assessment, it has been calculated
that out of the total tea plantation, at least 60% are still seedling tea and the rest 40%
being clonal plantation comprising largely high-yielding and high-quality clones,
biclonal seed stock released by BTRI, some garden clones and a few introduced
clones. Of these clones, BT2 combines high yield and good touch of flavour
throughout the season (Plate 21.5). Thus, seedling tea has been and will continue to
play a dominating role in limiting the tea production in the near future too (Alam,
1994).
21.12 Tea Agronomy
Tea production technology involves various agro-techniques which may be broadly

put under two management components, viz. nursery management and crop man-
agement. If tea plant is unpruned, it will be a small tree of about 10 m long. The
methods of propagation and multiplication of tea seeds, cuttings, saplings, etc. are
included under the nursery management, while the crop management embraces
various field techniques of bringing up tea, ancillary crops. Tea plants may survive
up to 100 years (Plate 21.6). According to age, a tea plantation is also grouped as
either young tea (0–5 years old), mature tea (5–40 years old) or old tea (more than
460 M. S. A. Mamun
Plate 21.6 100 years aged tea bush
40 years old). At present, tea plantation in both flat and hillock areas in Bangladesh
constitutes about 4% young tea, 51% mature tea and 45% old tea (Sana 1989)
(Plates 21.7, 21.8, 21.9, and 21.10). Spacing from 120 cm × 75 cm to 90 cm × 60 cm
with a population of 15,500–18,000 and 4-year pruning cycle (LP-DSK-MSK-
LSK) have been adopted to increase the productivity of tea. Irrigation and drainage
system have been standardized. Seven to eight days plucking interval has been stan-
dardized for higher yield and better quality of tea.
21.12.1 Cultivation Method
21.12.1.1 Land Preparation and Planting Planning

About 60% of cultivable land of Bangladesh tea are under tillah land. Tea cultiva-
tion is done by contour cultivation method in hilly areas. Land is to be prepared by
ploughing and subsequent laddering and weeding in high flat land.
21.12.1.2 Planting
Seedling should be planted during pre-monsoon season, i.e. April/May. Planting
can be done during December/March, ensuring the irrigation facilities.
21.12.1.3 Planting Spacing

About 18,518 plants/hectare are required for tillah plantation using 90 cm × 60 cm
spacing in single row method, while 15,576 plants/hectare for flat plantation using
Plate 21.7 An evergreen panoramic flat tea section at BTRI
Plate 21.8 An evergreen panoramic hillock tea section at BEF under BTRI
462 M. S. A. Mamun
Plate 21.9 An evergreen panoramic tea section at BEF under BTRI
Plate 21.10 Plucking of tea shoots from the evergreen tea section at BEF under BTRI
105 cm × 60 cm. 19,960 plants/hectare are required using 105 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm

in double row method.

Healthy and vigorous plant should be planted. For clonal tea, the pit size is 25–30 cm
wide and 30–35 cm deep, while for seedling tea, 25–30 cm wide and 40–45 cm deep
(21.15). The top soil is cut 23 cm deep and kept separately and mixed with fertilizer
at 2 kg cattle manure/compost, along with 30 g TSP and 15 g MP per planting pit.
This fertilizer mixed soil should be kept inside the pit.
21.12.1.5 Mulching
Mulching should be done immediately after planting at 7–10 cm from the collar
region at a height of 8–10 cm for the conservation of soil moisture during dry sea-
son. Water hyacinth, Guatemala or Citronella grass, or even jungle scrub can be
used as mulch materials.
21.12.1.6 Pruning
Pruning is one of the main activities in tea culture. It is encouraged to grow a maxi-
mum number of productive sticks and hence higher production from tea plants. To
achieve this target, it is necessary to build up the desired plant configuration through
technologically sound pruning operation. Pruning is a vital operation for tea man-
agement to limit the top growth and to stimulate the growth of the bush. After plant-
ing, up to 5-year-old tea plant is recognized as young tea or immature tea. The
objective of pruning of young tea is to encourage proper development of frame.
High density of plucking points is achieved by pruning of young tea. Pruning sched-
ule of young tea is presented in Table 21.6. If tea plant is planted during April/May,
pruning should be done in the last week of January or first week of February of next
year. Different methods are followed for pruning of young tea such as (i) decentring,
(ii) pegging and (iii) ring-peg method, etc. (Fig. 21.3) (Plate 21.11).
21.12.1.7 Mature Tea Pruning

The objectives of mature tea pruning are to maintain convenient height for plucking
and to induce more vegetative growth (Plate 21.12). There are two types of pruning
cycle, which are adopted in Bangladesh tea, viz. the 3-year cycle and the 4-year
cycle. The sequence of the 3-year pruning cycle is light pruning (LP); light skiff
(LSK); and deep skiff (DSK), while that of the 4-year cycle is light prune (LP); deep
Table 21.6 Pruning schedule of young tea

Year Pruning operation Pruning height (cm) Plucking height (cm)
01 Decentring/breaking 15–23 50
02 Prune 40 50
03 Skiff 50–53 52–55
04 Prune 45–50 70–75
05 Skiff 75 78–80
464 M. S. A. Mamun
Fig. 21.3 Methods of young tea pruning
Plate 21.11 Planting method of tea saplings in new area as well as old area
Plate 21.12 Pruning of mature tea
Plate 21.13 Different types of pruning in tea

466 M. S. A. Mamun
skiff (DSK); medium skiff (MSK); and light skiff (LSK) or light prune (LP);
medium skiff (MSK); deep skiff (DSK); and medium skiff (MSK) (Plate 21.13).
Standard plucking is practised on 7–9 days rounds. There are altogether 30–32
rounds in a cropping season.
Depending on the situation, pruning cycle may be 3-year cycle or 4-year cycle.
3-year cycle = Light Pruning → Light Skiff → Deep skiff

4-year cycle = Light Pruning → Deep skiff → Medium Skiff → Light Skiff
(Fig. 21.4)
Nowadays, 3-year pruning cycle is not practised except in prolonged drought

area. In 4-year pruning cycle, initial light pruning operation is generally given at
55 cm in the 6th year of planting and subsequent tipping is to be done at 20 cm
above from the pruning mark. Deep skiff should be done at 65 cm and tipping at
75 cm in the 7th year. In the 8th year, medium skiff at 70 cm and tipping at 75 cm
and light skiff at 75 cm and tipping at 77.5 cm in the 9th year. Thus, a 4-year cycle
is completed and second 4-year cycle is started. Pruning schedule of mature tea is
presented in Table 21.7.
Fig. 21.4 Pruning cycle

Table 21.7 Pruning Pruning type Pruning time

schedule of mature tea Light pruning First week of December
to last week of December
Deep skiff First week of January to
last week of January
Medium skiff Middle of January to first
week of February
Light skiff Last week of January to
whole month of February
Medium Once in 24–30 years
pruning from starting the cycle
Plate 21.14 Plucking of tea shoots
21.12.1.8 Plucking
Plucking is the harvesting system of tea crop in the field. In Bangladesh, generally
plucking is done manually. In some places, partially mechanical plucking is also
done with certain periodic interval.
Plucking Round It’s a definite periodic interval between two successive plucking
in the same area of tea plantation. It has great influence to crop production both in
terms of quality and quantity. It helps to harvest maximum quality and quantity crop
while maintaining bush health. In our country plucking at 7-day interval in the peak
season should be the standard practice (Plate 21.14).
Quality of Plucking Shoots The quality of shoots that are plucked from the tea
bushes is the starting point for standard quality manufacturing in the factory. Two
leaf and a bud is considered fine quality for early and late cropping season. Three
leaves and a bud is also taken as good leaf in peak cropping season. Quality of green
468 M. S. A. Mamun
leaf can be divided into the following: (1) fine, (2) standard, (3) medium, (4) coarse
and (5) very coarse. Regular sampling, physical analysis and monitoring are very
useful to maintain the quality of green leaf and plucking.
System of Plucking At the time of plucking, the basal parts of plucking shoots
remain on the productive sticks of tea bushes. The status of portion of plucked
shoots that remain on the tea bushes is qualified as plucking system. Broadly there
are two types of plucking system: (a) hard plucking and (b) light plucking. Hard
plucking again is divided into fish and janam plucking. Similarly, light plucking is
also divided into single and mother leaf plucking.
Plucking Standard Plucking standard depends on two things. One is associated

with plucked green leaf quality and another with the parts of plucking shoot remain-
ing in tea bushes after plucking. Maintaining of good quality of plucking shoots by
following scientific plucking system is referred as standard plucking. Fine and hard
is our plucking standard.
Young shoots, leaf and buds come out from the tea bushes during the last week
of March or first week of April after pruning. These young shoots are tipping at
convenient height, thus establishing a plucking table; then plucking is done at
weekly interval.
21.12.1.9 Planting and Taking Care of Shade Trees

The use of shade trees in tea cultivation is a vital and integral component. Tea
plants cannot tolerate extreme sunlight. So, shade is a necessary requirement in the
weather condition of Bangladesh. Generally, tea plants require about 50–70% dif-
fused sunlight for optimal physiological activity. Therefore, leguminous plants are
used mainly to harness soil nutrition and to adopt crop rotation practices in tea. At
the same time, the root systems of leguminous plants are ascribed to conserve soil
moisture, and receive and store nitrogen from the atmosphere. Generally,
Bogamedoloa (Tephrosia candida), Crotalaria and Indigofera as temporary shade
and Albizia chinensis, Albizia odoratissima, Albizia procera, Albizia lebbeck and
Derris robusta as permanent shade are planted in tea estates. Solar radiation
increases the transpiration rate by increasing the permeability of cell membrane
and cell wall to evade water vapour, while light appears to induce the opening of
the stomata of the leaf. Wind velocity may also affect the transpiration rate. The
evaporation loss from soil surface may be affected by the seasonal variation of
rainfall, the duration of exposure to solar radiation and the soil structure and tex-
ture, which determine the water holding capacity. Sandy soils, however, have less
water holding capacity. For this reason, shade tree should be established parallel to
the planting of tea. Temporary shade trees are planted at 3 m × 3 m spacing, while
permanent shade trees are planted at 6 m × 6 m spacing. Making of pit of 90 cm
deep × 60 cm wide, 10 kg rotten cow dung, 500 g TSP, 25 kg Ash and 500 g dolo-
mite should be applied per pit.
21.12.1.10 Irrigation and Drainage

Irrigation is an integral part of agriculture. Sometimes we need to irrigate our tea
during moisture stress period in winter to early summer. Construction of artificial
reservoirs to collect the runoff from drains or streams may serve as a complemen-
tary method of irrigation and drainage. During dry season, irrigation is given by
sprinkler method to fill up the water stress in tea estates (Plate 21.15). In rainy sea-
son, water logging condition, especially in low flat land, occurs due to extreme
rainfall. For this reason, proper drainage should be maintained by digging drain in a
suitable way.
Drainage system can aid the removal of surplus water. Drainage is one the major
inputs for increasing tea productivity in our country. It is an acute problem in new
northern tea-growing areas. The necessity of disposal of surface and subsurface
water in the tea areas is a vital factor for growth; removal of excess water from the
soil prevents serious damage to the rooting system and fertile top soil. Provision of
scientific drainage system to maintain water table at a minimum depth of 100 cm is
considered adequate for growing tea. It is observed in India that improved drainage
alone can increase the yield by 25–30%. The industry has already been realizing this
problem.
21.12.2 Pest Management
The struggle between man and insects began long before the dawn of civilization
and will continue as long as the human race endures. Pests have proved to be more
glorious conquerors in whatever man disputed and have more successfully estab-
lished than man has been able to do so far. We probably shall never exterminate our
insect enemy. Despite advances in science and technology over the past several
Plate 21.15 Irrigation and drainage system in a model tea garden

470 M. S. A. Mamun
decades – the harnessing of nuclear energy, the mastery of space flight and the
breaking of the genetic code – and despite a host of new weapons and vast annual
expenditure, humankind has made but little progress in its age-old battle against
insects (Ahmed 2005).
Tea plants are subjected to the attack of several insect, mites, nematodes, fungal
pathogens and weeds. Tea plants are damaged by a number of pests causing impor-
tant economic losses. Thus, tea production is greatly hindered due to different
arthropod and non-arthropod pests. As a long-lived woody perennial and monocul-
ture, tea provides a stable microclimate and a continuous supply of food for rapid
buildup of phytophagous species that includes insects, mites and eelworms.
Obviously, the intensive monoculture of a perennial crop like tea over an intensive
cultivated area during the last 160 years has formed a stable tea ecosystem for
widely divergent endemic or introduced pests. Moreover, characteristic features,
viz. the performance of shade trees, ancillary crop forests, a uniformity of cultural
practices such as sequential pruning cycles, weekly plucking rounds, weeding,
mulching, etc., have a greater impact on the subsequent colonization, stabilization
and distribution of pests. In a tea bush, from root to shoot, everywhere insects are
prevalent. Each tea-growing country has its own distinctive pests, diseases and
weeds.
In world tea, 1034 species of arthropods and 82 species of nematodes are associ-
ated with tea plants (Chen and Chen 1989). There are so far 25 insects, 4 mites and
10 nematodes species recorded in Bangladesh (Ahmed 2005). Infestation by pests
results not only in crop loss but also in the deterioration of quality of processed tea.
Enormous crop could be lost by various pests particularly insects, mites and nema-
todes. It may be extended to as high as 50% when pest attack/disease incidence is
very severe. In some cases, yield loss can be 100% (Muraleedharan and Chen 1997).
The magnitudes of losses are bound to be higher today in view of the increased
production and productivity. Crop loss in tea due to the ravages of pests is estimated
to be 8% (Cramer 1967). Another estimate places this figure anywhere between 6%
and 14% (Banerjee 1976). In Bangladesh, crop loss by pest attack is assessed to be
about 10–15% annually (Ahmed 2005). Tea mosquito bug, red spider mites and
termites are the major pests of tea in mature tea plantation, while aphids, jassids,
thrips, flushworms and nematodes are the major pests of tea in nursery and young
tea plantation. Only few of them have become major pests, while most of them are
minor and localized and cause occasional damage. Of these, two mites (red spider
mite and scarlet mite), six insects (tea mosquito bug, termite, aphid, jassid, thrips
and crickets), and one nematode species (Meloidogyne sp.) are the major pests of
tea in Bangladesh (Mamun 2012). Other pests are minor and occur sporadically
in localized areas or remain predominantly in the plantations as obscured pests. In
tea, a major pest of today may be minor of tomorrow. On the contrary, more than
one pest may invade conjointly.
21.12.2.1 Tea Pest Spectrum

Since the dawn of tea culture, wide arrays of pests have been associating with tea
plantations. Tea pest spectrum is diversified: about 150 different kinds of insect and
Fig. 21.5 Major insect pests of tea in Bangladesh
mite pest, 1 algal and 350 fungal disease have so for been recorded in the world tea
(Sana, 1989). Some tea pests are cosmopolitan and widely distributed over a wide
range of ecological zones but many are found in the restricted areas of the tea world.
Looking at the pest spectrum of the tea world, it is seen that cosmopolitan pests like
tea mosquito bug, red spider mite and scarlet mite are distributed between 0° and
27°N latitude. Many other pests, such as tea flushworm, tea jassid, tea aphid and tea
tortrix are localized and distributed in tea areas between latitude 24°S and 11°N
(Sana, 1989).
Tea pests may be classified into three categories on the basis of the site of attack/
infestation, viz. root pests like nematode, cockchafer grub and root mealy bug, stem
pests like shot hole borer and red coffee borer and leaf pests like tea mosquito bug,
thrips, jassid, aphid, flushworm, looper caterpillar, leaf roller and all mites. The
stem and leaf feeding pests may be subdivided into (i) biting insects, (ii) sucking
insects and (iii) scraping and sucking pests. Faggot worms, nettle grubs, leaf rollers,
flushworms, and leaf miner belong to the first category. Sucking insects include
aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs, jassids, lygus bug and the tea mosquito bug.
Thrips and mites come under scraping and sucking pests group. The major insect,
mite and nematode pests of tea in Bangladesh are presented in Fig. 21.5.
The adaptations of insects, mites and nematodes have enabled them to attack
every part of the tea plant and the maximum number of pests occur on foliage. All
parts of the plant, leaf, stem, root, flower, and seed are fed upon by at least one pest
species. The distribution and abundance of pests are greatly influenced by weather,
altitude, crop variety, cultural operations like plucking, pruning, manuring, regula-
tion of shade, use of pesticides, and the presence of natural enemies. Some impor-
tant insect, mite and nematode pests of tea and their nature of injury are presented
in tabular form and in pictorial form.
21.12.2.2 Pests of Tea

Tea production is greatly slowed down due to insects, mites and nematodes. In
Bangladesh tea, so far 25 insects, 4 mites and 10 species of nematodes have been
identified. Tea mosquito bug, termites and red spider mites are the major pests of tea
472 M. S. A. Mamun
Plate 21.16 Major pests of tea
in mature tea plantation, while aphids, jassids, thrips, flushworms and nematodes
are the major pests of tea in nursery and young tea plantation (Plates 21.16 and
21.17). List of some important insect, mite and nematode pests of tea in Bangladesh
is presented in Table 21.8. About 15% of crop loss occurred due to these pests
per annum. In severe cases, it would be 100%. The short description and their con-
trol measures of major tea pests are furnished below:
Tea Mosquito Bug Tea mosquito bug is the most serious pest of tea in Bangladesh.
It is also known as Helopeltis. Both nymphs and adults damage the plant by sucking
sap from young leaves, buds and tender stems. The affected portions turn black. In
severe attacks, the growth of new flush is completely checked. To suppress this pest,
Malathion 57 EC (Malathion) at 2.25 l in 500 l of water per hectare should be
sprayed at 7-day interval during dry period. In monsoon period, Ripcord 10 EC
(Cypermethrin) at 500 ml/ha or Axis 10 EC (Alpha Cypermethrin) at 500 ml/ha or
Decis 2.5 EC (Deltamethrin) at 500 ml/ha or Calypso 240 SC (Thiacloprid) at
375 ml/ha or Renova 25 EC (Thiamethoxam) at 150 g/ha or ShengLi 30 SC
(Thiamethoxam+Emamectin Benzoate) at 150 ml/ha in 500 l of water per hectare
should be sprayed at 7-day interval.
Red Spider Mites Red spider mites are very harmful to tea and minute in size.
They attack both the upper- and undersurface of mature leaves. Due to sucking out
Plate 21.17 Major pests of tea and their damage symptoms in Bangladesh
the contents, the whole leaf changes to a prominent bronze colour, dries up and
drop. In severe attacks, young leaves are also infested. To suppress their infestation,
any sulphur-based compound at 2.25 kg/ha in 1000 l of water can be used as pro-
phylactic measure during the early part of the season with 5–6-day interval. For
palliative measure, Ethion 46.5 EC (Ethion) at 1.25 l/ha or Abom 1.8 EC (Abamectin)
at 500 ml/ha or Omite 57 EC (Propargite) at 1.00 l/ha or Magister 10 EC (Fenazaquin)
at 600 ml/ha or Mite Scavenger 10 EC (Hexythiazox) at 500 ml/ha or Oberon 240
SC (Spiromesifen) at 400 ml/ha in 1000 l of water can be used with 6–7-day
interval.
Termites Termites are social insects like honeybees. It is known as “Ulopoka” in

tea estates. It is one of the major pests of tea. They feed on dead bark and rotten and
live wood of tea plants. They live on colonies making mounds in the soil or stumps
of plants. Only worker castes feed on tea plants. To protect standing tea plants from
termite, it is suggested to apply Admire 200 SL (Imidacloprid) at 1.5 l/ha or Regent
50 SC (Fipronil) at 1.5 l/ha or Dursban 20 EC (Chlorpyrifos) at 10 l/ha in 1000 l of
water to the subsoil level up to depth 6 inches and upper level of plant up to infested
area.
474 M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.8 List of some important insect, mite and nematode pests of tea in Bangladesh
Nature of
Pest species Pest stages Plant parts attacked damage Status
Helopeltis theivora Nymph, Young leaves, shoots Sucking Major
(Tea mosquito bug) adult
Empoasca flavescens Nymph, Young leaves, shoots Sucking Major
(Green fly/Jassid) adult
Toxoptera aurantii Nymph, Young leaves, shoots Sucking Major
(Plant lice/Aphids) adult
Carteria dacorelia Nymph, Leaves, shoots, stem Sucking Minor
(Scale insect) adult
Biston suppressaria Larva Young and mature leaves Defoliating Minor
(Looper caterpillar)
Lespeyresia Larva Two leaves and a bud Feeding Minor
leucotoma
(Tea flushworm)
Gracilaria theivora Larva Young leaves Rolling and Minor
(Leaf roller) feeding
Poecilocoris latus Nymph, Flowers, seed, buds Sucking Minor
(Tea seed bug) adult
Brachypterypes Adult Stems, root, young plants Cutting Minor
portensus
(Field cricket)
Microcerotermes Nymph, Root, stem, stump Feeding Major
championi Adult
(Live wood termite)
Odontotermes feae Nymph, Root, stem, stump Feeding Minor
(Scavenger termite) Adult
Scirtothrips dorsalis Nymph, Unopened and partly Sucking Minor
(Thrips) Adult opened bud
Oligonychus coffeae Nymph, Upper surface of the mature Sucking Major
(Red spider mite) Adult leaves
Brevipalpus phoenicis Nymph, Under surface of the mature Sucking Minor
(Scarlet mite) Adult leaves
Acaphylla theae Nymph, Both surface of young and Sucking Minor
(Pink mite) Adult mature leaves
Calcarus carinatus Nymph, Both surface of young and Sucking Minor
(Purple mite) Adult mature leaves
Pratylenchus loosi Adult Root Sucking Major
(Root lesion
nematode)
Meloidogyne spp. Adult Root Sucking Major
(Root-knot nematode)
Jassids It is a major pest of nursery and young tea. Young shoots are also infested
by this insect after pruning in mature plantation. They suck sap from the young
leaves. Affected leaves become boat shaped and leaf margins dry up. Ripcord 10 EC
(Cypermethrin) at 500 ml/ha in 500 l of water should be sprayed at 7-day interval
for the control of jassids. Target point must be the lower surface of young shoots and
leaves.
Aphids This is commonly called plant lice. In Bangladesh tea, it is one of the seri-
ous pests of nursery and young tea. Aphids are more pronounced in tea recovering
after pruning in mature plantation. Both nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the
young shoots and leaves of tea collectively. So, the growth of plant is retarded. The
presence of black ant confirmed the aphid infestation. Infestations are prominent
during December to March. Ripcord 10 EC (Cypermethrin) at 500 ml/ha in 500 l of
water should be sprayed at 7-day interval.
Thrips The adult thrips is tiny, slender and brown-bodied insect. It is one of the
serious pests of nursery and young tea. Infestation is more pronounced in nursery
and skiff areas. They also attack young new shoots of tea recovering after pruning
in mature plantation. On the undersurface of mature leaves, two longitudinal sand
papery lines form along the midrib. Intrepid 10 SC (Chlorfenapyr) at 1.0 l/ha or
Tracer 45 SC (Spinosad) at 200 ml/ha or Admire 200 SL (Imidacloprid) at 250 ml/
ha or Tufgor 40 EC (Dimethoate) at 2.25 l in 500 l of water should be sprayed twice
at 7-day interval.
Flushworm This is the immature stage of moths. It looks like caterpillar. Young
flush, i.e. two leaves and a bud, tied together and curled telescopic in shape. The
larvae of the pest roll up the top leaves and eat away. This malady is severe in the
nursery, young tea and the field recovering after pruning. Hand collection is the best
way for controlling this pest.
Field Cricket Cricket is one of the most destructive pests of tea in nurseries and
young teas. Strong mandibles present in their mouthparts. The front legs are remark-
ably developed for cutting roots and stem. They are nocturnal in habit and live in
burrows. At night, they come out to seek food. Pour one or two spoonful of waste
engine oil per hole and subsequently pour water into the hole until the cricket
appears and then destroy it by hand.
Leaf Roller This is also the immature stage of moths. They roll the leaves down-
wards and feed inside. They feed within the leaf roll and the leaves become perfo-
rated. They generally attack the second to fourth leaves. Hand collection is the best
method of controlling the pest.
Nematodes They live in soil. Most of them are microscopic and not visible to
naked eye. Their body is filiform or threadlike. They suck sap of the young roots and
develop knots or galls. Plants show nutrient deficiency and stunted growth.
Application of Furadan 5 G (Carbofuran) at 165 g/m3 or Goolee 3 GR (Fipronil) at
476 M. S. A. Mamun
165 g/m3 or Ferterra 0.4 G (Rynaxypyr) at 70 g/m3 or Rugby 10 G (Cadusafos) at

150 g/m3 soil is useful for the control of the pest.
21.12.2.3 Tea Pest Management

Tea crop protection is an essential component of tea husbandry to safeguard the tea
plants from the ravages of a multitude of pests, diseases and other maladies. To
combat the infestation of red spider mite, different groups of pesticides like organo-
chlorine, organophosphate, pyrethroids, carbamates and some unclassified group
have been used in the tea fields since 1960. Pesticide will continue to play a vital
role in pest control programme in the foreseeable future. The consumption of pesti-
cides including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and miticides is increasing day
by day. The consumption of pesticides in Bangladesh was 33,371 metric tons in
different crops during 2015 (BCPA 2015). Pesticides have been considered to be
one of the most essential agricultural inputs for increasing crop production. In this
perspective, chemical control of pests is a dominating feature in Bangladesh tea
(Alam 1999). Different groups of pesticides such as sulphur, ethion, quinalphos,
propargite, abamectin, dimethoate, fenvalerate, fenpropathrin and bifenthrin are
being used as the commonly used miticides for the control of red spider mite in tea
plantation in Bangladesh (Mamun et al. 2014a). Their prolonged and extensive uses
cause destruction of beneficial organism including natural predators, parasitoids
and pollinators. It may further lead to development of resistance in insect pests,
phytotoxicity, residue in tea dust and, last but not the least, the environmental
pollution.
Adequate and timely measures are to be taken to reduce crop loss due to pests
and diseases. During the last several decades, control of pests, diseases and weeds
in tea fields is predominantly by the use of synthetic chemicals. Chemical pesticides
have been used for a long time but have serious drawbacks, such as direct toxicity
to beneficial insects, fishes and human, pesticide-induced resistance, health hazard
and increased environmental and social costs. Though broad-spectrum pesticides
offer powerful incentives in the form of good control, increased yield and high eco-
nomic returns, they have serious drawbacks such as development of resistance to
pesticides, resurgence of pests, outbreak of secondary pests, harmful effects on
human health and environment and presence of undesirable residues. In the last few
years, there have been efforts to adopt nonchemical control methods and to evolve
an integrated management programme against the pests, diseases and weeds infest-
ing tea, and this forms an integral part of sustainable tea cultivation.
The development of a specific pest control programme depends on many factors,
such as the nature of pest spectrum, type of crops to be protected, economics of pest
control technologies available, etc. In view of tea ecosystem and diversity of pest
complex, a multiple approach of pest management is adopted for Bangladesh tea. At
present, the control of insect pests of tea tends to depend on insecticide spraying.
Over the past few decades, the application of organosynthetic pesticides has resulted
in the resurgence of primary pests, secondary pest outbreaks, and resistance devel-
opment, as well as the presence of environmental contaminants including residues
in made tea. To reduce these problems, IPM tactics have emerged as an alternative
solution.
21.12.2.4 IPM Concept

Today it is realized that an integrated pest management (IPM) programme involving
biological and cultural methods with judicious use of chemicals alone will help
reduce the pest pressure. IPM is a cohesive system of selection, integration and
implementation of pest control strategies/methods based on the predicted, economic
and socio-ecological consequences. According to FAO definition, “IPM is a system
that in the context of associated environment and population dynamics of the pest
species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as
possible and maintains pest populations at levels below those causing economic
injury.” IPM is recognized as the most robust construction to arise in the agricultural
science during the second half of the twentieth century. Concerned research efforts
have been made to develop various control techniques (cultural, biological and
chemical) which could be harnessed for integrated management of important pests
of tea in Bangladesh.
21.12.2.5 Pest Forecasting and Pest Monitoring

Pest forecasting and pest monitoring are important approaches, which can be
employed by extension officers, field officers and supervisors to analyse field situa-
tions with regard to pest defenders, soil conditions, plant health, influence of weather
factors and their interrelationship for growing a healthy crop.
21.12.2.6 Economic Threshold Level

One of the basic requirements of pest control is the economic threshold levels (ETL)
at which control measures are justified. The ETL is a matter of judgement, giving
time for the farmers to take action for the control measure before economic injury
level itself is reached. Establishment of economic threshold levels of major pest
species is a prerequisite for minimizing the use of pesticides. In choosing the kind
and amount of pest control, one should establish the ETL first. ETL is the lowest
pest population which will cause economic damage. ETL is very low for the pests
infesting the new shoots since their injury directly affects both yield and quality of
tea. On the other hand, ETL is high for the pests infesting other parts of the tea
plants because their injury affects the growth of the new shoots of the next crop and
light injuries do not affect the yield and quality. The ETL of the major pests of tea
in Bangladesh is given in Table 21.9.
21.12.2.7 Component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Tea

Many different tactics are used in IPM strategy in tea plantation, including cultural
practices, biological control agents, chemical pesticides, pest-resistant varieties and
physical barriers. Of all standard control strategies such as natural control like cli-
matic factors, topographic features, predators and parasites, etc. and applied control
like cultural control, physical control, mechanical control, biological control, micro-
bial control, regulatory control, chemical control and integrated control, breeding of
478 M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.9 Economic Economic threshold level

threshold level (ETL) of Name of the pest (ETL)
major pests of tea in Tea mosquito bug 5% infestation
Bangladesh (Mamun and
Aphids 20% infestation
Ahmed 2011)
Thrips 3 thrips per shoot
Jassids 50 nymphs per 100 leaves
Looper caterpillar 4–5 lopper per plant
Flushworm, leaf rollers 5 infested rolls per bush
Red spider mites, pink and 5 mites per leaf
purple mites
Termites 10% infestation
Nematodes 7 nematodes per 10 g soil
resistant agrotypes, ionizing radiation, chemosterilant, etc. have been incorporated

and are still to be continued because of immediate protection of tea and various
constraints to employ with different control methods (Muraleedharan 1991). The
various components of the IPM practices are enumerated with a few specific exam-
ples, since the success stories with the use of IPM practices are numerous and
increasing day by day (Mamun et al. 2014b).
21.12.2.8 Cultural Control

Cultural control apparently is the most economical and widely applicable method of
pest control. This involves the intelligent manipulation of all aspects of crop hus-
bandry. In tea culture, certain routine cultural practices such as plucking rounds,
adjustment of pruning cycles, the modification of shade trees and timely weed con-
trol may be effectively employed as pre-emptive measures of pest control (Sasidhar
and Sanjay 2000). This approach of pest control is cheap, risk free and often effec-
tive for a long period without adverse effect on the environment.
Pruning Pruning removes a large part of the pest populations present on the foli-
age and stems. Most of the foliar pests like tea mosquito bug, flushworm, aphid,
jassid, thrips, red spider mite, scarlet mite and purple mite are removed during light
pruning (LP) operation (Mamun 2011).
Shade Regulation In tea, shade regulation plays a predominant role in pest sup-
pression. Infestation by mites and thrips is seen more in tea fields devoid of shade.
Proper shade establishment is necessary to minimize the infestation of these pests.
Dense shaded areas are prone to the attack of Helopeltis (Ahmed et al. 1993). So,
the recommendation of shade management will help in preventing the excessive
buildup of thrips, mites and Helopeltis.
Field Sanitation/Weeding Weeding is one of the cultural control measures that

reduce the infestation of red spider mite in tea. Weeds offer excellent hiding places
and serve as alternate hosts for Helopeltis and red spider mites. Malastoma malabe-
thricum and Urena lobata weeds act as alternate host of red spider mite. Therefore,
growth of host plants in and around tea fields should be controlled, and this will
help in reducing the growth of pest population.
Fertilizer Application Fertilizer produces nutritious plants for human beings, but
many insects may also benefit. Chemical fertilizers have to be judiciously applied,
as excessive application of nitrogenous fertilizers is known to result in the outbreak
of sucking pests as well as live wood termites (Sivapalan 1999; Sudoi et al. 2001).
Tea mosquito bugs have been found to breed or develop rapidly on plants given
good nitrogenous fertilization. Phosphorus is known to induce resistance in tea to T.
kanzawai (Cranham 1966). Application of potash enhanced nematode resistance in
plants (Kamunya et al. 2008).
Trap Crop Studies related to the use of trap crops in tea are scarce. A trap crop
also manipulates the habitat in an agroecosystem, which can be included under the
ecological engineering approaches for the purpose of IPM (Gurr et al. 2004).
However, marigold is an ornamental plant, and it can be used as a trap crop of red
spider mite in tea. One row of marigold can be planted at the outer periphery and
also in the vacant area of the section. As such, susceptible tea clones such as Tocklai
vegetative clone TV1 to H. theivora may be utilized as the trap crop (Hazarika et al.
2009).
21.12.2.9 Host Plant Resistance

Host plant resistance is perhaps one of the least expensive, safest and most practical
ways of integrated pest management in tea plantation. The mechanism of pest resis-
tance in plants is generally physiological (i.e. plant toxins inhibit pest) or mechani-
cal (i.e. plant morphology, leaf structure, pubescence, distastefulness of sap, vigour
or antibiosis, etc.) which may be controlled by single gene or multiple genes. Tea
being a perennial crop, research on clonal selection and breeding is primarily aimed
at the resistance to pests. Xu et al. (1996) found that China varieties are more sus-
ceptible to the attack of red spider mites because of their higher rhodoxanthin and
l-arginine content and lower tannin content, while Assam cultivars are apparently
more susceptible to the attack of pink mites as those have less pubescence, stronger
cuticularization on the undersurface, lower stomatal density and low sugar but are
rich in total antioxidant activity, theanine, gibberellic acid and caffeine.
21.12.2.10 Physical Control

Physical control is one of the important approaches to the integrated pest manage-
ment programme. Such controls aim to reduce pest populations by using devices
which affect them physically or alter their physical environment. The only method
in this category which has really stood the test of time is hot water treatment of plant
organs like roots to kill concealed pests such as eelworms.
480 M. S. A. Mamun
21.12.2.11 Mechanical Control

Mechanical methods are manual devices utilized for pest suppression. There have
only been a few attempts to utilize this method for tea pest management. However,
a few methods have been developed and practiced in tea plantation in Bangladesh
for the control of termites.
21.12.2.12 Regulatory Control

Almost all countries, including Bangladesh and India, have legal enactments, called
quarantine laws, to prevent the entry of foreign pests and pathogens. Quarantine
measures are advocated for the introduction of tea germplasm either as seed mate-
rial or vegetative propagule in the form of scion and rooted cuttings (Venkata 1983).
Only healthy, pest- and disease-free planting materials should be procured.
21.12.2.13 Use of Botanicals

Botanical products are environmentally safe, less hazardous, economic and easily
available. Certain products derived from indigenous plants are used for tea pest
control. Products containing azadirachtin, an oxygenated triterpenoid obtained from
the seed kernel of neem, Azadirachta indica, are now being evaluated against cer-
tain tea pests and have been found effective against Helopeltis, red spider mites,
flushworm, etc. Besides, mahogany, karanja, Datura, tobacco, Bishkatali,
Katamehedi, Lantana, Xanthium and Clerodendrum extracts may also be effective
against major pests of tea such as tea mosquito bug and red spider mites (Mamun
and Ahmed 2011). Neem and Mahogani cake reduced the nematode population in
the soil significantly (Mamun et al. 2014c). The use of plant extracts should be
incorporated in the IPM programme in the tea industry of Bangladesh. The indige-
nous plants are available in and around the estates as well as elsewhere in the coun-
try. Tea planters may use these plants for the management of pests of tea.
21.12.2.14 Biological Control

Biological methods of control involve the conservation, preservation and introduc-
tion of natural enemies like predators, parasitoids and pathogens for suppression of
pests within tolerable levels. The minor status of several pests such as aphids, scale
insects, jassids, flushworms and leaf rollers is due to the action of these natural
enemies. Efforts toward the conservation and augmentation of natural enemies in
the tea ecosystem could offer significant advances in biological control programme
in tea. The effects of artificial management including insecticide application are
negligible on the bush below the plucking surface. The bush below the plucking
surface is very important as refuge for natural enemies. For example, the population
densities of several natural enemies of Oligonychus coffeae are high at the bush
below plucking surface.
Predator Several predatory mites, mostly belonging to Phytoseiidae, Stigmaeidae

and Tydeidae, mainly prey upon phytophagous mites infesting tea. Oligota flaviceps
is identified as a predator of red spider mite in tea (Babu et al. 2008a). Several spe-
cies of coccinellids and syrphids exert tremendous influence on the population of T.
aurantii (Muraleedharan et al. 1998). Tea aphids may be controlled effectively by

the ladybird beetle, Hippodamia divergens (Ahmed et al. 2009). Preying mantids
are identified as the potential predator of Helopeltis theivora, and Verania vincta
and Verania discolor are identified as the potential predator of red spider mite.
Parasitoid Leaf-rolling caterpillar, Cydia leucostoma is parasitized by nine spe-

cies of braconids, two ichneumonids and one encyrtid in addition to a pupal parasit-
oid belonging to Ascogaster. Among the larval parasitoids, Apanteles aristaeus is
the most common species on flushworms. The leaf roller, Caloptilia theivora is
heavily parasitized by the eulophid, Sympiesis dolichogaster. The egg parasitoid,
Erythmelus helopeltidis was found effective against tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis
theivora (Sudhakaran and Muraleedharan 1998).
Pathogens Use of entomopathogenic fungi is a new arena of research for inte-

grated pest control in tea. Several microbes are pathogenic to tea pests. Formulations
of the bacterial insecticides, Bacillus thuringiensis, have been effectively used for
the control of looper caterpillars, cutworms, flushworms and other lepidopterous
pests (Muraleedharan and Radhakrishnan 1989). Certain entomopathogenic fungi,
Verticillium lecanii, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and Hirsutella thompsonii, were
evaluated and found effective against pink, purple and red spider mites (Babu et al.
2008b). Metarhizium anisopliae is the commonest entomopathogenic fungi that
reduced the population of red spider mites, thrips and live wood termites in tea
(Ahmed and Mamun 2013).
21.12.2.15 Chemical Control

Pesticide will continue to play a vital role in pest control programme in the foresee-
able future. Pesticides have been considered to be one of the most essential agricul-
tural inputs for increasing crop production. The correct choice of pesticides, dosage,
timing, target point and method of application is of paramount importance for the
successful control of insects and mite pests of tea (Table 21.10). Over the years, the
pattern of pesticide usage on tea in India has followed the world trend. Insecticides
ranging from DDT to the most recent synthetic pyrethroids do find a place in the
schedule of pest control programmes in tea. The recommendations on chemical
control on insect and mite pests of tea in Bangladesh are described by Mamun et al.
(2014a).
Spraying of Pesticides
• Spraying is an important operation in tea cultivation, and considerable manpower

and financial inputs are involved in the operation.
• Spraying machine breaks up the spray fluid into tiny droplets under specified
pressure for uniform coverage of the target.
482 M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.10 Target site of spraying

Pest Target site of spraying
Helopeltis Shoot, petiole/bud, upper surface
Red spider/pink/purple mite Both surface, fish and janam leaves
Scarlet mite Lower surface of leaves
Thrips Tender shoots, cracks and crevices of frame and soil surface
Aphid/jassid Shoot, petiole/bud, both surface
Flushworm Shoot, petiole/bud, both surface
Leaf roller Both surface
Looper caterpillar Whole bush and shade tree trunk
Cricket Root
Termite Stem, root and soil around collar region
Nematode Root and soil around collar region
• Differences in application of insecticides, herbicides and nutrient formulations

depend on the droplet size of the chemicals, pressure and target of the spray
toward different parts of the tea plant.
• The insecticides require finer spray, herbicides require bigger droplets and nutri-
ent solutions require thorough wetting of foliage for better effect.
Types of Sprayers
(a) Knapsack sprayer

• High volume sprayers.
• Used for spraying insecticide, miticide, fungicide, nutrient formulations and
herbicide with varying pump pressure.
• Continuous pumping is necessary for keeping uniform pressure.
(b) Power sprayer
• Low volume sprayers – motorized mist blowers
• Extremely fine droplets with a throw of 15–20 ft (4.5–6.0 m)
(c) Foot sprayer
• Foot-operated sprayers
• Used for spraying on shade trees and tea seed baries
Selection of Spraying Machine
Knapsack sprayer
• Fairly sedentary pests – red spider mite
• Moderately active pests – looper caterpillar
• Localized disease – black rot
• Weeds
Power sprayer
• Highly active and flying pests (thrips, jassid, Helopeltis)
• Rapidly spreading diseases

• Quick coverage of the target area
Nozzle
A device through spray liquid emitted, broken up droplets and dispersed
• For insect/mites (foliar spray) – Cone nozzle

• For herbicide – Flat/impact nozzle
• Optimum droplet size – 100 μm (fine), 200 μm (medium), 50 μm (mist), 400 μm
(coarse)
• Optimum air pressure – 40 psi (insecticides), 10–15 psi (herbicides)
• Discharge – knapsack sprayer: insecticide, 450 ml/min; herbicide, 470 ml/min
• Power sprayer – 1.0 l/min
• In tea foliage, fine to medium spray is required, and this depends on the pressure
inside the spray tank. And pressure absolutely depends on the sincerity and effi-
ciency of a worker.
Factors Influencing Efficacy of Pesticides
• Recommended dose
• Distribution of deposit
• Coverage of target
• Method of spraying
• Compatibility of chemicals
• Quality of water
• Weather conditions
The large-scale use of synthetic insecticides in tea plantation leads to adverse

effects such as development of pesticide resistance, frequent pest outbreaks, emer-
gence of new pests, pollution and health hazards and undesirable residues in the
finished products. Therefore, managing these pest populations within economic
threshold level is important for which application of pesticides becomes imperative
in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system.
21.12.2.16 Pesticide Residue in Tea

Pesticide residue in made tea means what is left over or remains of a pesticide in the
made tea after the application of a pesticide to tea bushes in the field prior to pluck-
ing and subsequent manufacturing. As tea is a consumable commodity, the effect of
residue of pesticides in made tea is harmful to human health. Tea produced in
Bangladesh is exported to different countries of the world particularly West and
East European as well as Middle Eastern countries. The consumers of these coun-
tries have become more conscious about the residue of the pesticides. In this per-
spective, EPA/Codex Alimentarius/FAO/WHO, German Law, etc. have given
restrictions on producing and procuring tea having pesticide residue (Table 21.11).
484 M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.11 Maximum residue limit (MRL) of certain pesticides on tea by international
organizations
Pesticide residues MRL (mg/kg) by
Name of the chemical EU/EEC EPA FAO/WHO JAPAN PFA CODEX
Carbofuran 0.2 – – – – –
Chlorpyrifos 0.1 – – – – 0.1
Cypermethrin 0.5 20 20 20 – 20
Deltamethrin 5 – 10 10 – 10
Diazinon 0.05 – – – – –
Dicofol 20 45 5 3 5 50
Dimethoate 0.05 – – – – –
Endosulfan 30 24 30 – – 30
Ethion 2 10 7 – 5 –
Fenvalerate 0.05a – – – – –
Malathion 0.5 – – – – –
Propargite 5 10 – – – 10
Indicates lower limit of analytical determination
a
EU European Union, EEC European Economic Commission, EPA Environmental Protection

Agency of USA, FAO/WHO Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization, PFA
Prevention of Food Adulteration, India
Basic Requirements for Producing Residue-Free Tea
• Vigilance of pest incidence

• Appropriate selection of pesticides
• Biological information of the pests
• Proper dilution of the pesticides
• Correct dose of the pesticide
• Application method of pesticides
• Avoiding repeated rounds of spraying
• Shelf-life of pesticide
• Cold weather practice
21.12.2.16.1 Analytical Facilities at BTRI

Now Bangladesh Tea Research Institute at Srimangal has established a well-
equipped sophisticated pesticide residue analytical laboratory at its own premise
and is run by trained personnel. All sorts of precision analyses of international stan-
dard of different pesticides like organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate, pyre-
throid and some unclassified groups are done successfully. Standards of Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are strictly fol-
lowed. The facilities are now open to the tea industry and they have already started
deriving benefit out of it. Now they can consolidate their tea product up to the com-
pliance level of international MRL regulations.
21.12.2.16.2 How the Tea Industry Will Benefit?

The residue laboratory at BTRI is at the doorstep of the tea industry. They can easily
take reliable as well as economic service within a short time which would involve
more money, time and longer process to get samples tested from any other labora-
tory in the country or outside. At present, the institute can analyse about 200 tea
samples per annum at different levels, e.g. field application, made tea at factory,
experimental samples, auction point, export point and random samples in the mar-
ket point. The residue level of certain pesticides on tea by Pesticide Residue
Analytical Laboratory of BTRI is presented in Table 21.12. The volume of analyses
will be extended further. Thus, the institute plans to ensure MRL safe tea for the
consumers home and abroad.
21.12.3 Tea Disease Management
Disease can be defined as the malfunctioning of host cells (tea plant cell) and tis-
sues those that result from the continuous irritation by a pathogenic agent or envi-
ronmental factors and lead to the development-specific symptoms. These specific
symptoms are key factors for the identification of diseases. In tea, diseases are
mainly caused by fungal pathogens and nematodes. There is no report of bacterial
or viral diseases in tea. But unlike other higher plants, there is only one disease
caused by algae. In Bangladesh, tea disease complex consists of 19 fungal and 1
algal diseases. In 1998, a new disease – Gall disease – has been noticed on a par-
ticular plant type. However, the occurrence of the disease is sporadic (only eight
estates), but its intensity was severe. Few year observations revealed that Gall dis-
ease alone can cause crop loss up to the tune of 21–23%. Under specific conditions,
Gall disease has been found to cause 100% crop loss. As it is a new disease, it
should be closely monitored and the BTRI should be kept informed of its
progress.
Table 21.12 Residue level of certain pesticides on tea by Pesticide Residue Analytical Laboratory
of BTRI
Name of the chemical Residue levela (mg/kg) Safe harvest interval (days)
Endosulfan 1.40 7
Cypermethrin 0.85 7
Propargite 3.52 7
Ethion 4.66 8
Bifenthrin 0.043 7
Dimethoate Not detectable 7
Sulphur Not detectable 7
BTRI-approved dose at 7-day interval
a
486 M. S. A. Mamun
21.12.3.1 Common Tea Diseases and Their Positions

Common tea diseases and their positions in Bangladesh are presented in Table 21.13.
For easy, effective, economic, sustainable and environmental-friendly disease man-
agement, it is imperative to have a clear idea about the location of different diseases
that infect our tea plants in the plantation. The following table will provide a com-
prehensive idea of different tea diseases on a bush. This learnings will help in taking
decisions in disease management. Field guide to identify the major tea diseases and
their predisposing factors is presented in Table 21.14. Major diseases of tea and
their damage symptoms in Bangladesh (Plate 21.18).
Major diseases of tea and their control measures are described below:
1. Black Rot: The disease appears on the mature leaves in tea plantation and leaves
turn into yellowish dark brown. Knowin 50 WP (Carbendazim) at 750 g/ha or
Cupravit 50 WP (Copper Oxychloride) at 2.8 kg/ha in 1000 l of water should be
sprayed in foliar leaves of the bushes.
2. Blister Blight: Only young tea leaves and stems are infected and blisters appear
as white velvety patches of irregular shape. Champion 77 WP (Copper Hydroxide)
at 2.24 kg/ha or Calixin 75 EC (Tridemorph) at 1.12 l/ha in 1000 l of water
should be sprayed in foliar leaves of the bushes.
Table 21.13 Common tea diseases and their positions

Name of diseases Causal organisms Infected parts Status
A. Leaf, shoot and upper canopy diseases
Gall disease Fusarium oxysporum Top shoot Major
Die back Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Top shoot Major
Black rot Corticium invisum Leaf and shoot Major
Corticium theae Leaf and shoot Major
Brown blight Colletotrichum camelliae Leaf Minor
Grey blight Pestalozzia theae Leaf Minor
Blister blight Exobasidium vexans Leaf Minor
B. Stem, branch and mid-canopy diseases
Branch canker Macrophoma theicola Stem and branch Major
Red rust Cephaleuros parasiticus Stem and branch Major
Horse hair blight Marasmius equicrinis Stem and branch Major
Thread blight Marasmius pulcher Stem and branch Minor
C. Root, stump and lower canopy diseases
Charcoal stump rot Ustulina zonata Stump and root Major
Ustulina deusta Stump and root Major
Collar rot Phomopsistheae Collar region Major
Violet root rot Sphaerostilbe repens Root Minor
Purple root rot Helicobasidium compactum Root Minor
Nematode Meloidogyne sp. Root Major
Table 21.14 Field guide to identify the major tea diseases and their predisposing factors
Name of
diseases Symptoms Predisposing factors Parts affected
Gall disease Abnormal cell growth or gall Low temperature, Tender shoots,
developed at base of leaf heavy shade and leaf petiole, leaf
petioles, twigs and internodes of insufficient sunlight scar
the axial branches
Die back Black lesion on top and tender Warm, humid Tender shoots,
shoots, shedding of leaf condition and leaves and
producing die back insufficient shade axillary buds
Blister blight Leaves, young shoots and stems Heavy shade, cool and Tender shoots,
concave with white or pink humid condition leaves and buds
blisters
Brown blight Diseased patch at leaf edge Red spider mite and Mature or
spreading inwards, concentric jassid attack, maintenance
zonations, brownish with black sun-scorch, lack of leaves
fructifications shade
Grey blight Light to dark brown patches Lack of nitrogen, lack Mature or
with grey centre on upper of shade, hail damage, maintenance
surface, circular to oval with sun-scorch leaves
concentric zonations
Red rust Red or orange colour algal Deficient in nutrient, Above two
sporangiophore on 2–3 years old low pH, lack of shade, years old
branches with yellow variegated drought, water branches
leaves logging, bad drainage
condition
Black rot Irregular brown, yellow or grey Heavy shade, humid Mature or
coloured patches on mature weather, left over maintenance
leaves. Young leaves look black, infected pruning leaves
dead leaves attached to stems by debris
white mycelial thread.
Thread blight Thinly interwoven, greyish Heavy shade, damp, Branches
white fungal threads cool and humid (mainly upper
undersurface of the branches, condition, left over and mid
leaf stalks in densely shaded infected pruning canopies)
areas debris
Horse hair Black, shining hair like threads Heavy shade, damp, Branches
blight on dead stem and leaves in damp cool and humid (mainly upper
shady places condition, left over and mid
infected pruning canopies)
debris
Branch canker Sunken cankerous lesions on Hail damage, injuries Above
or stems and branches surrounded due to blunt pruning 3–5 years old
Macrophoma by ring of callous growth cuts and other branches
mechanical injuries
Collar rot Callus growth around the collar Faulty manuring Collar region
region, ring barked by the (especially, urea and
canker, leaves become withered SOA) and mulching,
and brownish hot, hard and sandy
soil
(continued)
488 M. S. A. Mamun
Name of
diseases Symptoms Predisposing factors Parts affected
Violet root rot Plant dies gradually, leaves turn Faulty drainage and Root zone
yellow and droopy, become water logging
flaccid and fall off whilst green.
Roots turn violet to blackish
with rancid smell.
Charcoal Bush dies suddenly. Withered Infected shade, tea and Root zone
stump rot leaves remain attached to the forest tree roots
branches. Charcoal-like brittle
encrustation on bark, fan-like
mycelium patches under bark
3. Die Back: The disease begins to die at the end of the branches – hence the name
“die back.” Knowin 50 WP (Carbendazim) at 750 g/ha or Champion 77 WP
(Copper Hydroxide) at 2.24 kg/ha or Cupravit 50 WP (Copper Oxychloride) at
2.8 kg/ha or Calixin 75 EC (Tridemorph) at 1.12 l/ha or Ricozeb 80 WP
(Mancozeb) at 2.0 kg/ha in 1000 l of water should be sprayed in foliar leaves of
the bushes.
4. Red Rust: The blight of tea is an algal disease that affects the mature stem of the
bush. Although the disease infects the stem, the symptoms appear on the leaves.
Leaves become mottled with yellowish colour. Macuprax 16 W (Bordeaux
mixture+Cupraneb) at 2.24 kg/ha or Cupravit 50 WP (Copper Oxychloride) at
2.8 kg/ha in 1000 l of water should be sprayed in the affected stems of the bushes.
5. Branch Canker: The infection of the disease is pronounced in the main stump or
branches of tea bushes. The bark portion of the branch is exposed by the canker.
Narrow wounds become larger eventually. Macuprax 16 W (Bordeaux
mixture+Cupraneb) at 2.24 kg/ha or Cupravit 50 WP (Copper Oxychloride) at
2.8 kg/ha or Amistar Top 32.5 SC (Azoxystrobin+Difenoconazole) at 750 ml/ha
in 1000 l of water should be sprayed in the affected stems or branches of the
bushes.
6. Collar Rot: The disease generally infects with wounds on the collar region of
young tea plant. Plant is affected causing wilting and die back due to infection.
Collar region becomes girdled. Formalin 40% at 2.0 l/ha or Cupravit 50 WP
(Copper Oxychloride) at 2.8 kg/ha or Amistar Top 32.5 SC
(Azoxystrobin+Difenoconazole) at 750 ml/ha in 1000 l of water should be
sprayed in the affected collar region of the bushes.
7. Charcoal Stump Rot: This is a cosmopolitan and primary root disease present in
nursery and mature tea plantation. Some of the branches dry up and leaves
become wilted, droopy, and flaccid but remain attached firmly to the braches.
Formalin 40% at 2.0 l/ha in 1000 l of water should be sprayed in the affected
collar region of the bushes after forking the soil.
Plate 21.18 Major diseases of tea and their damage symptoms in Bangladesh
21.12.4 Tea Weeds and Their Management
The climatic conditions of tea zones of Bangladesh are very favourable for weeds.
The weeds flora in Bangladesh tea is diversified in nature and composed of various
monocot and dicot weeds. As many as 36 weed species have so far been recorded.
490 M. S. A. Mamun
Table 21.15 Common Name of weed species Local name Status

weeds in Bangladesh tea A. Monocot weeds
Imperata cylindrica Ulu or Sun grass Major
Cyperus rotundus Motha Major
Cynodon dactylon Durba Major
Digitaria sanguinalis Makarjuri Major
Cyperus kyllinga Bindi Motha Major
Paspalum dialalum Bahia ghash Minor
Eleusine indica Enella Major
B. Dicot weeds
Borreria hispida Bagrakote Major
Mimosa pudica Lojjaboti Major
Mikania scandens Mikania Major
Melastroma Potti Major
malabathricum
Clerodendron Gheto Major
infortunatum
Ageratum conyzoides Gandhali Bon Major
Amaranthus spinosus Katanote Minor
Spermacoce hispida Button Major
Euphorbia hirta Boro Dudia Major
Scoparia dulcis Bond Honey Major
Euphorbia hispida Dudia Major
Blumea lacera Neel pathar Major
Eupatoria odorantus Ayapan Major
Phyllanthus nuriri Shoto Dudia Minor
Leucas aspara Shathoddron Minor
The common weed species in the tea gardens of Bangladesh is listed in Table 21.15.
In the world tea, about 14–15% of total tea crop is reported to be lost due to weed
infestation. The estimated crop loss by weeds in tea areas of Sri Lanka, Northeast
India, South India and Bangladesh is known to be 9%, 12%, 6–12% and 9–12%,
respectively. For successful weed control, it is essential to have a proper understand-
ing on weeds flora in tea and their life cycles. Knowledge is also needed on herbi-
cides and their mode of action, application techniques, equipment calibration and
different types of calculation in the use of different types of formulations.
21.12.4.1 Classification of Weeds

1. On the basis of cotyledons
• Monocot: (Narrow leaf ) Grasses, Sun grass, Durba
• Dicot: (Broad leaf), Bagrakote, Mikania
2. On the basis of life cycle
• Annual: Sun grass, Bagrakote
• Perennial: Potti (Malastroma sp.), Ghetu (Clerodendrum sp.)
21.12.4.2 Effects of Weeds

• Compete with tea for nutrients, soil moisture, light and space.
• Interfere with agricultural/harvesting operations and handling.
• Alternate hosts for pests and diseases.
• Increase the cost of production.
• Reduce the crop quality.
• Help the cattle trespass.
• Finally, reduce the crop yield.
Weeds are known to remove as half as much of N2 (nitrogen), an equal amount

of P (phosphorus) and twice the amount of K (potassium) from soil removed by tea
plants.
21.12.4.3 Importance of Weeds Management

About 65–70% cost is involved only for weeds management out of total “Pest
Management Budget” in Bangladesh tea industries. So, it is most important to
acquire of knowledge on weeds management strategies to reduce the cost of produc-
tion as well as to save the money.
21.12.4.4 Weeds Management Strategies

Weeds infestation in tea estates varies from section to section, season to season and
nursery to mature plantation sites. Depending upon the nature of weeds composi-
tion and its prevalence, rational weed control methods should be formulated in con-
text of the following principles.
• Monitoring and survey of weeds spectrum

• Selection of effective weeds control methods
• Proper execution of control methods
• Selection of appropriate herbicides
• Suitable time of application
• Appropriate place of spraying
• Weather condition
• Suitable type of spraying equipment
• Skill man and supervision
• Safety precaution (before, during and after spraying)
21.12.4.5 Weeds Control Methods

Cultural method
• Mulching
• Raising cover crops
• Closer planting
• Infilling the vacancy
• Higher pruning
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Mechanical method
• Sickling: With sharp knife ( made in iron or bamboo)
• Cheeling: With half-moon-shaped flat hoe
• Forking: With small three-pronged fork
• Hand weeding: By hand
Biological method: Controlling weeds using living organisms
• Insects: Plant-attacking insects, leaf-eating beetles, shoot-feeding thrips and
weevil
• Pathogens: Rust fungus (Puccinia sp.) and Collego ( Colletotrichum sp.)
• Herbivores: Geese, goats, sheep and cattle
Chemical method: Use chemical or herbicides
21.12.4.6 Classification of Herbicides

A. On the Basis of Chemical Structure
In this method herbicides possessing a similar chemical structure or functional

group are grouped together.
Example: 2,4-D; MCPA, atrazine, etc.
B. On the Basis of Mode of Action
Mode of action comprises the sum total of anatomical, physical and biochemical
responses that make up the total phytotoxic action of chemical in the plant.
• Pre-emergent: BecAno, Simazine, Atrazine, etc.

• Contact: Gramoxone, Paraxone (paraquat)
• Systemic: 2,4-D, Roundup (glyphosate)
C. On the Basis of Selectivity

• Nonselective: Kill all the vegetation, for example, Bimastar, Gramoxone
• Selective: Kill selectively either dicot or monocot, for example, 2,4-D,
Dalapon
21.13 Tea Processing
Tea manufacturing is a continuous process of removal of the moisture content from

the freshly plucked tea leaves in different stages where physical and chemical
changes take place. With the evolution of newer generations of tea machinery, at
different times and its revolutionary impact on tea processing with inevitable influ-
ence on tea trade elsewhere, Bangladesh is no exception. The age-old orthodox
process of manufactures showed a declining trend in the early 1960s with the
Plate 21.19 Different steps of CTC tea processing in Bangladesh
introduction of Legg-cut and CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl) process of manufactures. In

Bangladesh, tea is mostly processed by CTC method of 98.50%, Orthodox 0.5%
and Green tea 1.0%. Two leaves and a bud are desirable as plucking standard
because this type of leaf contains high amount of tea catechins, caffeine and fer-
menting enzymes and less moisture that can produce grainy and bloomy tea respon-
sible for giving strong, brisk, bright red and aromatic brew under satisfactory
manufacturing conditions.
The following five steps are followed for the processing of CTC black tea in
Bangladesh (Plate 21.19):
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Withering Both the physical and chemical changes take place during withering.
During physical withering, the leaf moisture is lost through the stomatal pore, which
is more open in young leaf than in older leaf, where it is covered by waxy layer.
That’s why, bud and young leaves are preferred for quick withering. During chemi-
cal withering, carbohydrate, fats, protein and other soluble compounds in the leaf
are oxidized into carbon dioxide, water and energy. During withering, concentration
of fermenting enzyme fluctuates and becomes almost double at the end of withering
process. On an average, 78% of green leaf comprises moisture. Optimum withering
time is 16–18 h but may be extended to 20 h without any adverse effect. Through
withering, this moisture is reduced as per the requirement of different types of man-
ufacture. Withering imparts style or twist of the leaf so as to avoid flakiness of made
tea. It minimizes water logging during oxidation. Since the excessive moisture
interferes with the free supply of oxygen which interferes with the oxidation itself,
it concentrates the cell sap. It minimizes the loss of essential solid matter from the
green leaf with the excess water at the time of rolling. It minimizes bacterial con-
tamination since underwithered leaf is liable to contamination.
CTC Processing Cell disruption and maceration of leaf may be achieved in the
system of rotorvane, CTC (Crush, Tear, and Curl) and LTP (Lawrie Tea Processor).
By breaking up the cell compartments, the cytoplasmic polyphenol oxidase comes
into contact with cellular catechin. Maceration of leaf is important for the oxidation
process taking place during the fermentation stage. The CTC machine is basically
designed to produce smaller grades, of late considering the world market; the tooth
profile has been changed to produce more leaf grades. In Bangladesh, to produce
different grades, 10 TPI and 8 TPI rollers are used. More cell rupture is taking place
in the 10 TPI as compared to 8 and 6 TPI. Using 6 TPI rollers is not advisable
because this will affect fermentation and causes poor quality. Similarly, to produce
more dust grade, the shoulder/slope ratio should be maintained 5:3 and for leaf
grade 3:5. Reducing the shoulder/slope ratio to 1:3 to produce more leaf grade leads
to poor cell rupture and causes poor fermentation. Proper meshing of rollers is
essential for the best result.
Fermentation Fermentation is one of the most important processes and is one of

the most recognizable determining factors for the quality of made tea. A series of
chemical reactions take place due to severe damage of the leaf cells followed by
intermixing of chemicals during previous processes. During fermentation, the tea
catechins or the polyphenols and oxygen react in the presence of fermenting
enzymes, the polyphenol oxidase to form a group of compounds called theaflavin
and thearubigin. The concentration of TF increases with the progress of fermenta-
tion and then starts declining if the fermentation is prolonged. At optimum condi-
tion when the ratio between TF and TR becomes almost 1:10 or 1:9, the colour of
the processed tea becomes coppery red.
This is the stage of enzymic oxidation colour strength, and briskness is devel-
oped during this stage. Fermentation is the stage of processing in which the chemi-
cals within the shoot can inter-react in various ways to form the compounds that
give the special taste of “tea.” Fermentation is done to examine the development in
colour and aroma and fixed timetable into an overall programme coordinating all
the stages of processing. The optimum fermentation period is decided by a predic-
tion and correction method mastered by the operator. Flavour is developed much
more rapidly than quality and may completely disappear, if fermentation is unduly
prolonged. If the process still continues, the degradation of TF to TR occurs and
colour becomes deeper imparting less quality tea. Once the optimum fermentation
is ensured, the tea leaves are sent to the dryer to extract the remaining moisture so
as to stop fermentation. There are different methods of fermentations as follows:
Floor fermentation: (a) Room temperature 26–28 °C

(b) Hygrometric difference maximum 1.7 °C
(c) Thickness of spread
CTC – 1.25 cm, 8–9 kg/m2
Orthodox – 2.50 cm, 5–6 kg/m2
(d) Room air to be changed at least 10 times an hour either by fan or
proper ventilation
Tray fermentation: (a) Similar to floor fermentation
(b) Aluminium trays placed one over the other forming racks
(c) Spread slightly thinner
(d) Advantageous as less space required
Trough (a) 8–12 kg per gamla (W.L.) 1
fermentation: (b) Average pressure of air – 1 ˝ W.g
2
(c) Air leakages should be prevented by rubber seals
Machine (a) Tray types run by dryer chain. Humid air passed through at intervals.
fermentation: Time may be adjusted
(b) Rubber belt types – open
(c) Jumbo fermenter
Drying/Firing The drying process is important for some of the flavour character-
istics of the final product. The increased temperature and reduction of moisture
levels in the leaf have also effect on denaturing and inactivating the enzymes. Tea
enters the dryer with 60–72% moisture and is dried down to moisture content of
2.5–3.5%. After firing, tea matures and develops a pleasant flavour within 5–7 days.
Ambient temperature and high relative humidity accelerates the rate of moisture
absorption by black tea and causes deterioration of the quality of tea due to fall of
theaflavin concentration during storage. The factors which influence the drying
process are temperature of air, volume of air, amount of leaf fed into the dryer and
drying time.
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Conventional Quality. Two stages. Continuous tray, empire temperatures

dryer: Single firing – inlet, 95–99 °C; exhaust, 49–50 °C
Double firing – inlet, 95–99 °C; exhaust, 54 °C
Passing time dryer: 25 min (single), 18 and 15 min (double)
Made tea output depends on evaporative capacity of dryer
Moisture content of tea: first firing 6–7%, single/second 2–3%
50% of the moisture in the cut leaf should be evaporated during the first
5 min
Fuel consumption: Furnace oil – 0.3–0.4 l per kg M.T.
Coal – 1.0–1.5 kg per kg M.T.
Fire wood – 1.6 kg per kg M.T. (at 30% moisture)
Natural gas – 18.0–20.0 SCF per kg M.T.
Fluid bed dryers: Fluidization of the fermented leaf affected by hot air
Contact of leaf with trays avoided
Less moving parts
Temperature – inlet, 116–127%; exhaust, 54–60 °C
Fuel consumption: 8.0–10.0 SCF per kg M.T. (natural gas)
Proper withering should be done for fluidization
Recent ones – vibratory fluid bed dryers
Sorting/Grading Sorting is used to separate different sized tea particles into even
sized groups and to remove the fibres and stalk in the tea. Electrostatically charged
rollers may be used to remove fibres and stalk which attract the fibre and stalk pref-
erentially. Tea may uptake moisture during sorting beyond the danger point of
5–6%. Ambient relative humidity of 60–65% is hygroscopic equilibrium with tea.
Moisture content of graded tea should be within 2–3%. All grades must be of uni-
form size throughout the year. Overhandling of the tea should be avoided. Sorting
machinery should be adequate so that there is no backlog.
Machinery used: Middleton speed: 205 rpm

McIntosh: 250–260 rpm
Fibre extractor
Vibroscreen
Standard Grades:
Orthodox CTC
FOP FP
OP FBOP
FBOP BOP
BOP OF
OF FOF
FOF PD
PD RD
D D/CD
Tea waste: normally above 1%
Packing:
• Quality should be assessed before packing.

• Moisture content should not exceed 3% on packing.
• Temperature of final firing if required: 70–72 °C.
• Packet marking must be clear and according to standard practice.
21.14 Biochemistry of Tea
21.14.1 Quality of Tea
Quality of black tea depends mainly on the polyphenolic compounds. Standard

plucking of tea, proper handling of fresh leaves and manufacturing process, all these
contribute to the quality of tea.
Biochemical Quality
1. Total polyphenols
Theaflavin + Thearubigin
2. Caffeine
• Theobromine
• Theophylline
3. Minerals (soluble + insoluble)
4. Alkalinity of water sol. Ash
5. Total colour
6. Brightness
7. Vitamins
8. Fibre
Organoleptic Quality
1. Infused leaf
2. Liquor colour
3. Briskness
4. Strength
5. Creaming down
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21.14.2 Chemical Composition of Tea

Constituents Percentage composition
Protein 17–23
Fatty materials 5.0–6.5
Carbohydrates, pectins, etc. 5–6
Crude Fibres 20–22
Minerals 4–5
Caffeine 3–4
Polyphenols 13–33
Tot. water extractable solid 30–60
21.14.2.1 Tea Catechin

Tea catechins or the polyphenols are the colourless chemical compounds having
bitter taste. These constituents form black product with iron which ultimately con-
tribute to the colour, briskness, taste, depth and aromatic flavour of black tea.
21.14.2.2 Caffeine
Caffeine is a white amorphous powder of nitrogenous base. It’s an alkaloid which
stimulates central nervous system effecting better heart functions, blood circulation,
respiration and removal of fatigue.
Concentration of catechins and caffeine varies in different parts of a shoot and
decreases from the bud to downwards. These constituents play an important role in
tea quality.
Shoot length Polyphenols (%) Caffeine (%)

Bud 19.74 3.68
Bud internode 12.25 3.00
First leaf 19.73 3.85
First internode 10.92 2.89
Second leaf 12.00 3.21
Second internode 5.28 2.72
Third leaf 11.50 3.20
Third internode 5.06 2.61
Fourth leaf 11.34 2.35
21.14.3 Specification for Black Tea: ISO Standard 3720
ISO defines black tea as “Tea derived solely and exclusively and produced by
acceptable process, notably fermentation and drying from the leaves, buds and
tender stems of varieties of the species Camellia sinensis.” The tea shall be clean
Table 21.16 ISO ISO

requirements for black tea Characteristics requirements Bangladesh
Water extract (%) minimum 32.0 32.0
Total ash (%) 4.0–8.0 4.0–8.0
Water soluble ash as 45.0 45.0
percentage of total ash
(minimum)
Alkalinity of water soluble ash 1.0–3.0 1.0–3.0
(as KOH) %
Acid insoluble ash % 1.0 1.0
and reasonably free from extraneous matters that it should comply with the require-
ments specified in the table below. Tea exporting countries also have their own
standard specification for tea which in most cases conforms to ISO standard
(Table 21.16).
21.14.4 Major Properties of Tea
• Antioxidant
• Antihyperlipidemic
• Anticarcinogenic
• Anti-inflammatory
• Thermogenic
• Antimicrobial
21.14.5 Conclusion
• Plucking should be at the shoot length of two leaves and a bud having third
internode.
• Plucked shoots should not be kept in sunlight and compact strongly. If so, heat
will be generated that may denature essential enzymes.
• Temperature of CTC rollers should not be raised too much.
• Supply of oxygen and moisture through fresh air should be ensured during fer-
mentation of tea dhool.
• Inlet and outlet temperature of the dryer should be as low as possible.
• Moisture content of ex-dryer mouth tea should be maximum 3%.
• Tea should be stored in dry and cool place in airtight condition.
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21.15 Tea Statistics and Economics
21.15.1 Tea Statistics
Development programme based on accurate and reliable-related statistics obviously

can claim development of reaching the goal and/or target set for, provided the activi-
ties of the programme are performed satisfactory. The planters as well as the plan-
ners in the world cannot be ignored the usefulness of tea statistics for successful
implementation of the development project of tea industry as whole. As a tea planter,
knowledge on some important global as well as Bangladesh tea statistics is
essential.
21.15.2 Global Tea Statistics
Considering the whole world, about 40 countries are producing 5.3 billion kg of tea
annually (including 1.36 billion kg of green tea manufactured by 13 countries) from
3.84 million hectares of plantation. Meeting their domestic consumption, 32 coun-
tries export about 1.75 billion kg of tea annually. Contribution of China to the world
tea plantation is the highest (54.99%) followed by India (15.05%), Sri Lanka
(4.89%), Kenya (4.87%), Vietnam (3.33), Indonesia (3.20%) and Bangladesh
(1.54%). On the other hand, the contribution of China to the world tea production is
the highest (39.40%) followed by India (23.58%), Kenya (7.52%), Sri Lanka
(6.73%), Vietnam (3.38), Indonesia (2.63%), and Bangladesh (1.27%). The highest
productivity (2724 kg/ha) has been obtained from Cameroon followed by Malawi
(2710 kg/ha), Zimbabwe (2400 kg/ha), Argentina (2338 kg/ha) and Bangladesh
(1270 kg/ha).
21.15.3 Bangladesh Tea Statistics
Bangladesh is producing about 67.38 million kg of tea annually from about

60,179 ha of land in 164 tea estates. It can earn foreign exchange equivalent to about
213 million taka annually by exporting 1.3 million kg of tea. Tea cultivation in
Bangladesh is spread over the hilly areas on the eastern part mainly in five districts
(Moulvibazar, Sylhet, Hobigonj, B. Baria and Chittagong). About 94% of annual
production (of which 69% of Moulvibazar district) is contributed by greater Sylhet
obtained from 92% (of which 65% of Moulvibazar district) of plantation area. It is
to be mentioned that Sterling companies produce about 49% of annual crop from
about 39% of plantation area. Bangladesh has got 8th and 10th positions out of 40
tea-producing countries in respect of area and annual production. It implies that
Bangladesh tea industry has been proceeding ahead of global increasing rate of tea
development. Yet we have to go a long way. Our per unit productivity and thus the
total production must rise faster to meet the rapidly increasing domestic demand as
well as keep the export position to earn foreign exchange from this traditional export
commodity.
21.15.4 Tea Economics
Tea is the most popular and the cheapest beverage in Bangladesh. It is one of the
country’s important export commodities, contributing over 0.41% export earning in
foreign exchange. The industry offers rural employment opportunities especially to
women and contributes to poverty alleviation in rural areas. The industry and related
trade are providing employment to about 0.09 million people, which is nearly 3.3%
of the total industrial employment in the country. Tea is one of the largest agro-
based industries in Bangladesh. There are 164 tea estates having about 60,000 ha of
land under tea plantation producing about 79 million kg of made tea. The economy
of Bangladesh is mainly characterized by abundance of labour, shortage of capital
and limited export potentiality. Under these prevailing conditions, tea as an agro-
based, labour-intensive and export-oriented commodity plays a significant role in
the national economy of Bangladesh. As an agro-industry, economic research on tea
should have been carried out from the very beginning of the tea estate. As a matter
of fact, Bangladesh Tea Research Institute conducted a good number of studies, but
most of its researches are being conducted on various biological aspects such as
agronomic practices, adoption of improved clones in place of seeds, improved
seeds, soil and pest management, etc. Systematic economic study on tea industry in
Bangladesh is very scanty. That is why an in-depth technical, allocative, economic
and financial study on the tea industry of Bangladesh is highly esteemed. This kind
of study is expected to generate a number of vital information useful for policy-
makers at the national level as well as for the planters at the field level to guide the
tea industry for increased and sustainable production of Bangladesh tea.
The role of tea sector in the economy of Bangladesh is undeniable. To make the
tea industry a profitable organization, it is important to achieve the standard quality
by increasing per hectare production as well as reducing the cost of production. The
cost of production of tea cultivation per hectare in the first 5 years is Tk. 7,43,806,
and the cost of production of first year is maximum, i.e. Tk. 3,07,750, and it will
reduce in the subsequent years. The per hectare income from the green leaf exclud-
ing total production cost of the fourth year and so on gradually goes to the profits.
21.16 Types of Tea
The four main types of tea are black, green, oolong and white tea. Black tea is the
most popular worldwide, while green tea is more popular in China and Japan.
Oolong is a special tea, with a taste somewhere between black and green tea, and
502 M. S. A. Mamun
white tea, made from the first buds of the tea tree, is both expensive and rare. Each
tea, since it has been processed differently, should be made in a different way.
21.16.1 Black Tea
Black tea is first dried, then rolled to release moisture, and then allowed to ferment,
which turns the leaves black. Enzymes within the leaves are bound with oxygen in
this process, giving it the characteristic taste and smell, as well as increasing the
caffeine in black tea. Lastly, the oxidized leaves are dried again, creating a product
that can be stored for six months to a year in an airtight container. To make, fresh
water should be heated to just below boiling point (a boiled kettle can be uncovered
and loses 5 °C every minute), and poured over the loose leaves. This should be
allowed to steep for 2–3 min, for optimum results. If you would like a stronger tea,
add more tea, not time. Overexposure to hot water can bring out unpleasant bitter-
ness in the leaves.
21.16.2 Green Tea
Green tea experiences the same double drying and rolling processes as black tea but
skips the fermentation. This means the leaves are lighter, the caffeine levels are
lower and the resulting tea is more delicate. To make, heat fresh water to about
75–80 °C and pour over tea leaves. Increase the amount of tea used for a stronger
brew, not time, as this will make your tea bitter.
21.16.3 Oolong Tea
Oolong tea is produced in the same way as black tea but the fermentation time is
shorter, leading to a lower caffeine level and a weaker flavour. Its colour and flavour
are somewhere between the delicate green tea and the strong black tea. To make,
follow instructions for black tea but steep for 3 min. Oolong tea is not as sensitive
as green and black tea and can be steeped for longer if desired.
21.16.4 White Tea
White tea, made from the buds of the tea plant, is a delicate tea. The buds are picked
before ripening and are dried in the sun, rather than using a harsh mechanical pro-
cess. There is virtually no caffeine in white tea and due to its sensitive nature, it is
quite rare and expensive. To make, heat water to 70–80 °C and pour over leaves.
Allow to steep for 3 min, no longer, and enjoy the wonderful, subtle flavours.
21.17 Conclusion
Tea is an important cash crop as well as exportable commodity. Tea produced in

Bangladesh is exported in the tune of 5 million kg of made tea per annum meeting
the internal domestic demand. Internal consumption of tea is going to increase at
2.5% annually, and by 2020, no tea could be exported, even the nation may have to
import tea by spending huge foreign exchange. The scope for establishing large tea
estate has come to an end. As there is no surplus khas land available, the only pos-
sible alternatives are intensive cultivation of comparatively young and mature tea
areas; extension on the available virgin areas with high-yielding cultivars; uprooting
and replanting on uneconomic plantation; setting up small holding tea plantations in
CHT, Panchagarh, Dinajpur, Thakurgaon, etc.; and appropriate level of resources
generated for improving less developed gardens. These approaches will bring a sig-
nificant increase in tea production to meet the internal consumption as well as to
earn foreign exchange through export of tea.
Acknowledgement The author is grateful to the authority of Bangladesh Tea Board for giving
permission to write the chapter on tea and also acknowledges of all the Head of the Divisions/
Departments of BTRI for providing useful information.
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Tea: A Worthwhile, Popular Beverage
Crop Since Time Immemorial 22
Anjan Hazra, Nirjhar Dasgupta, Chandan Sengupta,
Biswajit Bera, and Sauren Das
Abstract
Not only for the age-old customs but also the recent advancement in researches
has pointed towards the fact that the several beneficial components present in tea
help to achieve its popularity as a second best drink after water across the world.
According to World Tea News, in 2015–2016, the total world tea production
reached up to 4,481,860 tonnes, in which Indian share was 28.8% (1,29,190
tonnes) and this is almost twice the amount to that of 10 years back. Similarly,
world tea economy has also appeared to its healthy business figure since the last
decades (28.2 billion US$ in 2016). The global market is broadly controlled by
black and green teas, although there are more types of teas that are being con-
sumed according to local consumer’s perception (oolong, white, yellow, and pu-
erh). Commercially, tea leaves are harvested at different stages of growth and
undergo a series of processing techniques (withering, disrupting, oxidising, fix-
ing, sweltering, rolling, and drying) before being packaged and marketed.
Subject to the implementation of the all steps of processing or omitting some
steps and duration, different types of teas are prepared. During processing, the
phytochemicals present in green tea leaves are being greatly modified, and each
variety of tea appears with specific colour, aroma, taste, and briskness after infu-
sion. A typical agroclimatic condition is required for quality production of tea.
Acidic soil, 5–10° of slopes, temperature ranging from 10 to 30 °C, minimum
average rainfall 100–120 cm/year, more than 2000 mt. above sea level of eleva-
A. Hazra · N. Dasgupta · S. Das (*)

Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
e-mail: sauren@isical.ac.in
C. Sengupta
Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
B. Bera
Tea Board of India, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_22
508 A. Hazra et al.
tion, and well drainage system are the ideal agroclimatic situation for tea
cultivation. Different polyphenols and their derivative (catechin, epicatechin,
epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, theaflavins, thearubigins, etc.) and
several free radical scavenging elements in infused tea have proven their health
assistance feature in recent researches. Conventional breeding technique is not
competently applicable for this utility crop because of their self-incompatibility.
Hence, several techniques of molecular breeding occupy the frontline research
on tea. In this regard, molecular marker-assisted research for better facility to
locate the essential gene location in whole genome sequence for the desirable
agronomic traits is in lime light.
Keywords
Tea cultivation · Tea types · Tea production · Tea phytochemicals · Tea crop
improvement
22.1 Introduction
Tea appropriately refers to infusions prepared from leaves of the tea plant, Camellia
sinensis (L.) Kuntze, an evergreen flowering tree belonging to the family Theaceae,
a native to the mountain regions of southwestern China and adjacent countries
(Chang 1981; Chang and Bartholomew 1984; Ming and Zhang 1996). The two main
commercial varieties are small-leaved C. sinensis var. sinensis, adapted to cool
weather and higher altitude, and large-leaved C. sinensis var. assamica (J. W. Mast.)
Kitam. which grows well in tropical and subtropical environments. Tea is the manu-
factured beverage popularly consumed worldwide. It is one of the oldest beverages
in the world, used since about 2700 BC; presently it is broadly available for con-
sumption in six main types, based on the oxidisation and fermentation technique
applied for consumption. Tea plant leaves contain a high concentration of phyto-
chemicals including polyphenolic catechin and the methylxanthine caffeine. The tea
crop has rather specific agroclimatic requirements that are only available in tropical
and subtropical climates, while some varieties can tolerate marine climates of
British mainland and Washington area of the Unites States. In its normal habitat, tea
grows best in areas where warm, with bright sunlight, humid climate occurs with a
moderate rainfall of at least 100–120 cm per year. Preferably, acidic and well-
drained soil condition is required for the best production rate. Given these condi-
tions, tea will grow in areas from sea level up to altitudes as high as 2100 meters
above sea level. Its precise requirements are temperatures ranging from 10 to 30 °C,
minimum annual precipitation of 1250 mm, preferably acidic soils, ideally 0.5–10
degree slopes, and elevations up to 2000 meters from sea level. Tea production
therefore is geographically limited to a few areas around the world, and it is highly
sensitive to changes in growing conditions. Importantly, its ideal growing condi-
tions are at high risk and thus expected to influence significantly under climate
change too.
22 Tea: A Worthwhile, Popular Beverage Crop Since Time Immemorial 509
The common agricultural practice for tea cultivation is plantation of tea bushes

under a canopy for partial shade which is considered as an important criterion for
better tea leaf production. Intense irradiation of sunray at sub-Himalayan areas is
sometimes detrimental for the young tea leaves which in turn lead to decline of leaf
production, and as such, it was noted that the occurrence of shade trees in the plan-
tation area is directly related to total yield of tea production (Chowdhury et al.
2015). A comfortable number of garden-friendly tree species planted in tea planta-
tion are not only for attesting with partial shades but also for reducing soil erosion
and the direct impact of raindrops, enriching soil fertility and organic matter con-
tent through leaf litter, and keeping flora and faunal diversity (Kalita et al. 2014).
These shade trees have a significant role in increasing leaf productivity of the tea
bushes of sub-Himalayan regions of West Bengal. During summer, the leaf tem-
perature of non-shaded tea plants increased to a greater extent and thus restrict
photosynthesis rate and leaf transpiration leading to photoinhibition which in turn,
ill growth of tea bushes were noted (Chowdhury et al. 2015). Thus to increase tea
yields, a canopy with judicious shade is essential in the field conditions of sub-
Himalayan regions of West Bengal. The choices of shade trees normally are made
on the basis of shade patterns, amount of leaf litter production, defending ability
against soil erosion, etc. (Visser 1961; Hadfield 1974; Mohotti 2004). Since the
late twentieth century, Albizia chinensis was first introduced as the shade tree in tea
plantation areas of Northeast India and later on became a usual practice in different
tea plantation areas of India. Albizia odoratissima, Dalbergia sissoo, Erythrina
indica, etc. were also introduced at the same time in different tea gardens (Baruwā
2008).
22.2 General Preparation
Tea is widely used beverage across the world. It properly refers to infusions pre-
pared from leaves of the tea plant, Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze. Wight (1962)
mentioned that the genus Camellia consists of three species each with a specific
plant type, viz., Camellia sinensis (China type), Camellia assamica (Assam type),
and Camellia assamica lasiocalyx (Cambod type). Tender shoots of tea (consisting
of two or three leaves and a bud) are harvested periodically to produce different
types of teas, depending on variable degrees of withering and fermentation.
Southeast Asia (i.e., India and Sri Lanka) and Eastern and Southern Africa (i.e.,
Kenya, Malaya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Mozambique) are the major producers of
black tea, while China and Japan are the major producers of green tea. Ecophysiology
and quality production of the commercially grown tea plant is much more climate
specific.
Camellia is a mono-generic, perennial tree, and a natural crossbreeding occurs
between these species and subspecies producing considerable variations among the
individual. The usual practice of tea cultivation and breeding involves the selection
of natural or artificial crossing or somaclonal variation of desired combinations
through vegetative propagation (clones). From the morphological, physiological,
510 A. Hazra et al.
and biochemical analysis, it reveals that the characteristic variations are much wider
(Richards 1966; Bandyopadhaya and Das 2008). Improved yield and quality
depends on the better vegetative growths of the selected plants. As the well-defined
clones are genetically uniform and stable, clonal selection is the deciding factor to
attribute the improvement of tea production (Shanmugarajah 1994; Baruwā 2008).
Bandyopadhaya and Das (2008) pointed out the disadvantages of this practice over
the seed propagation population, as the latter are less prone to both biotic and abi-
otic stress due to their high genetic plasticity and these variabilities considered to be
more desired trait to combat against natural hazards like disease incidence, pest
infestation, and wide environmental changes (Bandyopadhyay 2011).
Different types of teas have its own distinct, unique taste, smell, and visual look.
Processing of different types of tea normally undertakes early identical set of meth-
odologies with only minor deviations. Critical maintenance of moisture and tem-
perature control during its manufacture is prime criteria to avoid fungal contamination
of processed tea. The fungal adulteration causes a real decomposition of the tea leaf
and may reduce the tea quality which is unfit for consumption.
22.2.1 Plucking
Harvestable tea leaves, which include a terminal bud and two young leaves, are
picked from tea bushes of breast high, typically twice or thrice a year during early
spring, early summer, and late spring, usually termed as first, second, and third
flush, respectively (Chan 2006; Guang 2007). Autumn or winter harvesting of tea
flushes is much rare, only done in extreme favourable climatic condition. To get
higher quality and intact leaves, handpicking is mostly preferable, but sometimes
leaves can also be picked by machine, though there will be more broken leaves, and
thus reducing the quality of the tea and the deterioration of made tea quality was
primarily due to machine-driven damage of fresh leaves and nonselective plucking
with shear-harvesting (Ravichandran and Parthiban 1998). However, it has also
been reported that machine plucking in accurate timed harvesting periods can pro-
duce good leaves for the production of high-quality teas. Luo et al. (2008) showed
that fairly good quality tea could be obtained when the tea shoots were plucked in
such a period when 75–85% of plant shoots were attained the one bud and two-
leaved stage, and therefore this period can be defined as the optimum machine-
plucking time.
22.2.2 Withering/Wilting
After harvesting of fresh tea leaves, wilting (or commonly termed as withering)
process is started immediately, which is basically the onset of gradual enzymatic
oxidation process. Withering is involved in removing of excess water from the
leaves and allows a very short duration of oxidation progression (Guang 2007). The
leaves usually are allowed to be either exposed under diffused sunlight or spread
over in an equable blustery room to let escape the leaves’ moisture (Chan 2006).
The leaves sometimes lose moisture more than one-fourth of their fresh weight
through withering. Basically, the process involves in the breakdown of leaf proteins
and different secondary metabolites (mainly polyphenol compounds) into free
amino acids and several polyphenols, both of which change the taste of the tea and
thus this phase is important. It is probable that theaflavins and thearubigins attribute
for the colour and strength of tea liquors, respectively, and that theaflavins also con-
tribute towards quality and briskness (Roberts 1958).
22.2.3 Disruption
This part of the process is known as “disruption” or “leaf maceration” in the Western
tea production houses and involves the bruised or torn of harvested leaves, in order
to stimulate the oxidation process (Varnam and Sutherland 1994). The leaves are
being lightly bruised peripherally by shaking and blending in a bamboo tray or dip-
ping in baskets (Chan 2006). Some consecutive processes of leaf disruption are
being undertaken, such as kneading, rolling, tearing, and crushing of leaves, usually
done by machine (Varnam and Sutherland 1994). Mechanical collapse of the leaf
cells, both inside and outside structure, is allowed to enhance the enzymatic oxida-
tion in this phase. This also releases some of the leaf extracts, which may aid in
oxidation and change the taste profile of the tea (Roberts 1958).
22.2.4 Oxidation/Fermentation
Oxidation is an essential and important phase in production of made tea. In a

climate-controlled room, the leaves are kept in spread with several agitations where
they turn increasingly darker (Guang 2007). Chlorophylls in the leaves are allowed
to enzymatically disintegrate, and its tannins are being released or transformed
gradually in this process. This has sometimes referred to as “fermentation” in the tea
industry. According to market demands, the tea producer has option for selecting the
time duration for the oxidation period. This depends on the desired qualities in the
final tea as well as the weather conditions (heat and humidity). For light oolong teas,
this may be anywhere from 5 to 40% oxidation and in darker oolong teas 60 to 70%,
and in black teas 100% oxidation has been taken into the process. Incidences of tea
taste and aroma components are highly related to the duration of the oxidation pro-
cess, leading to produce a tea with its desired liquor colour, strength, and briskness
(Roberts 1958). Bhattacharyya et al. (2007) opined that depending on the type of tea
desired, under- or over-oxidation/fermentation can result in grassy flavours or overly
thick winey flavours.
512 A. Hazra et al.
22.2.5 Fixation/Kill-Green
After a desired level of oxidation, “kill-green” or “fixation” is done to stop the oxi-
dation of the tea leaves. This process is skillfully done by judiciously heating tea
leaves and thus deactivating their oxidative enzymes and eradicating undesirable
fragrances in the leaves, without damaging the flavour of the tea (Guang 2007).
Traditionally, the tea leaves are panned in a wok (Guang 2007) or steamed (Chan
et al. 2007), but with advancements in technology, kill-green is sometimes done by
baking or “panning” in a rolling drum. In some white teas and some black teas such
as CTC blacks, kill-green is done simultaneously with drying (Bhattacharyya et al.
2007).
22.2.6 Sweltering/Yellowing
The process is specific for preparation of yellow teas, which involves after “kill-
green” phase, tea leaves are allowed to expose in slightly heated closed container,
and leading to the formerly green leaves to turn yellow in colour. The resulting
leaves produce a beverage that has a distinctive yellowish-green appearance due to
transformations of the leaf chlorophyll (Zhou et al. 2005). Through being sweltered
for 6–8 h at nearly human body temperature, the amino acids and polyphenols in the
processed tea leaves undergo chemical changes to give this tea its distinct briskness
and mellow taste (Gong et al. 2000).
22.2.7 Rolling/Shaping
The humid tea leaves are rolled to transform into wrinkled strips, by hand or using
a rolling machine. This rolling action leads to further enhance the taste of the tea
after some of the sap, essential oils, and juices inside the leaves are released (Guang
2007). The strips of tea leaves are transformed into desired shapes, such as spirals,
kneaded, pellets or balls, cones, etc. Under heavy pressure, the tea leaves can also
be transformed into bricks.
22.2.8 Drying
This is the end of the whole tea processing phases and ready for sale. Drying can be
done in different ways such as panning, sun-drying, air-drying, or baking in moder-
ate temperature. Among the all types, baking is widely used technique. Importantly,
special care should be taken to not overcooked the leaves. The drying of the pro-
duced tea is responsible for many new compounds particularly important in green
teas (Graham 1992).
22.2.9 Ageing/Curing
This is not mandatory for usual tea processing technique, but this additional treat-
ment is required in some special instance. Ageing includes a secondary fermenta-
tion of tea leaves to obtain their required consumption quality. As for example, a
green tea prior to curing into a post-fermented tea is often bitter and harsh in taste
but becomes sweet and mellow through fermentation by ageing (Chan 2006).
Additionally, oolong can benefit from ageing if fired over charcoal. Flavoured teas
are manufactured in this stage by spraying the tea with aromas and flavours or by
storing them with their flavourings (Ito et al. 2002).
22.3 Different Types of Tea
Infused tea leaves are being consumed popularly worldwide after adopting certain
processing technique. Depending on the developmental stages of the harvested
leaves, different processing practices of varied types of teas are available for con-
sumption. Among them, four types are mostly marketed like black (fermented),
green (non-fermented), oolong (semi-fermented), and white (non-fermented, only
rudimentary leaf buds are used) teas, though several other types (yellow, pu-erh,
etc.) of teas are being sold according to the local people’s need. The major tea types
are diverse in taste, odour, and colour due to occurrence of certain chemical sub-
stances those are accumulated and depending on the processing techniques are
being adopted.
22.3.1 Black Tea
Black tea is produced by exposing the freshly plucked leaves of Camellia sinensis
to a process of withering, rolling, and drying. This process offers privilege to oxi-
dise the leaf and allows to accumulate many unique aroma and flavour elements.
Black tea can be malty, floral, smoky, brisk, and fragrant when full-bodied. The
pleasure of black tea offers itself to the addition of sugar, honey, lemon, cream, and
milk. Caffeine content in black tea is to some extent more than green or white teas,
but they still have less than in a cup of coffee. The primary cradle of black tea is
mainly from the key tea-growing regions throughout the world including China,
India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.
22.3.2 Green Tea
Green tea retains its fresh, grassy, vegetal flavours due to the unique processing
technique and basically is less processed. After plucking, green tea leaves are being
withered, rolled, and dried prior to any curing or oxidation takes place. Green tea
has the least caffeine of all other types of teas. Consuming green tea is attributing to
514 A. Hazra et al.
several beneficial antioxidant features, but some recent reports revealed that excess
intake of green tea might have some adverse effects on well-being (Hazra et al.
2017a).
22.3.3 Oolong Tea
Oolong is only moderately oxidised after harvesting of the fresh leaves and then
withered. Before the leaves are fully cured, a quick drying process is being adopted
for retention of the zest and odour elements of the green leaf to some extent and a
combination characteristics of black tea that arise from the partial curing. Oolong
has slightly less caffeine than black tea but more than green tea.
22.3.4 White Tea
White tea is made from the very young, unfolded rudimentary leaf buds of Camellia
sinensis. The delicate undeveloped leaf buds are covered with profuse soft, silvery
white hairs and almost nil chlorophyll pigments – as such it terms “white” tea.
White tea is generally uncured in the style of green teas and is similarly very low in
caffeine but rich in antioxidant qualities. As the production of made white tea
involves limited source of leaf buds and harvesting also is time taking process, its
market cost is too high. A schematic chart is given below to illustrate the procedure
for different types of tea manufacturing (Fig. 22.1).
22.4 Production and Business Statistics
22.4.1 Production: Global and Indian Context
It is considered that the ultimate factor for the progression of the global tea econ-
omy is gradual increment for the commodity as tea is undoubtedly considered as
several health beneficial beverages throughout the world. The analysis of market
policies is being carried out by the Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Group
(IGG) on tea in the selected markets (Fig. 22.2). This market survey indicates that
market price of both black and green tea is non-flexible because changes in price
have a relatively minute effect on the amplitude of demand. In fact, usual demand-
supply relation is not reflected in tea market. World tea production (black, green,
and instant) increased significantly by 6% to 5.07 million tonnes in 2013. Black tea
output increased by 5.4% in response to continued firm prices, while green tea out-
put increased by 5.1% (Table 22.1).
Growth in world output was due to major increases in the major tea-producing
countries. China remained the largest tea-producing country with an output of 1.9
million tonnes, accounting for more than 38% of the world total, while production
in India, the second largest producer, also increased to reach 1.2 million tonnes in
Fig. 22.1 Schematic diagram of different types of tea manufacturing
2013. Output also increased in the two largest exporting countries where production
reached 436,300 tonnes in Kenya and 3, 43,100 tonnes in Sri Lanka. Apart from the
7.5% decline in Vietnam to 1, 85, 000 tonnes, production in other major producing
countries increased: Indonesia to 1, 52, 700 tonnes; Bangladesh to 66, 200 tonnes;
Uganda to 58, 300 tonnes; Malawi to 46, 500 tonnes; Tanzania to 32, 400 tonnes;
516 A. Hazra et al.
Fig. 22.2 Global tea production and export statistics (2004–2015)
and Rwanda to 25, 200 tonnes. Other producers in Africa recorded slight increases:
Burundi to 8, 800 tonnes; Zimbabwe to 8, 500 tonnes; and South Africa to 2, 500
tonnes.
In India, there are fifteen states, where tea is cultivated since long back. Among
them, the prime tea producer states are Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and
Kerala. These major tea growing states contribute approximately 97% of the total
tea production in India (Fig. 22.3). Traditionally, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar, and Karnataka are contributing to the rest of the amount of tea.
In recent years, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, and
Sikkim have taken place in Indian tea scenario in nontraditional tea cultivation.
Darjeeling, Assam, Nilgiri, and Kangra tea have achieved the highest popularity and
precious tea in the world for their special delicate flavour, strength, and briskness.
The above teas are very specific in respect of taste and flavour as the cultivation of
these teas is very much restricted to varied agroclimatic conditions.
During the financial year 2015–2016, the record tea production occurred at 1233
million kg (mn kg) and exports crossing 230 mn kg after 35 years. India exported
232.9 mn kg, valued at Rs 4493 crore. In 1980–1981, export was 231.7 mn kg; it
had since not crossed that level. Of the production, that of crush-tear-curl (CTC)
was 91% of the total production.
The data published by Tea Board of India revealed that the total domestic pro-
duction grew by 3% or nearly 36 mn kg from the year before. North India – the
sectorial term covers the three main growing areas of West Bengal, Assam, and
Table 22.1 World tea production (thousand tonnes)

2006–
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
World 3891.2 4040 4364.7 4627 4784.5 5063.9
Far East 2892.3 3089.7 3280.3 3579.1 3753.3 3965.6
Bangladesh 56.80 60.00 60.00 59.60 62.50 66.20
China (Mainland) 1150.50 1344.40 1475.10 1623.20 1789.80 1924.50
India 986.40 982.10 970.30 1119.70 1129.00 1200.40
Indonesia 150.30 156.90 156.60 150.80 150.90 152.70
Sri Lanka 311.30 291.20 331.40 327.50 328.40 343.10
Vietnam 158.00 177.30 192.00 202.10 200.00 185.00
Others 78.90 77.80 94.80 96.20 92.70 93.80
Africa 535.90 520.50 616.10 591.70 580.20 649.50
Burundi 6.60 6.70 6.90 7.00 8.70 8.80
Kenya 345.20 318.30 403.30 383.10 373.10 436.30
Malawi 44.90 52.60 51.60 47.10 42.50 46.50
Rwanda 19.10 20.50 22.20 24.10 24.70 25.20
South Africa 3.50 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.20 2.50
Tanzania United Republic 32.60 32.10 31.60 33.00 32.30 32.40
Uganda 42.40 51.00 59.40 56.30 57.90 58.30
Zimbabwe 12.40 7.30 8.60 8.40 8.50 8.50
Others 29.00 30.00 30.20 30.60 30.40 30.90
Latin America and 97.70 89.80 107.40 107.80 98.30 95.00
Caribbean
Argentina 79.60 73.40 90.70 91.20 81.30 78.90
Brazil 8.50 7.60 7.70 7.70 7.80 7.00
Others 9.70 8.80 8.90 8.80 9.20 9.10
Near East 255.20 238.20 262.00 251.10 251.50 253.50
Iran, Islamic Republic 41.40 39.60 27.00 29.50 26.50 26.50
Turkey 213.70 198.60 235.00 221.60 225.00 227.00
Oceania 7.10 7.20 7.20 6.60 6.40 6.50
Japan 94.70 86.00 83.00 82.10 85.90 84.70
CIS 8.30 8.40 8.40 8.50 8.60 8.90
Developed 113.70 103.80 101.00 99.50 103.30 102.90
Developing 3777.50 3936.20 4263.60 4527.50 4681.20 4961.00
Source: FAO IGG Secretariat
Himachal’s Kangra – grew 1009 mn kg, up to 5.5% by 52.7 mn kg from 2014 to

2015. South Indian gardens produced 224.6 mn kg, a decline by 16.8 mn kg or
nearly 7%, due to adverse climatic conditions and labour issues in Kerala. Among
major growing states, the share of small growers was the highest in Tamil Nadu at
53%, followed by West Bengal at 40% and Assam at 27.6% (63rd Annual Report,
Tea Board of India 2016–2017).
Average price realisation and quantity sold at auctions rose 8.1% and 17.8%,
respectively, from 2014 to 2015. The quantity sold in North India auction centres
increased 39.3%, with a rise of 3.3% in average price realisation; the comparative
518 A. Hazra et al.
Fig. 22.3 Tea production in north and south of India
Table 22.2 Last 5 years tea production in India

Financial Production (mn Increment/decrease Export (in mn Increment/decrease
year Kg) (%) kgs) (%)
2011–2012 1059 13.32 214 0.26
2012–2013 1135 3.60 216 0.88
2013–2014 1209 6.50 226 4.40
2014–2015 1197 −0.96 199 −11.82
2015–2016 1233 3.00 233 17.00
Source: Tea Board of India
figures for South India were 26.2% and 29%, respectively, of increase. During
2016–2017, the cumulative tea production in different tea-producing areas raised by
17.35 million Kg than that of the previous year, 2015–2016, and this increment was
due to favourable climatic condition (63rd Annual Report, Tea Board of India 2016–
2017) (Table 22.2).
22.4.2 Tea Export
World tea exports reached 1.77 million tonnes in 2013 a 5% increase compared to
2012. Volumes of black tea were up by 5.8% in 2013, and export earnings increased
by 10% to USD 5.7 billion (Table 22.3).
The tea industry’s performance on the export front was commendable as the
quantity of tea exports increased by 28.94 million kgs (12.71%) during 2017–2018
as compared to the corresponding period last year, while the revenue earned from
exports saw a rise of US$ 95.19 million (13.78%). In rupee terms, the total value of
the exports was pegged at Rs. 5064.88 crores during 2017–2018. The value
Table 22.3 World tea exports (thousand tonnes)

2006–
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
World 1570.70 1544.70 1683.00 1674.80 1684.00 1768.50
Far East 1014.00 1008.80 1036.40 1051.90 1064.80 1077.90
Bangladesh 7.90 2.10 0.90 1.50 0.60 0.50
Sri Lanka 303.50 279.90 305.80 303.20 306.10 311.00
China (Mainland) 291.00 303.00 302.40 322.60 321.80 329.70
India 200.20 180.50 182.70 205.30 199.10 209.20
Indonesia 91.70 92.30 87.10 75.50 70.10 70.80
Vietnam 108.20 134.10 138.40 122.60 145.00 133.50
Others 11.50 17.00 19.10 21.40 22.10 23.10
Africa 462.80 449.10 542.90 519.40 525.70 596.40
Kenya 301.00 281.10 362.30 347.50 349.90 415.90
Malawi 42.90 46.80 48.90 44.90 41.80 40.50
Zimbabwe 9.10 4.50 5.10 5.70 5.90 5.90
Rwanda 17.40 18.80 21.50 23.20 23.00 23.50
South Africa 5.60 5.30 5.00 2.70 2.80 5.20
Tanzania United Republic 26.40 24.40 26.10 27.10 27.80 26.20
Uganda 39.60 47.90 53.70 47.90 52.30 56.70
Others 20.80 20.30 20.30 20.30 22.30 22.50
Latin America and 79.70 72.70 89.20 89.00 79.30 76.20
Caribbean
Oceania 7.00 7.80 7.40 6.70 6.10 6.60
Developed 16.70 17.50 17.20 14.50 13.70 18.10
Developing 1554.00 1527.20 1665.70 1660.20 1670.30 1750.40
Source: FAO IGG Secretariat
realisation increased by Rs. 432.38 crores (9.33%). The growth in exports was
majorly driven by the following countries: Egypt (increased by 7.49 million kgs),
Iran (increased by 6.95 million kgs), Pakistan (increased by 4.96 million kgs), China
(increased by 2.91 million kgs), and Russia (increased by 2.89 million kgs)
(Table 22.3).
22.4.3 Recent Scenario of World Tea
The world production of tea has increased and reached 5503 M. Kgs during 2016,
which is 222 M. Kgs more than the previous year. According to the report (63rd
Annual report, Tea Board of India 2017), the production hike is mainly constituted
by increased amount of black tea in all tea-producing country, though the Republic
of China holds their crown position in green tea production (increased by
101 M. Kgs). The world’s tea market has received the total export augmentation
touched about 5 million kgs in 2016, which is a marginal hike on the amount
exported in 2015. However, China and India have replicated the previous year’s
rank as well (Fig. 22.4).
520 A. Hazra et al.
Fig. 22.4 Global share of tea production and export
Table 22.4 Overview of Indian tea export during 2017–2018 (ITC, 2017)
International value (million
Quantity (million Kgs) Value (Rs. crores) US$)
2017–2018 2016–2017 2017–2018 2016–2017 2017–2018 2016–2017
Total 256.57 227.63 5064.88 4632.50 758.92 690.73
Export
Increment 28.94 432.38 95.19
Increment 12.71 9.33 13.78
%
The Indian tea industry has achieved a historic feat during the financial year
2017–2018 as it has recorded the highest ever production as well as export figures.
The total tea production was 1325.05 million kgs, an increase of 74.56 million kgs
(5.96%) as compared to 2016–2017. Similarly, the total quantity of tea exported
during the financial year 2017–2018 stood at 256.57 million kgs, while the for-
eign exchange realised from exports of Indian tea was US$ 785.92 million
(Table 22.4).
22.5 Health Benefit Traits of Different Teas
Ever since 2737 BC, when Chinese legend says leaves from an overhanging
Camellia sinensis plant fell into Emperor Shennong’s cup of boiling water, tea has
been recognised by cultures around the world for its capacity to soothe, restore, and
refresh. Far from being a fictitious promise, tea has been lauded for an array of
potential health benefits – from reducing cancer and heart disease risk to improving
dental health and boosting weight loss.
According to the Tea Association of the USA Inc., the number of Americans
who are consuming infused tea today is over 158 million, about half the US popu-
lation. The inclination towards increased consumer of tea is anticipated to be sus-
tained over the future too. Black tea is most popularly consumed beverages and
thus a fairly good amount of polyphenol is ingested by majority of the world popu-
lation (Chun et al. 2007; Song and Chun 2008; Maras et al. 2011). In the recent
years, a group of epidemiologic confirmation has been reported towards the decline
in risk of cardiac arrest (Arab et al. 2009; Arab and Liebeskind 2010), and different
cardiovascular syndromes (Gardner et al. 2007; Castelnuovo et al. 2012; Bøhn
et al. 2012) independently correlated with continual consumption of green and
black tea. There are now enough substantial suggestions from interpolation studies
for effects on enormous cardiovascular disorders with positive evidences of black
tea consumers. Consumption of black tea may attribute to the lower systolic and
diastolic blood pressure (BP) (Grassi et al. 2009; Hodgson et al. 2012). Some
recent researches positively signifying that consumption of black and green tea
may have beneficial effect on platelet function, inflammatory tone, and weight
management (Steptoe et al. 2007; Vernarelli and Lambert 2013). Schini-Kerth
et al. (2011) reported that the polyphenol compounds in tea are suggestively
responsible for the vascular benefits, which may exert vascular relaxation via mul-
tiple physiological pathways. Peterson et al. (2005) have reported that black tea is
enriched with polyphenol (BTP) which are mainly theaflavins and the arubigens
(60–70%). Theaflavins consist of concatenated catechin rings with molecular
weights up to 700 Da (Mulder et al. 2001), and thearubigins have larger polymeric
arrangements with molecular weights of not more than 2 kDa (Kuhnert 2010),
which is too high for direct bioavailability. Pereira-Caro et al. (2017) experimen-
tally pointed out that the consumed black tea polyphenols (BTPs) primarily under-
take extensive bioconversion of some beneficial metabolites those usually
assimilate in human body with the active participation of different microbes, pres-
ent in the colon.
Tea polyphenols and their different utility aspects have been discussed in respect
to their antioxidant possessions. Confirmations have proven that the antioxidant
assets of green tea rely on different catechin derivatives like epicatechin (EC), epi-
gallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and epigallocatechin (EGC) (Kondo et al. 1999;
Farhoosh et al. 2007; Horžić et al. 2009). Concurrently, efficient antioxidant proper-
ties have also been authenticated in black tea which in turn, scavenge free radicals,
inhibit lipid peroxidation, and chelate metal ions (Wiseman et al. 1997; Łuczaj and
Skrzydlewska 2005). Systematic researches propose an inverse relationship between
consumption of dietary phytochemicals and some definite hazardable issues of
human diseases. Tea polyphenols are also known for possessing substantial antibac-
terial activity. In green tea, catechins, particularly EGCG and ECG, have antibacte-
rial activity in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Bancirova 2010;
Wang et al. 2000). Earlier reports revealed that the green tea prevents tooth decay by
inhibiting oral bacteria. The antibacterial activity of black tea has also been reported
time to time (Bancirova 2010; Hazra et al. 2017b).
It is reported that the optimistic effects of tea polyphenols can be credited in a
greater extent to antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, hypocholesterolo-
mic, antibacterial, and anti-allergenic effects (Cooper 2012). Kosińska and
Andlauer (2014) commented that tea antioxidant quality is getting reduced more as
the tea leaves are getting more processed (Hazra et al. 2017b) and indicated that in
respect of free radical scavenging ability among the four types of processed tea,
they can be ranked in declining values like green ➔ white ➔ oolong ➔ black tea.
The main chemical constituents of green tea are catechin of EGCG, EGC, ECG,
522 A. Hazra et al.
and EC (Chopade et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2010). Presence of three hydroxyl
(OH) groups on the B-ring in EGCG, GCG, EGC, and GC are more effective in
scavenging of free radicals than the two OH groups occur in ECG, CG, and EC
(Sharma et al. 2010). The content of EGCG and EGC in green tea is much higher
than in black tea (Almajano et al. 2008). Although green tea has higher TPC, free
radical scavenging activity, and ferric reducing power, its ferrous ion chelating
ability is poorer than black tea (Chan et al. 2007; Chan et al. 2010). Investigational
evidence revealed that the excess levels of catechins, total polyphenols have pro-
vided better antioxidant property in green tea. Black tea contained high levels of
theaflavins and thearubigins, are responsible for high antioxidant potentiality
(Karori et al. 2007). They have postulated that the renovations of catechins (present
in green tea) to the aflavins (in black tea) occur during processing and this has least
effect in free radical scavenging efficiency. Hazra et al. (2017b) concluded that
antioxidant factors (existence of bioactive secondary metabolites) pointed out
towards the degree of advantage like green >white > oolong > black tea. Prevalence
of essential metal ions, green tea shows higher amount than those of other types,
whereas black tea embraces higher locus in having K and Ca. Low Na and high K
amount is always desirable for well-being state of health. Elevated Manganese con-
tent (in green tea) usually be considered as disadvantageous; amount of Mn that
percolates during tea infusion, supersedes the prescribed amount of WHO (1993).
Though green tea is in a prominent position in respect to both antibacterial and
antioxidant ability, oolong, black, and white tea also have substantial ability to
these events as well. Intake of different types of tea mainly relies on the specific
sensitivity and taste; black and white teas are not at all mediocre to green tea in a
pronounced extent.
Neumerous research works have brought forward during last decades, but more
extensive research yet to be needed to reach a conclusive decision with respect to tea
consumption and different health benefit qualities for human beings. Long-term
consumption of caffeinated tea may improve mental alertness (US National Library
of Medicine, 2017). There is preliminary evidence that the caffeine from long-term
tea (or coffee) consumption provides a small amount of protection against the pro-
gression of dementia or Alzheimer’s disease during ageing, although the results
across numerous studies were inconsistent (Panza et al. 2015). In 2011, the US Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that there was very little evidence to sup-
port the claim that green tea consumption may reduce the risk of breast and prostate
cancer. According to a report of US National Cancer Institute (2014) the results
published so far in various investigations are inconclusive due to inadequate data in
epidemiological studies and clinical trials. Moreover, the report was not recommend
for or against the use of tea towards reducing the risk of any type of cancer and
opined that the inconsistencies in findings regarding tea and cancer risk may be due
to variability in tea preparation, tea consumption, the bioavailability of tea com-
pounds (the amounts that can be absorbed by the body), lifestyle differences, and
individual genetic variabilities. Though there are some positive evidences for risk
reduction of breast, prostate, ovarian, and endometrial cancers in green tea, but
still it is inconclusive (Johnson et al. 2012).
22.5.1 Chemical Basis of Health Benefit Traits
Tea is considered as not only just a charming beverage but also providing various
remarkable health utility substances for people since centuries. Tea contains indeed
befalling chemicals like antioxidants, amino acids, caffeine, vitamins, and minerals.
Naturally occurring antioxidants in tea help to avert cell damage caused by free
radicals and are attribute to beneficial traits against numerous health disorders,
including cardiovascular aberrations, carcinoma, degenerative syndromes, and
impulsive ageing. Different polyphenol elements, especially flavonoid compounds
that are found in different types of tea, perform pivotal role in free radical scaveng-
ing mechanism. For example, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) mainly occurs in
green tea, whereas black tea contains mainly theaflavins and thearubigins.
Extensive scientific investigations since the last two decades recommend that
dietary high antioxidant supplements those being consumed through tea may help
in reducing the different risk of cardiac disorders, endorse well blood circulation,
help in body weight management, benefit oral health by lowering the chance of
cavities and gum diseases, strengthen bones, and prevent osteoporosis and even
onset of certain types of carcinoma. Caffeine, a bitter compound, stimulates the
nervous system and promotes mental alertness and cognitive performances. Caffeine
content in tea, when consumed after infusion, can help to improve mental attention,
reduce lethargy and exhaustion, and improve mental attentiveness. The antioxidants
in tea bind with caffeine when infused in water, to help regulate the slow release of
caffeine, so these effects last longer. L-Thiamine, a unique amino acid found in tea,
influences dopamine and serotonin, affecting the mood, increases the alpha brain
waves activity to help relax the mind, and also works synergistically with caffeine
to promote mental focus, alertness, and energy.
524 A. Hazra et al.
Quality of tea and the colour differences after infusions are significantly subjec-
tive to the occurrence of tea polyphenol amino acid and caffeine contents in leaves
(Liang et al. 2003). Tea aroma is another important factor defining the character and
quality of tea. Recently Yang et al. (2013) postulated that in consequence of various
metabolic activities and hydrolysis of glycosidically bound various volatiles com-
pounds in tea are largely influence during manufacturing processes of different types
of teas. Incidence of tea catechins and theaflavins proved to be well correlated with
sensory quality of black tea (Wright et al. 2000). Liang and Xu (2001) experimen-
tally proved that theaflavins endorsed a substantial impact to the brightness of black
tea infusion than theaflavin gallate. Flavan-3-ols and flavonols are the primary phe-
nolic compounds present in tea. The main flavan-3-ols in green tea are (−)-epicate-
chin (EC) and some derivatives of gallate. Black tea also have these compounds but
to some extent in lower amount. Due to prolonged oxidation time being allowed for
its production, catechin, epicatechin, and epigallocatechin are converted to theafla-
vins and thearubigins (Balentine et al. 1997). Flavonols, including quercetin, kaemp-
ferol, myricitin, and their glycosides, are also present in tea. Khan and Mukhtar
(2013) reported the catechins are primary active ingredients of tea, and among them,
EGCG is the most effective, and much of the anticarcinogenic consequence of green
tea is principally attributed to it. Bitter taste and dark colour of black tea are due to
occurrence of some catechins which are being oxidised or condensed to convert
theaflavins (theaflavin, theaflavin-3-gallate, theaflavin-3′-gallate, and theaflavin-3-
3′-digallate) (3–6%) and thearubigins (12–18%) during fermentation process of
fresh tea leaves. The total polyphenol content of green and black teas is more or less
alike, but incidence of different types of flavonoids is due to the gradation of oxida-
tion takes place during processing (Stangl et al. 2006).
22.6 C
rop Improvement Programme in Tea: Utility, Progress,
and Prospects
Improved cultivars of a crop have crucial role in its productivity and quality main-
tenance, as a beverage crop tea productivity lies on its vegetative lateral expansion
and quality contents of the leaf. In recent days, quality characteristics of tea leaves
are not only determined by its good flavour, liquor, and taste but also by the health
benefit compounds. In fact, health-conscious people are willing to expense more
for superior quality tea in all sense (Clay 2013). The profitability therefore in tea
cultivation is directly linked to both horizontal increase and quality enhancement
of the young shoots. Furthermore, similar to other agronomic crops, tea also faces
a number of biotic and abiotic challenges during its productive times, which
adversely affect the ultimate yield and quality. Crop improvement programme of
tea through genetic basis can provide improved cultivars with enriched quality,
various stress tolerance, and high yield which are genetically fixed. So far, the
popularised method of tea cultivation stands for exclusive genotype selection from
the wild or controlled cross-pollinated members and their release as “clones”
(Raina et al. 2012). Attempts of developing new cultivars of tea have been made
time to time throughout (Mondal 2014) by conventional breeding, but the process
is miserable due to some limitations of specific reproduction pattern and nature of
tea plant. Perennial habit, long development period, self-incompatibility, long seed
maturation time, and high-inbreeding depression are the major limiting factors for
tea improvement through conventional breeding. Therefore implementation of
concurrent molecular breeding techniques is an essential step to accelerate tea
breeding process. Furthermore, molecular approach-assisted authentication of tea
varieties also helps in the certification of premium tea and preservation of brand
image (Fang et al. 2016).
Genetic diversity of tea populations has been estimated time to time using differ-
ent molecular markers (Chen and Yamaguchi 2005; Goonetilleke et al. 2009; Das
et al. 2012; Raina et al. 2012; Bali et al. 2013; Kumar et al. 2016; Mukhopadhyay
et al. 2016; Hazra et al. 2017a; Liu et al. 2015). To date, various kinds of DNA
markers starting from first-generation RFLP to next-generation SNP along with
RAPD, AFLP, ISSR, SSR, CAPS, STS, SCAR, etc. have been adopted in tea
through the past few decades (Hazra et al. 2018). These DNA-based molecular
markers are utilised in germplasm diversity assessment which further aid the tea
breeding programmes. Mostly the molecular marker development programme tar-
geted to examine the genetic diversity or to determine the phylogenetic relationship
among different cultivars or clones. For targeted identification of biomarkers related
to favourable allele, expressed gene and regulatory element-based markers play an
important role. In tea, expressed genes which are positively correlated with catechin
and other quality determining metabolites (especially flavour compounds) accumu-
lation have been identified (Eungwanichayapant and Popluechai 2009; Liu et al.
2015; Chen et al. 2017; Shi et al. 2011; Li et al. 2015; Tai et al. 2015; Wu et al. 2014;
Gohain et al. 2012). A study revealed the presence of 175 conserved and 83 novel
miRNA based on genome survey scaffold sequences, small RNA sequencing, and
microarray-based hybridisation (Jeyaraj et al. 2017). Most of these kinds of markers
utilised in inter-varietal diversity assessment of tea and related progresses with
marker trait association or marker-assisted selection leading to genetic improve-
ment of tea are to be drawn in large scale (Kamunya et al. 2010).
Several researches have been conducted by worldwide scientists to develop
molecular markers associated with agronomical important traits in tea (Table 22.5).
Biosignatures linked to tea quality determining quantitative traits like catechins,
L-theanine, and theaflavins have been targeted to identify so far (Ma et al. 2014;
Elangbam and Misra 2016). In addition, the genetic loci for different stress toler-
ance, yield, and other quality characteristics of the crop have also been determined
in some earlier studies (Mphangwe et al. 2013; Bali et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2017;
Koech et al. 2018). All of these tea agronomic trait specific markers demand to be
exploited collectively in subsequent crop improvement programme to develop elite
cultivar with desired characteristics. Marker-assisted selection is much required in
this purpose because true breeding by self-pollination and pure line generation is
almost impossible in tea as it is a predominantly cross-pollinating heterozygous
plant (Zhang et al. 2016). However, information about polygenic inheritance pattern
of the desirable characteristics in tea is still inadequate (Kumar et al. 2016).
526 A. Hazra et al.
Table 22.5 Molecular markers developed in tea associated to agronomic traits (Hazra et al. 2018)
DNA marker
types Associated agronomic traits of tea Reported References
RAPD Theanine content, date of bud sprouting, 1996 Tanaka (1996)
and tolerance to cold
RAPD and Drought tolerance 2004 Mishra and Sen-
AFLP Mandi (2004)
RAPD, AFLP, Yield 2010 Kamunya et al. (2010)
and SSR
RAPD Quality, yield, and stress tolerance 2013 Mphangwe et al.
(2013)
SSR Catechin content 2014 Ma et al. (2014)
AFLP and Drought 2015 Bali et al. (2015)
RAPD
CAPS Catechin content 2016 Elangbam and Misra
(2016)
SSR Spring bud flush, young shoot colour, 2016 Tan et al. (2016)
and mature leaf size
SSR and SNP Quality of tea 2017 Chen (2017)
DArT Black tea quality and drought tolerance 2018 Koech et al. (2018)
Therefore, complex phenotypic traits linked molecular markers are still inadequate
in order to marker assisted selection of tea. Up to now the new tea clones are released
through orthodox methods which depend on desirable phenotype, but not highlight-
ing its genetic potentiality. As a result, large scale vegetative propagation with a
limited number of clones narrows the gene pool and reduces genetic diversity of the
cultivated crop.
A milestone achievement has been gained by global tea researchers, while two
latest reports have been brought forward with draft genome sequence of both variet-
ies of tea Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (Wei et al. 2018) and Camellia sinensis var.
assamica (Xia et al. 2017). These studies revealed that about 80 million years ago,
C. sinensis diverged from its close relative kiwifruit, and further two major varieties
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis and Camellia sinensis var. assamica have evolved
from a common ancestor ∼0.38 to 1.54 Mya. As a whole, tea genome information
is the ultimate resource for understanding the evolution and existence of character-
istic biosynthesis pathways that lead to unique taste, flavour, and health benefit
potentials of tea.
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Agronomy of Betelvine Crop
23
Kajal Sengupta
Abstract
Betelvine (Piper betle L.) cultivation and consumption of betel leaves are tradi-
tional and widespread practices in India. The leaves have some medicinal values.
For the small and marginal farmers, unable to produce sufficient food on their
tiny holdings, and whose labour resources (including family labours) are under-
employed, betelvine cultivation may provide a means to put their underutilized
labour to productive use enabling them to make ends meet. Betelvine is mainly
cultivated in an artificial structure called boroj which is made with locally avail-
able cheap materials. Betel leaves are mainly used for mastication as mouth
freshener. For successful production of betel leaves, proper manuring, water
management and microclimate are important. Betel leaves have some export
potentiality also. The agricultural, industrial, medicinal and allied potentialities
of the crop are discussed.
Keywords
Betelvine · Paan · Conservatory/boroj/bareja · Type/variety · Organic manure ·
Oilcake · Medicinal values
23.1 Introduction
Betelvine or Paan (Piper betle L.) belonging to the family Piperaceae is a perennial
evergreen, dioecious creeper grown for its leaves. In foreign languages, it is known
as Tanbol in Arabic and Burg-e-Tanbol in Persian. The word paan in Indian lan-
guages is probably a derivative of the Sanskrit word pan meaning leaf. It is a very
important and profitable crop of some states of India. The crop is economically,
K. Sengupta (*)
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_23
534 K. Sengupta
medicinally and traditionally important in the whole world. Betelvine is mainly

cultivated for its leaves, which are used for mastication as a morsel (mouth fresh-
ener and stimulant) with lime, katha (Acacia catechu L.), areca nut, aniseed, clove,
etc. (mostly used as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut or tobacco) by many
people in India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, the Philippines,
Thailand, Pakistan, etc. In many countries, the leaves are traditionally offered as a
mark of respect and auspicious beginning. Over the centuries, paan chewing had
become so common that serving and chewing of paan had been raised to the level
of a fine art at the Mughal Darbar, particularly during Akbar’s regime. It is one of
the most important cash crops and its cultivation has already brought a perceptible
and conspicuous change in the livelihood security of farming population.
Geographically, betelvine is a plant of the region bound by 68°E to 178°E longi-
tude and 12°S to 30°N latitude, and the plant favours tropical forest conditions.
Betelvine grows well under warm humid climate with diffused sunlight. There are
two systems for commercial cultivation of betelvine: the closed-type and open-type
systems. In the closed-type system (which is very common, occupied maximum
area and produced quality leaves), it is cultivated in an artificial structure, locally
called boroj, which is made in either square or rectangular shape with locally avail-
able cheap materials like bamboos, bamboo sticks, jute sticks, etc., and the conve-
nient height is 165–200 m (5.5–6.5 ft). The structure is so prepared that ideal
condition and proper microclimate are maintained for proper growth and develop-
ment of the vines, i.e. adequate light, temperature, humidity and soil moisture. Its
cultivation is highly labour intensive, particularly suited to small holdings, and
offers employment to millions. Once established, a panboroj normally sustains for
20–35 years and becomes a perennial source of employment and cash flow for day-
to-day requirements of the farmer.
Betelvine growers are selling their produce (leaves) at local markets as well as the
distant markets. The growers are facing several constraints including price fluctua-
tion because of volatile seasonal fluctuation in the production of betel leaf. The non-
existence of regulated market and poor infrastructural facilities in nearby areas of
cultivation are the other constraints being faced by the growers. The leaves are highly
perishable and susceptible to diseases and fluctuation in weather conditions.
Betel leaves have some medicinal values. The leaves and roots have been used
for their medicinal properties since time immemorial. For successful quality pro-
duction of betel leaves, microclimate, proper nutrient and water management are the
most important.
23.2 Microclimate
The betelvine plants thrive best under shade, which provides low light intensity,
mild temperature (20°–30 °C), high humidity and frequent irrigation throughout the
year. Hot wind burns the tender leaves and causes wilting, while cold wave causes
yellowing of leaves. Temperature above 40 °C or below 10 °C is not good for
betelvine crop.
23 Agronomy of Betelvine Crop 535
23.3 Soil and Land
Upland, well-drained, sandy loam or loamy soil having normal pH (6.8–7.5) is

found to be the best. Betelvine is sensitive to saline-alkaline soil and to water stag-
nation. The crop performed best in uplands having pH 7.0–7.5 with high organic
matter content and good water holding capacity. Loamy soil with porous substratum
below is ideal.
23.4 Land Preparation
A well-prepared land is required for the cultivation of betelvine. Therefore, thor-

ough and deep cultivation is recommended for the crop. Since betelvine is cultivated
under shade, within an artificial structure, control of diseases and insect pests is not
very easy. Therefore, ‘prevention’ is a better option than ‘cure.’ Moreover the leaves
are taken as such as a raw material without any preparation, and consumption is
done within a few days after harvesting. Hence, presence of any toxic residue in
leaves is harmful and dangerous. Most of the disease-infected betelvine crop are
soilborne; thus soil treatment is an important management practice. Soil treatment
may be done either by:
1. Solarization.
2. Chemical means (by using formalin solution/copper fungicide).
23.5 Cuttings and Planting
The vine is propagated asexually by stem (vine) cuttings. Cuttings should be col-
lected from the top portion of the vine (terminal stem cuttings, 15 to 50 cm long
having 2 to 8 nodes). As precautionary measures, the following points should be
kept in mind and adhered to for collection of cuttings:
(a) Healthy, disease-free boroj.

(b) Reasonable old boroj (4–5 years old).
(c) Two sprayings of copper fungicide, prior to collection, at an interval of 15 days
is essential.
• Cutting Treatment: Cuttings are to be treated with copper fungicide or a
mixture of 0.5% Bordeaux mixture +500 ppm streptomycin for 15–30 min.
• Planting Time: Post-rainy (post-monsoon) period (October–November) is
found best among other periods for planting of cuttings.
• Spacing: Ideal row-to-row spacing is 60 cm. Generally 10–20 cm spacing is
maintained between two cuttings/vines in a row.
536 K. Sengupta
23.6 Nutrients
Most of the betelvine growers apply heavy dose of organic manure, mainly in the
form of oilcakes (use of mustard oilcake is very common, although other oilcakes
are found equally good, and application of different oilcakes by rotation is found
more effective). Compost and other organic manures are also used. Commercial
chemical fertilizer (nitrogenous fertilizer) is rarely used.
There is a common observation that the use of chemical fertilizers, especially
nitrogenous ones, aggravates the foliage diseases and deteriorates the shelf life or
keeping quality of the leaves. However, some workers reported that nitrogen applied
through organic sources lowered disease incidence, but did not improve the keeping
quality.
Since leaves are the economic produce of betelvine crop thus adequate and judi-
cious application of N is important.
Nutrient dose for a boroj of 300 sq. m area (5 katha Boroj):
(a) 6 kg N [5 kg∗ + 1 kg∗∗]
(i) ∗5 kg N through oilcakes (100 kg oilcake in 12 splits).

(ii) The tentative splits are 8 kg, 8 kg, 8 kg, 8 kg, 8 kg, 10 kg, 8 kg, 10 kg, 8 kg,
8 kg, 8 kg, and 8 kg.
(iii) Application of different types of oilcakes in different times is found to be
better.
∗1 kg N through chemical fertilizer CAN (calcium ammonium nitrate)

∗
(4 kg CAN)
( b) 2 kg 250 g phosphate (15 kg SSP)

(c) 9 kg potash (16 kg MOP).
The integrated use of organic manure (mustard oil cake/neem cake) and com-
mercial N fertilizer (urea/calcium ammonium nitrate) is found effective for increas-
ing the yield of betel leaves. The use of vermicompost and cow dung manure is
found good for betelvine crop. Compost is a better option than oilcake (from avail-
ability to cost and utilisation of farm waste/crop residues point of view, and edible
oilcakes have other uses) and thus may be recommended as an effective and sustain-
able source of nutrients for betelvine crop.
The results of different scientists indicated that phosphate and potash had a posi-
tive effect on yield, keeping quality and disease incidence; 100 kg P2O5/ha and
100–125 kg K2O/ha were found superior in increasing the leaf yield.
Studies on micronutrients revealed that application of manganese (0.5%), zinc
(0.25–0.5%) and molybdenum (0.1%) improved the leaf yield.
23.7 Irrigation
Irrigation is given after planting of cuttings, initially twice in a day for the first
3–4 days, once in a day for the next 3 days and later once in 2 days’ interval for the
next 6 days. Later light irrigation is to be given depending on the soil conditions.
The number of irrigation and quantity of water depend on rainfall. The main sources
of irrigation water are ponds, tanks, wells and ditches. Drip irrigation method is
found best. Generally farmers applied irrigation water from the nearby pond by
using a container. Irrigation water should be applied carefully, slowly and judicially.
Flood method of irrigation is dangerous for spreading of disease pathogens and
should be avoided.
23.8 Tying and Lowering
Within a month’s time of planting, the cuttings start sprouting and creep. Sticks
(bamboo, jute stick) are placed by the side of the vines as support and fastened with
kush/kusha grass (Poa sp.) to facilitate climbing. Tying is usually done at an interval
of 20–25 cm.
When the vines reach about 2 m height and almost touch the roof of the
boroj/bareja, they are lowered down by making a ring (lower leaves of shoots are
stripped/harvested and then coiled) and fastened to bamboo/jute sticks just above
the ground level, leaving the apical 30–50 cm of the vine. This process is known as
lowering of vines.
Lowering of vines is done as an intercultural operation in frequent occasions
(five to six times in a year). Care is to be taken during lowering of vines, particularly
during monsoon months (since most of the disease pathogens are soilborne). After
lowering, the vines are sometimes covered with soil or allowed to remain coiled just
above the ground level.
At the time of lowering the vines, the lower portions and coiled portions of vines
are to be sprayed with any copper fungicide solution and then tied to the supporting
standard (sticks).
23.9 Application of Soil
Soil is applied at the base region of the vines, and it is done four to six times in a
year after lowering of vines. Precaution must be taken in application of soil (cover-
ing of vines with soil) as it may induce disease. Freshly cut/freshly collected soil
should never be applied. Treated soil, dried soil, especially by solarization, is ideal
for application. The soil, to be used for the covering, must be stacked or heaped up
in an open place for at least 6–10 months prior to the application (this is done for
sterilization of soil by solarization technique to destroy soilborne pathogens).
538 K. Sengupta
23.10 Intercropping
Intercropping is not recommended, because intercrop may play the role of alternate
host. Generally intercropping is not practiced in the closed system of betelvine cul-
tivation (within the boroj). However, farmers sometimes cultivated chilli, pointed
gourd, bitter gourd and turmeric within the boroj for their own consumption.
23.11 Types/Varieties
(1) Bangla, (2) Mitha, (3) Sanchi, (4) Kapoori, (5) Khasi and (6) Desawari/Maghai
are the main types of betelvine cultivated in India. Under these types, there are
many ecotypes which are known as varieties.
The distinguishing features of different types are as follows:
(i) Bangla—The leaves are cordate to roundish in shape, R-value∗ less than 1.5;
prominent auriculate leaf base; apex acuminate, lamina light to dark green in
colour, with prominent 4–8 secondary veins spreading in a curved manner,
fibrous; non-branching habit.
(ii) Mitha—The leaves are large, cordate to round; lamina thick, dark dull green
with characteristic yellowish spots and a short, acute leaf tip, somewhat waxy
in nature, R- value ranging from 1.48 to 1.61 (average1.54); basal lobes are
less conspicuous than those of Bangla and Sanchi types; secondary veins
prominent, divergent, 4–6 in number; leaves have a fennel-like aroma due to
the presence of anethole; branching habit is there; and a prominent joint is
present in the petiole.
(iii) Sanchi—The leaves are large, broadly ovate with long, tapering leaf tips; leaf
base is lobed; lobes are less prominent than that of Bangla; leaf margin is
entire with 6–8 prominent divergent secondary veins; petiole is comparatively
shorter, channelled; and R-value lies around 1.5.
(iv) Kapoori—Leaves are narrowly ovate, R-value is more than 1.5; lamine gla-
brous, leaf margin is entire, sometimes the basal portion of the margins being
undulated; the leaf apex is acuminate and the leaf base is not lobed; leaves have
a prominent midrib with 4–6 secondary veins which run almost parallel to the
midrib and are less curved than in other varieties; leaf colour is light green or
yellowish green; and the variety has a branching habit.
(v) Khasi—This variety is somewhat wild in character and mainly grown in the
northeastern hilly area (in Meghalaya, Assam and Nagaland); leaves are large,
cordate elliptical, comparatively thicker and leathery; leaf apex is short, pointed
and curved; basal lobes of leaf lamina are asymmetrical; secondary veins are
thick and originate from different points, 4–6 in number; and leaf colour is
dark dull green.
(vi) Desawari—Leaves are cordate to ovate; leaf tip is short, pointed and curved
which are characteristic features of the variety; lamina glabrous with less
conspicuous basal lobes; and secondary veins are 4–6 in number, running com-
paratively closer to the midrib than the Bangla type.
Table 23.1 Desirable and undesirable characteristics of betelvinetypes/varieties

Variety Desirable characteristics Undesirable characteristics
Bangla High yielding; leaf size and mass are comparatively Taste is not very good,
more; growth rate of vine is high; keeping quality of pungency is high and fibre
leaves is good; eugenol content is high; can tolerate content is comparatively
adverse climatic conditions to some extent; higher; non-branching habit
comparatively more resistant to pests and diseases
Mitha Taste is good; high content of an ethole; leaves are less Yield is low; highly
fibrous; has a branching habit susceptible to pests and
diseases; slow growth rate;
keeping quality is not good
Sanchi Highly resistant to pests and diseases; keeping quality Highly pungent; low market
is very good; requires less attention; presence of value as it is not usually used
stearaldehyde for chewing purposes
Kapoori High yielding, produced maximum number of leaves; Keeping quality is poor;
required less attention and shade; highly resistant to susceptible to frost and cold
some of the diseases; produced a number of branches temperature; eugenol content
is comparatively low
Khasi High yielding; highly resistant to some of the diseases Leaf is thick, leathery and
and pests highly pungent
Desawari Taste and quality are good; fibre content is very low Susceptible to diseases;
keeping quality of leaves is
bad; cannot tolerate prolonged
cold temperature
(∗R-Value = (Maximum length x Maximum breadth of leaf) /Actual leaf area)

Sex, growth behaviour and chemistry of betelvine varieties have been worked
out by many researchers (Table 23.1).
Sexual dimorphism is observed in leaf shape of betelvine. Male plants have
leaves which are narrowly ovate with 1.84 ± 0.21 length-breadth value (e.g. Kapoori
type), and female plants have cordate, ovate to round leaves with 1.26 ± 0.13 length-
breadth value (e.g. Bangla type).
Gachhpaans (vines that are trailed in other plants/trees) are mainly deshi/wild
(local) types. Four types of gachhpaan have been reported so far, viz. Jati, Assamese,
Daya and Mouri; the quality of Mouri type is comparatively good among them.
These types of betelvine are somewhat wild in character; they can tolerate adverse
climatic conditions and are highly resistant to pests and diseases.
23.12 Diseases
There are many diseases of betelvine. The incidence of diseases (mainly caused by
Phytophthora sp. and Colletotrichum sp.) was the highest with application of com-
mercial chemical N fertilizer and the lowest in areas receiving quality well-
decomposed organic manure.
Halisaharsanchi variety of West Bengal (India) has been identified as resistant to
a number of diseases, and thus it is recommended for cultivation in foot rot, leaf rot,
anthracnose and bacterial leaf spot-endemic areas; however, the market value of this
540 K. Sengupta
variety is rather low since consumers do not like its leaves. Similarly Pachikodi
variety (Bangla type) of Tamil Nadu (India) has been identified as multiple disease
resistant, namely, against Phytophthora rots and anthracnose. Alupatria variety of
Odisha (Bangla type) has been identified as resistant to basal rot. All Kapoori types
of betelvine have been identified as powdery mildew resistant.
23.13 Insect Pests
White fly, black fly and scale insects are the major pests of betelvine. Different
botanicals are recommended for controlling the pests. Nematode problem is now
becoming serious.
The following are recommended agronomic measures for the sustainable man-
agement of insect pests, nematodes and diseases:
1. Deep and thorough ploughing of fields during summer season.

2. Removal of all the weeds, their rhizomes/suckers from planting area after deep
ploughing during summer.
3. Levelling of land before setting up of betelvine boroj.
4. Soil solarisation.
5. Field sanitation.
6. Selection of healthy and disease-free planting materials.
7. Preplanting treatments of cuttings.
8. Timely planting, adaptation of proper spacing, irrigation and fertilizer doses.
9. Application of high dose of nitrogenous fertilizer should be avoided.
10. Basal application of FYM at 10–12 tons per ha during last ploughing.
11. In nematode-infested field, application of neem cake at 60 kgha−1 under ade-
quate moisture condition in soil. Care should be taken to avoid direct contact of
neem cake and fertilizers with the vines/roots of betelvine.
12. Growing of trap crops, attractant and repellent around the field.
13. Adoption of drip irrigation method.
14. Light irrigation with careful application (excess irrigation can favour the

diseases).
15. Avoidance of water stress and water stagnation conditions.
16. Application of sun-dried or disinfested soil in the boroj.
17. Removal/rouging of weeds/alternate host plants.
18. Maintenance of adequate sunlight and humidity within the boroj (reduced
humidity and presence of some sunlight reduce the intensity of disease infec-
tion) and good air circulation through the crop canopy (shade and humidity
management is very important to prevent the excessive build-up of pests).
19. Collection and destruction of diseased and insect-infested plant parts, dead
vines, visible eggs and larvae of insect pests/eradication of affected vines from
boroj and then burning.
20. The use of appropriate sticky traps for insect pests.
21. Provision of proper drainage to reduce water stagnation.
22. Application of split doses of nutrients/deficient micronutrient by top dressing

(preferably through organic sources).
23. Avoidance of root injury due to improper cultural practices (such as digging).
24. After lowering, vines/shoots should not be allowed to trail on the ground.
25. Regular field inspection.
26. Adoption of preventive measures (application of neem oil/botanicals/copper
fungicide on routine basis).
23.14 Harvesting
Generally leaves are ready for harvest after 3–4 months of planting (depending
upon the time of planting) and thereafter for every 3 to 4 weeks. The leaves are
plucked by hand. The growers usually harvest the leaves according to the market
demand or price. Generally 60–80 leaves are obtained from a single vine in a year
for most of the varieties. Leaf yield varies month to month, and it is comparatively
low during November to February (winter season) than in the summer and wet
season.
Average yield: First year: 60,000–70,000 bundles/ha

Second year: 80,000–1,00,000 bundles/ha
(One bundle: approximately 100 leaves)
Packing of betel leaves without petiole is found to be a better practice for improv-
ing shelf life when compared to packing with petiole. Banana leaves (fresh or dry)
performed better as packing material.
After harvesting, leaves are washed, cleaned and then graded according to size
and quality. The leaves are then packed after cutting a portion of the petiole. The
damaged leaves are rejected.
23.15 H
ybridization: A Viable Approach for Genetic
Improvement of Betelvine
Betelvine being vegetatively propagated, variability in the cultivated clones is lim-

ited. Hybridisation is a potential tool to breed new varieties having high yield poten-
tial with better quality and resistance to diseases and pests.
Flowering has been observed in 16 female and 13 male clones out of 70 collec-
tions. Among these, continuous and profuse flowering has been observed in two
varieties, viz.SGM-1 (female) and Swarna Kapoori (male). The germination and
seedling raising have been standardised. In the male catkins, anthesis started at
10:30 a.m., and peak anthesis was recorded between 2 and 4 p.m. Female catkins
remained in flowering phase for nearly 8 days. Continuous pollination for 7–8 days
resulted in uniform fruit development with 80–85% fruit set in all crosses. Fruits
took 90–120 days to ripen.
542 K. Sengupta
Ripened fruits were harvested when they turned brownish-green and soft. Seed
germination drastically reduced in dried fruits on the vine. Wide variation was
observed among hybrids for a number of seeds per fruit (8–61). For better germina-
tion of seeds, extracted seeds may be treated with sodium hypochlorite for 1 min
and then placed on a layer of sterile cotton; this treatment helped the seeds to ger-
minate under room temperature. Seed germination ranged from 20 to 80% in differ-
ent crosses.
Emergence of radical was observed within 11–15 days. A large number of hybrid
seedlings was raised from 60 different crosses. Wide variability was observed for
many morphological traits like plant vigour, leaf size, leaf shape, leaf colour, inter-
node length and stem pigmentation. Severe reduction in growth and vigour, leaf size
and growth abnormalities were also observed within the hybrid population.
Twenty hybrids selected from different crosses based on the plant vigour, vine
length, internode length, leaf number, leaf size and leaf colour are being multiplied.
In a span of 3 months, 18–20 single-node cuttings are generated from a single plant,
which aids in rapid multiplication of selected hybrids for further screening.
High variability in betelvine hybrid combinations of different males and females
has been observed.
23.16 Medicinal Properties of Betel Leaves
Betel leaves are used in case of indigestion, stomach ache and diarrhoea and for
curing wounds and eczema. Leaves are also used in case of lice infestation, scanty
or obstructed urination and sore throat. Leaves help in digestion and tend to remove
the bad smell of the mouth. The fresh crushed leaves are used as antiseptic for cuts
and wounds. It is also good for the respiratory system and is used in treatment of
bronchitis, cough and cold. The following are common uses of betelvine:
1. In case of indigestion, stomach ache and diarrhoea: Boil 30–60 g fresh leaves in
600 ml of water; decoct to 300 ml; and take in two equally divided doses, at
morning and evening.
2. In case of wounds: Crush fresh leaves and apply directly over the wound.
3. In case of eczema: Apply sap of leaves to alleviate eczema.
4. In case of lice infestation: Apply sap of leaves to the scalp to remove lice.
5. In case of sore throat: Crush fruit or berry, mix with honey and take in and it will
relieve irritating cough.
6. In case of respiratory disorder: Soak leaves in mustard oil, warm and apply to
chest to relieve cough and for easy breathing.
7. In case of scanty or obstructed urination: Mix sap of fresh leaves with dilute
slightly sweetened milk and take it.
8. In case of flatulence: Apply a slightly heated fresh leaf over the abdomen.
The harmful effects as described in the Ayurvedic texts are chewing of betel
leaves weakens teeth, impairs teeth health and deadens the taste buds of the tongue.
23.17 Conclusion
The betelvine is known as ‘green gold of India’. The fresh leaves or paan are con-
sumed by about nearly 20 million people in India. The traditional cultivation meth-
ods of betelvine have occupied nearly 55,000 ha in India with an annual production
worth about Rs. 9000 million. The betel leaves are exported to many countries like
Canada, Great Britain, Nepal, Pakistan, the USA, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore,
Sri Lanka and Saudi Arabia and other Arabian Countries from India. There is a
menacing wastage of the leaves during storage, transportation and the glut season.
Moreover, the surplus leaves, if not disposed of properly, may cause environmental
pollution and health hazards. Such wastage may be minimized by various ways and
means including extraction of essential oil from the surplus betel leaves. This oil
may be used as an industrial raw material for manufacturing medicines, perfumes,
mouth fresheners, tonics, food additives, etc.
The leaves are nutritive and contain anticarcinogen molecules showing promise
for manufacturing of a blood cancer drug. Some disputed reports also claim that
chewing betel leaves excessively may cause oral cancer.
Recently betelvine farming in India is on a decline because income is unstable
and erratic from year to year because demand for betel leaves has been dropping and
consumers prefer chewing tobacco. Moreover, betelvine farmers are facing a lot of
exploitations by middlemen during marketing. As a result farmers do not find
betelvine farming lucrative anymore. There is great potential of use of leaves for
development of mouthwash, soft drink and digestive medicines. It is important to
find out diversified use of leaves which would support betelvine cultivation to sus-
tain and flourish.
Betel leaves are consumed as such (fresh/raw materials) without any preparation/
cooking or boiling, and even a very small quantity of residue pesticide (which the
leaves may carry) would be harmful and injurious to our health. Thus the use of
commercial/synthetic pesticide should be restricted and discouraged. Pesticides if at
all necessary should be applied as and when required only in emergency situations,
moreover sufficient time gap should be there between application of pesticides and
harvesting of leaves.
Fundamentals of Crop Rotation
in Agronomic Management 24
Muhammad Tariq, Hakoomat Ali, Nazim Hussain,
Wajid Nasim, Muhammad Mubeen, Shakeel Ahmad,
and Mirza Hasanuzzaman
Abstract
Crop rotation has been used as an effective tool of pest, disease, and weed man-
agement since distant past which dates back to the Roman and Greek times. The
magnitude of yield improvement and other associated benefits of crop rotation
may vary with crops because some crops are quite responsive, while others
showed a bit yield improvement. However, the management of these issues from
crop rotation disappeared during the twentieth century due to easy access to syn-
thetic inputs. No doubt it is also equally effective in the current scenario to solve
problems like stagnant yield, resource depletion, and reduced reliance on syn-
thetic inputs. The write-up of the chapter was based on assessing the benefits of
crop rotation and highlighting its significance for successful management of
issues related to continuous cropping. The cropping practices remain uniform
and invariable if the same crop is grown on a long-term basis. It promotes the
pest pressure buildup and reduces the resource-use efficiency. Crop rotation
improves farm productivity, but adaptation by growers is limited because small
piece of land required independent management which is quite difficult and hin-
ders mechanization. Certain principles have been laid to improve the effective-
ness of crop rotation to meet specific objective. The importance of crop rotation
M. Tariq
Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan, Pakistan
H. Ali · N. Hussain · S. Ahmad (*)
W. Nasim · M. Mubeen
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari, Punjab, Pakistan
M. Hasanuzzaman
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University,
Dhaka, Bangladesh

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_24
546 M. Tariq et al.
was realized again, and now it has become an important agenda among agricul-
ture experts for the management of issues related to present agriculture.
Keywords
Rotation · Principles · History · Constrains
24.1 Definition and Concepts
Growing alternate crops on the same piece of land through time has been in practice
in the world since centuries. The term crop rotation may be regarded as temporal
arrangement of crops because crops are allocated to various fields through time.
Crop rotation denotes the sequence of growing crops that should fulfill the follow-
ing criteria proposed by Castellazzi et al. (2008).
1 . The sequence should follow the predefined order.

2. It should be cyclical to repeat each crop.
3. Its time duration should be fixed, e.g., 1-year and 2-year rotation.
It is different from crop sequence which represents noncyclical but consecutive

order of appearance of crop cultivation over a fixed time. The term rotation is based
on a cycle which may be 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, etc. (Leteinturier et al. 2006). In
crop sequence, there may be continuous monocropping or diversified rotation over
time. Despite the clear differences, crop rotation and crop sequence cannot be sepa-
rated because rotation is made up of crop sequence. Moreover, crop rotation is in
contrary to intercropping and monocropping which is referred to growing two or
more crops simultaneously on the same land and repeating cultivation of the same
crop, respectively.
The crops are grown in chronological sequence where subsequent crop is influ-
enced by previous crop; hence, management decision also depends upon crop rota-
tion. In addition to crop management, the yield potential of individual crop also
depends upon chemical, biological, and physical effects of crop rotations on soil.
The preceding crop impacts may appear in the form of (i) weed, pest, and disease
infestation level, (ii) nutrient availability, and (iii) soil structure (Carpentier and
Gohin 2015). The decision regarding allocating crops to various fields is very criti-
cal because it determines the productivity and profitability in the short and long run.
The studies on crop rotation from agronomic and economists point of view high-
lighted that crop rotation improves or stabilizes the yield by reducing the input cost.
Crop rotation changes the complete management of agricultural land use at
regional scale which includes nutrient supply; labor and water use; disease, pest,
and weed promotion or suppression; etc. The importance of crop rotation can be
estimated by the fact that Leteinturier et al. (2006) have called it “cornerstone” of
integrating farming due to its ability to restore soil fertility and stabilize farm income
24 Fundamentals of Crop Rotation in Agronomic Management 547
through improved productivity. Therefore, in the first reform of the Common

Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 1992, crop rotation was proposed for the prevention of
groundwater pollution (Piorr 2003). Crop rotation was an important component of
farming system which has been unfortunately eliminated in most industrialized
countries since few decades back (Devid and Granatstein 1989). Unfortunately, the
range of crop rotation has become very narrow, and socioeconomic sustainability of
the system is in question in many parts of the world (Tilman et al. 2002). Because
of its numerous benefits, crop rotation has been regarded as a principle of produc-
tion and tool of management (Mohler and Johnson 2009).
24.2 Historical Overview of Crop Rotation
The history of crop rotation is thousand years old which dates back to Greek and
Roman times. In Roman times the food, feed, and fallow rotation were common
among farmers. The system was designed to supply food for humans and fodder for
animals and keep land fallow to replenish nutrients. In this system, the farm area
was divided in three parts to grow food and feed crops and keep land fallow. It has
been argued in history that crop rotation was a strong recommendation for farmers
by Roman agronomists; however, a rare adaptation was observed by that time
(White 1970). Crop rotation has also been in practice for 3000 years during Han
dynasty of China (MacRae and Mehuys 1985). Crop rotation concept appeared for
the first time in Europe during the eleventh century, the medieval period (Remet
2004). Charles Townshend has been a key person in British agriculture during the
eighteenth century, who promoted crop rotation concept. He introduced four crop
rotations including turnip (root crop), barley, wheat, and clover (Ashton 1948)
where turnip was one of the major crops. That was the reason why Mr. Charles
Townshend earned the nickname of “Turnip.” It was similar except for crop arrange-
ment to that introduced in 1730 in Norfolk County, England (Martin et al. 1976).
The practice of crop rotation has become universal in England between 1730 and
1840. Arthur Young, an agricultural writer, also highlighted the significance of crop
rotation (Parker 1915). During the eighteenth century, the importance of crop rota-
tion has been appeared in several communication between Thomas Jefferson and
George Washington in the form of letters. The evidences on crop rotation experi-
ment in various parts of the USA during the early twentieth century have been
described by Johnson (1927). The slash and burn rotation system is being followed
nowadays in South America and Africa where tropical forests are being destroyed
for crop cultivation (https://www.gardenguides.com/135680-history-crop-rotation.
html accessed on May 29, 2018). By 1950, crop rotation effects were ignored in
most of the countries mainly due to extensive use of agrochemicals (https://www.
gardenguides.com/135680-history-crop-rotation.html accessed on May 29, 2018).
It results in loss of biodiversity, stable yield, and farm income which again diverted
the attention toward crop rotation.
548 M. Tariq et al.
24.3 Objectives
The objectives of crop rotation may be classified into three main categories includ-
ing financial for profit maximization, agricultural for yield maximization, and envi-
ronmental to reduce the adverse effects of agricultural inputs on environmental
health. The general objectives may be:
1. Nutritious food availability.

2. Reduce weed infestation.
3. Better farm profitability.
4. Availability of diversified products in the market.
5. Minimum labor cost.
6. Improve labor productivity through diversified labor tasks.
7. Maintain aesthetic quality of the farm.
8. Reduce reliance on external farm inputs.
9. Overcome the market price risks through crop diversity.
10. Employment generation.
11. Adaptation strategies for climate change.
12. Improve soil health condition.
24.4 Benefits
24.4.1 Insect and Disease Management
It breaks life cycle and alters habitats of many harmful organism reducing yield of
crops through pest and disease problems. There are chances of survival of patho-
gens in the soil after crop harvesting, and pathogen presence may get worse when
monoculture is promoted. Rotating various crops create a lag period when no host
is available for insects and pathogen. Certain crops like mustard family release
chemicals on decomposition (e.g., isothiocyanates) which are toxic for certain
fungi, weeds, nematodes, etc. Incorporation of broccoli residues has been very
effective to reduce the population of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in lettuce (Mohler and
Johnson 2009). Likewise, rotating soybean with corn and wheat may reduce cyst
nematode population up to 50% (Kleczewski 2013). Growing Brassica near to
wheat field is a very popular strategy for the control of aphid in wheat. The Brassica
field attracts the lady bird beetle which is a predator of aphid and provides effective
control of aphid in wheat. Despite crop rotation effectiveness for disease and pest
management, it is not a panacea for all disease. It controls only host-specific disease
and pest, while generalized pests may persist across range of crops. The use of inte-
grated pest control approaches is necessary for management of generalized pest in
addition to crop rotation.
24.4.1.1 Weed Management

Unlike disease and pest management, crop selection is less important for weed con-
trol than the specific cultural practices. Various cultural practices disrupt the life
cycle of weeds. The tillage operations permit the weed seed germination which will
be destroyed by subsequent operation. Rotating long-duration crops with short-
duration would reduce weed problems by harvesting weeds prior to seed setting.
There are also differences in weed emergence time, that’s why cultivation of crops
before or after weed emergence may suppress the weed growth. However, the
impact of crop rotation on weed control will not be much clear like tillage. However,
well-managed rotation will significantly reduce the weed population after few years.
Including crops with having allelopathic properties will also reduce weed problem.
Growing wide and narrow space crops is suggested to manage weed problems. The
frequent interculturing in wider space reduces weed density and narrow row crops
caste shade to adversely affect weed germination and subsequent growth. Crop rota-
tion provides opportunity for chemical weed control because altering crop type
(broad leave or cereals) allows the use of herbicides which were otherwise injurious
for crop. Growing glyphosate-tolerant cotton on vegetable fields promotes the her-
bicide weed control which was otherwise not easy in vegetables. It is concluded that
weed control by crop rotation is through altering weed-crop competitive ability,
tillage operations, allelopathy, and mechanical damage.
24.4.1.2 Soil Fertility Restoration

Crops vary in nutrient sourcing and leave different amount and types of nutrients or
crop exudates in crop residues. The crop residues present on soil surface protect the
soil from erosion. It improves soil profile through growing crops with various root-
ing depth which means to better explore the soil. Crop rotation with significant
amount of crop residues decreases the soil bulk density (Karlen et al. 1994).
Similarly, plant nutrition is also improved through better carbon sequestration in the
uppermost layer of the soil. The vulnerability of soil toward erosion may be reduced
up to 30% by inclusion of root crops and cereals. The soil protection against erosion
may even be improved if pasture crops are also included (Stone and Moore 1996).
The dense root system is beneficial for improving surface layer, and the deep-rooted
crops are used for subsoil problems. Legume crops with tap root system have the
ability to better explore nutrients from deeper soil layer and recycle leach down
nutrients back to plow pan. The legumes and grasses produce extensive root system
which provides a source of fresh organic matter to microorganism contributing in
soil aggregation. Rotating annual crops with perennial adds up organic matter in the
soil from reduced tillage frequency in contrast to annual crops where tillage opera-
tions are more frequent and increased the rate of organic matter decomposition.
Rotating crops with high carbon and low nitrogen with contrasting feature of low
carbon and high nitrogen would promote the diverse microorganism population in
the soil. Rotating Bahia grass with cotton increases the soil pores to make easy cot-
ton root penetration. This practice is very beneficial in soil which impedes the cot-
ton root growth (Elkins 1985).
550 M. Tariq et al.
24.4.1.3 Environmental Benefits

The problem of environmental pollution caused by agricultural practices was well
addressed through crop rotation measures in Germany (Gerowitt et al. 2003). The
careful application of diversified cropping rotations aims to reduce complete reli-
ance on synthetic plant protection and nutrition inputs. The excessive use of nitro-
gen fertilizers in intensive agriculture led to environmental pollution mainly from
low fertilizer use efficiency. One of such example is eutrophication of water bodies
which is very dangerous for drinking water. Alternatively, reducing nitrogen use by
exploiting opportunities associated with nitrogen fixing crops can overcome the
issue. The fixed nitrogen from legumes does not leach down; thus, groundwater pol-
lution is minimized from crop rotation. Because crop rotation promotes the low use
of external inputs, the strategy may be quite helpful to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sion. The environmental cost of crop production becomes less with crop rotation
because it serves as a tool for automatic pest control, optimizes nitrogen manage-
ment, and reduces soil erosion and greenhouse gas emission.
24.4.1.4 Market Risk Management

The crop diversification through crop rotation has a significant role to address the
issue of low production, price risk, and bad weather events. Crop rotation ensures
the availability of range of products over time which act as insurance when price of
specific commodity falls and it is compensated from higher price of another com-
modity. Crop rotation reduces the risks of low production mainly from (i) higher
yield and low production cost, (ii) low-yield variability, and (iii) low-return com-
pensation of one crop from another (Helmers et al. 2001). Therefore, risk of expo-
sure to market price variations is minimized. The better is the supply of farm
products, the better will be the cash flow.
24.4.1.5 Biodiversity
When crops with contrasting botanical features are rotated, it improves the biodiver-
sity both above and below ground level. The crop rotation-based biodiversity is
categorized into temporal and spatial components. The temporal diversity results
from crop sequence which is very important for pest and disease management,
whereas spatial diversity results from more crop cultivation on land through time.
Crop rotation determines the biodiversity through distribution of the natural habitats
and direct or indirect food sources for animals, birds, and insects through space and
time. The range of species relies on prevailing agricultural practices for their sur-
vival. The timing of agriculture operations may decrease the bird population if it
causes comfortless for birds particularly during breeding season. The rotation sys-
tem which requires high amount of pesticides application negatively impacts the
aboveground fauna. The intercropping also improves diversity by providing wide
range for niches. Crop rotation provides diverse dispersal opportunities for natural
populations from crop dynamics, crop structures, and agricultural practices (Rotem
and Ziv 2016).
24.4.1.6 Food Diversity and Food Security

Food security for the ever-increasing world population is a big challenge for the
agriculture and crop rotation approach seems to be a good choice to address the
problem. Harvesting and sowing operations of various crops in rotation system are
carried out over time. It ensures the availability of a range of balanced and nutri-
tional food. Therefore, crop rotation provides protection against undernourishment
and malnutrition. Per capita protein availability will be improved from legume-
based rotation systems. Furthermore, the cropping diversity through crop rotation
improves the labor engagement round the year which improves the economic condi-
tions to buy more balanced food.
24.4.1.7 Minimum Use of External Inputs

The importance of crop rotation is further increased when prices of agriculture
inputs and energy are very high. The costs of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides
are major components of cost of production. It reduces the cost of external inputs
through mutual support between preceding and subsequent crop which lacks in
monocrops. One of the possible effects of crop rotation on reducing fertilizer cost
may be nitrogen supply from preceding crop due to biological nitrogen fixation and
decomposition of crop residues. Secondly, the fertilizer requirement of subsequent
crop may be less because of biological nitrogen fixation. However, reduction in the
cost of herbicides and pesticides is due to crop rotation impacts on breaking life
cycles and providing unfavorable conditions for building up diseases, pests, and
weeds. The low use of external inputs would reduce the energy cost (except for till-
age) because machine use has direct relationship with inputs used. It has been
reported by Katsvairo and Cox (2000) that cost starter fertilizer, nitrogen, herbi-
cides, and insecticides can be saved by about 33–50%, 60–70%, 60%, and 65–100%,
respectively, by substituting continuous maize with soybean-maize and soybean-
maize-maize system.
24.4.1.8 Higher Yield

Yield decline in case of monocropping is a common observation in various regions.
It was observed that cotton yield was reduced in California by about 2.4% with each
Table 24.1 Five-year crop rotation plan of 5 acres field

Years Field No. 1 Field No. 2 Field No. 3 Field No. 4 Field No. 5
1st Winter cereals Summer Summer Winter Cotton
cereals legumes legumes
2nd Summer Summer Cotton Winter Winter legumes
cereals legumes cereals
3rd Summer Winter legumes Winter cereals Cotton Summer
legumes cereals
4th Winter legumes Cotton Summer Summer Winter cereals
cereals legumes
5th Cotton Winter cereals Winter legumes Summer Summer
cereals legumes
552 M. Tariq et al.
Table 24.2 Yield benefits due to crop rotations in various crops

Name of Yield improvement over
Rotation beneficial crop continuous cropping References
Corn-cotton Cotton 13% Stetina et al. (2007)
Clusterbean-millet Millet 100% Praveen-Kumar et al. (1997)
Soybean-corn Corn 6% Vyn (2006)
Fababean-wheat Wheat 46% Lopez-Bellido et al. (1996)
Canola-wheat Wheat 19% Angus et al. (1999)
Soyabean-cotton Cotton 6% Burmester et al. (2002)
additional year of continuous cotton cultivation (Meisner and Rosenheim, 2014).

The magnitude of the yield improvement varies according to crops grown
(Table 24.1). The cotton crop showed little yield improvement response to various
rotation systems. The yield improvement in various crops may be the results of bet-
ter nutrient availability, microbial activity, soil structure, and weed, insect, and dis-
ease management. It also stabilizes the yield under adverse weather condition which
has been supported from diversifying corn-soybean rotation where yield of corn and
soybean have been improved in hot and dry years by 7% and 22%, respectively
(Gaudin et al. 2015). The yield benefits of crop rotation for some crops are being
summarized in Table 24.2.
24.5 Principles of Crop Rotation
I. The crops with tap root system should be followed with fibrous root system
to better explore the nutrients in the soil.
II. The nonlegume crops should be followed by legumes to improve soil nitrogen
contents.
III. The crop selection should be based on addressing specific problem, e.g.,
rotating erect crops with legumes to provide protection to soil against
erosion.
IV. Avoid rotating crops with the same natural order or with close resemblance
because it may provide alternate hosts for pests and diseases.
V. Special focus is required to get comparative advantage while planning crop
rotation. It would be better to consider fodder and flower crops in areas of
dairy industry and around cities, respectively.
VI. The local demand for various crops should be considered for deciding rota-
tion. It is very important to fetch higher economic returns from rotation.
VII. The crops with slow growth rate should be rotated with fast-growing crops for
managing weed problem more effectively.
VIII. The selection of crops must be according to local soil, climate, and farmers’
financial conditions.
IX. The disease-susceptible crops should be followed with disease resistant to
avoid disease infestation.
X. In moisture-deficient conditions, the crops with high water requirement must

be followed with less water-demanding crops, e.g., grams, millet, etc.
24.6 Factors Affecting Choice of Crop Rotation
The socioeconomic and agronomical aspects are very crucial for farmers to decide
crop rotation pattern. Therefore, various rotations are being practiced across land-
scape. The choice of crop rotation might be constrained from government regula-
tions, climate, presence of disease and pests, market access, and available technology.
The four principles were outlined by Castellazzi et al. (2008) to describe the con-
strains for crop rotation:
I. The first rule is related to minimum return period where one crop can be grown
on the same field. It aims to break the disease and pest cycle.
II. The second rule is based on the benefits or risks of succession crops from the
preceding crop. The benefits may be in the form of improved nitrogen supply,
reduced pests, and disease and weed pressure. The risks might appear in the
form of increased weed pressure due to previous crop.
III. The third rule focused on the constrains related to time of sowing and harvest-
ing of crops. It minimizes the choice of rotation from unavailability of fallow
land due to late harvesting.
IV. The fourth one represents the overall proportion of crops for even distribution
of labor and machinery load.
V. Some other important factors include the following.
24.6.1 Soil Type
The detailed knowledge of soil profile is required for crop selection. The soil tex-
ture, water contents, water holding capacity, fertility status, distribution of salt con-
tents in various soil horizons, etc. are some important considerations in this regard.
In general, good-quality soils favor the crops, and problematic soils limit the crop
choice. A well-planned and objective-specific rotation would therefore be designed
to harvest adequate economic returns along with reclamation of problematic soils.
Perennial crops with deeper root system will be an important strategy for erosion-
prone and sloppy areas. The soil biology must be considered for selecting crop rota-
tion plan to get maximum benefits from microbe-plant association which is
specific.
24.6.2 Weeds, Insects, and Diseases
The weed, disease, and insect infestation are important factors of crop rotation. The
choice of crop rotation plan becomes sometimes very limited when farmers are
554 M. Tariq et al.
going to address these issues. The continuous growing of the same crop or their
botanical relatives may promote the disease problem, e.g., root and leaf spot dis-
eases of cereals. The pathogen inoculum exists in field, and disease symptoms
appear on the availability of suitable host. The choice of crop rotation is therefore
limited when both the preceding and subsequent crops have common pests. The
short break of 2 to 3 years is therefore required to decrease the inoculum below
severity level.
24.6.3 Labor Cost
The availability of skilled and cheap labor to carry out various farm operations
determines the success of crop rotation. However, the cost of labor depends upon
the productivity achieved at farm level. It became high in case of low productivity
and vice versa. It is very important when crops with high labor requirement are
being included in rotation. While planning rotation, it is necessary to consider time
of peak labor demand which should not overlap for crops. Following the same rota-
tion pattern at regional scale may create a problem for labor, machinery, storage
facilities, and water requirement.
24.6.4 Water and Fertilizer Availability
The water availability determines the application of crop rotation choice which is
more important in rainfed conditions. The shallow-rooted crops should not be culti-
vated in areas where surface water supply is limited and groundwater is also deep.
The canola sowing should be preferred in wetter areas for their higher water require-
ment, while chickpea, millet, and barley are major crops in water-limited areas. The
water saved in preceding crop would be available to fulfill the requirements of the
next crop. Crop cultivation with higher fertilizer demand should be avoided in areas
with poor fertilizer availability. The cost of fertilizers and other inputs are also con-
sidered to make the rotations system more profitable.
24.6.5 Environmental and Economic Factors
The complex relationship exists between farming practices and environment

because almost all agricultural operation impacts the environment quality and simi-
larly time of agricultural operation is also determined by environmental conditions.
When regular cash flow is required, crop rotation should be planned in a way that
regular planting of crops at shorter interval must be carried out or crops with inde-
terminate growth habits must be preferred to ensure continuous cash flow.
Furthermore, when import of agro-based commodities became very costly, then
choice of crop rotations has to be broadened to provide diversified food.
24.6.6 Farm Machinery
Switching from prevailing rotation system to new system requires a deep insight on
availability of specific farm machinery and its cost. The choice of crop rotation is
also constrained by specific machinery which does not allow to grow multiple crops.
Because crop rotation ensures crop diversity, it would require more machinery for
various crops. The farmers seek the easiness while deciding crops to be included in
the rotation system. It becomes very difficult to manage small land pieces occupied
by various crops, and farm mechanization limits the choice.
24.6.7 Marketing
Despite the other benefits of crops like improvement in soil health, breaking pest
life cycle, and higher yield, the rotation decision mainly matters from its marketing
and local industries to transform it. Long-term market trends are reflected in the
form of regional crop rotation pattern. Better understanding of local market demand
is key to success for selection of crop rotation system. The prior knowledge of mar-
ket characteristics like demand and supply level, average price, and consumer
behavior to price fluctuation is highly required in this regard. The economic profit-
ability and market preferences induce the cropping diversity. That’s the main reason
behind mono-crop cultivation over the entire region. It was reported that wheat,
maize, and oil seed cover up 58% arable land in Germany (Steinmann and Dobers
2013). However, in the long run, the monocropping may worse off farmers from low
yield where even higher prices may not offset the low yield. The diversity in crop
rotation may be threatened by the overreliance on cash crop. Vegetables, flower, and
fodder crops are more remunerative around cities which cannot be replaced with
crops having low returns. Likewise, it is also difficult to replace sugar cane and cot-
ton around sugar mills and ginning industries.
24.6.8 Regulations
The regulations or policy like quota system matters in the crop rotation choice.
There may be no specific regulations or policy for crop rotation; however, the regu-
lations regarding pesticide, fertilizer, and water use would affect the crop rotation
planning. Growing crops with high nitrogen and phosphorus requirement would not
be possible in areas where use of these fertilizers is prohibited. For example, Prince
Edward Island (PEI) Agriculture Crop Rotation Act (ACR) was constituted to regu-
late the potato-based farming system in which cultivation of row crops was prohib-
ited on land having slope above 9% (Government of PEI 1996).
556 M. Tariq et al.
24.7 Conservation Agriculture and Crop Rotation
Conservation agriculture is a resource-saving technology with the potential to pro-

duce the acceptable yield level and ensure environmental quality. It is based upon
three basic principles which include minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil
cover, and cropping diversity (FAO 2002). In this concept, the tillage is reduced to
the minimum, and use of external inputs is optimized in such a way that these may
not interfere with or interrupt in various biological processes. The selection of crop
rotation system plays an important role to fulfill the basic requirement of these prin-
ciples. The practice of systematic crop rotation is one of the important pillars of
conservation agriculture (Rusinamhodzi 2015). The tillage depth and type of tillage
operations remain uniform for monocropping, and its negative impacts become
more severe, provided that crop rotation is adopted. The cropping diversity uses
diversified tillage implements with varying depth which would promote soil health.
Planting seeds in residues or stubbles of previous crop through zero tillage is becom-
ing a popular cropping activity especially in structurally degraded soils.
Different crop residues contribute in nutrient and water regulation in soil. The
crop residues can be brought from other fields, but in situ crop residue management
is more important for conservation agriculture. The amount of crop residues pro-
duced by the crops is variable, and obtaining desired quantity of residues can be
possible through crop rotation. Although crop residues may be available from
monoculture, there are risks of promoting disease and pest infestation (cotton) and
allelopathic effects (sunflower and sorghum) when same crop residues are used.
Crop rotation is very important which has the potential to provide diversity in crop
residues. It is an important strategy for nutrient replenishment and to reduce the
risks of pest and disease infestation. Crop rotation provides natural habitats for
birds, insects, and wildlife which helps to conserve the natural fauna. Therefore, the
farmers need to reduce the area under monocropping and promote the crop rotation
to strengthen conservation agriculture.
24.8 Models Application by Crop Rotation Decision
The decision regarding choice of crop rotations is very critical. Because of signifi-
cant importance of crop rotation in agriculture systems, its precise simulation will
enable the growers to better address the problems of agricultural producers and
consumers. The decision support models are used to find out the best choice. A
software named ROTAT was developed by Dogliotti et al. (2003) to assist the
designing of crop rotations in a transparent- and objective-oriented way. It uses data
from predefined list of crops to generate all possible combinations of crop rotation.
The maximum combinations are determined by predefined criteria by user. The
CropSyst model is used to assess the productivity and environmental cost of rota-
tions across tempo-spatial scales (Stöckle et al. 2003). The CropRot is another lin-
ear programming software which may be used for climate change (Schönhart et al.
2011). It derives typical rotation through land use data at farm or regional scale. It
is necessary to recognize the constrains for modelling at farm level. There are four
types of constrains/rules that have been identified by Castellazzi et al. (2008) which
has been already described under Sect. 6 of this chapter. Crop rotation economic
model was developed by Hennessy (2006) to estimate the crop rotation impacts on
crop yield improvement and input saving. However, the model does not consider the
crop acreage allocation. The MOTAD model was developed with the objective to
estimate the impact of preceding crop without knowledge of rotation history
(El-Nazer and McCarl 1986). They derive cropping records from regression analy-
sis to incorporate it in model.
24.9 Conclusion
Crop rotation has been an important practice in farming communities since ancient
times which was replaced with monocropping and emerged during the mid of the
twentieth century. It happened from easy access to farm inputs and farmer attraction
toward short-term solution and immediate economic returns. Such chemicals were
although considered to replace crop rotation forever did not compensate the rotation
effects in the long run. It has been not supportive in the long run for environment
and farm profitability. It severely degraded and depleted precious natural resources,
and stagnant yield has been reported in the world. The relative higher yield in rota-
tion systems over continuous cropping has been reported in the literature through
suppressing disease, pest, and weed problems and improving soil health. The yield
response varies with crops ranging from very large to small increase. It is a principle
for high production and weapon for control of pests, diseases, and weeds. The prac-
tice of crop rotation is constrained by small land holdings, labor and water issues,
market access, farm mechanization, soil and climate, and specialized agrifood
markets.
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Cool Season Food Legumes in Rice
Fallows: An Indian Perspective 25
Srijani Maji, Arpita Das, Rajib Nath, P. Bandopadhyay,
Raju Das, and Sanjeev Gupta
Abstract
Cool season food legumes like lentil, chickpea, field pea, and grass pea hold
immense promise to outperform cereals and oilseeds by thriving on residual soil
moisture of rice fallows in India. Diversification of mono-cropped rice system
with food legumes breaks the cycle of rice pests and diseases and improves the
structure, fertility, and health of soil, thereby augmenting the overall productivity
and sustainability of rice-fallow systems of Eastern India and Central Plateau.
The introduction of improved cool season food legume varieties suiting the rice-
fallow ecology along with adequate technological interventions can successfully
convert the rice-fallow system to the rice-food legume system, which ensures
food and nutritional security to the farming community. Moreover, inclusion of
food legumes also contributes toward socio-economic upliftment of thesmall-
holder rice farmers of the region by offering a monetarily lucrative farming
option. The present chapter provides insights into the constraints of incorporat-
ing cool season food legumes in rice fallows and possible strategies to challenge
the constraints. Strategies include improved agronomy, appropriate breeding
interventions, and suitable crop protection measures that turn cool season food
legumes in rice fallows into a win-win situation for both the researching and
S. Maji (*) · R. Nath · P. Bandopadhyay

Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
A. Das
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
R. Das
Department of Plant Pathology, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
S. Gupta
ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_25
562 S. Maji et al.
farming communities by paving a way toward long-term sustainability and

subsistence.
Keywords
Cool season food legumes · Rice fallow · Constraints · Strategies
Abbreviations
CSFL cool season food legume

SOC soil organic carbon
FL food legume
IGP Indo-Gangetic plains
RF rice fallow
CU consumptive use
BNF biological nitrogen fixation
CA conservation agriculture
Kg kilogram
ACC aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
ha hectare
h hour
t ha−1 tonnes per ha
ODAP Oxalyldiaminopropionic acid
INR Indian rupee
PGPR plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
25.1 Introduction
Food legumes (FLs), a rich source of dietary protein, are known as a poor man’s
meat. A developing country like India with 41.6% of its population living below
international poverty line (Chen and Ravallion 2010) depends majorly on rice,
wheat, and FLs to meet the carbohydrate and protein nutrition. The projected FL
requirement of the country by the year 2030 is 32 million tonnes (t), which requires
an annual growth rate of 4.2% (IPGA 2018). Therefore, achieving self-sufficiency
in terms of production and consumption to ensure food and nutritional security is
the primary need of the country at the moment. The foremost way to intensify FL
production is to increase the area under cultivation. However, the reluctance of the
farmers to incorporate FLs in the irrigated cereal and cereal-based cropping areas
makes it important to explore alternative regions where the farmers will be willing
to adopt FLs. In this context, rice fallows (RF) provide an immense scope for
expanding cultivation area of the FLs. RFs are the monsoon (kharif) rice-growing
25 Cool Season Food Legumes in Rice Fallows: An Indian Perspective 563
lowland areas which remain uncropped/fallow during rabi (winter/cool season) due
to dearth of irrigation facilities, cultivation of long-duration monsoon rice, early
withdrawal of monsoons leading to soil moisture stress at planting time of winter
crops, waterlogging and excessive moisture owing to untimely rains in November/
December, lack of appropriate varieties of winter crops for late planting, and socio-
economic problems like stray cattle, blue bulls, etc. (Ali and Kumar 2009). India
holds the major share of 79.0% (11.65 million ha) of the 14 million ha RF area in
the South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan) (Subbarao et al. 2001).
Later, Gupta and Pande (2005) identified an additional RF area of 19,604 ha in the
Ballian district of Uttar Pradesh in India. They estimated that 31.25% (2.5 million
ha) of the 8.0 million ha rainfed kharif rice land of Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP)
remains fallow. Diversification of these mono-cropped RF systems with suitable
varieties of FLs, improved agro-techniques, and crop protection measures will
simultaneously boost both FLs’ production and productivity.
The average soil water storage capacity (150–200 mm) after rice harvest is suf-
ficient to support a post-monsoon season (rabi season – November to March) crop,
allowing double cropping in the RF regions (Das et al. 2014). A short-duration FL
can easily thrive on the residual soil moisture of RFs. Moreover, with the adoption
of high-yielding short-duration monsoon rice varieties, lands will be vacant by the
end of October and early November, allowing successful accommodation of a win-
ter FL, thus converting the traditional rice-fallow system to an eco-friendlier rice-
food legume system.
Cereal-based agriculture for meeting the domestic food grain demand has led to
second-generation problems of exhaustive soil mining, depleting soil fertility, and
decreased soil organic carbon (SOC) (DAC 2012), making the crop responsive to
wider NPK ratios. Injudicious use of inorganic fertilizer to tackle the problem of
declining soil fertility has further deteriorated the soil health. Hence, incorporation
of FLs in RFs simultaneously addresses the issues of declining food legume area as
well as the vices of mono-cropping rice system. Increased SOC and available nutri-
ent status with the inclusion of FLs in cereal-based cropping sequences ensure
improved nutrient uptake by cereals (Hazra et al. 2014), consequently, paving a way
toward overall sustainable system (Crews and Peoples 2004). Legumes provide
yield and nitrogen (People and Herridge 1990; Ranells and Wagger 1996; Stevenson
and van Kessel 1996; Chalk 1998; Peoples et al. 2009; Dalias 2015) as well as phos-
phorus advantages (Nuruzzman et al. 2005; Jemo et al. 2006) to the follow-up cere-
als grown in rotation after legumes. Furthermore, legumes in cropping systems
reduce disease, weed, and pest infestation and improve soil structure, soil health,
and biological activity (Bellido et al. 1996; Danga et al. 2009). In addition, adoption
of protein-rich FLs in the RFs also ensures food, nutritional, and livelihood securi-
ties to the smallholder rice farmers by fetching the farming community higher mon-
etary returns than mono-cropped rice system. Henceforth, the wide-ranging benefits
of inclusion of FLs in RFs make it a win-win situation for both the researchers and
farmers because it concurrently promotes a sustainable system along with providing
an economically lucrative farming option to the marginal rice farmers.
564 S. Maji et al.
25.2 P
rospective Cool Season Food Legumes (CSFLs) in Rice
Fallows of India
The genera Cicer L., Lathyrus L., Lens Mill., Lupinus L., Pisum L., and Vicia L. are
known as CSFLs (Saxena 1993; Muehlbauer and Kaiser 2012) as cool conditions
are necessary for their vegetative growth (Toker and Yadav 2010). Cowpea, mung
bean, soyabean, and urd bean are referred to as warm-season FLs (Muehlbauer
1993; Singh et al. 2011) because they are better adapted to humid environment. The
agro-ecologies of RFs in India are capable of supporting both warm and CSFLs. A
brief description of RF ecologies is presented in the Table 25.1. Among the various
CSFLs, lentil, chickpea, lathyrus, and pea are an integral part of the Indian food
habit (Saxena et al. 2000). These CSFLs are extensively grown across the states of
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, and Odisha (NAAS 2013).
Since the research and development regarding the prospects of CSFL in RFs is
still in its nascent stage, identification of bottlenecks limiting their productivity and
successful adoption is important. Addressing these constraints followed by imple-
mentation of suitable technology with proper policy support will ensure successful
upscaling of CSFL adoption in this new niche area. This chapter discusses the pros-
pects of the introduction of these CSFLs in the RFs with best-suited crop produc-
tion, improvement, and protection interventions.
25.3 Constraints Limiting CSFL Productivity in Rice Fallows
25.3.1 Delayed Sowing of CSFL
Shifting of the monsoon cycle (Sahana et al. 2015), increasing post-monsoon rain-
fall (Krishnakumar et al. 2009), and uncertain weather conditions (Mall et al. 2006)
have made winter agriculture vulnerable all over India. Maneuvering sowing time
of the kharif crops to successfully accommodate the subsequent cool season crop in
the cropping system therefore assures greater significance to increase productivity
in RF. Long-duration kharif rice varieties often keep the land occupied till mid to
end of November, delaying the sowing of the subsequent CSFL. Moreover, late
transplanting of the preceding kharif rice also deters the timely sowing of the fol-
lowing CSFL. Excessive soil moisture due to untimely rains during the months of
November and December further defers the sowing to mid-December. Several
authors have reported the significant effect of sowing date on yield and yield com-
ponents of FLs (Alizadeh et al. 2004; Ramroodi et al. 2008; Kayan 2010; Azadi
et al. 2013; Monem and Mirtahari 2015). In general, seed yield of CSFL drastically
reduces when sowing is delayed beyond November (Table 25.2). Timely sowing
harmonizes the vegetative and reproductive phases by allowing the crop to grow
under favorable environmental conditions, ultimately enabling it to achieve its
potential yield (Singh and Dhingra 1993). Late sowing negatively affects yield
(Singh et al. 2009a, b; Roy et al. 2009; Gill 2013a) due to disturbed phenological
Table 25.1 Climatic and edaphic characteristics of rice fallows in India

Agro- Mean Mean annual
Region States climate temperature rainfall (mm) Soil type
Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Hot dry Annual: 1200–1500 Deep, loamy to
Bihar, sub-humid 24–26 °C fine loamy,
Jharkhand, except West Summer: moderate to poor
West Bengal Bengal 29–32 °C drainage
which is Winter: Ghagar flood
moist 16–18 °C plains of Uttar
sub-humid Pradesh: Loamy,
Hot strongly alkaline,
summer and calcareous, high
cool winter base saturation
Central Chattisgarh, Hot dry Annual: 1200–1600 Varies widely
Madhya sub-humid 25–28°C across the states.
Pradesh, to moist Summer: In general, the
Wardah region sub-humid 30–33°C soils are deep
of Maharashtra Dry Winter: clayey to silty
summers 17–21°C clay to fine loam,
and cool moderately
winter alkaline,
calcareous
Coastal Andhra Dry Annual: 1000– Deep clayey to
Peninsula Pradesh, sub-humid 26–29°C 2800 mm red clayey
Karnataka, to tropical across states skeletals
Tamil Nadu, hot and
Odisha humid
Hot and
humid
summer to
mild
winters
with rains
in certain
areas
North- Assam Humid with Annual: Central Central
East Hills hot summer 23–25°C Brahmaputra Brahmaputra
and cool Summer: valley: valley- Deep clay
winter 30–32°C 1600– loam
Winter: 2000 mm Upper
10–12°C Upper Brahmaputra
Brahmaputra plains- Deep fine
plains: loam, sandy clay
2500– to clay
3000 mm
Modified from NAAS (2013)
566 S. Maji et al.
Table 25.2 Favorable sowing window of CSFLs in different locations of India and reduction in
yield with delayed sowing beyond favorable window
%
Location of Optimum Favorable sowing Reduction
Crop study sowing date time window yield References
Lathyrus West Bengal 16th Third week of 12–38 Ghosh et al.
November November (2018)
Lentil Punjab 30th October Last fortnight of 47–190 Gill (2013a)
October
West Bengal 10th First ten days of 55 Roy et al.
West Bengal 15th First fortnight of 12 Sen et al.
Eastern Uttar 20th October Last fortnight of 8–10 Singh et al.
Pradesh October (2009a, b)
Chickpea High attitudes First week of Third week of 46–61 Sekhar et al.
of Andhra November October to first (2015)
Pradesh week of November
Uttar Pradesh 25th Second to third 24 Tiwari and
November week of November Meena (2016)
Madhya First fortnight First fortnight of 21 Neenu et al.
Pradesh of November November (2017)
West Bengal 20th Within third week 17.5 Ray et al.
November of November (2011)
Pea Odisha 18th October Last fortnight of - Dass et al.
October (2005)
Uttar Pradesh 30th October End of October to - Singh and
early November Singh (2011)
development (Erskine and Saxena 1993; Erskine et al. 1994), reduced radiation
interception (Gurung et al. 1996), poor resource utilization (Singh et al. 2005a, b;
Gill 2013b), disrupted source to sink partitioning (Mishra et al. 1996; Turk et al.
2003), and shortened crop life cycle (Ramakrishna et al. 2000). Moreover, late sow-
ing often subjects the CSFLs to cold injury during seeding and early crop growth
stages (Nadarajan and Chaturvedi 2010). Chilling temperature (-1.5°C to 15°C)
during the early growth stages, viz. germination, seedling, and vegetative stages,
reduces seedling vigor, hampers crop establishment, increases susceptibility to soil-
borne pathogens, and decelerates crop growth (Croser et al. 2003). Retarded plant
growth results in poor dry matter accumulation, eventually reducing the sink capac-
ity and compromising the productivity.
25.3.2 Terminal Heat Stress
One of the consequential evils associated with late sowing is terminal heat stress, i.e.,
high temperature stress during reproductive stage (Gaur et al. 2014). The short winter
window of the lower Gangetic plains (Kishanganj tehsil of Purnea district of Bihar
and whole of West Bengal) further aggravates the debilitating effects of late
Table 25.3 Effect of terminal heat stress (THS) on reproductive function, physiology, growth and
yield of CSFLs
%
Threshold Reduction
temperature in yield due
Crop (°C) Effects to THS References
Chickpea >35/25 Reduced biomass, leaf water ~95–96 Agrawal (2017)
Lentil >33/15 content, photosynthetic ~ 34–56
efficiency; decreased sucrose
production in pollen and anther;
reduced pollen and stigma
functions, and poor fertilization;
poor pod set and smaller seed
size
Chickpea >35 Poor pollen viability and - Basu et al.
germination, no pod set (2009)
Chickpea >35/16 Reduced number of pods and 53–59 Wang et al.
seeds per plant, low seed weight (2006)
Chickpea >35/20 Adverse effects on pollen - Devasirvatham
viability, pollen germination, et al. (2010)
pollen tube growth, poor pod set
Chickpea >40/30 Reduced pollen viability, stigma 37–45 Kumar et al.
receptivity, and photochemical (2012)
efficiency; oxidative stress in
leaves
Chickpea >35/16 Reduced fertile pods, poor pod 33–54 Gan et al.
(Desi) filling, and decreased seeds per (2004)
Chickpea >35/16 pod 44–54
(Kabuli)
Chickpea >35 Reduced pods per plant and 55–75 Krishnamurthy
harvest index et al. (2011)
Lentil 38/23 Reduced pollen viability, pollen 85–88 Bhandari et al.
Lentil 33/15 germination, and stigma 60–63 (2016)
receptivity; decreased
photochemical efficiency and
chlorophyll concentration;
increased oxidative damage of
leaf tissue
Lentil >33 - 20–82 Delahunty et al.
(2016)
Field pea >34.3 Reduced membrane stability 68.9 Vijaylaxmi
index, growth, yield, and harvest (2013)
index
sowing-related heat stress. With the climatic models predicting temperature rise of 4
°C by the end of this century (Farooq et al. 2017), the negative impacts of heat stress
will only get worse over time. Lack of climate-smart heat-tolerant high-yielding cul-
tivars impedes the successful adoption of CSFL in the new niche areas of RFs. High
temperature stress during reproductive stage has several ill effects on growth and
physiology of CSFLs that substantially reduces their yield (Table 25.3). Terminal
568 S. Maji et al.
heat stress-induced damages in FLs include floral and pod abortion, sterile pollens
and ovules, compromised fertilization, poor pod set, and seed filling, resulting in
small and shriveled seeds (Gaur et al. 2014; Sita et al. 2017). Supra-optimal tempera-
ture during reproductive and grain-filling stages impedes seed development in grain
legumes by (i) rupturing tapetum layer that hampers nutrient supply to microspores
resulting in premature anther dehiscence; (ii) hindering carbohydrate synthesis and
distribution to grain by reducing net photosynthetic rate; (iii) inducing impaired
embryo formation, poor pod set, and development; and (iv) shortening the grain-
filling duration by accelerating senescence (Farooq et al. 2017). High temperature-
imposed senescence eventually shortens the crop life cycle owing to forced maturity
resulting in reduction in seed yield by 50% (Gowda et al. 2013; NAAS 2013).
25.3.3 Terminal Drought Stress
Drought stress during reproductive and grain development stages is referred to as

terminal drought (Fang et al. 2010; Farooq et al. 2016). Since the CSFLs are grown
on the residual soil moisture of RFs, terminal drought poses a serious threat in
achieving higher productivity (Serraj et al. 2003; Basu et al. 2009; Krishnamurthy
et al. 2011; Devasirvatham et al. 2012). Late sowing of the CSFLs owing to long-
duration habits, delayed transplanting of the preceding kharif rice, uncertain winter
rainfall during reproductive stage, and absence of irrigation facility make the CSFLs
susceptible to terminal drought-induced yield loss. After rice harvest, rapid soil
moisture depletion and fast-declining water table during the post-monsoon season
(Reddy 2009) further aggravate the problem. Terminal drought substantially reduces
the yield of CSFLs by adversely affecting the reproductive function, physiology,
growth, and development of the crop (Table 25.4). It hinders leaf development and
accelerates leaf abscission and senescence (Lopez et al. 1997) owing to reduced N
uptake (Liu et al. 2005a, b). Reduced leaf area expansion owing to drought stress in
turn lowers the interception and radiation use efficiency of the crop (Ridao et al.
1996; De souza et al. 1997). Water deficit increases canopy temperature (Hamidou
et al. 2007), reduces stomatal conductance, negatively affects photosynthetic rate
(Fang et al. 2010), and causes photo-oxidative damage by producing reactive oxygen
species (Farooq et al. 2016). Drought stress has wide-ranging harmful impacts on
flowering and podding biology, viz. (i) reduced quantity of flowers with poor nectar
(Al-Ghzawi et al. 2009); (ii) flower abortion (Fang et al. 2010); (iii) reduced net
photosynthesis disrupts embryo development (Farooq et al. 2016); (iv) poor pollen
viability, infertile pollen grains (Farooq et al. 2016), reduced pollen germination and
pollen tube growth (Gusmao et al. 2012); (v) accumulation of non-reducing sugars
and limited starch production due to decreased acid invertase activity abort ovary
(Anderson et al. 2002; Farooq et al. 2015); (vi) abscisic acid accumulation disturbs
photosynthate partitioning resulting in pod abortion, poor pod, and seed set (Liu
et al. 2004; Farooq et al. 2016); and (vii) shortened crop cycle with reduced repro-
ductive development period (Daryanto et al. 2015). Drought-imposed disrupted pho-
tosynthate partitioning severely affects floral biology and sink capacity by constricting
conversion of flowers to effective pods thereby compromising productivity.
Table 25.4 Effect of terminal drought stress on reproductive function, physiology, growth, and
yield of CSFLs
%
Reduction
Crop Growth stages Effect yield References
Chickpea Active Increased pod abortion and reduced 30 Behboudian
flowering and pod formation et al. (2001)
podding
Chickpea Flowering Reduced net photosynthesis, 52–72 Davies et al.
onward decreased rate and duration of seed (1999)
growth
Chickpea Flowering Reduced pods per plant, grains per 21 Ghassemi-
Grain filling plant, seed weight and harvest 21 Golezani
Flowering and index 23 et al. (2012)
grain filling
Chickpea Podding Decreased leaf water potential, 67-85 Fang et al.
photosynthesis, and stomatal (2010)
conductance; floral and pod
abortion; reduced pollen viability,
pollen germination; impaired pistil/
style function
Chickpea Flowering Delayed pod set, reduced seed 50–80 Leport et al.
onward number and size (1999)
Chickpea Anthesis Reduced total chlorophyll, 27–40 Mafakheri
photosynthesis, stomatal et al. (2010)
conductance, and transpiration
Chickpea Early podding Shortened podding duration; 65–93 Leport et al.
reduced total biomass and harvest (2006)
index; pod and seed abortion
Lentil Beginning of Reduced leaf area, flower number, 70 Shreshtha
podding onward pod and seed number; increased et al. (2006)
seed abortion
Lentil Reproductive Increased antioxidant enzyme 25 Allahmoradi
stage activity to alleviate drought stress et al. (2013)
Lathyrus First flowering Flower, ovule, and pod abortion; 87 Gusmao
to 100 days Reduced pollen viability and et al. (2012)
after sowing germination
Lathyrus Podding Reduced stomatal conductance, 66 Kong et al.
photosynthetic rate, flower and (2015)
production, filled pods, and seed
size; Increased flower, pod, and
seed abortion
25.3.4 Weed Infestation
CSFLs have slow vegetative growth in the early stages and are poor competitors to
weeds (Siddique et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2012). Weeds are emerging as a major threat
in the RFs, more so, since the prime objective in the RFs is to support a CSFL on
carry over residual moisture of monsoon-rice soil. Weeds are known as “water wast-
ers” as they use three times more water than the crop to produce a pound of dry
570 S. Maji et al.
matter (Abouziena et al. 2014) and are capable of depleting moisture from the deeper
layers of soil than crops (Hasanuzzaman 2015). Weeds are therefore potential threats
in this aspect because they compete with the CSFLS for residual soil moisture. For
example, lambsqaurters (Chenopodium album), a common weed-infesting CSFLs,
have consumptive water use (CU) of 500 mm (Abouziena et al. 2014) which is higher
than the CU of lentil (114–228 mm) (Saraf and Baitha 1985) but comparable to the
CUs of pea (350–500 mm) (Doorenbos and Kassam 1979) and chickpea (367–
437 mm) (Dogan et al. 2013; Desta et al. 2015). Effective weed control in RFs is
therefore crucial to maintain sufficient soil moisture throughout the crop-growing
period since winter rainfall is often uncertain and absence of irrigation facilities
leaves no scope of providing supplemental irrigation. Adoption of zero tillage, con-
servation agriculture-based technologies, and utera/relay cropping (seeds are broad-
casted 10–15 days of rice harvest) further intensifies the weed menace in the RF
region. These agronomic practices involve minimal to no soil disturbance, and as a
consequence, weed seeds remain largely on the soil surface competing with the
CSFLs for natural resources. The extent of yield reduction in chickpea, lentil, and
field pea solely due to weed infestation has been reported to be 20–35%, 50%, and
15–67%, respectively (Rana et al. 2016), implying the severity of weed-induced
losses with the threat being much graver in conservation agriculture (CA)-based sys-
tems. The dominant crop-associated-weeds infesting CSFLS in RF ecology are
Chenopodium sp., Vicia sp., Avena sp., Lathyrus tuberosus, wild rice, etc.
Weeds negatively affect CSFL productivity by acting as alternate hosts to insects,
pathogens, and nematodes. For example, lambsquarters harbor gram caterpillar and
greasy cut-worm (Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel)) in chickpeas and peas (Das 2008).
Manual weeding is often difficult in RF situation due to soil compactness. Moreover,
pre-emergence application of herbicides is also not possible in the utera system.
Therefore, the use of post-emergence herbicide can be a viable option to manage
weed infestation in RF ecology.
25.3.5 Dearth of Improved Varieties and Quality Seeds
Non-availability of good-quality seeds of CSFLs at affordable prices in time is a

major constraint limiting their production and one of the principal reasons behind
crop failure. Moreover, lack of suitable varieties of CSFLs for RFs with desirable
traits is a daunting barrier in their successful adoption. The desirable characteristics
are as follows:
(i) Extra-early maturity, i.e., maturing within 80 to 90 days to escape heat and
drought stress
(ii) Early maturing (90 to 110 days) with drought and heat tolerance to thrive
through the late season stresses
(iii) Faster root spread for utilization of depleting soil moisture in RFs
(iv) Spreading canopy with wider ground coverage to minimize soil moisture evap-
oration loss
(v) Herbicide-tolerant and fast-growing variety with early vigor to give the crop an
edge over the weeds
25.3.6 Poor Germination, Emergence, and Crop Establishment
Prolonged mono-cropping of puddled rice forms hard pan in sub-soil with concomi-
tant increase in bulk density and decline in hydraulic conductivity below plow layer
(Singh et al. 2009a, b). Puddling induces adverse soil physical condition and envi-
ronment (Adisarwanto et al. 1989; Chauhan et al. 2012) and negatively affects the
establishment and yield of post-rice crops (Adisarwanto et al. 1989; Woodhead
1990, Kirchhof et al. 2000). The compact sub-soil layer at a depth of 10–40 cm
hampers root growth and proliferation of post-monsoon crops (Chauhan et al. 2012;
Singh et al. 2015). Since the depth of root systems of lentil, chickpea, and pea dur-
ing the crop-growing period generally varies from 0.75 to 1.0 m, 0.6 to 1.5 m, and
0.6 to 1.5 m, respectively (Gregory 1988), root growth of CSFLs under such unfa-
vorable soil environment is severely restricted. Due to the absence of irrigation
facilities and uncertain winter rainfall in the RF regions, residual stored soil mois-
ture remains responsible for supporting the post-monsoon crop. As the root growth
of CSFLs in the RFs is mostly restricted to the top soil layer, sub-soil resources
including moisture remain largely inaccessible. The crucial role of sub-soil mois-
ture in maximizing the productivity of post-rice crops has been evidenced by
Kirchoff et al. (2000), who observed 3.0–24.0 kg of yield increase per mm of sub-
soil water used. Puddling results in lower bulk density due to dispersion of soil
aggregates (Adachi 1990; Cassman et al. 1995). Ploughing this soil instantly after
rice harvest forms big clods which significantly reduce the yields of subsequent
crops by impeding root growth and proliferation (Kar and Kumar 2009). In utera/
relay cropping, sowing at optimum soil moisture status is essential to ensure uni-
form germination and favorable crop stand. Excess soil moisture results in seed rot
(NAAS 2013), whereas moisture stress delays and reduces seed germination and
seedling emergence (McGinnies 1960; Taylor et al. 1982; Turk et al. 2004). In utera
cropping, the standing rice crop obstructs the CSFL seeds from reaching the soil
surface leading to reduced crop stand in CSFLs. Moreover, the use of low seed rates
also adversely affects plant population in utera cropping. Rapid depletion of surface
soil moisture after rice harvest (Reddy 2009; Bandyopadhyay et al. 2016) causes
soil hardening which also interferes with the seed germination, seedling emergence,
and crop establishment due to mechanical impedance in the seed zone (Ali et al.
2014; Bandyopadhyay et al. 2016).
25.3.7 Poor Soil Health and Fertility
The resource-poor farmers of the poverty-prone RF regions cultivate a single rice

crop only during the monsoons (July/August-November) and keep the land fallow
rest of the year. Rice is a heavy feeder of nutrients, and one ton of rice grain is
572 S. Maji et al.
estimated to remove 20.1 kg N, 4.9 kg P, and 25.0 kg K from soil (Tandon and
Sekhon 1988). Bhargavi et al. (2007) observed a considerable decline in soil N sta-
tus after two cycles of fallow-rice-fallow system while Chen et al. (2012) reported
decrease in SOC and total N and P status in rice-fallow system. The practice of pud-
dling reduces dehydrogenase activity, microbial biomass C, and potentially miner-
alizable N in rice soil (Bhaduri et al. 2017), with possible far-reaching consequences
in the post-rice crop. Further, soils in the RF regions are unique because of the
alternation from anaerobic condition during monsoon season to aerobic condition
during post-monsoon season. As a result, there is a stark variation in physical,
chemical, and biological properties of soil with seasons (Zhou et al. 2014).
Anaerobic soil condition during the monsoons significantly reduces rhizobial popu-
lation which severely limits biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in the CSFLs suc-
ceeding rice. Researches have observed a substantial decrease in Rhizobium
population during rice cultivation (Rupela et al. 1987) and poor nitrogen fixation in
post-wet-season rice crops (Witt et al. 2000). Prolonged mono-cropping of rice
therefore has wide-ranging adverse effects on soil such as overmining of major
nutrients, declining SOC and quality. Hence, poor soil health and fertility of the RF
regions emerge as a major production constraint in post-rice legume cultivation.
25.3.8 Poor Adoption of Improved Techniques
Marginal rice farmers are often skeptical to cultivate CSFLs because of their char-
acteristically unstable yield performance under terminal heat and drought stresses.
Due to poor access to credit, asset considerations, and low risk-bearing ability, the
resource-poor farmers believe CSFLs to be bonus crops, and any return from it is
considered secondary income with no monetary investment. As a consequence, they
are unwilling to adopt proper crop management practices such as suitable varieties,
adequate crop establishment methods, optimal seed rate, appropriate nutrient and
pest management, inoculation with suitable strain of Rhizobium, etc. Lack of these
good agronomic and crop protection practices drastically reduces CSFL productiv-
ity in the RFs.
25.3.9 Insect-Disease Infestation
FLs are prone to an array of insect pests and diseasesunder RF conditions. Sudden
rise in temperature at terminal growth stages makes the CSFLs susceptible to sev-
eral biotic stress, viz. diseases and insects pests (Singh and Singh 2008; Reddy
2009; Ali and Gupta 2012).
Cool season pulses in India face many insect pest and disease problems
(Table 25.5). Fusarium wilt is a widespread disease in legume-growing regions of
the country. Similarly, pod borer and aphids are major insects of the legume-based
production system (Singh et al. 2013a, b). Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) is a serious
production constraint of RF situation. In chickpea, insect pests (particularly
Table 25.5 Important diseases and insets pests of major cool season food legumes in rice
fallows
Crop Diseases Insect pests
Chickpea Fusarium wilt and collar rot Pod borer and cut worm
Lentil Collar rot, wilt, Stemphylium blight, rust Pod borer
Pea Rust and wilt Pod borer, stem borer, leaf minor,
and cut worm
Lathyrus Rust Pod borer, aphid, thrips
Helicoverpa) are severe in Chhatisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh. Cut worm
(Agrotis ipsilon) is a specific problem in RF cultivation of chickpea. Insects are less
severe in lentil and grass pea, and plant protection issues mainly involve plant dis-
eases. Grass pea possibly encounters less biotic stresses and a hard crop for RF utera
system. Dry root rot (DRR) and Fusarium wilt have emerged as highly devastating
root diseases of chickpea in central plateau. In chickpea, gram pod borer (Helicoverpa
armigera) is a reported problem in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh
(NAAS 2013). This implies that availability of disease and pest-resistant varieties is
crucial for introducing CSFLs in RFs (Ali 2009).
25.4 Agronomic Interventions
The productivity of CSFLs in RFs is generally poor due to several constraints. Stark
variation in the nature of these constraints makes it necessary to address these issues
through suitable comprehensive crop production interventions. Limited research
and developmental efforts targeting the RFs have been made in the past. Agronomic
interventions primarily focus on the identification of suitable crops and varieties,
refinement of crop production technologies such as planting methods and foliar
nutrition suiting the agroecology. The following section provides an insight into the
viable agronomic options to overcome the constraints concerning the lower produc-
tivity of CSFLs in RFs.
25.4.1 Seed Priming
In RFs, unfavorable soil conditions and fast-depleting soil moisture after rice har-
vest adversely affect germination and seedling establishment of the post-rice
crops. Delayed and asynchronous germination, poor seedling emergence, and
inadequate crop stand pose a serious threat to successful cultivation of CSFLs in
RFs. Satisfactory crop establishment is essential to obtain optimum plant density
in the field and eventually higher yield. Under these circumstances, seed priming
serves as a feasible technology. This low-cost intervention is affordable, and the
lower risk involved with it assures the farmers satisfactory crop yield and mone-
tary return.
574 S. Maji et al.
Seed priming is a pre-sowing intervention which improves the seed germination

characteristics through modulation of the metabolic activity (McDonald 2000; Foti
et al. 2008). Priming involves partial hydration of seeds before sowing to facilitate
pre-germination metabolic activities but prohibits radicle emergence (McDonald
2000). This method improves anti-oxidative enzyme activity (Hsu et al. 2003), pro-
tein synthesis, nucleic acid build-up, and membrane repair in seeds (McDonald
2000). Priming increases rate, percentage, and synchrony of seed germination,
seedling vigor and establishment, biomass, yield-attributing characters, and yield
(Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2008a; Yucel 2012; Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2013;
Pakbaz et al. 2014; Aliloo et al. 2014). Moreover, priming has long-term positive
impacts on crop performance even after germination. For example, priming’s ben-
eficial effects against stress resistance are not only evident during the seedling stage
(Kubala et al. 2015) but also during the whole crop-growing season (Iqbal and
Ashraf 2006). In RFs, escaping the late-season drought and heat stresses is pivotal
for realizing the yield potential of CSFLs. Under these circumstances, priming
increases crop yield due to faster crop growth and early flowering (Harris et al.
1999; Kaur et al. 2005) which allows the crop to escape the late-season stresses.
Furthermore, uniform germination of primed seeds, increased seedling vigor, and
proper crop establishment help to minimize weed-induced losses. Positive effects of
seed priming on weed suppression have been reported in lentil (Maji et al. 2018),
rice (Juraimi et al. 2012; Anwar et al. 2012), and sesame (Vafaei et al. 2013).
The common seed priming techniques are as follows:
1 . Osmo-priming – This technique requires seed soaking in osmotic solution.

2. Halo-priming – In this method, the seeds are soaked in salt solutions.
3. Hormonal priming – Seed priming with hormones such as gibberellic acid or
kinetin is known as hormonal priming.
4. Hydro-priming – This method simply requires soaking of seeds in water.
Although halo-priming with potassium nitrate (KNO3) and potassium chloride

(KCl) has inhibitory effects on the initial growth of wheat (Ashraf and Iram 2002)
possibly due to adverse effects of ion accumulation on cell membrane (Iqbal et al.
2006), seed priming with KNO3 significantly improves yield components and final
yield (Pakbaz et al. 2014) with no toxic effects in lentil (Ghassemi-Golezani et al.
2008a). Apart from improving germination synchrony, pre-sowing soaking of seeds
in inorganic salts increases final crop yield by stimulating metabolic activities dur-
ing the later growth stages (Sallam 1999). Hydro-priming of lentil seeds enhances
germination rate, seed vigor index, seedling emergence and establishment in the
field, and seedling dry weight (Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2008a). Musa et al. (2001)
reported that the positive effect of hydro-priming in chickpea is not only restricted
to rapid seedling establishment and favorable crop stand. The authors observed that
overnight soaking of chickpea seeds in water before sowing significantly improved
productivity by allowing the crop to escape late-season stresses due to earlier crop
maturity, lower shoot and root diseases incidence, and better nodulation. However,
it is noteworthy that the priming duration plays a key role in determining whether
the priming effects on seed germination characteristics will be positive or negative.

Pre-sowing soaking of lentil seeds in water for 8 hours (h) significantly increased
grain yield compared to no-priming or hydro-priming for 16 h (Ghassemi-Golezani
et al. 2013). In chickpea, optimal priming duration was reported to be 16 h in one
case (Ghassemi-Golezani et al. 2008b) while others observed that for obtaining
maximum yield benefits, safe time limit to chickpea seed priming is 10 h (Harris
et al. 1999).
The targeted RF regions for introduction of CSFLs have poor soil fertility.
Moreover, in utera/relay cropping, the standing rice crop impedes the application of
basal dose of fertilizer at the time of sowing of CSFLs which drastically reduces
their yield. In these unique contexts, nutrient seed priming can be a simple yet effec-
tive agronomic practice to meet the nutrient demand of the crop in the early growth
stages and eventually increasing the final yield. Nutrient priming is an innovative
technique that provides the benefits of seed priming along with improved nutrient
supply (Arif et al. 2007; Shah et al. 2012). In nutrient priming, the seeds are soaked
in nutrient solution instead of plain water before sowing. Among the various nutri-
ent priming techniques, zinc priming in chickpea (Arif et al. 2007) holds promise in
maximizing yield benefits. Positive effects of priming of seeds in ZnSO4 solution on
final productivity have been reported in maize (Harris et al. 2009), wheat, and
chickpea (Harris et al. 2008). Harris et al. (2008) reported that pre-sowing priming
of chickpea seeds in 0.05% Zn for 6 h improved total biomass production and
increased yield by 19.0% compared to no-priming. The authors also observed that
Zn-priming significantly increased the Zn concentration in final grains. Interestingly,
nutrient seed priming commendably increases abiotic stress tolerance of seedlings
due to improved nutrient uptake and status (Ajouri et al. 2004; Jisha et al. 2013;
Imran et al. 2013; Imran et al. 2018). Phospho-priming can also serve as a low-cost,
ecofriendly agronomic intervention in severely weed-infested RFs because it sig-
nificantly improves height and fresh and dry weights of seedlings (Shah et al. 2012),
giving the crop an advantage over weeds in the early establishment stages.
25.4.2 Sowing Strategy and Crop Establishment Methods
Time of sowing is a key determinant of the final crop productivity. This gathers
more importance in CSFLs in RFs, because late transplanting, long-duration habit
of monsoon rice, and late cessation of southwest monsoons generally delay the sow-
ing of post-rice FLs, with consequential deleterious effects on their growth and
productivity. An adequate winter window favoring the crop growth is essential for
realizing the yield potential of CSFLs. Late sowings leave the CSFLs vulnerable to
terminal heat and drought stress-induced yield losses. Timely sowing on the other
hand eases phenological development and allows the crop to escape late-season
stresses. The optimum sowing window of different CSFLs across India has already
been provided in Table 25.1.
Strategizing sowing practices of monsoon rice and adoption of suitable crop
establishment methods for CSFLs are effective approaches to ensure timely sowing
576 S. Maji et al.
Table 25.6 Short-season rice varieties suitable for post-monsoon rice cool season food legumes
Yield
Duration potential (t
Name (days) ha−1) Recommended region
CR Dhan 40 Early: 110 3.0–3.5 Jharkhand
Shabhagidhan (IR Early: 100 4.0–4.5 Jharkhand, West Bengal
74371-70-1-1-CRR-1)
CR 2340-11 Early: 4.0–5.0 Odisha
105–110
CR Dhan 201 Mid-early: 3.0–4.0 Bihar, Chattisgarh
110–115
CR Dhan 202 Mid-early: 3.0–4.0 Jharkhand, Odisha
110
Gontra Bidhan -1 Mid-early: 5.5–5.75 West Bengal
110–115
Gontra Bidhan -3 Mid-early: 5.5–5.75 Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar,
110–116 West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh
CR Dhan 10 Early: 110 3.0–4.0 West Bengal
IET 4786 Mid-early: 3.5–4.0 West Bengal
112–115
Anjali Early: 90–95 2.0–3.0 Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Assam,
Tripura, West Bengal
Modified from DARE/ICAR (2014–2015), matirkatha.net/variety-rice/, https://crri.icar.gov.in/
popular_var.pdf
of CSFLs under favorable soil moisture condition. Early transplanting of long-

duration monsoon rice (>140 days) by first fortnight of July and cultivation of early
(90–110 days) or mid-early (115–120 days) varieties (Table 25.6) under late-
transplanted situations vacate the land by the end of October to early November,
allowing timely sowing of post-rice CSFLs.
Sowing date adjustments of CSFLs also require adoption of suitable crop estab-
lishment methods. Generally, under conventional tillage system, one deep harrowing
followed by two to three cross ploughings by cultivator and one planking is recom-
mended to prepare friable seed-bed for FLs (Kar and Kumar 2009; Yadav et al. 2017).
In the conventional tillage system, the turnaround time between rice harvest and
sowing of the succeeding CSFLs is high since ploughing the soil right after rice har-
vest produces big clods resulting in poor root proliferation and sparse population
density of the post-rice CSFLs. Therefore, it is important to take up the harrowing
and ploughing operations at appropriate soil moisture status to avoid formation of
large clods which in turn delays the sowing of post-rice CSFLS by almost a fortnight.
Singh et al. (2012) reported that poor yield under conventional tillage system was
largely due to delayed sowing and subsequent exposure of CSFLs to late-season heat
and drought stresses. Given these circumstances, conservation agriculture (CA) tech-
nologies encompassing the two fundamental principles of reduction or elimination of
tillages and residue retention is a practical approach to buy sowing time for CSFLs.
Additionally, CA-based technologies significantly reduce soil erosion, influence soil
structure and fertility, increase soil organic matter and microbial biomass, and
improve soil infiltration capacity and soil moisture retention (Marcellos et al. 2000;
Sommer et al. 2014), thereby improving the overall resource use efficiency and pro-
ductivity in rice fallows (Behera et al. 2014). Versatility of these technologies offers
a scope to modify them according to the needs of the farmers without burdening
them economically. Relay/utera cropping of CSFLs in the standing rice crop 10 to 15
days before its harvest provides adequate winter window by advancing the date of
sowing. It also allows the crop to use the residual soil moisture of the rice fields more
effectively. The optimal time of broadcasting of Lathyrus seeds for maximizing final
productivity has been reported to be 15–20 days before the harvest of rice (Gupta and
Bhowmick 2005). Bandyopadhyay et al. (2016) reported that in relay cropping of
lentil, a stubble height of 20 cm efficiently mitigates soil moisture stress and increases
yield and water productivity irrespective of rice habit. However, higher seed rate is
required to obtain satisfactory yield in relay cropping because surface drying hinders
proper crop establishment (Singh et al. 2012), thereby increasing the input cost.
Moreover, Kar and Kumar (2009) reported that among the various tillage practices,
relay cropping of Lathyrus and pea 15 days prior to rice harvest substantially reduced
their water-use efficiency and eventually the final yield. In this particular context,
conservation tillage systems (zero or minimum tillage) with the numerous benefits of
conservation agriculture is an alternative way out to avert delayed sowing. It provides
the crop a more favorable ecosystem than conventional tillage (Lal 2013) by allow-
ing timely sowing and helping the crop to escape terminal heat and drought stresses
(Kumar et al. 2011a, b). Zero tillage with stubble retention significantly increases
water storage capacity of soil (O’Leary and Connor 1997) through in situ moisture
conservation. This technology can be immensely advantageous under such water-
limited environments of RFs, particularly to mitigate drought stress. The zero-till
system produces comparable and sometimes even higher yield than conventional
tillage with the benefits being more evident under water-limited environments
(Pittelkow et al. 2015). No-tilled chickpea recorded 24.0–57.0% higher yield than
reduced, minimum, and conventional tillage practices (Hemmat and Eskandari
2004). Furthermore, no-tillage/zero-tillage minimizes soil disturbance and erosion,
sequesters carbon in soil, controls soil evaporation, conserves soil moisture, and
reduces cost and energy needs (Kumar et al. 2011a, b). It substantially reduces cost
of production because of lower seed and fertilizer requirements and elimination of
tillage, making it affordable to the resource-poor farmers. Adoption of zero-till drill
reduces the seed rates of lentil and chickpea by almost 50.0% (Gupta and Pande
2005). Optimal seed rates for lentil and chickpea have been reported to be 30 kg ha−1
and 80–100 kg ha−1, respectively, for obtaining good crop stand and maximizing
yield under no-till system (Singh et al. 2012). Farmers’ participatory trials revealed
that compared to conventional tillage, adoption of zero tillage with improved pack-
age of practices increased lentil yield by 13.0% and reduced cost of cultivation by
INR 4,600 ha−1 (approximately 65 US$ ha−1) (Singh et al. 2012). Increased immobi-
lization and lower mineralization rate of nitrogen in no-tilled soil (Van Kessel and
Hartley 2000) decrease available soil N, thereby stimulating the nitrogen fixation of
the legumes (Matus et al. 1997) with possible substantial nitrogen benefits for the
next crop-growing season.
578 S. Maji et al.
Minimum/reduced tillage with adequate residue retention can also be an equally

effective sowing technique of CSFLs in RFs and in some cases with higher yield
benefits than no-tillage system. Minimum tillage in combination with proper resi-
due management reduces soil evaporation, crusting, and sealing (Gangwar et al.
2006) and significantly improves productivity of post-monsoon rice FLs (Pratibha
et al. 1996; Gangwar et al. 2006; Yadav et al. 2017). Designing low-cost, simplified
minimum and zero-tillage implements to suit the tractor and soil types as well as the
economic background of the farming community will increase the adoption of CA
and CSFLs.
25.4.3 Microbial and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Inoculation
Legumes meet their N demand through BNF, however, to realize their N-fixing
potential effective rhizobial inoculation is essential. Soil submergence during mon-
soon rice cultivation drastically reduces the survival rate of aerobic Rhizobium sp.,
thus intensifying the need to inoculate CFLS seeds with suitable Rhizobium strain.
Rhizobium inoculation substantially increases nodulation and yield performance of
legumes than no-inoculation (Rabbani et al. 2005; Rahman et al. 2008; Ravikumar
2012). It has been reported that plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
improves symbiotic performance of Rhizobium (Yadegari et al. 2010; Korir et al.
2017). Moreover, PGPR facilitates nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization,
phytohormone, and siderophore production and induces abiotic stress resistance
(Pérez-Montaño et al. 2014; Gopalakrishnan et al. 2015). For instance, synergistic
effects of co-inoculation of Rhizobium with phosphates-solubilizing bacteria (PSB)
include improved nodulation, yield attributing characters, yield (Saharan and Nehra
2011), N and P uptake, and their concentration in final grain (Abid et al. 2016).
PGPR strains such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Burkholderia, and Flavobacterium
including Rhizobium are capable of solubilizing inorganic phosphates in soil
(Hassen et al. 2016) and increasing P uptake by the crop (Bashan and de Bahsan
2010). Inoculation with such strains can effectively supplement inorganic P fertil-
izer, particularly in relay cropping where application of fertilizer is tough due to
standing rice crop. Co-inoculation of Rhizobium and PSB can meet up to 50.0%
phosphatic fertilizer requirement of crop with significant positive effects on nodula-
tion, crop growth, and yield (Kumar et al. 2011a, b). Mesorhizobium sp. and
Pesudomonas fluorescenstogethersignificantly increase chickpea nodulation and
crop yield to serve as an effective indigenous PGPR consortia for chickpea produc-
tion in India (Verma et al. 2012). Additionally, Rhizobial species, such as R. meli-
loti, R. tropici, R. leguminosarum bv.viciae, R. leguminosarum bv. trifolii,
R.leguminosarum bv. phaseoli, and Bradyrhizobium sp., produce siderophores
(Gopalakrishnan et al. 2015). Siderophores are low-weight proteins with high affin-
ity for iron (Fe+3). These microbial siderophores make iron available to plants by
playing a key role in the reduction of Fe+3 to the plant available form of Fe+2
(Rajkumar et al. 2010; Gopalakrishnan et al. 2015). Since the nitrogenase complex
responsible for BNF has molybdenum iron protein and iron protein (Paerl and Zehr
2000), siderophores facilitate effective nodulation and BNF in legumes through

iron-sourcing to the crop. Apart from iron and phosphorus, PGPR also increases the
availability of sulfur and copper (Saharan and Nehra 2011). Phytohormones such as
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic
acid (ACC) deaminase are produced by PGPR (Dimkpa et al. 2009; Farooq et al.
2016). Auxin stimulates nodulation, root, and shoot growth, while cytokinin facili-
tates cell division with a substantial impact on root development (Gopalakrishnan
et al. 2015). Seed inoculation with ACC deaminase producing PGPR alleviates
negative impacts of various stresses including heat and drought stresses by lowering
plant ethylene levels and facilitating root growth (Long et al. 2008; Gopalakrishnan
et al. 2015, Farooq et al. 2016). For example, inoculation of pea with ACC
deaminase-producing Variovorax paradoxus increased water use efficiency and
yield under drought stress (Belimov et al. 2009). Certain PGPR strains trigger pro-
line synthesis in plants (Sziderics et al. 2007) which endows stress tolerance to the
crop through an array of mechanisms (Hayat et al. 2012; Liang et al. 2013).
Apart from rhizobia, different species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
also colonize legume roots (Tavasolee et al. 2011a), thereby establishing a tripartite
symbiosis between legumes, rhizobia, and AMF (Tavasolee et al. 2011b;
Bhattacharjee and Sharma 2012; Meng et al. 2015). The extramatrical hyphae of the
hyphae network can explore a large volume of soil which in turn allows better trans-
port and absorption of nutrients and water by the crop (Vassilev et al. 2001; He et al.
2003; Guo et al. 2010; Meng et al. 2015; Farooq et al. 2016). Legume root-AMF
association produces common mycorrhizal network that promotes crop growth and
yield through improved uptake of water and nutrients (N and P) even under a water-
limited environment (Auge 2001). Inoculation with AMF increases the overall
resource use efficiency of the crop and can be therefore considered as an effective
mitigating strategy against terminal drought stress and poor fertility in RFs. BNF by
rhizobia in legumes is hampered under P-deficient conditions (Nadeem et al. 2014)
because P is essential for efficient nodule functioning. Under these circumstances,
AMF capable of increasing rhizobial efficiency and vice-versa (Barea et al. 2002;
Tavasolee et al. 2011b; Bhattacharjee and Sharma 2012; Muleta 2017) can effec-
tively enhance BNF by improving nodule metabolism. Additionally, AMF solubi-
lizes inorganic phosphates resulting in increased P availability in soil and uptake by
the crop (Auge 2001; Bai et al. 2008; Sharda and Koide 2010; Bhattacharjee and
Sharma 2012). Synergistic effects of dual inoculation with AMF and rhizobia on
improvednodulation, nitrogenase activity, leghemoglobin content (Abd-alla et al.
2014), and N and P acquisition by the legumes have been documented (Auge 2001;
Taavasolee et al. 2011b; Muleta 2017). Erman et al. (2011) reported that combined
inoculation with Glomus intraradices and Mesorhizobium ciceri significantly
improved nodulation, yield attributes, and yield in chickpea than their individual
inoculation. Moreover, dual inoculation increases availability of micronutrients,
viz. magnesium, copper, zinc, and iron, thereby allowing better crop uptake
(Tavasolee et al. 2011b; Nadeem et al. 2014). AMF also improves soil physical
properties by forming stable aggregates (Wu et al. 2008; Singh 2012) which in turn
enhances soil water retention (Farooq et al. 2016). Glomalin, an insoluble
580 S. Maji et al.
glycoprotein, released by AMF (Gadkar and Rillig 2006; Smith et al. 2010) plays a
crucial role in improving soil aggregation (Farooq et al. 2016). Improved soil water
retention with stable soil structure due to AMF inoculation therefore offers a scope
of successfully cultivating a short-duration CSFL on the stored soil moisture in the
water-limited environments of RFs. AMF also imparts stress tolerance to crops
against abiotic and biotic stresses through an array of mechanisms such as improved
plant nutrition, hormone synthesis, osmoregulation, anti-oxidative defense mecha-
nism for scavenging reactive oxygen species, and regulation of multitude physio-
logical processes (Nadeem et al. 2014; Muleta 2017). In a greenhouse study, Sohrabi
et al. (2012) observed that AMF inoculation significantly increased leaf chlorophyll
content of chickpea under both optimum and water-limited environments. Proline
(an osmoregulator under stress situation) accumulation was also much higher under
moderate and severe drought stresses. Moreover, under drought stress condition,
enhanced activity of antioxidative enzymes, viz. peroxidase, polyphenol peroxi-
dase, and ascorbate peroxidase, in AMF-inoculated chickpea leaves prevented oxi-
dative damage to the crop.
PGPR and VAM inoculation in RFs addresses a host of problems like poor soil
fertility and structure resulting from mono-cropping of rice, rapid depletion of soil
moisture with the progress of crop growing season, and late-season drought and
heat stresses. AMF and PGPR inoculation is a promising, sustainable, and low-
input-requiring intervention that is capable of augmenting BNF, nutrient and water
use efficiencies, and stress tolerance in legumes. It can therefore play a pivotal role
in the successful introduction of CSFLs in the RF regions and conversion of the
existing rice-based cropping system to a more remunerative and sustainable rice-
food legume system.
25.4.4 Nutrient Management
A general tendency of the marginal farmers is to grow a CSFL without any input
investment, and any return from it is considered as a bonus. The reluctance of the
farmers to apply any basal dose of fertilizer at the time of sowing severely limits the
productivity of CSFLs. Although CSFLs are self-fertilizing by means of BNF, a
starter dose is required until the crop begins to fix atmospheric N (Bala et al. 2011;
Meena et al. 2014). P plays a significant role in nodule metabolism with nodules
acting as strong sinks of P and low soil P levels significantly restricts root develop-
ment and BNF (Kwari 2005; Oberson et al. 2007; Nadeem et al. 2014). P provides
energy in the form of ATP for effective nitrogenase activity and hence enhances
BNF, increases rhizobial colonization, nodulation, leaf area, photosynthesis, C par-
titioning, and biomass accumulation, ultimately leading to higher legume produc-
tivity and N yield (Ssali and Keya 1983; Al-Niemi et al. 1997; IPNI 1999; Olivera
et al. 2004; Chaudhury et al. 2008; Jabbar and Saud 2012; Ahirwar et al. 2016). In
a field study in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, Singh et al. (2005a, b) reported that
the application of P significantly improved root growth, nodulation, P uptake, and
yield in lentil. They opined that proper P management is essential to realize the full
yield potential of lentil particularly under moisture-limited environment. They

observed that a dose of 30 kg P2O5 ha−1 along with PSB inoculation is optimal for
improving lentil productivity in medium P alluvial soils. Soil texture and pH influ-
ence the availability of soil P and thus the crop uptake. Due to a wide variability
insoil types of the RF tracts of India, it is important to consider the soil test P values
before proposing a standard recommendation for a specific region. Unlike N and P,
potassium (K) is not a direct constituent of any metabolite (Khurana and Sharma
2000; Epstein and Bloom 2005). It acts as an activator to more than 60 enzymes
involved in plant growth (IPNI 1998) and stabilizes pH within plant for optimal
enzyme activity (Abdul et al. 2011). K deficiency reduces leaf chlorophyll content
(Duli et al. 2001) with concomitant decline in rates of photosynthesis and ATP pro-
duction which ultimately decelerates ATP-dependent processes (Lawlor and Tezara
2009; Mfilinge et al. 2014). K addition significantly improves BNF and root and
shoot growths (Sangakkara et al. 1996; Sangakkara et al. 2000) and boosts nodule
biomass and activity (Parthipan and Kulasooriya 1989; Sangakkara et al. 2000).
Adequate K supply enhances nitrogenase activity and N metabolism in legumes
(Mmbaga et al. 2014) by increasing sugar translocation to nodules necessary for
producing ATP to carry out the high energy-requiring process of BNF (Mengel et al.
2001). K also plays a crucial role in wat25.er economy of crops due to its effects on
water uptake through regulation of opening of stomata and transpiration (Waraich
et al. 2011; Singh and Kataria 2012). Inadequate K supply leaves the crop vulnera-
ble to water stress (Mfilinge et al. 2014). Interestingly, sufficient supply of P
(Alkaraki et al. 1996) and K (Sangakkara et al. 2000) can lessen the negative impacts
of drought stress through osmoregulation and maintenance of leaf water potential.
Sulfur (S) deficiency decreases legume productivity due to poor BNF and reduced
nodule development (Scherer 2008). For instance, Zhao et al. (1999) reported that
BNF was sensitive to S deficiency and addition of S to S-deficient soil doubled the
quantity of N fixed. They concluded that the poor growth of S-starved pea was likely
due to reduced BNF resulting in shortage of N. Choubey et al. (2013) reported that
in lentil although the application of 40 kg S ha−1 along with 60 kg P2O5 ha−1 yielded
highest, 20 kg S ha−1 with the same phosphate dosage was more economically fea-
sible with the highest net return and benefit-cost ratio. In fact, nodule activity and
productivity are far more negatively affected than shoot and nodule masses due to
direct effects of P, K, and S on nodule physiology and metabolism (Divito and
Sadras 2014). Calcium (Ca) too significantly influences rhizobial infection in root
hair (Smit et al. 1992), nodulation (Alva et al. 1991), and nitrogenase activity (Miller
and Sirios 1983), thereby affecting BNF and final yield. A host of micronutrients are
also essential for effective nodulation and BNF (Weisany et al. 2013). Mo acts as a
cofactor to nitrogenase enzyme which catalyzes the conversion of elemental N to
ammonium (Mendel and Hänsch 2002) and also to nitrate reductase responsible for
nitrate assimilation (Alam et al. 2015). Fe, on the other hand, is essential for chlo-
rophyll biosynthesis (Nasar and Shah 2017). It is also an important component of
leghemoglobin, ferredoxin, and nitrogenase enzyme (Togay et al. 2015). Mo defi-
ciency reduces nodulation and bacteroid and leghemoglobin concentration
(Jongruaysup 1993), whereas Fe deficiency causes chlorosis (Katyal and Randhawa
582 S. Maji et al.
1983) and decreases nodulation, leghemoglobin, and nitrogenase activity (Tang

et al. 1990; Togay et al. 2015), ultimately leading to poor BNF. In a field study, Deo
and Kothari (2002) studied the effects of varying Mo levels and modes of applica-
tion on nodulation, protein content, and yield of chickpea. They observed that soil
application of 1 kg Mo ha−1 and seed treatment with 3.5 g ammonium molybdate
kg−1 of seed were equally effective in increasing chickpea yield, and no significant
difference was observed between these two treatments. Priming chickpea seeds
with Mo (0.5 g L–1 solution of sodium molybdate) for 8 h improved crop productiv-
ity by 20.0% compared to control under field conditions (Farook et al. 2012).
However, there are reports that dual application of Fe and Mo is far more effective
in improving nodulation and productivity than the sole application of Fe and Mo
(Nasar and Shah 2017). Other mineral nutrients such as cobalt (Co) are essential for
leghemoglobin synthesis, whereas nickel (Ni) activates hydrogenase which oxidizes
hydrogen and provides ATP for BNF (Weisany et al. 2013). Selenium (Se) also
increases hydrogenase functioning in the rhizobial bacteria (Boursier et al. 1988). A
study reported that soil application of Se at the time of sowing and foliar application
at flowering in low doses increased antioxidant levels and yield in lentil (Ekanayake
et al. 2015). It was observed that Se in the form of selenate is more effective in
improving BNF and seed Se concentration, whereas selenite is proficient in increas-
ing seed yield (Ekanayake et al. 2015; Ekanayake et al. 2017). Furthermore, Se
fertilization ameliorates drought-induced stress by increasing water uptake through
roots (Farooq et al. 2014), decreasing lipid peroxidation, and activating antioxida-
tive enzymes (Mohammadi et al. 2011).
Crop establishment methods largely determine the mode and the amount of fer-
tilizer applied. For instance, sowing with zero till drill substantially cuts down fertil-
izer requirement, reduces wastage, and increases fertilizer use efficiency of the
crop. Farmers’ participatory trials in the state of Bihar revealed that adoption of zero
tillage technology reduced the fertilizer requirement of lentil by almost 30.0 %
(Singh et al. 2012). However, in relay cropping it is speculated that a higher amount
of fertilizer is required because the standing rice crop obstructs the fertilizer from
reaching the soil surface. Foliar nutrition can be an effective management tool to
ensure adequate nutrient supply to the CSFLs with no wastage of fertilizer, particu-
larly in relay cropping. Generally, foliar application is a viable option when soil
conditions hinder nutrient absorption through roots (Salisbury and Ross 1985);
however, foliar feeding improves root growth and hence nutrient absorption through
roots (El-Fouly and El-Sayed 1997). Besides, it also reduces overall fertilizer
requirement and improves nutrient use efficiency (El- Nour 2002) because (i) foliar
application rates are much lesser than soil application rates; (ii) the nutrients are
applied directly on the site of photosynthesis, i.e., the leaves; and (iii) crop responds
to nutrient application immediately (Stampar et al. 1999; Zayed et al. 2011). N
foliar feeding can be specifically beneficial to indeterminate legumes because it
delays senescence and facilitates photosynthesis. The crop therefore has sufficient
time to convert the late formed flowers to pods without breaking the source to sink
partitioning. Das and Jana (2016) observed that spraying of 2.0% urea at branching
and pod initiation stages significantly improved yield component, yield, and protein
content of lentil in West Bengal. Positive effects of foliar feeding of urea on yield
and seed protein have been reported by several authors (Palta et al. 2005; Bahr
2007; Das and Jana 2015). However, a recent report states that spraying of 0.5%
NPK (19:19:9) at pre-flowering and pod development stages recorded higher lentil
yield than the foliar application of 2.0% urea at the same growth stages under relay
cropping system (Maji et al. 2018). Similarly, foliar nutrition with 2.0% diammo-
nium phosphate (DAP) and 1.0% KCl at flowering and pod-filling stages was
reported to be more proficient in increasing growth and yield than sole application
of urea, DAP, and KCl at the same growth stages (Geetha and Velayutham 2009).
Foliar feeding of P along with N allows better utilization of the applied N because
P enhances ATP production, thus providing the energy required for N assimilation.
K on the other hand helps in translocation of N compounds from vegetative parts to
seed and provides energy necessary for N metabolism by facilitating ATP produc-
tion (Agri-Briefs 1999). For instance, Sarkar and Malik (2001) concluded that sole
spraying of 0.5% KNO3 at flowering substantially improved lathyrus productivity in
RFs by delaying abscisic acid synthesis, promoting cytokinin production, increas-
ing photosynthetic activity, and expediting translocation of current photosynthates
to reproductive parts. Beneficial effects of foliar spray of Fe (Mehraban 2017;
Janmohammadi et al. 2018); Mo (Chakraborty 2009); iron and molybdenum (Togay
et al. 2015; Nasar and Shah 2017); Fe, Mn, and Zn (Zeidan et al. 2006); and Zn, Fe,
Mg, Cu, B, and Mn along with N (Rahman et al. 2017) on growth and productivity
of various CSFLs have been documented. In Indian soil, Zn deficiency is very com-
mon, particularly in the rice-growing tracts of IGP (Ali et al. 2012; Singh and Bhatt
2013). Zn is a component of metallo-enzymes, regulatory proteins controlling gene
expression (Liu et al. 2005a, b). It is essential for indole acetic acid biosynthesis
(Guilfoyle and Hagen 2001; Singh et al. 2014a, b) and acts as cofactor to several
enzymes (Singh and Bhatt 2013). Zn also plays a crucial role in reproductive biol-
ogy by influencing pollen viability and fertility and ovule fertility and fertilization
(Pandey et al. 1995; Pandey et al. 2009; Reid et al. 2011; Pathak et al. 2012; Singh
and Bhatt 2013). In a pot study, foliar nutrition of Zn-deficient and Zn-sufficient
chickpea plants with 0.1% ZnSO4 at flower initiation increased seed weight per
plant by 96.0% and 205.5%, respectively, compared to Zn-starved plants grown
without any Zn supplementation (Pathak et al. 2012). Singh and Bhatt (2013) rec-
ommended foliar feeding with 0.04% Zn at pre-flowering and post-podding stages
of lentil to improve crop productivity under late-sown conditions in Bihar. In India,
widespread boron (B) deficiency has been reported across the country with the
problem being more rampant in alluvial soil (Kumar 2018). B influences floral biol-
ogy (Kanwar and Randhawa 1974) and nodule maturity (Weisany et al. 2013). B
deficiency is responsible for poor rhizobial infection in roots (Bolanos et al. 1996),
decreased nodulation (Tripathy et al. 1999), flower drop, reduced pod setting, and
compromised productivity (Srivastava et al. 1997). Soil application of 10 kg−1 Borax
ha−1 along with a basal dose of fertilizer and 1.5 kg Mo ha−1 significantly improved
lentil productivity in West Bengal (Chakraborty 2009). Foliar feeding of B however
584 S. Maji et al.
has been reported to be more effective than soil application in increasing yield
(Harmankaya et al. 2008). Furthermore, foliar nutrition with Fe and Zn (Yadavi
et al. 2014) and B (Yamagishi and Yamamoto 1994) improves crop growth and
physiology by alleviating the harmful effects of drought.
Comprehensive nutrient management including both the macro- and micronutri-
ents improves plant nutrition with simultaneous increase in nodulation, nodule
activity, and BNF which is of great significance in meeting the N demand of protein-
rich CSFLs. Instead of soil application with comparatively higher doses, foliar
nutrition of costly micronutrient fertilizers not only relieves the resource-poor farm-
ers economically but also eases the process of fertilizer application under relay
cropping system and increases the overall nutrient use efficiency. The role of ade-
quate plant nutrition in imparting stress resistance and delaying senescence is of
particular importance in RFs where the CSFLs often suffer from late-season stresses,
thus making it an effective management tool under such conditions.
Exclusion of tillage in CA-based technologies coupled with slow vegetative growth

of CSFLs in early stages makes weeds a major threat in RFs. However, among the
various conservation tillage systems, minimum tillage effectively controls weed and
increases water use efficiency and the yield of CSFLs in RF situation (Kar and
Kumar 2009). Leaf area development to ensure adequate ground coverage in CSFLs
often extends up to 6 weeks, thus giving the weeds an upper hand in resource utili-
zation during the early crop growth stages. Relay cropping system leaves no scope
of weed management. Under such conditions, the use of high seeding rates can
effectively improve crop competitiveness by giving the CSFLs an advantage over
weeds during the critical crop-weed competition period. Higher seed rates suppress
weed proliferation and minimize yield losses due to weed interference (Ahmed
et al. 2014). In a field study, Mandi et al. (2017) observed that a seed rate of 60 kg
ha−1 is optimal for achieving favorable crop stand and maximizing yield benefits in
relay-cropped lentil. Herbicidal management in CSFLS requires a combination of
compatible pre- and post-emergence herbicides without antagonistic effects target-
ing grasses, broad leaves, and sedges for comprehensive weed control. Limited pre-
and post-emergence molecules are available in India to address this complex weed
flora in CSFLs. However, Singh et al. (2012) suggested pre-emergence application
of Pendimethalin and Alachlor to control germinating weeds and post-emergence
use of Quizalofop ethyl to control grassy weeds. As already discussed earlier, seed
priming too gives the CSFLs an advantage over the weeds, helping the former to
tide over the critical crop-weed competition period. The use of non-selective
glyphosate can effectively reduce weed pressure in CA-based systems. Residue
retention is also helpful because it cuts down the light penetration, thereby killing
the germinating weeds. Nonetheless, the use of glyphosate in relay cropping is not
possible due to the presence of standing rice crop. Fast-drying soil surface post rice
harvest and marginal farmers’ inability to avail manual labors make handweeding a
difficult proposition in RFs. Under such circumstances, the role of post-emergence
herbicides is significant, but researches pertaining to the phytotoxicity of such few
available herbicides in CSFLs are limited. A study has revealed that the application
of imazethapyr at the rate of 20 to 40 g ha−1 between 25 and 35 days after sowing
was adept in controlling weeds and improving productivity of lentil with the crop
not showing any long-lasting phytotoxic injury (Singh et al. 2014). Additionally, the
use of herbicide-tolerant and fast-growing varieties with spreading canopy can
serve as an eco-friendly measure to bail out the crops from severe weed competition
during the critical early growth stages.
25.5 Breeding Interventions
The synergy of appropriate strategies like resource conservation including crop

management practices and breeding interventions for pulse improvement can
address the constraints of CSFLs in RFs.
25.5.1 Selection of Suitable Crop and Varieties
The choice of appropriate crop and varieties are the most important breeding strate-
gies for improving production of post-rice legumes. The selection of crop and vari-
eties relies on preceding rice duration, prevalent weather condition, soil properties,
and consumer preference. In the Eastern IGP of West Bengal, Bihar, and Jharkhand,
lentil and Lathyrus are prospective choices in RFs; however in the northeastern hill
(NEH) region, chickpea, field pea, and lentil are the best options. In low-lying areas,
lentil is preferred over chickpea and Lathyrus holds promise in water-limited envi-
ronments. Consumers of eastern Gangetic plains generally prefer small-seeded len-
til genotypes. Chickpea and fieldpea varieties thrive well in regions with mild
winter, while small-seeded lathyrus varieties with low oxalyldiaminopropionic acid
(ODAP) content suit well with varying weather conditions. In recent decades, sev-
eral high-yielding varieties have been developed, viz. Moitree, L-4590, Subrata,
Asha, Ranjan, KLS-218, and HUL 57 in lentil having small seed size with early
maturity; Ratan, Prateek, and Mahateora with low ODAP having high-yield poten-
tial in Lathyrus; Pusa-372, KWR-108, GCP-105, Anuradha, Bidisha, HK-4, JG-14,
JG -11, JAKI-9218, and Vihar in chickpea; and HUDP-15, VL-Matar-42, Swarna
Tripti, Gomati, Dantiwada Field pea 1, and TRCP-9 in field pea can be very well
adapted for this region (Saxena et al. 1993; Chaturvedi 2009; Gupta 2014; Singh
et al. 2017). A brief overview of different CSFL varieties suitable for RF regions is
provided in Table 25.7. Farmers should consider small-seeded varieties over the
bold ones due to better contact to soil, followed by satisfactory seed germination,
less rotting, and good plant stand.
586 S. Maji et al.
Table 25.7 Improved varieties of cool season food legumes suitable for rice fallow
Duration Yield potential
Variety (days) (t ha−1) Recommended ecology
Lentil
HUL 57 120-125 1.4-1.5 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
Moitree 115-120 1.4-1.5 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
KLS 218 120-125 1.3-1.4 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
NDL 1 120-125 2.0-2.2 Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar
Pant L 8 125-130 1.5-1.6 Bihar, West Bengal
Pant L 6 120-125 1.6-1.8 Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
IPL 526 105-110 1.0-1.2 Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
Lathyrus
Ratan 110-115 1.5-1.6 Assam, Bihar, West Bengal
Mahateora 110-115 1.6-1.8 Chattisgarh
Prateek 110-115 1.5-1.6 Chattisgarh
Chickpea
Udai (KPG 130-135 1.6-1.7 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and
59) Assam
BG 372 125-130 1.7-1.8 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal ,
Assam, Chattisgarrh
JSC 55 102-108 1.8-2.0 Chattisgarh
JSC 56 100-105 1.7-1.8 Chattisgarh
25.5.2 Selection and Breeding of Short-Duration Varieties

with Early Biomass
Short-duration varieties of suitable crop can be recommended for sustainability of

rice-dominated cropping system. Reduced crop duration also decreases water
requirement, allowing the crop to escape terminal heat and drought stresses (Erskine
et al. 1993; Shrestha et al. 2006). Early maturing varieties possessing high biomass
and early vigor can suppress weed growth and soil evapotranspiration. This enables
better utilization of residual soil moisture by post-cool season legumes.
Breeding efforts should be focussed on developing resistant varieties through
conventional or through deploying molecular and transgenic strategies. For escap-
ing the effect of terminal heat and drought, genotypes with rapid ground cover, early
phenology, and prolonged flowering and podding period, leading to increased dry
matter production, more pods, and higher harvest index, are targeted to adapt to
drought and heat stresses (Gaur et al. 2008). Breeding efforts should be focused on
developing lines that combine both drought and heat tolerance. Result of participa-
tory approaches for varietal selection is also encouraging in this regard.
Herbicide-tolerant varieties have recently been developed in lentil, chickpea, and
other crops which hold great promise for defeating the weed menace in RF system.
Systematic germplasm and wild relatives should be screened to identify sources of
herbicide tolerance and introgress in adapted varieties (Gowda et al. 2015).
25.5.3 Varieties Efficient in Moisture and Nutrient Uptake
RF areas are characterized by uneven moisture and nutrient distribution. Utilizing

genetic diversity of crop species suitable and stable genotype efficient in nutrient
and moisture uptake with deep root system and having inherent genetic potential of
modifying rhizospheric chemistry can be identified through screening in different
RF areas. Lathyrus is the sturdiest crop in drought-prone situation followed by len-
til, chickpea, and field pea, whereas lentil is very much sensitive to acidic and saline
soil which are predominated soil characteristics of RF areas of IGP, and NEH
region.
25.5.4 Redefining Existing Plant Type
Breeding efforts should be made to restructuring the existing plant type of these
pulses for better inception of solar energy and efficient translocations of energy
from source to sink. Therefore, tall, erect, non-lodging, and non-shattering varieties
with deeper root system with well-developed secondary root structure will be suit-
able in future era.
25.5.5 Germplasm Enhancement and Pre-Breeding
Broadening of genetic base by introducing exotic lines of these pulses, followed by

pre-breeding, thereafter utilization of these exotic lines in hybridization program
with high-yielding stable varieties suitable for RF areas, can be of good interven-
tion. Collaboration with international institutes like ICARDA facilitates introduc-
tion and identification of new sources of resistance for disease, pest, heat, drought,
and post-emergence herbicide and also genotype having better efficiency in nutrient-
deficit condition. The power of genomic resources would enable breeders to effec-
tively go for the transfer of targeted genes for resistance to different diseases and
pests and incorporation of traits being controlled by many genes (Chamarthi et al.
2011). For example, lentil genotypes like ILL-5845 and ILL-6451 possess relative
tolerance to salinity; ILL-5883, ILL-5588, ILL-4400, and ILL-590 having multiple
resistance genes against various pathogens can be utilized in future hybridization
program.
25.5.6 Availability of Good-Quality Seed of Improved Varieties
Constraints of good-quality seed of improved varieties have been already discussed

before. Poor germination and problem of seed to soil contact in RF areas can be
encountered by the selection of good-quality seed having more than 90% germina-
tion with good vigor. With various agronomic interventions of seed priming and
pelleting, the problem of poor germination in RF areas can be addressed in a
588 S. Maji et al.
cost-cutting mode. For improving seed replacement rate of pulses, strong local seed
production back-up through large-scale screening of appropriate varieties through
farmers’ participatory mode, establishment of seed chain (seed village, seed block,
seed hub, etc.), and development of appropriate storage techniques, structures for
seeds especially under high relative humidity condition should be taken up with
utmost priority (Gumma et al. 2016; Singh et al. 2016). Moreover, the participation
of private seed companies for the production and promotion of pulse seeds needs
due encouragement from policy makers.
25.5.7 Breeding Methods
Manoeuvring the production constraints of RF legumes, traditional and molecular

breeding approaches can be deployed. The utilization of genetic resources for the
selection of desirable traits and identification of superior genotypes of economic
importance are the basic strategy in the breeding program. Selection is generally
carried out through visualizing morphological markers, physiological selection for
biotic and abiotic stresses, empirical selection for yield and marker assisted selec-
tion (MAS) through linked molecular markers with target traits. The utilization of
superior genotypes in crossing program with well-defined objectives followed by
handling of segregating generation through various approaches are strategies for
variability creation. In FLs, generally recombination breeding is employed for com-
bining desirable traits from parents followed by the bulk, pedigree or single-seed
descent method for handling segregating generation. Regarding breeding for abiotic
and biotic stress management, a suitable screening environment is essential.
Breeders and molecular biologists also mining the targeted genes of interest, once
identified can be successfully transferred into the otherwise high-yielding geno-
types through opting various breeding strategies. The strength of participatory
approach has been already underpinned. Besides conventional strategy, mutation
breeding also has a definite merit for improving monogenic trait with high heritabil-
ity. Mutation breeding has been successfully deploying in developing cultivars in
lentil, chickpea with specific traits. Nowadays, the utilization of molecular markers
associated with target allele will be useful for carrying out MAS, which helps in
identifying desirable segregants thereby considerably shortening the breeding cycle.
Cool season pulses except chickpea have infancy in genetic information. The iden-
tification of molecular markers linked with QTL based on expression study of can-
didate genes, genetic and molecular maps, QTL mapping, and genome-assisted
breeding including transcriptomics and proteomics are some of the advance strate-
gies that can be opted for pulse production improvement. Introgression of multiple
resistance genes in to a single background through gene pyramiding is the best
strategy for conferring resistance against multiple diseases. Whole genome sequenc-
ing of some legume crops like chickpea has been completed and sequencing efforts
are underway in lentil, which offer vast opportunity of developing large number of
SSRs and SNPs. Transgenic techniques for transferring genes of interest from any
organism to a plant species along with use of molecular biology techniques can be
attempted to confer biotic and abiotic stress resistance in pulses. Little attention has
been paid in FLs regarding transferring transgenes such as S endotoxins from
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), protease inhibitors, enzymes, secondary plant metabo-
lites, and plant lectins through Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer or by direct
DNA transfer methods (Gowda et al. 2015). High-yielding and input-responsive
genes are yet to be searched and transgressed in common varieties of these FLs.
Most of the FLs are bestowed with large genetic diversity. Technological interven-
tion is needed for major breakthrough in yield improvement and insulation against
major biotic and abiotic stresses for successfully fitting into these niches.
25.6 Crop Protection Interventions
25.6.1 Chemical, Botanical and Bio-pesticide
Seed dressing with chemicals can be applied to overcome soilborne insect pests and
diseases. Before sowing, seed should be treated with fungicide (Carbendazim 50%
at the rate of 2gkg−1 seed) at least 7 days before Rhizobium at 20g/kg seed with suit-
able strain for disease free plant and better nodulation. Soil-borne diseases, mainly
caused by collar rot and Fusarium wilt, were much lower in case of seed priming.
Priming also reduced the incidence of stem and root diseases and increased nodula-
tion by native rhizobia (Musa et al. 2001). The use of bio-insecticide (nuclear poly-
hedrosis virus (NPV) at the rate of 250–500 larval equivalent per ha) or neem seed
kernel extract (5%) is also helpful for control of pod borers. The use of sex phero-
mone trap is also helpful in controlling pod borers (Sood et al. 2013).
25.6.2 Use of Resistant Varieties
Before the introduction of new crops in RF areas, it is important to recommend

varieties that are resistant to the stresses pertaining to respective areas, particularly
responding to the present climate change scenario (Anonymous 2013). Disease-
resistant varieties of chickpea are more suitable to control root rot and blight in rice
ecosystems. Small seeded lentil varieties WBL 77, KLS 218, NM 1, HUL-57 and
PL-316 having resistance to rust are performing well in North-East region. Pod
borer (Helicoverpa armigera) continues to remain major challenge in chickpea cul-
tivation. Higher levels of resistance have been observed in some wild species, which
may be explored in improving pod borer resistance, more so, by transgenic technol-
ogy. Concerted efforts are needed in using different transgenes and promoter options
for developing transgenic events and their evaluations for effectiveness and bio-
safety (Ali and Kumar 2007).
590 S. Maji et al.
25.6.3 Integrated Disease and Pest Management (IPM)
Insulation of crops against biotic stresses is most critical in enhancing crop produc-
tivity. Fusariumwilt is a serious problem in chickpea and lentil, causing substantial
yield loss. Host-plant resistance is the best option. However, the non-availability of
seeds of wilt-resistant varieties and existence of pathogenic variability call for the
integrated approach of wilt management. These IPM modules will only be effective
after ensuring accurate forewarning and forecasting of disease and pest epidemic.
Integrated management of diseases and pests including the use of resistance culti-
vars, use of healthy seeds, modification of cultural practices, judicious use of fungi-
cides, and bio-control agents may contribute substantially in stabilizing the yields.
Therefore, it is imperative to refine and modify the IPM modules according to the
needs.
25.7 Conclusion
Lentil, chickpea, field pea, and grass pea thrive on residual soil moisture of RFs in
India during the cool season with higher productivity than cereals and oilseeds.
These hold more promise in Eastern India and Central Plateaus. Seed priming facili-
tates synchronous germination anduniform seedling emergence, improves crop
stand, and increases cropcompetitiveness against weeds. Together, these impart
stress resistance and faster growth, eventually overriding the deleterious effects of
late-season stresses. Nutrient seed priming attends relay crops which do not receive
any basal fertilizer application. Sowing strategy with early monsoon rice or normal
sowing with shorter duration rice smoothens the accommodation of CSFLs after
monsoon rice. Reduced or zero tillage methods and relay cropping are important
conservation agriculture strategies to ensure timely sowing of CSFLs in moisture-
limited environments of RFs. Legumes respond to AMF and PGPR to scale up BNF,
nutrient and water use efficiencies, and stress tolerance. Holistic nutrient manage-
ment improves plant nutrition, enhances nodulation and its activity, imparts stress
resistance, and delays senescence, which are of particular significance in the stress-
ridden RFs. Foliar application holds promise, specifically under relay cropping
where basal application of fertilizer is tedious. Weed management issues pivot
around application of post emergence herbicide and introduction of herbicide-
tolerant varieties. Genotypes with fast vigor and spreading canopy ideotypes also
address crop-weed competition and curtail soil evapotranspiration. Crop improve-
ment strategies involve breeding and introduction of early and extra early variety to
escape late-season stresses and root ramifications to suit the water-limited environ-
ment of RFs. Small seeded varieties have better contact with soil, satisfactory seed
germination, less rotting and good plant stand, making them a better choice over
bold seeded genotypes. Broadening of genetic base by introducing exotic lines of
these CSFLs followed by utilization of these exotic lines in hybridization program
with high-yielding stable varieties can be a prospective strategy to deal with the
constraints of these new niche areas. Breeding efforts should be focused on
developing resistant varieties against biotic and abiotic stresses either through con-
ventional breeding or by deploying molecular and transgenic strategies. For escap-
ing the effect of terminal heat and drought, genotypes with rapid ground cover,
phenological plasticity, increased dry matter production, pods, and higher harvest
index are preferred. Stemphylium blight, collar rot, rust, pod borers, and cut worm
are important disease and insect pests in RFs. Effective crop protection measures
comprising of both pesticides and integrated pest management approaches are
required to addressthis insect-pathogen complex.
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Crop Diversification and Food Security
26
Muhammad Ijaz, Ahmad Nawaz, Sami Ul-Allah,
Muhammad Shahid Rizwan, Aman Ullah,
Mubshar Hussain, Ahmad Sher, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Food security is a primary concern and necessity of every nation, and crop diversi-
fication is a dynamic tool to ensure the food security in a sustainable way. Crop
diversification includes both growing of conventional crops and introduction of
new nonconventional crops. Crop diversification is also an efficient tool for miti-
gating the adverse effects of climate change. In this chapter, authors have discussed
various disadvantages of mono-crop culture like disease infestation, abiotic stress,
and negative environmental consequences and also discussed how these conse-
quences can be mitigated with crop diversification. Besides all these advantages, in
a narrow scope, risk avoidance, land suitability, social norms, income level, and
contact with extension officers are key challenges which hinder wide adaptation of
crop diversification. Acceptance of new crops in the market is also a challenge. In
this scenario, inclusion of oilseed crops and legume crops and the promotion of
agroforestry system may be a viable option to adjust as new crops in already
adopted cropping systems. But before adaptation of new crops, long-term experi-
ments on the impact of crop diversification on soil properties, farmer income, food
security, and global warming should be carried out to exclude the farmers’ risk.
M. Ijaz · A. Nawaz · S. Ul-Allah

M. S. Rizwan
Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University Bahawalpur,
Bahawalpur, Pakistan
A. Ullah
M. Hussain · S. Ahmad (*)
A. Sher

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_26
608 M. Ijaz et al.
Keywords
Food security · Crop diversification · Mono-crop culture · Agroforestry
26.1 Introduction
Food security is used to describe whether a country on the face of the globe has
access to enough food to meet the dietary energy requirements of the population.
Although a remarkable increase in food production was recorded in food production
during the past century which has decreased the proportion of the hungry people of
the world, more than one in seven people in the world has no or limited access to
healthy, nutritious food at proper time. Many people are suffering from one or more
forms of micronutrient malnourishment (World Bank 2008; FAOSTAT 2009).
Cereals are staple of millions across the globe which fulfill the dietary needs of
the people. In the world, the cereal crops are grown in the monoculture systems
which may threaten future food security due to loss of biodiversity and occurrence
of new pest and diseases (Fraley 2017).
In this scenario, crop diversification is a dynamic tool to ensure the food security
and achieve the goals of the sustainable agriculture development (Behera et al.
2007). The presence of new crops or introduction of new cropping system to
improve the agricultural production on a particular form considering various eco-
nomic returns from the value added crops with complementary marketing opportu-
nities is termed as crop diversification (Clements et al. 2011).
There are two types of crop diversification, i.e., (1) horizontal and (2) vertical. In
horizontal crop diversification, the crop growers grow various kinds of new crops
such as fruits, minor crops (medicinal crops), cut flower crops, and vegetables. In
vertical crop diversification, the farmers involve themselves in various value chain
additions, or they adopt the alternative businesses such as fish farming, livestock
rearing, and poultry shed business along with the cultivation of the crop species.
The main drivers of crop diversification include improving the income of small
land holders, mitigating the effects of variability in the climatic factors on crop
production, withstanding the fluctuation in prices, conserving the natural resources,
withstanding the fluctuation in the prices of agricultural commodities, balancing the
food demands, reducing the environmental pollution, decreasing the reliance on off-
farm inputs, decreasing the pest (insets and weeds) and diseases problems (Smale
and King 2005; Winters et al. 2006; Clements et al. 2011), and finally enhancing the
community food security. However, the inclusion of new crop species in a cropping
system for crop diversification depends on (1) quality and availability of resources
such as rainfall, irrigation, and soil fertility; (2) the farmer access to the advanced
technologies like that of water, fertilizer, seed, storage, marketing, and processing;
(3) the investment capacity and food and fodder self-sufficiency of farmers; (4) the
market-related factors especially input and output prices of commodities and eco-
nomic and other trade policies that affect the prices (directly or indirectly); and (5)
the infrastructural- and institutional-related factors including land tenancy, farm
26 Crop Diversification and Food Security 609
size, research, extension, government regulatory policies, and the marketing sys-
tems (Smale and King 2005; Clements et al. 2011).
Crop diversification is aimed to enhance the crop portfolio to encourage the
farmers to not depend on a single crop (monoculture) to earn the income. Indeed,
when the farmers focus on only one crop, it may cause the emergence of new pests,
and crops may be damaged due to unavoidable events as drought, frost, and heat
stress. Moreover, the farmers may also suffer if the price of that special crop grown
at his farm went down immediately, thus providing him less income. On the other
hand, crop diversification helps to improve the ecosystem biodiversity and strengthen
the agroecosystem to respond better to environmental stresses, thus reducing the
risk of complete crop failure and providing the farmers alternative source of income.
Thus, crop diversification helps farmers by creating the better conditions for food
security and by enabling them to grow surplus and diverse agricultural produce to
be sold in the market to earn income. Crop diversification also helps the farmers to
target the international and national markets with new agricultural products (cere-
als, legumes, oilseeds, sugar crops, fiber crops, medicinal plants). Besides, crop
diversification especially in the developing countries can make a country self-reliant
in terms of food production (Naeem et al. 1994; Chapin et al. 1997; Clements et al.
2011). The ecological benefits of crop diversification include reduced nutrient
losses from soil, improved resource efficiency, higher resource uptake by plants,
and increased productivity and stability of the production system (Hooper and
Vitousek 1997; Tilman et al. 1997; Reich et al. 2001). In this chapter, we have dis-
cussed the problems of monocropping systems and have highlighted the potential
benefits of crop diversification with various crops to improve the soil quality and
farmer profitability to ensure the food security for future generations.
26.2 Problems of Monoculture Systems
The practice of growing a single crop on a specific piece of land year after year is
termed as monoculture. However, the monoculture systems in the world are linked
with increased use of costly input for crop maintenance (such as fertilizers, pesti-
cides, and irrigation) and decreased biodiversity (McCord et al. 2015). As the mono-
culture cropping systems are managed with high levels of external agro-inputs such
herbicides and synthetic fertilizers, they have negative environmental consequences
(Altieri and Bravo 2007), thus impacting soil health, environmental quality, and
biodiversity (Tilman et al. 2002; Fraley 2017). The problems of monoculture sys-
tems have been discussed below.
26.2.1 Soil Properties, System Productivity, and Profitability
Loss of soil nutrients, imbalance in soil microbial communities, and soil sickness
due to autotoxicity of root exudates are the main reasons for low crop yield in
monoculture systems (Bennett et al. 2012; Huang et al. 2006). The soil moisture
610 M. Ijaz et al.
within the monoculture is lower compared to diversified cultures (Lin 2007) due to
low residue input.
As in monoculture systems, a single crop is grown on a farm land year after year.
If the said crops belong to the Poaceae family, it will remove the soil nutrients and
will not return any crop residues to the soil which will affect the long-term soil sus-
tainability which may affect the future food security. Cereals are used as staple, and
they are cultivated widely in the world to feed the ever-increasing population in
monoculture systems (Power and Follet 1987). Thus, the scientists should discour-
age the monoculture of cereals across the globe as it may lead toward the loss of soil
nutrient and depletion of soil organic matter. Moreover, if a cereal crop fails, the
farmer will achieve no output, and the income generation will be low, thus reducing
the profitability at farmer field. This will reduce the overall yield system productiv-
ity of a particular farm. For example, rice (Oryza sativa L.) monoculture produced
lower yield as compared with soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)-rice rotation in
Brazil (Pinheiro et al. 2006). In crux, monoculture systems produce low yield due
to poor soil fertility which ultimately lowers profitability at farmer field.
26.2.2 Diseases and Pests
The loss of biodiversity in monoculture systems causes increase in crop disease

susceptibility with higher rates of disease transmission (Lin 2011) across the globe.
For example, the insect pest outbreaks of the leaf beetle (Phratora vulgatissima)
have been greater in willow (Salix matsudana) monoculture than natural willow
habitats (Dalin et al. 2009). In a grassland study, the pathogen load was almost three
times greater in monoculture where host abundance was at peak than diversified
polyculture (Mitchell et al. 2002). Attack of army worm (Spodoptera sunia) com-
pletely destroyed the monoculture of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in
Central America (Rosset et al. 1985). In a study, the continuous monoculture of
false starwort (Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax) enhanced the abundance of
different fungal species (Trichocladium, Fusarium, Myrothecium, and Simplicillium)
(Wu et al. 2016).
Andow (1983) reviewed the extent of increasing the monoculture of cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on insect pest popula-
tion of both crops. He found that increasing the monoculture of cotton led toward
an increase in insect pest population; the population increase was not much evi-
dent in monoculture of wheat crop. The population of pollinators is also less in
monoculture systems which affects the normal palliation process in crop plants.
As the monoculture system lacks biodiversity, the unwanted species of insect
pests can invade the whole crop fields due to availability of host plants and lack of
natural predators which hinder the natural biological pest control in these
systems.
Weeds may also be a severe issue in monoculture systems. For example, the
monoculture of wheat for several years in Alberta has encouraged the infestation of
downy brome (Bromus tectorum L.) (Blackshaw 1993). In Alberta, the
herbicide-resistant weeds were more prevalent on the monoculture farms without

having any fall-seeded or forage crop in rotation (Beckie et al. 2004). In crux,
monoculture of field crops favors the insect pest and diseases; weed management
also becomes difficult.
26.2.3 Pest Resistance and Negative Environmental

Consequences
As pest pressure is higher in monoculture systems, the common pest control strat-
egy in these systems is the excessive use of pesticides. Although the excessive use
of pesticide will kill more pests, nonetheless the pesticide residues in food may
impact the human and animal health. The excessive use of pesticides may also
encourage the phenomenon of pesticide resistance in different pests. Currently, 500
cases of pesticide resistance have been reported in the world (Gut et al. 2017); most
of these cases have been reported in the monocultures of roundup-ready crops (cot-
ton, corn, and soybeans) especially in the United States and Europe. In the United
States, ~4.05 million hectares of fields has been infested by the roundup-resistant
pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) (Neuman and Pollack 2010). This increase
rate of roundup resistance may threaten the future food security of the United States
as cereals are dominating the monoculture systems of the world and they totally
depend upon the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers for their proper growth and
development. Thus, the excessive use of synthetic fertilizers (especially nitrogenous
fertilizers) in cereal monoculture systems may cause the emission of greenhouse
gases (i.e., nitrous oxide), thus causing global warming (Lassaletta et al. 2016).
Likewise, leaching of the nitrogenous fertilizers may pollute the underground water
and may cause eutrophication (Ayoub 1999). In crux, monoculture systems may
aggravate the pest resistance phenomenon and have negative environmental
consequences.
26.3 Benefits of Crop Diversification
Crop diversification reduces climatic variability and also has potential to increase
the production and promote the ecosystem stability on degraded or marginal lands
(McCord et al. 2015). Crop diversification has a number of benefits as described
below.
26.3.1 Improvement in Soil Properties
Crop diversification reduces the chance of vulnerability to the external stresses

which occur as a result of climate change (Altieri 2004; Baumgartner and Quaas
2010; Lin 2011). Moreover, crop diversification helps in cycling the nutrients and
water. For example, inclusion of legume crops in the monoculture systems may
612 M. Ijaz et al.
improve the rooting ability, water use efficiency, nutrient uptake (Morris and Garrity
1993; Lithourgidis et al. 2011), activities of soil microbes, soil structure (Hernanz
et al. 2009), soil water retention (Miller et al. 2003; Angus et al. 2015; Kazula et al.
2017), soil organic matter (Stagnari et al. 2017), and availability of nitrogen and
phosphorus (Shen et al. 2011; Jensen et al. 2012) on diverse soil types. Kazula et al.
(2017) found an improvement in soil water retention and the plant available water
in diversified crop rotation than a maize monoculture. In another study, Katsvairo
et al. (2002) found that the infiltration of water and the earthworm density were
higher in a legume-cereal crop rotation as compared with the monoculture of cereal
maize.
Moreover, legumes also fix the atmospheric nitrogen which may benefit the
upcoming cereal crops. In contrary, in Australia, the availability of nitrogen to wheat
crop grown after legume was higher against wheat grown after a cereal crop (Chalk
1998). In another finding, the uptake of nitrogen was higher in the durum wheat
(Triticum durum L.) when it was grown after vetch (Vicia sativa L.) than durum
wheat monoculture (Giambalvo et al. 2004). The hydrogen gas produced during the
nitrogen fixation promotes the growth of other soil bacteria thus improving the soil
health (Angus et al. 2015). Few species of the legume plants [such as chickpea
(Cicer arietinum L.)] produce various kinds of organic acids (such as citrate and
malate) which mobilize the fixed soil phosphorus reservoirs (Hocking 2001).
The inclusion of those crops which produce leafy biomass for soil cover, in the
cropping system, may help to reduce soil erosion. Moreover, the crops with deep
and firm root system may also reduce soil erosion when incorporated in the crop-
ping system. For example, a wheat sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) rotation in
Australia accomplished with conservation tillage reduced soil erosion as compared
with the monoculture of sunflower (Carroll et al. 1997). In rice-wheat rotation, the
inclusion of dual-purpose legume crop is recommended to make the system more
sustainable with low dependence on the synthetic nitrogen (Sharma and Prasad
1999; Sharma et al. 2000). In crux, the inclusion of oilseed crop and legume crops
in the monoculture cereal system is very useful for improvement in soil properties
on long-term basis.
26.3.2 Improvement in System Productivity and Profitability
The on-farm crop diversification is very useful for the market-oriented smallholders
(Bradshaw et al. 2004; Fraser et al. 2005) as it provides a farmer with small land
holdings a better marketable harvest and buffer against the variations in market
events if a market is oversupplied with a crop (McCord et al. 2015).
Many studies have reported that inclusion of new crops in an existing cropping
system improved the system productivity and profitability. For example, the overall
system productivity and profitability of rice-wheat cropping system was improved
due to inclusion of sesbania (Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.) as a brown manure crop
due to improvement in soil properties (Nawaz et al., 2017). In another study, the
highest net return, benefit-cost ratio, economic efficiency, system productivity, and
energy productivity was recorded in Jute (Corchorus capsularis L.)-rice-potato

(Solanum tuberosum L.) system in India (Kumar et al. 2014). The intercropping of
wheat with chickpea improved the land use efficiency and total productivity (Banik
et al. 2006). In India, the inclusion of medical plants such as basil (Ocimum basili-
cum L.) and menthol mint (Mentha arvensis L.) in pea (Pisum sativum L.)-based
system improved the gross/net returns and benefit-cost ratio, thus improving the
economic profitability (Khan and Verma 2018). In another study, inclusion of mung-
bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) in a maize-wheat system improved the system
productivity by 25% and net returns by 28% than monoculture of maize and wheat
without mungbean (Jat et al. 2018). Pooniya et al. (2018) also observed highest net
returns, system productivity, and energy efficiency in rice-wheat-summer mung-
bean system than sole rice-wheat system in India. In crux, the inclusion of legumes
in cereal-based monoculture system may improve the system productivity and
profitability.
26.3.3 Pests and Diseases
Crop diversification has been believed to suppress the crop pest, thus increasing the
production (Lin 2011) and improving the resilience against climate change. Indeed,
crop diversification buffers the microclimatic fluctuations (Holt-Gimenez 2002;
Tengo and Belfrage 2004; Lin 2007; Philpott et al. 2008) which suppress crop pest
and disease pressure (Mitchell et al. 2002; Perfecto et al. 2004).
The diversification of the cropping systems with the inclusion of allelopathic
crops (as crop rotation or as cover crops) might be a viable option to reduce the
weed pressure which is otherwise higher in monoculture systems. For example, we
have noted that the weed flora is always lower in the winter season crops [e.g.,
wheat, barely (Hordeum vulgare L.)] following the sorghum (Sorghum bicolor
L. Moench) crop (author personnel observation) which is due to the presence of
suppressive allelochemicals of sorghum in the rhizosphere of the post-sorghum
crops. Moreover, the decomposing residues also help to reduce the insect pest and
diseases in crop plants (Farooq et al. 2011).
Planned crop rotations suppress the weeds. For example, the density of giant
foxtail (Setaria faberi [R.] Hermm.) was low in the crops following wheat (Schreiber
1992). The rice-wheat cropping system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains is heavily
infested with weeds. However, the inclusion of allelopathic crops such as sorghum,
maize, and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) after harvest of wheat and prior to
sowing of rice may control weeds in upcoming rice crop. Likewise, for the control
of wild oat (Avena fatua L.) in continuous monoculture wheat fields, the growing of
fodder crops such as Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) and oat (Avena
sativa L.) may provide control of this weed for at least 1 year. Indeed, the weeds will
be removed with fodder, and there will be no seed setting in weeds in that season,
thus lowering weed pressure (Peters et al. 2003; Farooq et al. 2011).
In a sunflower-wheat rotation, the wild oat and Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense
[L.] Scop.) population was low in post-sorghum wheat (Cernusko and Boreky
614 M. Ijaz et al.
1992). In Russia, Grodzinsky (1992) found 40% weed suppression in the post-
rapeseed field crops. In another study, inclusion of spring canola (Brassica napus
L.) in rotation reduced the weed population. Various other studies have reported that
crop rotations reduce the pressure of insect pest pressure (Benson 1985), diseases
(Dick and van Doren 1985; Edwards et al. 1988), and the nematode (Dabney et al.
1988).
The inclusion of cover crops in cropping systems may suppress the weeds, insect
pests, and diseases (Brandsæter et al. 2000; Hartwig and Ammon 2002; Gallandt
and Haramoto 2004; Hiltbrunner et al. 2007). Use of legume cover crops such as
jumbie bean (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit), velvet bean (Mucuna pru-
riens (L.) DC.), jack bean [Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.], and wild tamarind
[Lysiloma latisiliquum (L.) Benth.] reduced the population of barnyard grass
[Echinochloacrus-galli (L.) Beauv] in maize (Caamal-Maldonado et al. 2001). Use
of barely as cover crop reduced population of barnyard grass and crabgrass
[Digitaria ciliaris(Retz.) Koel.] in soybean (Kobayashi et al. 2004). Use of cover
crops such as hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus L.), velvet bean, and jack bean sup-
pressed the mission grass [Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schult.] in rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis L.) plantation (Kobayashi et al. 2003). Likewise, use of spiderlily
(Lycoris radiate L.) as cover crop suppresses the rice weeds (Iqbal et al. 2006).
Crop diversification also supports the predator of pests. For example, there was
greater spider abundance in a diversified cropping system (Sunderland and Samu
2000). On the other hand, in coffee (Coffea arabica L.)-agroforestry system, a great
diversity of the predators was recorded owing to the shade of trees. Moreover, more
trees in a cropping system also favor the residence of predator birds which prey on
different harmful insects of the crops (Perfecto et al. 2004). In a study, Armbrecht
and Gallego (2007) found greater efficiency of the predatory ground-dwelling ants
against coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari)) in a diversified coffee
system than a monoculture system.
In the diversified fields, when the pests want to invade a field, they encounter
more resistance due to the presence of natural predators which limit their move-
ment. Thus, the diversified farms have well-defined biological pest control than
monocultures. On the other hand, the biological control in diversified farms may be
introduced artificially. The biological control is cost-effective and more eco-friendly
than chemical control once established. For example, in the United States, it costed
just $2 million dollars to establish a successful biological control; a successive
chemical control costed $180 million dollars. The biological control has less risk of
resistance development and has less harmful side effects; the chemical control is
highly risky in terms of resistance development with many side effects (Bale et al.
2008). Thus, biological control might be most pragmatic on diversified farms due to
greater biodiversity than the chemical control.
Another idea for managing pests in monoculture systems is the growing of
another crop as trap crop with the main growing crops. For instance, strip planting
of maize in cotton may attract the cotton bollworms, thus reducing its attack on cot-
ton crop (Lincoln and Isley 1947). The stem borer (Chilo partellus) in India has
been reported to be attracted by sorghum crop. Ali and Karim (1989) reported that
the trap crops have been used to control jassid (Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida))
in cotton. In a study, the intercrop of tomatoes with beans in Central America
reduced the attack of army worm (Spodoptera sunia) (Rosset et al. 1985). In Canada,
the use of sterile bromegrass (Anisantha sterilis (L.) Nevski) has been effectively
used for the control of wheat stem sawfly (Cephus cinctus) (Van Emden and
Dabrowski 1997).
26.3.4 Environmental Benefits
Biodiversity in crop diversification ensures buffer against the environmental varia-

tions (Yachi and Loreau 1999) as different species perform differently against envi-
ronmental extremes, thus lowering the impacts of cropping systems on the aerial
and soil environments. The introduction of legumes in the cropping system for crop
diversification may reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (especially nitrous
oxide) owing to their ability to fix the atmospheric nitrogen with low reliance on the
use of synthetic fertilizers which are otherwise extensively used in monoculture
cereal-based systems in the world (Lithourgidis et al. 2011; Jensen et al. 2012).
Stagnari et al. (2017) reported that the emission of greenhouse gases such as nitrous
oxide and carbon dioxide per unit area is 5–7 times less in legume-based systems
than other field crop-based systems. Jensen et al. (2012) observed that the flux of
nitrous oxide was lower in legume-based systems than the crop rotations based on
nitrogen fertilization. In the United States and Europe, legume incorporation in
cereal-based cropping systems has resulted in less use of nitrogen fertilizer, thus
decreasing the N fertilizer-based greenhouse gas emission (Lemke et al. 2007;
Nemecek et al. 2008). Moreover, the government of the United States has shifted its
agricultural policies to promote diversified farming.
Agroforestry, a technique of crop diversification, helps to control the atmospheric
greenhouse gas concentration globally (Mbow et al. 2014). Agroforestry buffers
uncertain climates owing to regulation of microclimate and water flow (Nguyen
et al. 2013) in the cropping system. Agroforestry, a broader term which includes
crop diversification, crop rotation, live fences, boundary plantings, perennial crops,
etc., helps to conserve and protect natural resources (as by mitigating nonpoint pol-
lution source (dust)), control soil erosion, and protect wildlife and pollinator habi-
tats (Molua 2005). It provides rapid shift in ecological conditions along with
restoring soil and water resources (Molua 2005; Du-Toit et al. 2004). Crop diversi-
fication also helps to reduce the use of pesticides which is a common practice in
monoculture system, thus reducing the negative impacts of pesticides used on food
chain and aerial environment.
Crop diversification with legumes also helps to sequester carbon within soil.
Indeed, the fixed nitrogen and the carbon portion of the shoots, roots, and leaves of
legumes are incorporated into the soil after their decomposition. In a study on
sandy-textured soil, the cultivation of legumes increases the soil organic carbon
against cultivation of oat (Avena sativa L.) on the same soil (Hajduk et al. 2015).
Heenan et al. (2004) also reported that the soil organic carbon was enhanced by
616 M. Ijaz et al.
3.8 t ha−1 in top 100 cm soil in subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.)-

wheat rotation accomplished with crop residue retention. In crux, crop diversifica-
tion especially through legume crops may benefit the environment through reduction
in greenhouse gas emission and carbon sequestration.
26.4 Constraints in Crop Diversification
In a narrow scope, risk avoidance, land suitability, social norms, income level, and
contact with extension officers are key challenges in crop diversification (Cutforth
et al. 2001; Di Falco and Perrings 2003). Moreover the diversification of crop spe-
cies is also influenced by rainfall patterns, the farmer experiences, the community-
level traits, and the household demographics of the farmers (Jarvis and Hodgkin
2000; Neill and Lee 2001; Ryan et al. 2003; Degrande et al. 2006). Sometime,
introduced crop species in a diversified cropping system may cause a severe pest
invasion in that region (Ojasti 2001; Hall 2003). Likewise, the new crop species
introduced in a cropping system may not have great access to national and interna-
tional markets due to poor government policy including the subsidies, the supply
and price of inputs, and the infrastructure for the storage and transportation of agri-
cultural produce. Farmers also face risk from poor economic returns if crops are not
selected based on a market assessment. For example, drought-tolerant crop varieties
may fetch a low market price if there is not sufficient demand (Clements et al. 2011).
In crux, the various socioeconomic, environmental, and market-related factors may
influence crop diversification. The government policies should focus on the provi-
sion of subsidies to the famers adopting crop diversification. The government should
also provide funding to the research organization for conducting research on crop
diversification.
26.5 Conclusion and Future Research Thrusts
Continuous monoculture of cereal-based and other field crop-based systems may

threaten the food security of future generations in climate change scenario. Indeed,
continuous monocultures of field crops result in the loss of biodiversity which has
disturbed the ecosystem and resulted in increased threat of pests and diseases.
Monoculture systems also negatively impacted the soil properties and may enhance
the impact of global warming due to release of greenhouse gases. In this scenario,
crop diversification might be a viable option to improve biodiversity; manage insect
pests, weeds, and diseases; and reduce the emission of greenhouse gas. Due to their
importance in food security, inclusion of oilseed crops and legume crops and the
promotion of agroforestry system in cereal-based cropping systems may be a viable
option to improve soil properties, sequester carbon, and reduce global warming
impacts, and use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers may be reduced. Crop diver-
sification will also improve the system productivity and will ensure food security
for future generations. However, long-term experiments on the impact of crop
diversification on soil properties, farmer income, food security, and global warming
should be carried out on diverse soil types under variable climatic conditions.
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Fundamentals of Seed Production
and Processing of Agronomic Crops 27
Atique-ur-Rehman, Hakoomat Ali, Zartash Fatima,
and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
Agronomic crops are mostly propagated through seeds compared to other tech-
niques. Seed propagation is the basis for production of agronomic as well as
vegetable and fruit crops. However, seeds have been and will continue to be the
major source of food. Cereal seeds provide more food followed by legumes and
pulse. About nine-tenth of all seeds cultivated are cereals, and cereals are bread-
stuffs providing the most important food components, viz., carbohydrates, pro-
tein, and other constituents, whereas oil seeds are a common source of edible oil
and proteins. Improved agronomic and breeding techniques should be applied to
increase seed production along with productivity of agronomic crops.
Keywords
Seed · Production · Agronomic crops
27.1 Introduction
Crops are most commonly propagated from seeds as compared to any other method.
Seed propagation is the basis for the production of agronomic as well as vegetable
and fruit crops. Thus, seeds have been and will continue to be the major source of
food. Seeds from the Poaceae family (cereals) provide more food followed by the
Fabaceae family (legumes and pulse). About nine-tenth of all seeds cultivated are
cereals, and cereals are breadstuffs providing the most important food components,
viz., carbohydrates, protein, and other constituents, whereas oil seeds are a common
source of edible oil and proteins.
Atique-ur-Rehman · H. Ali · Z. Fatima · S. Ahmad (*)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_27
624 Atique-ur-Rehman et al.
The production of high-quality seeds is the principal for more edible food production
from the crops. In crop production, although seed has a little cost as compared to other
costs, importance of quality seed is more in attaining success. Sexually or vegetative
propagated planting materials which are used for planting should be free from any sort
of contamination like other particular seeds (other crop seed, weed seed, inert materials,
etc.) and infections (pests and diseases) and should be able to give a good crop stand.
Generally, seed is defined as a ripened ovule containing an embryo. The ovule
after fertilization develops into a seed with its coats completely fused together with
the developing ovary wall or pericarp. Seed size and shape vary greatly within the
species ranging from the dust-like seeds of orchids and tobacco to the largest seeds
of acorns, walnuts, and coconut. Seeds may be round, oval, triangular, elliptical,
elongated, or irregular in shape. Seed color may be varying from black to brown to
the hues of red, yellow, purple, green, white, or multicolored seeds. Seeds may be
smooth surfaced or rough textured with silky hairs, cottony masses, hooks, bristles,
or wing-like structures, which play an important function in the dispersal of seeds.
Mostly, crop seeds are propagated by different seed companies, which are spe-
cialized in particular types of seed production. Moreover, it is expected from these
companies to present seeds of true-to-type improved cultivars with high production
potential. It is pertinent for the production of high-quality seeds to pay close atten-
tion to the prevailing environmental conditions of particular seed locality and to test
the quality of produced seeds. This chapter emphasizes different aspects of seed
from flower to production, testing, and storage practices.
27.2 Flowering and Pollination
Flower is a modified shoot that takes part in sexual reproduction. All angiosperms
produce flowers. It is the most important part of the plant (Fig. 27.1).
Fig. 27.1 A typical flower sketch showing different parts

27 Fundamentals of Seed Production and Processing of Agronomic Crops 625
Fig. 27.2 Pollination in

rice
Parts of Flower
Peduncle: The stalk on which the flower originates.

Receptacle: The part of the flower where different parts are attached.
Sepal: The outermost whorl of the flower that encloses the developing bud.
Petal: The second outermost whorl of the flower that is often conspicuously colored.
Stamen: The pollen-producing part of the flower that usually consists of slender
filament supporting the anther.
Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
Pistil: It is the ovule-producing part of the flower. The ovary often supports a long
style, topped by stigma. The mature ovary is fruit, and the mature ovule is seed.
Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates.
Ovary: The enlarged basal portion of the pistil where ovules are produced.
Inflorescence: The arrangement of the flower on the stem.
Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the flower, i.e., anther, to the
female receptive stigma of the flower (Fig. 27.2).
27.3 Fertilization and Seed Formation
After pollination, fusion of the male and female gametes occurs. In pollination, pollen
reaches the stigma where these start to germinate to form pollen tube, which enters in
the embryo sac. Pollen tube carries vegetative cell and two male cells. One male cell
Fig. 27.3 Schematic depiction of process of pollination and fertilization
fuses with the egg to form diploid zygote; other cells fuse with the diploid secondary
nucleus and form triploid endosperm nucleus. Since the fusion involves three haploid
nuclei, it also called triple fusion. In this process, two male cells fuse with two cells so
it is called double fertilization, and it is only found in angiosperms (Fig. 27.3).
27.3.1 Development of Embryo and Endosperm
After fertilization, zygote divides into two cells: basal cell at micropylar end and
terminal cell at chalazal end. Basal cell forms suspensor that pushes the developing
embryo into the endosperm. The terminal cell divides and differentiates in all planes
and produces mature embryo. The embryo consists of embryonic axis, upper part
called plumule, and lower radicle. The plumule forms the shoot system, and the
radicle forms the root system. The plumule is covered with coleoptile and radicle by
coleorhiza. Cotyledons are attached on embryonic axis. Dicotyledonous embryo has
two cotyledons, and monocotyledonous embryo has one cotyledon. Triploid primary
endosperm divides and forms many cells. Later on, cell walls are laid down between
the nuclei and cells and organize into endosperm tissue. The developing embryo gets
food from the endosperm, which also supplies food to emerging seedlings.
27.3.2 Development of Seed
After the development of mature embryo, ovule develops into seed. Integuments slowly
dried up and form seed coat, outer form testa and inner form tegmen. Food materials
are transformed into reserved food. Micropyle of the ovule becomes micropyle of the
seed. Seed coat may be one or two depending upon the number of integuments. Thus,
a mature seed is a fertilized ripened ovule or the part of flower that contains embryo and
Fig. 27.4 Sketch of seed

with main parts
may develop into a new plant if provided with favorable conditions. Anatomically, the
seed is an embryo or miniature plant consisting of rudimentary stem and root together
with a supply of food, sufficient to establish a plant in a new location. Physiologically,
a seed is essentially a meristematic axis with storage organs preserved within mem-
branes and a protective external seed coat/covering (Fig. 27.4).
27.3.3 Seed Structure and Composition
A true seed is the fertilized mature ovule, which consists of living embryo, the
stored food material (endosperm in monocots and some dictos), and a protective
coat. The endosperm, which is actually the food source for embryo, is derived after
double fertilization from a triploid nucleus. The endosperm is developed during
fertilization together with the formation of zygote. The endosperm is a starchy sub-
stance, which nurtures the developing embryo or the younger seedling. After devel-
opment from ovules, seeds are covered in protective ovaries. These ovaries are
derivative from carpels of the flower and advanced into fruit.
There are three major structures of seed: (i) embryo, (ii) endosperm, and (iii)
seed coat; these are described in detail in the following sections.
27.3.3.1 Embryo
In living embryo, the most important part of the seed consists of two structures: (1)
embryonic axis and (2) cotyledons. The embryonic axis is composed of three parts,
namely, (1) radicle, (2) the hypocotyl (the point of attachment of cotyledons), and
(3) plumule (the shoot apex with the first true leaves). The three parts of embryonic
axis are easy to identify in dicots, but in monocots (especially in the family
Germaine), their identification is difficult. In monocot, there is only one cotyledon,
which is reduced and modified to form the scutellum. The basal sheath of cotyle-
dons is elongated to take the shape of coleoptiles, while in some cases, e.g., maize,
the hypocotyl is modified to form mesocotyl. The base of hypocotyl sheathing the
radicle is termed as coleorhiza. The shape and size of the embryo vary from species
to species. In endospermic (monocot and dicot) seeds, the embryo occupies much
lesser species in the seed than it does in non-endospermic seeds. In some species,
e.g., poa alpha and citrus, each seed contains more than one embryo; this condition
is called polyembryony and that is may be due to (1) cleavage of the fertilized egg
cell to form many zygote initials, (2) development of one or more synergids into
embryos, (3) pressure of many embryo sacs per ovule, and (4) different forms of
apomixes and adventitious embryony. In some species such as orchard, when the
seeds become detached from plants, they do not contain mature embryos (many
possess minute and poorly developed embryos) and lack any endosperm.
27.3.3.2 Storage Tissue or Endosperm

Based on the presence or absence of a well-developed endosperm in the mature
seed, seeds may be grouped into two classes: (1) endospermic and (2) non-
endospermic seeds. In some crops, viz., cereals, castor bean, date palm, and endo-
spermic legumes (e.g., fenugreek, carob, honey locust, etc.), endosperm is relatively
larger and carries substantial food reserve within the mature seed. In such seeds,
stored food materials absorb the cytoplasmic contents during seed development.
Therefore, the majority of cell in the endosperms of such mature seeds are nonliv-
ing. The endosperm is surrounded by a sheet of living cells, the aleurone layer.
Aleurone layer does not store many reserves, but is responsible for the release of
enzymes that mobilize the endosperm food reserves. A well-developed endosperm
provides food reserve to the germinating embryo, and in some crops, e.g., in fenu-
greek seeds, it may also regulate water balance of the embryo during germination.
Some seeds, despite having an endosperm, are called non-endospermic. This is
because of the following reasons. Firstly, the endosperm may be broken, and only
remnant of that had developed during seed formation, e.g., soybean, peanut, etc.
Secondly, the endosperm is only one to a few cell layers thick, e.g., lettuce. As a mat-
ter of fact, in such crops, the cotyledons serve as the storage organs. In coffee and
yucca, the perisperm is the principal storage organ, while in been seeds, both the
perisperm and cotyledons of the embryo contain substantial food reserves. Perisperm
develops from the nuclear tissue of ovules. In most species, the perisperm is however
absorbed rapidly during seed development and is absent from mature seed.
27.3.3.3 Seed Coat

A hard and tough outer covering that protects the seed from different external risky
agents like fungi, bacteria, or insects is called testa. It is split open by protrusion of
radical afore proceed of germination. The seed coats consist of an outer and inner
cuticle, impregnated with waxes and fats and one or few layers of thick-walled pro-
tective cells. In some species, crystal- (calcium oxalate or carbonate) containing
cells are present in the seed coat and serve as protective barrier by discouraging
insects and predation. The seed coat of pulses is hard, impermeable to water, and
capable of restricting metabolism and growth of inner tissues. The testa of seeds
across species shows considerable variation for color and texture. These features are
often used for taxonomic classification of seeds. However, sometimes, these fea-
tures overlap under the environmental and genetic influences during development;
therefore, they do not offer a reliable distinguishing criterion.
Almost all seeds bear a scar-like point called the hilum. The hilum is a mark on
the surface of seed left by the stalk, and it attaches the ovule to the ovary wall. This
is the point at which a seed remains joint with the funiculus. The micropyle, which
is a small hole at one end of the hilum, is present in seed coats of many species. It is
a small tiny aperture in the testa, which permits water to enter into the seed before
active germination. Sometimes hairs or wings are present in testa; these structures
help in the seed dispersal, e.g., in willow, lily, etc. Seed coat may also bear out
growth of the hilum region, viz., the strophiole, which controls moment of water
into and out of seed, and the aril, which contains chemicals. For example, the aril of
nutmeg is used as a source of species mace. In castor bean, the aril, which is associ-
ated with micropyle, is called caruncle.
27.4 Fundamentals of Seed Production
27.4.1 Planting of Parent Crop
Appropriate practices and cautious management of crop are important for success-
ful quality seed production of agronomic crops. In general, different farming prac-
tices, which are of key importance for quality seed production, are described here.
27.4.1.1 Choice of Area

Suitable field or soil is the base for production of any crop and its good-quality seed.
Choice of proper location with fertile soil will not only ensure maximum economic
yields but also help obtain high-quality seed.
For selection of a good field for quality seed production, previous field history
must take into consideration. It is important that for seed, which have to produce
must not be alike to previously grown seed in that field. Similarly, the seed of some
crops persists longer viability and can germinate in next season fouling following
crop in that field. For example, fields where rye was grown previously should be
avoided for the production of wheat seed or other similar seeds. Likewise, fields
where small-seeded crops were grown should not be used for the production of seed
that is inseparable. Similar problem may persist in fields used to produce grasses
with inseparable seed.
The selected field should be weed free to avoid weed seed contamination. Weeds
compete with crop plants for space and applied inputs like water and nutrients
reducing crop yields and causing problems in seed production. Moreover, contami-
nation of weed seeds with desired crop seed is a major threat, which slashes value
of seed and makes it unmarketable. Eradicating weeds may reduce the risk of weed
seed contamination by suitable cultural practices or effective herbicides. However,
the best way is to select fields with no or minimum weed problems.
For seed production of cross-pollinated crops, outcrossing in the fields must be
checked to avoid possibility of genetic contamination. A minimum isolation dis-
tance between fields of varieties of the same species must be maintained to dodge
pollens from one variety to the other.
27.4.1.2 Land Preparation

Once a proper land is selected for seed production of a particular crop, the next
important process can be started. Field preparation comprises of eradication of
weeds or residues of harvested crops and making soil favorable for seed. Weeds can
be controlled by chemical or different cultural practices. Chemical herbicides have
a great scope for the removal of weeds and thus can effectively be used for weed
control. A good seedbed further includes the removal of stones and rocks and rip-
ping and leveling of soil. Sowing of seed in a fine, well-tilled soil would be helpful
to achieve maximum contact with seed and soil and thus for a proper crop stand.
Although seed quality has no direct relationship with soil fertility, soil with a good
fertility status is key for crop production. Proper fertilization to the crop will not only
ensure maximum yield but also good-quality seed will be attained. However, certain
nutrient elements have a particular role in seed production, and their deficiencies
may be problematic for seed quality. For example, deficiencies of calcium and boron
are reported to produce discoloration in cotyledons of field beans. Fertility status of
soil can be improved with the addition of organic matter and exclusion of any other
soil problem like soil salinity. Deficiency of organic matter in the soils is a common
problem, and improvement in it plays a vital role in improving fertility status of the
soil. Advantages of high organic matter in the soil include improvement in soil struc-
ture, crumb formation, porosity of the soil, respiration of roots, water infiltration, and
water holding capacity, while it decreases compaction of soil and crust formation.
Similarly, presence of high organic matter in the soil reduces the detrimental effects
of salinity by improving the removal of salts.
A proper irrigation system should be prepared to ensure timely availability of
water. After initial soil preparation, the irrigation system can be installed according
to the irrigation needs of crop grown for seed production. In dry regions, the avail-
ability of abundant irrigation water becomes more important to produce seed.
Though dry summers normally offer almost idyllic weather for harvesting, the crop
needs irrigation since the deficient levels of precipitation are insufficient for suste-
nance of crop production. Hence, availability of irrigation water becomes a main
aspect in the successful seed production of different species. Generally, most of
regions depend on rainfall and groundwater to fulfill water requirements of the
crops. A good seedbed preparation will ensure suitable seed-soil contact, which is
important to achieve highest germination and decent stand establishment.
27.4.1.3 Selection of Cultivar

An approved cultivar with upgraded growth and yield characteristics is important
for the value of seed to be produced. Improved cultivars of cereals, for example,
should have high yield potential with good milling characteristics. Further, their
better stand ability under adverse environmental conditions and resistance to pests
must be considered. Likewise, legumes or other crop varieties should also have bet-
ter yield potential in addition to their resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. It is
particular that selected varieties should accomplish well under different abiotic
stresses like drought and salinity. There may be no single variety with all desirable
traits; however, selected cultivar should be with at least some unique qualities that
make it appropriate for its intentional purpose. The objective of seed production
must be to increase the desirable cultivar, which is able to fulfill the demand of the
particular region and have potential or established market.
Although good quality of seed is not a guarantee for high yield with better qual-
ity, it is important to attain adequate plant population with moderately reasonable
yield. Usually, quality standards for seed production or commercial agriculture are
not essentially different.
27.4.1.4 Sowing Method and Stand Establishment

For seed production, sowing methods greatly differ among agronomic crops.
Generally, for seed production of small-seeded crops, relatively lower seed rates are
recommended as compared to forage crops. Due to their indeterminate flowering
patterns, these small-seeded crops produced higher seed yields with more space
among the plants. Likewise, higher seed yields are usually attained when crops are
planted in rows as compared to solid stands. Nonetheless, it is important that rows
should be sown at higher seed rates to achieve maximum production. For seed pro-
duction of crops with large seeds like edible legumes, small grains, or soybeans,
similar rates as for commercial production are used for seed production. However,
in small-seeded grasses or legumes, sowing in rows is more productive as compared
to general broadcast or solid stands.
There is no difference in time of sowing between crops for seed production or for
commercial production. Taking everything into consideration, for seed production,
sowing of a particular crop must be done at its proper time to permit a healthy seed-
ling establishment and phenology of crop to ensure an appropriate floral induction
for well-timed seed production.
Special techniques for sowing of crops can be used to achieve maximum germina-
tion of crop seed and to suppress germination of other crop or weed seed. For this
purpose, a liquid charcoal named as safener can be sprayed in the form of a band on
the crop seed sown in rows. The technique forms spreading of contact herbicide over
the whole field, while the crop seed remained covered by the soil. In this way, germi-
nation of all other non-sowed seeds (other crops or weeds) will be prohibited, while
the cover of charcoal band absorbs the herbicide, protecting the young crop seedling.
27.4.1.5 Pollination Control

Proper pollination of pollens from the anther to the stigma of the same crops is neces-
sary to produce true-to-type seed of a crop. Fertilization occurs in the flower where a
female gamete joins with male gamete from the pollen grain of the flower. The pro-
cess of pollination is simple and easy in self-pollinated crops for true-to-type seed
production. Simply, pollens are transferred from the anther to the stigma within the
same flower or of other flower of the same plant. However, in cross-pollinated crops,
transfer of pollens to the stigma may be by either wind, insects, different animals,
bats, birds, or even land mammals. However, insects are the most important and com-
mon pollinators. Although it occurs naturally, increasing insect population in the
vicinity can significantly assist insect pollination. Insects are attracted to the flower
by its color for search of nectar. Insects such as butterflies, bees, and wasps fly from
one flower to other in search of nectar. In this process, pollens adhere on their legs or
other body parts and rubbed off on the stigma of flowers. Although different insects
are doing the job, several types of bees are particularly effective. For a speedy pro-
cess of pollination, colonies of honeybees are reared in or near to crops. For seed
production of different insect pollination crops, insect pollination is key to success.
Normally, pollination of flowers in the field occurs by receiving pollens from
neighboring flowers; however, some pollens may be carried out from great distances
through wind or insects. Such pollens may come in contact with stigma of grown
crop. Hence, there is a chance for outcross-fertilization by pollen from another vari-
ety or from an unidentified source of the same species. To avoid outcrossing, suit-
able distances from other sources of pollens must be ensured for proper isolation of
seed fields. Standard isolation distances have been established depending upon the
type of species, seed, and size of field. Regardless of the type of seed, isolation is
imperative for seed production of agronomic crops.
27.4.1.6 Weed Control

Weeds are competitors of crops for space and different inputs like water, mineral
nutrients, etc. Although weed control has much importance in crop production, it is
particularly significant for good-quality seed production. Weeds reduce seed quality
by polluting the actual crop seeds with their seeds. After harvest of the crop, this
contamination is difficult to remove especially with the presence of inseparable
noxious weed seeds.
To get rid of weeds, care is needed from the time of field selection and prepara-
tion. While selecting field, its historic freedom from perennial weeds must be consid-
ered. A field with a proper crop rotation is noted to have less number of perennial
weeds. After sowing of crop seeds, weeds can be controlled by different cultural
practices and natural or synthetic herbicides. Weed eradication by synthetic chemi-
cals or herbicides is common; especially herbicides like glyphosate are applied prior
to seedbed preparation to control perennial grassy weeds. Remaining or new estab-
lishing perennial or annual weeds can be controlled by tillage and field preparation.
Sowing in proper method early in the season can be important in weed control,
especially when crop stand is established in the field. Further, it can be strengthen
by use of selective herbicides or suitable cultural method for the removal of remain-
ing uncontrolled weeds. In this regard, roguing by either manual or chemical means
is important. Roguing can be done manually by hand removal of weeds through the
whole crop, while it can be performed by chemical desiccation of weeds by using
suitable chemicals prior to seed setting of the crop to inhibit occurrence of weed
seed in the harvested seed.
27.4.1.7 Disease and Insect Control

Disease control is significant to be successful in crop production, and thus, it is
specifically imperative for high-quality seed production. Different pathogens such
as bacteria, viruses, or fungi may cause seed-borne diseases affecting the perfor-
mance of seed in the field. As a consequence of these pathogen attacks, the infected
seed becomes a source of inoculum to infect the subsequent generation. Therefore,
to produce a high-quality disease-free seed, it is important to use disease-free seeds,

which are grown in isolated and disease-free regions. After crop establishment,
foliar sprays of chemicals can control diseases; however, these are not adequate for
seed-borne diseases. To obtain maximum disease-free high-quality seed, it is better
to grow crop in disease-free conditions.
For seed production, although insects are not usually as problematic as diseases,
some of those may cause hurdles for high-quality seed production. They damage the
plant by sucking and chewing and cause defoliation. In addition, some insects may
develop seed-borne diseases after laying their eggs during reproductive stage of
plant in developing seed. From these infected seeds, larvae hatch and adults emerge
by developing a hole in seed coat. This empty seed is then unable to germinate
which needs to be apart during conditioning.
Different cultural and chemical methods are used to control insects; however,
chemical insecticides are commonly used in the field. After harvest of crops, insects
in storage may infect seeds, which can be controlled by cleanliness and sanitation
of storage containers. Insecticides may directly be applied to seed prior to store for
protection from certain insects. Seeds already infected by insects before harvesting
can be controlled by fumigation. It is important to keep storage bins free of insects
by controlling heat and moisture level, which causes the quick deterioration of seed.
27.4.2 Harvesting
Proper harvest of mature seed from the crop is of much significance. For this, seed
must be given full time to mature, and moisture content of seed has reached to as
low as safe storage is possible. Safe moisture levels for harvest and storage must be
well affirmed for each crop because there is a great variation among crops for safe
moisture levels. A higher moisture level at harvest deteriorates the seed more
quickly and makes the seed soft, which can be easily damaged during processing.
On the other hand, too dry seeds like large-seeded legumes may be brittle and easily
broken during threshing.
Different harvesting methods can be used depending upon the type of species.
Modern threshers are available which can be used to harvest and thresh the seeds in
the field without much effort. Conventionally, the practice of harvesting and thresh-
ing in the field was difficult without lodging and significant shattering losses, com-
monly with a stationary thresher. Some crops were kept stand in the field till the
desired moisture level to direct combines. Through modern seed harvesters, crops
can be windrowed and dried while present in the field up to the time when threshing
becomes possible. For seed production in dry areas, the practice is especially done
to cope with variable weather conditions.
Harvesting operations constitute cutting of plant parts and separation of seeds
from the material, each performed either manually or mechanically. Mechanical
harvesting though can deal with large area, but manual methods may be preferred
for economic or social reasons. Generally, three main types of harvesting systems
for seed crops are described, viz., hand picking, cutting, and threshing.
27.4.2.1 Hand Picking

In hand picking, ripened seed and fruits are picked by pickers walking through the
crops and collected in the baskets. This practice is mostly done in crops which do
not ripened simultaneously like cotton and carrot.
27.4.2.2 Cutting and Threshing

These common harvesting systems may be done separately or in combined opera-
tion. Plants are usually cut and left in the field to dry before threshing. At the time of
cutting, seed may be too wet and susceptible to mechanical injury. Plants are cut and
are tied into bundles so that seed may not shed. Cutting the crop early in the morning
may decrease shedding. Maize cobs are picked up by hand or machine, leaving some
husk to provide protection. If the moisture content is above 30%, mechanical picking
causes damage to seeds, but 20–25% is the appropriate moisture level. Groundnut is
dug up manually or mechanically and left over the field to dry.
27.4.2.3 Direct Combine Harvesting

Combine harvesters do harvesting and threshing simultaneously by cutting the
inflorescence with leaf and some part of the stem. Mostly, the cereal crops are com-
bine harvested on medium to large scale. The sign of crop, ready for harvest, is
judged by the color of the crop and stiffness or hardness or moisture level. Moisture
level for safe harvest with minimum damage is given in Table 27.1.
27.4.2.4 Threshing
Threshing process mainly consists of (1) beating or rubbing the plant material to
detach seeds; (2) wind rowing to remove chaff, straw, and other light materials from
the seed; and (3) sieving stones, soils, and seeds of different sizes or species.
Traditionally, threshing is done on the floor or hard field surface by hands. Seeds are
separated by beating the crops on floors, pulling animals on crops, or driving rubber
tires or tractor over it. However, modern mechanical threshers are widely used to
handle a huge-scale crop. In thresher’s drum, the plant material is fed and beaten
with the beaters, and then seed lot is cleaned by the air blast and sieves.
Before threshing, equipment must be cleaned, and it is necessary for each vari-
ety. Normally, equipment are vacuumed, swept, or blown to remove the residues
from combine. Regardless of the time consumed for this job, it is necessary to pre-
vent the remaining of the previous crops to contaminate seed lots, which cannot be
avoided during conditioning. However, complete removal of all contamination is
Table 27.1 Optimum Crop Moisture level (%)

moisture level for harvesting Wheat 16–19
of agronomic crops
Barley 17–19
Oat 19–21
Rice 17–23
Flax and ≤35
linseed
Pes 14–20
impossible due to some lodged residues in the combine. Thus, it is better to flush out
the equipment or combine by diverting the harvest. It will also be helpful to avoid
contamination by weeds, which is more ubiquitous around the boundaries of field.
For high-quality seed production, combine must be properly calibrated. Complete
threshing of the seed is also important to avoid mechanical damage, which other-
wise may result in reduced germination and vigor. It is further to consider that prior
to the use of particular equipment, its calibration must be done according to manu-
facturer’s instructions.
27.4.3 Processing
After harvesting, seeds are dried to optimum moisture content that controls the fun-
gal and bacterial infestation and decreases the chances of mites and insect attack.
Seed processing is done as an operation of receiving, pre-cleaning, separation,
blending, treatment, packaging, and storage.
27.4.3.1 Seed Drying

In seed drying, moisture content is reduced to safe level at which it is safe from rotten-
ing or attack by the insects. In the first step, the seed is dried in the sun, and then the hot
air drying is carried out. For air drying, generally, the temperature is maintained up to
45 °C; higher temperatures are also used but in continuous flow dryers (Kelly 1988).
Temperature range for drying of different seeds is given in Table 27.2. After drying by
hot air, seeds are cooled down by the forced ventilation (Figs. 27.5 and 27.6).
(A) Methods of Seed Drying

(B) 1- Traditional Sun Dying
In natural sun drying, farmers use the wind and temperature; keeping in
view the climatic conditions, the crop is spread over the field. It is a simple
practice, which requires no extra expenditure. However, there are certain limi-
tations in sun drying as late harvesting and risks of weather damage and pos-
Table 27.2 Recommended Crop Temperature (°C)

maximum drying temperature Wheat 43–65
of seeds (Thomson 1979)
Rice 50–60
Maize 40–45
Pea 30–50
Groundnut 36
Beet 45
Soybean 30–55
Ryegrass 40–70
Clovers and 27–40
brassicas
Onion 21–33
Humid
air exit
Glass wool
insulation
Loading
Chilli
Drying chamber Door
Trays
Solar radiations
Glass cover
Stand
Gravels
Control
Blower valve
Insulation
Baffle plate
Fig. 27.5 A forced air dryer
Fig. 27.6 Continuous flow dryer

sible influence on the germinability of seeds due to ultraviolet light if the

moisture content of seeds is high.
(C) 2- Forced Air Drying
In forced air drying, air is blown through seeds until the desired moisture level is
attained. There are different types of forced air dryer available.
(a) Batch Dryers

In this method, the dry air is blown through the sacks of seeds unless the seed
is completely dried. In batch dryers, the air ducts are installed in a barn floor.
(b) Continuous Flow Dryers
In this method, seeds move across the hot air in vertical or horizontal chambers
with a stream of hot air, and then they are entered in a cooling chamber where they
are cooled down.
(c) Storage Structures for Seed Drying

There are some specific requirements to build the storage structures of dry-
ing, depending upon the size of operation, size of seed lot to be dried, desired
level, and future perspectives. Different structures are used which are made of
steel, wood, plywood, or concrete and may be cylindrical or rectangular in
shape.
(d) Heated Air Drying System
Heated air dryers consist of:
1. Heater unit.
2. Fan which forces the heated air into the duct.
3. A thermosphere is attached which controls the temperature and cut offs the fuel
supply when temperature is exceeded.
These air dryers are of two main types, which differ in the manner of heat supply:
(a) Direct fire dryer

(b) Indirect fire dryer
In the direct fire dryers, the fuel is burned, and hot air is thrown directly into the
air distribution system (Table 27.3). In indirect fire dryers, hot gasses first pass into
a chamber; air circulates around the chamber and picks up the heat and then dries
the seed. These are considered less efficient dryers. In heated air dryers, different
fuels are burned, e.g., liquid propane or butane, natural gas, fuel oil, and coal. Fans
Table 27.3 Recommended Maximum Recommended

depths and temperatures for Crop seed depth (cm) temperature (°C)
heated air drying of some Shelled corn 50.8 43.3
crop seeds in bins
Wheat 50.8 43.3
Barley 50.8 40.4
Oats 91.4 43.3
Rice 45.7 43.3
Soybean 50.8 43.3
Peanuts 152.4 32.2
Grain 50.8 43.3
sorghum
are driven by electric motor or gasoline engine. Two aspects are considered most
important in the heat dryers, i.e., required airflow volume and heat capacity.
(D) 3- Cleaning and Upgrading

As seeds come from the field, there may be some impurities like seeds of
other crops, weed seeds, plant debris, soil and stones, etc. These must be sepa-
rated to get clean seed of crop. These impurities can be removed from the seeds
on the basis of different physical properties like size, shape, weight, surface
area, specific gravity, color, and texture.
Klein et al. (1961) described some factors, which are taken under consider-
ation during the seed processing.
1. Seeds should not be mixed with other crop or weed seeds or damaged by the
equipment.
2. During the processing, all equipment and bins should be arranged specifically so
that there is no hindrance in the seed movement.
3. Method of handling and volume of seed to be handled must be of optimum size
which can easily processed.
Usually, cleaning in a series of operations includes pre-cleaning, basic cleaning,

separation, and grading.
(A) Pre-cleaning/Scalping
Scalping means a process of rapid pre-cleaning, consisting of an air blast
and large- meshed screens to remove mostly the bulky material and rubbish.
The material is fallen through, and an upward air stream helps to remove the
dust particles and lighter material. Screens vibrate and allow the seed-size par-
ticles to pass through retaining the chaff, pods, awns, stem, leaves, etc. Thus,
this process of removing the large-sized particles is termed as “scalping.” In
hulling, the fibrous fruit walls mostly not removed during the threshing process
just like in crops like clover, seeds are fed into the cylinder with revolving
arms, which rub the seeds against the internal surface of the cylinder. In “shell-
Fig. 27.7 Basic or secondary cleaning
ing,” groundnut seeds are removed from pods and maize kernels from their
cobs. Mechanical injury can be minimized in maize until it dries, but the testa
of groundnut kernel is too thin to provide any protection against any mechani-
cal damage. There are different types of scalpers, perforated metal screen,
which is inclined slightly and turns on a central shaft. Another type is single flat
perforated screen which is shaken mechanically. Scalping helps a lot in remov-
ing awns, hair, glumes, and appendages which make the seed handling difficult
just like seeds of some grasses and small grains (Fig. 27.7).
27.4.3.1.1 Seed Treatment

After cleaning, seed is treated for different purposes:
1 . Seed disinfection/disinfestation to combat seed-borne diseases and insect pest

2. Protection of seeds against diseases and pests that may be present in soil or be
airborne when seedlings emerge
3. Specialized treatments such as coating, pelleting, scarification, decortications,
irradiation, blending, and delinting to protect seeds against pests or aid in
germination
Commonly, seed treatment is referred to as the application of pesticides to seeds

to save them from seed-borne and soil-borne pathogenic organism and storage
insect pest. Disinfection and disinfestations are different terms as disinfection is the
eradication of fungal spores established within the seed coat or in the inner tissues,
whereas disinfestations are generally used to mean destruction of surface organisms
and that seeds are contaminated but still not infected.
Diseases and insect pest that can be controlled through seed treatment are:
1. Systemic diseases that infect during the harvesting stage or storage, e.g., stinking
smut of wheat loose kernel smuts, etc.
2. Systemic diseases during the flowering stage which are established within the
seed and resulting plant, e.g., loose smuts of barley and wheat generally treated
with Vitavax
3. Non-systemic diseases during harvesting and storage, e.g., Helminthosporium
spots, blotches or blights of barley, etc.
4. Seed rots and seedling blights
5. Storage and soil insects
Agrawal (1980) described the essential situations for seed treatments:
1. When seed coats are injured during harvest and processing
2. When conditions are unfavorable against surface molds
27.4.3.1.2 Methods of Seed Treatments

According to Hanson et al. (1961), there are three methods of seed treatment, viz.,
mechanical, physical, and chemical methods.
1. Mechanical Methods
Infectious material mixed with seeds is removed through mechanical means.

However, mechanically treated seeds are not completely free of pathogens.
2. Physical Methods
Mostly, physical methods are used to remove pathogens which are deep rooted
into the seeds. Some of physical methods are hot water and water soak and treat-
ment with ultraviolet and other types of radiations. Hot water method requires ther-
mometers, water tanks, hot water, and drying facilities, which are sometimes
impossible to provide; therefore, it is restricted. However, water-soaked method is
less critical, and in this method, seeds are soaked in water almost for 2 h and then
kept in anaerobic or nearly anaerobic condition for 1–2 days or more. There are
some effective modifications to increase the effectivity as the higher the tempera-
ture, the shorter is the time required.
3. Chemical Methods
The most commonly used method for treating the seed is chemical method.
Chemicals are available in different forms for seed treatment like dusts, liquid, and
suspensions. The chemical doses depend upon the chemical, crop, length of storage
period, and method of application. Wet treatments are now applied through slurry
quick method or quick wet procedure because there is no need for extra time and
space to dry the seed. In slurry method, seeds are completely coated with a thick
suspension of chemical, whereas a concentrated solution of fungicide is added and
thoroughly mixed with seeds in the quick wet method. Pelleting is a method of
applying chemicals which is used as protectant against soil-borne organisms and

repellent against the birds and rodents.
27.4.3.1.3 Seed Treating Equipment

There are mainly two types of seed treating equipment: slurry and direct treaters.
(A) Slurry Treaters

In slurry treatment, a suspension of wet table powder is prepared in the
water and then applied to seeds. It is very important that seed receives the cor-
rect dose. That’s why some machines work on the batch system, in which a
weighed quantity of seed is released into the chamber appropriate to the amount
of chemical.
(B) Direct Treaters
These are comparatively new designed than the slurry treaters. Panogen and
Mist-o-Matic are models which are extensively being used. In the Mist-o-Matic
model, chemical is directly applied to the seed.
(C) Miscellaneous Equipment
A simple mixer can be made at home in which seed and chemical are placed
in the drum, which is rotated slowly and continuously until the seeds are com-
pletely covered with the chemical.
27.4.3.1.4 Special Seed Treatment Processes

Seeds also require the treatment for specific purposes like delinting, scarification,
etc. Taylor and Harman (1990) discussed the use of different treatment technologies
and beneficial microorganisms used in these treatments to protect seeds from fungal
attack.
(A) Seed coating and pelleting

Seed coating is the direct application of the material or chemical to the seed.
Roos and Moore (1975) defined the coated seed as seed that has been pelleted,
tableted, or taped. In the seed coating, the seed size or shape doesn’t change,
whereas “pelleted seed” is termed as the addition of inert fillers to increase the
apparent seed size and weight. Seed coating is used as ameliorating agent
against the environmental stresses like drought and flooding. Some crop seeds
are small and irregular in shape causing the difficulty in the precision seeding
and uniform plant spacing; pelleting increases the seed size and changes shape
and weight (Halmer, 1988).
(B) Encapsulation of seeds
Capsules are developed to enhance the stability of seeds; natural seeds also
can be encapsulated by hydrogels. Redenbaugh mixed propagules with sodium
alginate solutions and then transferred the coated propagules to a calcium salt
to form a soft capsule (Redenbaugh et al. 1987).
(C) Fluid drilling and seed priming
In fluid drilling, seeds are gelled until the radical emergence, and then these
gel mixed seeds are sown. The gel gives protection against injury to the emerg-
ing radical and also maintains moisture. Gels even have been used to control
soil-borne diseases and deliver pesticides, while seed priming is a presowing
hydration treatment which is developed to facilitate seedling establishment.
Unlike the fluid-drilled seeds, the primed seeds can be handled conventionally.
But priming also needs controlled environment, temperature, duration of treat-
ment, and also the water potential of the priming media.
(D) Biological seed treatment
Beneficial microorganisms are used in this treatment like Rhizobium spp. to
leguminous seeds for nitrogen fixation, and Azospirillum and other nitrogen-
fixing bacteria have long been known. Seed treatments also play a vital role in
amelioration of stress associated with the soil environment and improve the
plant growth and will continue to play significant role in crop production
technology.
(E) Delinting of cotton
The delinted seed is free from lintborne pathogens and gives chemical appli-
cation as well as better seed germination (Agrawal 1980). Delinting can be
done by machinery or chemicals.
1. Mechanical delinting
Seeds may have fuzz and lint in very small amount after ginning which may
cause to stick the seeds together and flow become difficult. Lint is cut as close as
possible to the seeds with finer saw and teeth just like ginning process. Then the
seed is more cleared through flash furnace process in which seeds are passed
through a furnace operated at 2400 °F to remove lint and then screened to remove
immature seeds.
2. Chemical delinting
Chemical cleaning may be dry or wet; in “dry process,” sulfuric acid and hydrochlo-
ric acid are mixed to form gas which is piped into a revolving tank containing the
seeds. Heat plays a role in hastening the crystallization of fuzz. The seeds are air
cleaner to remove the crystallized lint immature seed and debris. In “wet pro-
cess,” acid solution is applied until the fuzz is crystallized, and then seeds are
rinsed. Alkali is used to neutralize the acid seeds.
(F) Scarification of hard seeds

Some seeds need to be scarified because their impermeable surface cells
make a barrier to water such as the seeds of legumes, asparagus, and okra.
There are several methods to scarify hard seeds like buffing; treating seeds with
oil, heat, or acid; irradiating them electrically; and abrading them mechani-
cally. Air stream is used to separate the chaff and hulls.
(G) Irradiation of seeds
Irradiation of seeds is useful in various prospects like to check the infesta-
tion of insects, the amount of checkling in rice, and the effectiveness of fumiga-
tion. Irradiation is carried out mostly in two ways: seeds are placed in an
evacuated glass tube and electrodes are applied with an electricity of 1000 V at
the ends which causes the glow and affect the seed, while in other methods,
radiofrequency equipment is used to subject the seeds with high frequencies.

To check if irradiated and non-irradiated, seeds are put in the water, for exam-
ple, the cotton seeds which are irradiated sink immediately while non-irradiated
float on the water.
(H) Coloring of seeds
Coloring is done to indicate specific treatments. For example, green color
indicates the wireworm repellant/fungicide, red for wireworm repellant, and
yellow for fungicide-treated seeds. Chemical separation and coverage can be
expressed through the chemical uniformity.
27.4.4 Seed Storage
The ideal storage environment to maintain seed viability simply is “dry and cool.”
But to provide this ideal storage, the material and mechanical processes vary accord-
ing to the prevailing climate conditions and duration of storage. The agents of dete-
rioration during the storage normally are fungi and insects. Their development is
influenced by the seed moisture content and temperature of the storage. Both seed
moisture and humidity within the seed air spaces determine the growth of insects.
Fungi growth is limited at 65–70% relative humidity limiting for the fungi growth.
Corresponding to the equilibrium moisture content of about 14–15% in storage
seeds and 8–9% in oil seeds, insects generally do not develop at seed moisture con-
tents equivalent to 40% RH, i.e., about 10–11% in starchy and 5–7% in oil seeds.
But there is considerable variation among crops. In unfavorable storage environ-
ment (too dry and too cool), seeds will deteriorate with age and lose viability in
long-term storage. According to “Harrington’s rules,” “The storage life of seeds is
halved for each 1% increase in moisture content and for every 5 °C rise in storage
temperature.” These rules are applicable when moisture content is 5–14% and tem-
perature 0–50 °C and are independent of one another. Insect activity is greatest
between 21 and 27 °C, and therefore seeds should be stored below 20 °C. Most
seeds retain their viability better in sealed container than in the open storage
(Harrington and Douglas 1970). According to Welch and Delouche (1974), there are
four factors to evaluate the economics of the seed storage: (a) type of seed to be
stored, (b) length of the storage, (c) quality of the seed stored, and (d) quantity of
seed or seed weight.
Methods of seed storage can be divided into two types: traditional methods and
modern methods.
27.4.4.1 Traditional Methods

Pusa Bin It is a simple mud bin structure in which a sheet of polyethylene is used
to make it air and moisture tight. It is very simple in design and easy to construct
and suits the needs of average farmers whose product is not so large (Fig. 27.8).
Fig. 27.8 A typical pusa bin for seed storage
Fig. 27.9 A RCC storage bin
Reinforced Cement or Concrete Bin (RCC Bin) It is a cemented structure and

circular in shape and is weatherproof. It is equally effective for indoor and outdoor
storage (Fig. 27.9).
Circular Steel Bin It has an opening at the top to fill it and a sprout at the bottom;
the bottom is constructed of plan steel sheets. Its specialty is that it can be easily
assembled and taken apart when needed (Fig. 27.10).
Fig. 27.10 A circular steel bin
Fig. 27.11 Prefabricated
steel bin with hopper
bottom
Prefabricated Steel Bin with Hopper Bottom It is a durable, outdoor storage

having a sloping roof and sliding door at the bottom to discharge seeds. This type of
bin has the facility of ventilation and main hole and hopper sliding both has the
locking arrangements and provided with a ladder and pulley to ease the filling of the
bin (Fig. 27.11).
27.4.4.2 Improved Storage Structures

It is recommended that a storage structure for urban areas must have the ability to
control fumigation and aeration with a rectangular shape that is rodent and moisture
proof. It has four or five compartments (Pingale 1976). According to Copeland and
McDonald (1995), there are following principal types of improved storage.
Conditioned Storage In conditioned storage, temperature and relative humidity

are aimed to control. It is helpful to maintain the seed viability.
Cryogenic Storage Cryogenic storage is a method in which seeds are stored in the
liquid nitrogen, and this is mostly practiced in the tropics as it is a very costly
method, but it helps to store the valuable germplasm. Seeds are placed in nitrogen
at −196 °C; this is not practicable for the commercial seeds but to secure a valuable
germplasm.
Hermetic Storage Packing the seeds in moisture-resistant or hermetically sealed

containers is referred to as hermetic storage. Grabe and Isley (1969) studied differ-
ent types of packaging materials like ordinary paper, cloth, polyethylene bags, and
metal cans. Paper and cloth packaging was least effective, while metal cans were
most effective even maintaining the 5% moisture at storage (Fig. 27.12).
Containerized Storage In containerized storage, the humidity is regulated by

chemicals like sulfuric acid, saturated salt solutions, and silica gel, which is treated
with cobalt, serves as indicator, and changes its color from blue to pink when
humidity exceeds from 45%. Storage is safe from rodents, insects, and fungi
(Copeland and McDonald 1995).
27.4.4.3 Commercial Large-Scale Storage

Bag Storage Seeds packed in bag sand stored in buildings with waterproof walls,
roofs, and floors may be covered with wood planking to give insulation and are
insect pest-free. The openings are maintained to regulate the temperature and
ventilation.
Bulk Storage Features and requirements are the same as of bag storage structures,
but insulation of sidewall is of very importance. In bulk storage, as the seed is in
direct contact with the walls, which transmit the heat to seeds, seeds need to be
turned or moved from time to time. Walls and roofs are painted with white color as
these are the good reflectors of sunlight. Motor-driven fans supply aeration with
suitable duct system (Fig. 27.13).
Fig. 27.12 Some types of hermetic storage
Fig. 27.13 A view of bulk

storage
27.4.4.4 Factors Influencing Seed Storage Quality

Seed moisture content, relative humidity, storage temperature, initial seed quality,
damage caused by rough handling, extent of cleaning, proportion of straw or leaf or
broken piece, and kind of seed are important factors that can affect storage quality
of seed. However, moisture content of the seed is single most important factor for
seed viability in storage (Tables 27.4 and 27.5).
Also storage structures and packaging materials play an important role in the
seed storage life. In the packaging materials, the effective life during storage mainly
depends on three factors, viz., kind of seed, its preharvest history (including har-
vesting and drying), and the storage conditions employed.
Thomson (1979) described some rules in the seed storage conditions as the
following:
1. Constant observation.
2. Fumigate when stock is changed or altered.
3. Encourage ventilation.
4. Don’t pile against the walls.
5. Building should be kept good condition (repair whenever needed).
6. Sweep the floors thoroughly.
7. In bulk storage, frequently turn the seed to avoid deterioration.
Table 27.4 Moisture Crop Moisture content (%)

content for safe storage of Wheat 12
seeds of some crop (Agrawal
Oats 13
1980)
Barley 13
Grain 12
sorghum
Shelled corn 13
Soybean 11
Rice 12
Table 27.5 Moisture Seed moisture (%) Storage life

content and storage life of 11–13 6 months
cereal seeds at temperature
10–12 1 year
not exceeding 90 °F (32.2 °C)
9–11 2 years
8–10 4 years
27.5 Seed Certification
The main purpose of seed certification is to control and maintain the purity of the
seed and propagating material. It involves some outstanding farmers and seedsmen
to produce the seed with high-quality control measures. The United States and
Canada began the process of seed certification in the early nineteenth century when
the new crop varieties were developed.
The main object of seed certification is to ensure the quality of the seed to the
grower. There are some concepts, around which building of certification is held
tightly:
1. Superior variety
2. Genetic purity
3. High-quality standards
Douglas (1972) gave the three basic objectives of a seed certification system:
1 . Systematic increase in superior varieties

2. Identification of new varieties
3. Seed material provision with the continuous supply
The International Crop Improvement Association (ICIA) was built in 1919, and
its main objective is to promote the agricultural interest, particularly emphasizing
the seed improvement.
There are three rules to organize the seed certification organization:
1 . Establishment of certification agency

2. Establishment of seed certification standards
3. Establishment of procedures for inspections
According to Agrawal (1980), principles according whom a seed certification

agency can run efficiently are:
1 . Agency should not be directly involved in seed production and marketing.

2. Agency should have autonomy.
3. Agency should adopt standards and methods, which are uniform throughout the
country.
4. There should be an association of technical institution and seed certification
agency.
5 . It must be operated on no profit, no loss.

6. Trained technical staff is necessary.
7. Adequate facilities for timely and thoroughly inspection are ensured.
The seed certification agency is built on the basis of a strong planning, and the
typical organization constitutes the board of directors, secretariat, technical, and
other staff.
Seed certification is based on the seed generation system, which is devised on for
generations, and seeds are labeled with different colors for distinction as follows.
1. Breeder Seed
Seed that presents the true pedigree and commonly produced under the supervi-
sion of the plant breeder is breeder seed. White tags are used for labeling breeder
seed.
2. Foundation Seed
First generation from breeder seed, produced by seed organization, also labeled
with white tag.
3. Registered Seed
Registered seed is progeny of foundation seed that is registered by seed agency

and is not in large quantities. It is labeled with the purple tags.
4. Certified Seed
Final product produced from the registered or foundation seed and labeled with
the blue tags.
For seed certification, a seed grower submits an application requesting certifica-
tion as foundation, registered, or certified seed. Different agencies may have differ-
ent procedures for seed certification. Applications are scrutinized, and field
inspections are performed. In seed certification process, there are some standards
which can be divided into two groups: general seed certification standards and stan-
dards for specific crops. Seed certification process can be divided in four phases:
1 . Verification of seed source

2. Field inspection
3. Seed analysis to confirm seed standards
4. Tagging and sealing (Copeland and McDonald 1995)
Crops are carefully harvested and processed so that seed may not be mechani-
cally damaged. Then the processed seed is sampled and tested normally for genetic
purity, germination capacity, etc.
27.6 Seed Marketing
Whether seeds produced by farmers or companies, seeds have to follow many paths
from grower to the planter (Copeland and McDonald 1995). The seed of many crops
does not follow normal route from the producer to user. Seed cannot be produced
unless the producer does not know where and when it will be used. There are some
factors, which influence the seed marketing. However, there should be a clear-cut
policy to develop the industry. New developed varieties should be introduced in
seed program to promote the seed. Under the government supremacy, there should
be adequate production, storage and testing facilities, and a comprehensive intelli-
gence to find out the need of farmers and location of production areas. Internationally
established standards are necessary to prevent false/unhealthy competition among
seed companies. The final and most important point is the financial reward to the
seed growers.
Total seed required for a country or state can be computed from the statistical
data of its cropped area. But some proportions of seed requirement can be met from
other ways like farmers save the seeds of self-pollinated crops themselves. In mar-
ket research, thing intimates the farmers to purchase the seed, questioning, trial
demonstrations, practical on farm demonstrations or the motives of the farmers
must be considered. Seed must be multiplied so that sufficient quantity for the mar-
ket is available and a plan to meet the market demands in the future should be pre-
pared. If the cultivar becomes popular, its continuous availability must be ensured.
27.6.1 Quality Control During Marketing
Kelly (1988) described the following standards to control quality of seed during the
marketing.
1 . Authenticity and purity of the cultivar

2. Analytical purity of the seed
3. Content of weed seeds
4. Germination capacity
5. Quality parameter for specific characters like seed-borne disease, moisture con-
tent, etc.
Selling Price of Seed

Usually, the seed constitutes 10% of the total cost of production, but traditionally,
the seed is relatively considered cheap. The price of seed should include direct and
indirect costs of production plus a reasonable profit. Some of them are given as:
1 - Cost of cleaning before sowing and harvesting

2- Cost of rouging and safeguard isolation
3- Drying, cleaning, treatment, and packaging charges
4- Storage and transport cost
5- Costs of quality tests and advertisement
6- A reasonable profit
27.6.2 Seed Marketing Services
Seed marketing services include seed verification service, seed testing, certification,
and cooperatives for seed distribution. Primarily, seed certification services concern
with the origin of seed. The seed certification aims at the availability to the public.
Seed testing is done in accordance with the International Rules for Seed Testing.
After deciding the seed quality, quantity, and price and the area of sale, it is
planned how it should be distributed. Seed is generally stored in the central storage
system. Subcenters may also be established for large areas. Seed transport should be
quick and efficient and must be delivered to the sowing area to decrease the chances
of deterioration of quality of seed and sufficient supply to all areas.
Seed sale promotion is an important step in the seed business/trade. Seed grow-
ers must be advertised for the farmers to buy the new varieties.
References
Agrawal RL (1980) Seed technology. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co, New Delhi
Copeland LO, McDonald MB (1995) Principles of seed science and technology, 3rd edn. Chapman
& Hall, New York
Douglas JE (1972) Opening opportunities for seed technologists. Seed Technol News 2(4):2
Grabe DF, Isley D (1969) Seed storage in moisture resistant packages. Seed World 104(2):4
Halmer P. (1988).Technical and commercial aspects of seed pelleting and fil-coating, Application
to Seeds and Soil (T. J Martin, ed.), British Crop Production council/Health, Thornton/Surrey,
p. 191
Hanson EW, Hansing, Schroeder WT (1961) Seed treatments for control of diseases, seeds: the
yearbook of agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, p 272
Harrington JF, Douglas JE (1970) Seed storage and packaging: applications for India. National
Seeds Corporation, New Delhi
Kelly AF (1988) Seed production of agricultural crops. Longman Scientific & Technical, New York
Klein LM, Henderson J, Stoesz AD (1961) Equipment for cleaning seeds, seeds: yearbook of
agriculture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, p 307
Pingale SV (1976) Storage and handling of food grains. Indian Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi
Redenbaugh K, Slade D, Viss P, Fujii JA (1987) Encapsulation of somatic embryos in synthetic

seed coats. Hort Sci 22:803
Roos EE, Moore FD (1975) Effect of seed coating on performance of lettuce seeds in green house
soil tests. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 100:573
Taylor AG, Harman GE (1990) Concepts and technology selected seed treatment. Annu Rev
Phytopathol 28:321
Thomson JR (1979) An introduction to seed technology. Leonard Hill, London
Welch CB, Delouche JC (1974) Conditional storage of seed. Proc Rep of the Southern Seedsmen’s
Association, pp 30–40
Seed Production Technologies of Some
Major Field Crops 28
Irfan Afzal, Rubab Shabir, and Saeed Rauf
Abstract
A seed is an agricultural commodity that is raised and harvested under optimum
conditions and processed with state-of-the-art technologies to maximize its via-
bility and subsequent crop productivity. The seed is the basic ingredient of suc-
cessful crop production which guarantees the highest yield potential of any crop
variety. The use of good-quality seed under high productive systems can increase
yields by 5–20%.Every stage of seed production from field selection to harvest-
ing and then processing to seed storage is crucial for the quality management of
seed. Seed quality is dictated by its germination and physical (inert matter, chaff,
dirt and soil particles) and biological contaminations (presence of weed and
other crop seeds, seed-borne diseases and insects). The seed production system
of major field crops varies with the mode of reproduction and pollination system,
which affects their genetic stability. Agronomic crops are mostly produced
through seeds. Pure lines are developed with basic methods of creating variation,
selection and stabilization. Single-cross hybrids are not only common in field
crops such as maize and sunflower but also an adapted technology in vegetable
and floriculture seed production. The pure seed of self-pollinated species, at the
same time synthetics and composite seed of cross-pollinated species, is produced
under standardized conditions recommended by seed certification department
and dictated by the mode of pollination. In vivo and in vitro techniques are used
for the production of doubled haploids to achieve homozygosity for rapid filial
generation advancement. In planta and in vitro transformation methods are gain-
ing popularity for the production of GMOs. This chapter will provide a compre-
I. Afzal (*) · R. Shabir

Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture,
e-mail: iafzal@uaf.edu.pk
S. Rauf
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_28
656 I. Afzal et al.
hensive overview of various production technologies of seed production,

production of GMOs, hybrid production methods and various management prac-
tices of seed production of agronomic crops in detail.
Keywords
Agronomic crops · Seed production technology · Breeding strategies · Crop
productivity
Abbreviations
AOSCA Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA)

CMS System of cytoplasmic male sterility
DUS Distinctness, uniformity and stability:
GMO Genetically modified organisms;
MS Male sterility
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPVs Open pollinated varieties
VCU Value for cultivation and use
28.1 Introduction
By 2050 the world’s population will reach 9.1 billion, 34% higher than today. About
70% more grains are required to feed this burgeoning population that could be
achieved by significant increase in crop yields and total food production (Singh
et al. 2015). The challenge of increasing population will occur in developing coun-
tries where all dimensions of food security are linked with seed security of small-
holder farmers. These smallholders in developing countries depend on informal
seed systems for 75–90% of their food crop cultivation. The global food production
and food security could not be achieved without available or accessible quality seed
(McGuire and Sperling 2011; Afzal et al. 2016). However, availability of quality
seed is still an unachievable dream in the developing world. For instance, the cereal
farmers used only 5–10% quality seed in developing countries, whereas the farmers
in developed countries used 90% of quality seed for cereal farming (Pandey 2009).
The lack of climate-resilient new varieties, technology and investment in plant
breeding and commercial seed production are major challenges in the most food-
insecure areas of the world (Lane and Jarvis 2007; Singh et al. 2015).
The seed production system is a vital ingredient for high farm production and
guarantees sustainable supplies of food and feed production. Quality seed utiliza-
tion acts as an aid to enhance yield/area to ensure food security of a nation. It ensures
efficient utilization of resources such as water and nutrients. The importance of
high-quality seed production is well understood by all entrepreneurs in agriculture.
28 Seed Production Technologies of Some Major Field Crops 657
It is essential to sway seed production, which is the first part of the food chain to
sway the food production of the world (Adhikari 2014).
Good-quality seed has significant potential of increasing on-farm productivity
and enhancing food security, but seed production is a challenge under global envi-
ronmental change. All steps in the breeding, production, conditioning, treatment,
storage, packaging and distribution process should be focused on ensuring that the
end users receive a product, which is genetically, physically and physiologically
pure. The quality of seed is ensured through better crop raising and husbandry tech-
niques such as maintaining optimum soil moisture and nutrition, pest control, better
weed management, and stray plants and seed production steps such as harvesting,
processing and storage (Egli et al. 2005). Every stage of seed production from field
selection to harvesting and then processing to seed storage are crucial for the quality
management of seed. Thus, a pure seed is produced as the result of continual
improvement and selection. A quality seed delivery system is the successful appli-
cation of both plant breeding and seed production principles and practices. There is
a dire need to increase the capacity for improved seed production, multiplication
and distribution to better supply farmers with high-quality seed that enables them to
respond to changing environmental conditions and market demands. This chapter
will cover each and every aspect of seed production along with synthetic and genetic
modifications in agronomic crops.
28.2 Plant Production and Pollination System
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same or
another flower and, thus, it may be of two types, i.e., self- or cross-pollination,
respectively. Cross-pollination is carried out by biotic or abiotic carriers. The abi-
otic pollination carriers are wind, air and water. The biotic carriers of pollen are
insects and animals (Barrows 2000; Ackerman 2000). After pollination, fertilization
and seed production are the next steps of plant propagation. Seed production is a
method of plant propagation to produce new offspring or new individuals in plants
through asexual (apomixes) or sexual reproductions. In sexual reproduction, gam-
etes are produced through meiosis, and fusion of gametes causes fertilization and
seed is developed as a product of sexual reproduction. The crossing over and ran-
dom assortment of chromosome during reduction division of meiosis is the ultimate
source of variation in all living organisms; thus seed purity is challenged if the
parents’ homozygosity is low. Asexual reproduction involves no fusion of gametes
and fertilization; the seed generally developed either without reduction division,
fusion of gametes or from entirely somatic cells. An apomictic seed has 100% simi-
larity to its maternal parent. It means, in asexual reproduction, offspring are clones
of parents.
In spermatophytes, the seed is the product of reproduction. Budding, fission, frag-
mentation and spore formation are other examples of asexual reproduction (Fritz and
Simms 1992).Production of identical copies of an individual is known as cloning and
these identical copies are known as clones. Clones are asexually propagated and
658 I. Afzal et al.
identical copies of a specific cultivar. It is performed by both natural and artificial

methods, e.g., apomixes and micro-propagation, respectively (Bhojwani and Razdan
1986). Sugarcane and potato are the examples of seed production through clones.
28.3 P
rocedure for Variety Development in Cereals, Oilseeds
and Pulses
Variety development includes all the activities from germplasm collection to seed
certification. Variety development is an art which is time consuming, skilful and a
tedious job and involves several steps such as establishment of transgressive popula-
tions, progeny testing and variety release testing, e.g. distinctness, uniformity and
stability (DUS), value for cultivation and use (VCU) and seed multiplication (Lamkey
2004) before farmers really enjoy the benefit of a variety. Its development starts with
the establishment of transgressive population. Transgressive populations are estab-
lished by crossing good × good or good × poor parents to select segregants in (F2 to
F5) populations which are better than both parents (Fig. 28.1). Homozygosity of above
90% is achieved in F5 generation, and thus pure lines could be evaluated for progeny
test at this or in subsequent generations against a common check, and poor lines may
be discarded and promising lines may be used for further varietal trials. Plant breeders
are dependent on various tools such as hybridization, polyploidy, mutation and genetic
recombination to create new sources of genetic variation, which may act as a pool of
selection and varietal improvement (Lather 2017). The backcross programs have been
extensively used to introduce disease-resistant genes in a number of species such as
cereals. Doubled haploid methods have been used to develop pure lines in a single
Fig. 28.1 Procedure for crossing in varietal development

year. Synthetic species has been reconstituted with great success in wheat and bras-
sicas to transfer genes from wild species (Lamkey 2004).
The following procedure has been followed for the approval of a variety:
1. On the basis of data of internal trial, the breeder/institute/organization decides to

submit the new variety for official testing registration and certification of variety.
The breeder should have a nucleus seed stock of variety that is true-to-type and
stable for testing and multiplication.
2. Multiplication field trials of variety are conducted to determine its “value for
cultivation and use (VCU)”. The basic criteria of VCU varies from country to
country, but it normally includes field aspects such as disease resistance, stand-
ing ability of crop, maturity time of crop, yield and quality maintenance in post-
harvest applications. The unbiased estimation of variety for stability and
agronomic attributes is carried out, and the case is submitted for national uni-
form trials. New variety must show vivid advantage over existing varieties for
registration. This process takes 2–3 years for accurate evaluation. It should be
known that these variety trials are not a perfect scale to predict the farmer’s reac-
tion to the new variety; therefore, it is not wise to increase the complexity or time
of these trials.
3. In addition to VCU, DUS test is also conducted. The new variety must be unique
from existing varieties, which show uniformity in population and show stability
in resultant generations after multiplication; therefore, this test assesses all of
these factors. A limited number of plants can be used for DUS test according to
a standard list of plant descriptors.
4. On the basis of satisfactory results of the abovementioned tests, an official com-
mittee enlists the variety or registers it in the official list. Through enlisting, the
variety gets official recognition, and it is recommended to the farmers that the
variety is fit for cultivation.
5. Some of the registered varieties are released by the breeders. Various factors are
taken under consideration before releasing the variety such as its market value
and competitive factors in a company, but public breeders are solely interested in
the status and professional recognition of their variety.
6. It is the duty of extension workers to act as a bridge of communication between
farmers and breeders and to increase the demand of for good-quality seed.
Marketing is another important factor of success in variety release, which is
often neglected. Through effective marketing practices, better varieties will sur-
vive the market competition and not languish. The public sector breeders do not
pay attention to marketing of their variety due to lack of resources to initiate seed
chain and lack of communication between farmers and the public sector.
An ideal variety release system must complete all the abovementioned stages in
the shortest time possible; genetic innovation can prove its worth to growers and
society. It basically depends on the initial nucleus seed stock of breeders. If the
breeder can submit the sample for VCU and DUS at the same time, then both tests
could be conducted simultaneously, and then it would take only 2–3 years for
660 I. Afzal et al.
variety testing and release. Various factors can also lengthen this period of testing
and release such as impure seed stock given by the breeder, delay in VCU and DUS,
incomplete data of trial, bureaucratic inertia, etc. (Turner 2017).
There are two seed certification schemes in the world, i.e. the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Association of Official
Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA). These two seed schemes provide a set of pro-
cedures, methods and techniques which enable monitoring of the quality of seed
during the multiplication process and to ensure that purity of varieties are main-
tained and safeguarded. The following four classes are used in these schemes but
with different colours allotted to seed lots.
28.3.1 Production of Breeder Seed
The breeder seed is the first and precursor of all seed classes. It is directly regulated
by the breeder or institute. This class must have 100% purity. A golden brown tag is
used for the breeder seed.
28.3.2 Production of Foundation Seed
The progeny of the breeder seed is called the foundation seed. The seed stock of this
class must be handled to regulate genetic purity. It is also directly produced by the
breeder or institute. The certifying agency sets rules for the establishment of the
foundation seed. A white tag is used for this class of seed.
28.3.3 Production of Certified Seed
The progeny of the foundation seed is known as the certified seed. The genetic and
physical purity of this class must be maintained for the certification of variety. The
genetic purity of this class is 99% in demand. It is developed from the breeder,
foundation, or registered seed and is produced and handled under procedures accept-
able to the certifying agency. An azure blue tag is used for the certified seed.
28.3.4 Certification and Multiplication of Seed
Multiplication is just a process of seed production from a specific class to a certified

class of seed. After enlisting, the registration variety is maintained for certification
(99% genetically pure) and then multiplication before market release (Atilaw et al.
2016). The utilization of this seed class varies from crop to crop as well as from
country to country. For example, it is necessary for the seed to be certified before
cultivation in Europe, but there is no law in the United States that makes certifica-
tion of the seed compulsory (Table 28.1; Lamkey 2004).
Table 28.1 Seed AOSCAa OECDb

certification classes being Breeder seed Breeder seed
followed in the world
Foundation seed Pre-basic seed
Registered seed Basic seed
Certified seed Certified seed
a
Association of Official Seed
Certifying Agencies (AOSCA)
b
Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development
(OECD)
28.4 Seed Quality and its Factors
The seed is the basic input of crop production. Historically, in agronomic crops seed
quality has been given secondary importance as compared to yield. On the other
hand, recently crop genetics in relation to traits to get better seed has gained remark-
able importance among growers. Seed quality is characterized as genetically and
physically pure, having high germination, pest and disease free with optimum
weight and moisture content. It ensures high germination, vigorous growth, rapid
emergence and uniform crop stand. Poor-quality seed decreases the yield of per unit
area of land and ultimately affects the profitability. Seed quality is determined by a
number of genetic and physiological characteristics.
28.4.1 Genetic Factors
Genetic factors include genetic purity and unique characteristics of the seed/variety
transferred through empirical breeding or genetic engineering. A good-quality seed
may be genetically pure and free from all kinds of contaminations such as seed of
other varieties of the same species, seed of other species, and weeds. Stray plants of
the same and other species, noxious weeds and pollen contaminations are the com-
mon factors causing genetic impurity in the field, while seed admixtures due to poor
handling during seed processing causes genetic impurity of the seed. A clean field
and proper isolation distance from other varieties of the same and other species are
vital to avoid genetic contaminations. The range of tolerable genetic contamination
in various species is given in Table 28.2.
Genetic divergence or genetic makeup of the seed induces unique characteristics
to particular crop varieties; these traits are fixed by a plant breeder and ensure agro-
nomic superiority of the variety. Moreover, the breeder can also induce marker
traits, which may be helpful for the seed inspector to judge the genetic purity of a
variety and for the seed processor to identify crop varieties. The successful applica-
tion of various practices of seed production such as maintenance of proper isolation
distance, roguing off-type plants, controlling of weeds and other plants allows
maintaining the genetic makeup of seed fixed by plant breeders (Colley 2010)
(Table 28.3).
662 I. Afzal et al.
Table 28.2 Genetic and physical purity standards of certified seed in major crops
Weed seed
Seed purity Inert matter Max. Other crop Other varieties of
Species (%) (%) % per IB seed seeds
Maize 99 1.0 None 0.5% 0.2%
Rice 99 1 0.10 4 seeds 4seed per Ib
Cotton 98.50 1.50 1 seed 0 None
Sunflower 97.00 2.00 None 1seed per Ib 0.01%
Wheat,oat, 98 2 0.10 0.10% 0.05%
rye
Soybean 98 2 0.60 0.60% 0.50%
Ground nut 90 10 0.01 0.52% 0.50%
Chickpea 99 1 0.25 0.10% 0.1%
Pearl millet 98 2 0.10 0.04% 0.02%
Sorghum/ 98 2 0.1 0.08% 0.05%
Sudan
Alfalfa 99.25 0.75 0.5 1.0% 1.0%
Lentil 99 1 0.05 0.1% 0.1%
Mung bean 98 2 0.1 0.2% 0.1%
Safflower 98 2 0.02 0.1% 0.1%
Cowpeas 98 2 0.1 0.1% 0.2%
Canola 99 1 180seeds 18 seed kg−1 18 seed kg−1
kg−1
Tomato 98 2 None 10 kg−1 10 kg−1
Brinjal 98 2 None None None
Red chili 98 2 10 seeds 10 seed kg−1 5 kg−1
kg−1
Okra 99 1 None None 20
Cabbage 98 2 0.1% 10 seed kg−1 10 seed kg−1
Weeds and off-type plants are the main reasons for genetic impurity. During crop
growth weeds compete for food and space with plants and affect the quality of the
crop which includes seed size, concentration of carbohydrates, protein, oil, phyto-
chemicals, nutrients and other essential metabolites (Gibson et al. 2017). Certified
seed must be free from off-type and obnoxious weeds, because once established, to
get rid of these weeds is difficult.
28.4.2 Environmental Factors or Stresses
Environment factors or stresses also affect the quality of seed. Growing conditions
greatly affect the germination and dormancy of seed (Ferguson et al. 1991).
Conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, moisture content of seed and
wind influence the quality of seed during growth and development as well as stor-
age. Similarly any heat or cold damage, nutritional level of the mother plant, planta-
tion injury and mechanical admixture of seed also correlated to quality
(Hasanuzzaman 2015).
Table 28.3 Isolation distance, minimum germination and seed moisture contents of various crop
species
Species Isolation distance (meter) Germination% (Min.) Seed moisture contents %
Maize 400 80 13
Rice 3 75 13
Cotton 50 70 10
Sunflower 400 70 10
Wheat 5 80 13
Soybean 3 70 10
Ground nut 3 70 10
Chickpea 10 75 10
Pearl millet 1000 80 10
Sorghum/ 300 80 10
Sudan
Brinjal 150 80 6
Red chili 250 60 8
Okra 250 65 10
Tomato 25 70 8
Cabbage 1000 70 7
Alfalfa 165 80 10
Seed health is another important factor of seed quality, and it refers to check the
presence or lack of disease-producing agents, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, nema-
todes and insects. All the pathogens and pathogenic fungi produce seed-borne dis-
ease and greatly affect the quality of seed (Cram and Fraedrich 2010).Effective use
of seed production applications is the main way to avoid the disease and pathogen
contamination. But, after infestation, various seed treatments can be performed to
control diseases (Mancini and Romanazzi 2014).
Insects play a major role in both quantitative and qualitative losses during seed
storage. Millions of insects are affecting standing crops. Insects can cause different
types of damage to seed quality such as external and internal infestation of seed
(Pedersen 1992). Common storage insects are weevils, beetles, moths, cadelles,
borers, dermestids and bruchids.
28.5 Crop Establishment
Crop establishment is the key to obtain maximum yield and efficiency of

resources. It is the objective of the agriculture industry to enhance the vigour of
seed to improve the critical stages of crop establishment, e.g. seed sowing, ger-
mination and seedling establishment. Proper sowing time is essential to optimize
the environment for the growing season for uniform seedling establishment
(Finch-Savage and Bassel 2015). Various operations and practices are involved
in this aspect, which are given below.
664 I. Afzal et al.
28.5.1 Field Selection and Land Preparation
To ensure the success of new plantations, various practices are needed to be per-
formed, and the first one of these practices is land preparation. It should be done
before sowing or transplanting of plant material. Its purpose is to provide soil rich
in nutrients to increase the growth and development of seedlings. It involves check-
ing the availability of water for irrigation, field selection, mechanical activities,
chemicals for soil treatment, equipment for cultivation, labor availability and time
schedule for all activities(Arias-Jiménez 2002).
28.5.2 Field Inspection
Inspection of crop at various stages of development is known as field inspection.

This task is accomplished by the seed certification officer to ensure the genetic
purity, crop health and crop isolation (Malhotra and Vashishtha 2007).
28.5.3 Planting Technique and Population
Various planting techniques are in practice for farming of crops such as direct sow-
ing, transplanting, manual planting, mechanized planting, direct planting and indi-
rect planting. Generally direct sowing and transplanting methods are in use.
Basically seed rate and ultimately plant population depend upon the growth habit of
crop species. Planting methods and techniques also depend upon various factors
such as crop species, survival rate of crop, timeliness, financial background of farm-
ers and ROI (return on investment) (FAO 2003).
28.6 Crop Management
Crop management is the basic approach for sustainable agriculture. Cohesive crop
management involves site selection, soil treatment and management, plant material,
crop rotation, pest management, crop nutrition, landscape management and water
management according to climate and environmental factors of area under cultiva-
tion. Integrated management of crop is a dynamic system of adaptations by combin-
ing local and new research to changing conditions.
28.6.1 Water Management
The water requirement of crop is determined by the growth period of crop, transpi-
ration rate, respiration and optimum water content that the crop demands (Guo-tong
et al. 2014).
28.6.2 Nutrient Management
Nutrient management is the process of replenishing nutrients in soil for crop estab-
lishment. It manages the quantity, timing, method and source of nutrients to opti-
mize farm productivity with minimum nutrient loss. To meet the crop’s nutrient
need, fertilizers, composts and manures are added to the soil.
It also includes various management practices to increase the soil quality and
reduce erosion and nutrient leaching. To achieve efficient crop growth and produc-
tivity, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium along with other essential nutrients are
added to the soil. But excessive application of nutrients has a negative impact on the
environment because there is a direct link between soil quality and water quality of
the ground. Soil quality functionally protects water quality by holding water, retain-
ing contaminants and nutrient absorption. Nutrient management is proved essential
in maintaining economic and environmental aspects of crop production. To make
economic decisions, various farmers do nutrient management planning because it is
linked with the actual yield goal of crop (Gaskin and Wilson 2009).
28.6.3 Roguing
Roguing is the identification and removal of off-type plants. It is done to maintain

the quality of the growing crop and other essential factors (Colley 2010). Stray pol-
len of off-type plants can pollinate the main crop plants and ultimately ruin the
varietal purity of seeds to be produced, thus failure of breeding procedure (Ferguson
et al. 1991). Other than varietal purity at stake, these plants may contain disease
agents that can affect the health of seeds. Therefore, to ensure the crop integrity with
regard to the physical attributes such as seed shape and colour, it is necessary to
remove these off-type plants.
28.6.4 Pest and Disease Management
Healthy and disease-free crops are the key factors in safe and sustainable agriculture
that leads to the production of healthy food. Coherent crop protection starts with the
identification of disease-causing agents, i.e. pests. Various countries have different
rules for crop protection from pests as well as exposure to harmful chemical pesti-
cides. Growers try their best to minimize the use of chemicals to protect crops
against pests. It is recommended that they always choose healthy and disease-free
plant material for propagation and monitor the crop for prevention from pests. If it
fails to protect the crop, then a specific control method is used which must be the
use of biological pesticides along with non-chemical and mechanical methods
(Abdullah et al. 2016).
666 I. Afzal et al.
28.7 Postharvest Handling
Postharvest management is the phase followed by harvesting and determines the

quality of the final product. It includes harvesting, cleaning, drying, threshing, shell-
ing and storage. Effective handling practices can minimize the postharvest losses:
loss in both quality and quantity of seed/grain. These losses are due to inappropriate
postharvest handling practices and can be 10–15% of cereals and impact greatly
livelihood (Bourne 1977).
28.7.1 Harvesting
Harvesting time is critical for the quality and shelf life of seed/grains. In the case of
under-mature and over-mature harvesting, the product will be tender and stringy,
respectively. The harvesting method depends upon the crop type and area of har-
vesting (Table 28.4). For a small production area, hand harvesting is effective and
provides a good quality of product, but in the case of several acres, it is time con-
suming and lacks effectiveness. Therefore, mostly mechanical harvesting methods
by combine harvesters are used for agronomic crops (Yousaf et al. 2016).
28.7.2 Drying
Physiological maturity of the crop depends upon the type of crop. Average moisture
content of the mature crop is estimated from 35% to 45%. The main purpose of dry-
ing is to reduce the respiration of seeds, which is the main cause of seed deteriora-
tion during storage. Safe storage moisture content for cereal seeds is 12%. Therefore,
it is essential to reduce the moisture content of seeds before storage. Drying also
affects the quality of seed; excessive drying at higher temperatures can deteriorate
the seed (Yousaf et al. 2016).
Naturally, sun-drying method is the most common among the informal seed sec-
tor and small seed companies in developing countries, whereas forced air drying
system is practised by the formal seed sector. In addition to various drying
Table 28.4 Harvesting stage of different crops (Whitty and Chambliss 1992)
Crop Harvesting stage
Corn 3–4 weeks after leaves’ browning
Peanut Full pods showing dark veins
Rice Hard dough phase of kernels
Wheat Ripened grains and brittle straws
Sorghum Mature seed heads and dry grains
Soybean Dry and hard pods prior to shattering
Oat Ripened grains and brittle straws
Rye Ripened grains and brittle straws
equipment, e.g. column dryers, bin dryers, batch dryers and some new drying meth-
ods are now being used: drying beads introduced by Rhino Research, Thailand, at a
small scale and solar bubble dryers for cereal crops.
28.7.3 Cleaning and Grading
After threshing and shelling, seeds are subjected to cleaning and grading units. In
the cleaning unit, whole grains are separated from straws, sand, chaff, weed seeds
and stones. Winnowing, screening or sifting are the common methods used for
cleaning. Without proper cleaning, the risk of pest infestation increases along with
undesirable colour and taste of grains. Almost 4% of postharvest losses are due to
cleaning operations (Kumar and Kalita 2017). Grading of seeds is done on the basis
of the quality of the seed lot, and it is a crucial practice for optimum crop establish-
ment (Suma et al. 2014). It is considered that seed weight is positively correlated
with seed quality attributes such as viability and vigour. It also gives an improve-
ment in yield up to 45% (large seeds better than small seeds). Similarly, large seeds
proved vigorous and healthy than small seeds.
28.7.4 Storage
Storage is the vital part and source of maximum postharvest losses of food chain.
Seeds/grains are subjected to short-term or long-term storage periods whether as
food reserves or for next-season sowing. Conventional storage is being practised in
developing countries, but the quality of seed is deteriorated in porous traditional jute
and cloth bags at high relative humidity during monsoon season (Afzal et al. 2017).
But with the advances in the field of seed science and technology, developing coun-
tries are adopting new and better storage practices such as conditioned, container-
ized, cryogenic and hermetic storage. Hermetic storage is the most commonly
adopted technology that enables the farmers to have pest- and chemical-free storage
(Afzal et al. 2017; Kumar and Kalita 2017).
28.8 Examples of Seed Production
28.8.1 Pure Lines
Pure line is the progeny of self-pollinated crops. Pure line method of selection was
firstly proposed by Johanson (1903) to demonstrate that quantitative traits such as
seed size are heritable and could be subjected to selection like Mendelian traits. He
selected prince bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seeds on the basis of their size from a
heterogeneous population. He found that the seed size trait was fixed after few
cycles of selection and selection was not effective within lines. He established
668 I. Afzal et al.
several pure lines and noticed that variation between lines was genotypic and within
line variation in seed size was due to the environment.
The selection of best plants for the establishment of pure lines was the beginning
of systematic breeding. It was a well-known fact that plant uniformity will lead to
high yield and better seed production in the next generation. This selection method
was proposed in 1856 by a breeder, but it was also adopted by farmers in the early
nineteenth century. Pure lines were selected for self-pollinated crops such as wheat
and rice (Breseghello and Coelho 2013) and in cross-pollinated species such as
maize and sunflower to establish inbred lines which are used in hybrid development
on the basis of their combining ability. Pure lines production is vital in breeding and
biological studies of crops. Pure lines could also be developed through haploid cul-
tures and are called as doubled haploid lines (DH) due to the application of
chromosome-doubling agents such as colchicine. A breeding method such as the
single-seed descent method has been used to develop marker populations such as
recombinant inbred (RILs). However, traditional methods such as pedigree and bulk
selection methods are used to develop for pure lines (Yan et al. 2017).
The pedigree method is the selection of pure lines consisting of making single-
plant selection from segregating population and maintaining its pedigree record in
every generation. Promising pure lines are put in the varietal testing and finally for
varietal approval. All plants of a pure line are homogenous and homozygous, and
variations in a pure line are purely environmental thus non-heritable. However,
mutations, mechanical adulteration and other genetic mutagens can be a source of
genetic variability in pure lines. If pure line is superior in characteristics, then it is
used as variety. In addition to this, pure lines are mostly used as parents in hybrid
development (Allard and Allard 1999). Pure lines with superior homogeneity than
original landraces were selected in the past, but this superiority comes with a price,
because these lines proved to be less stable in any stress and due to the monogenic
nature of some traits show short-term adaptation to the environment (Breseghello
and Coelho 2013).
28.8.1.1 Wheat
Wheat (TriticumaestivumL.) is one of the most important cereal crops of world. It is
the main cereal crop for food consumption in most countries including the United
States. On the basis of kernel characteristics and year of planting, wheat varieties
are classified into six classes. These classes are soft-red winter, hard-red winter,
soft-white, hard-white, durum wheat and hard-red spring. Pure line selection is
practiced in wheat for its improvement. Historic cultivars such as Pavon 76 and
Siete Cerros are the selections from CIMMYT worldwide distribution materials
(Acquaah 2009). Seed production of wheat requires field free of all types of off-type
and stray plants, well-drained soils, free of weeds and soil-borne disease. It should
have a known history of cropping; wheat crop should not be followed by wheat crop
for seed production. Two-year rotation for root galls and seed gall is suggested if the
problem persisted in the area. The seed crop should be isolated by 3 m on all sides.
The distance may be 180 m if the seed variety is susceptible to disease (loose smut)
caused by Ustilago spp. The recommended seed rate is 85–100 kg ha−1 and is treated
with synthetic fungicide to control loose smut. The row distance is 22–23 cm to
facilitate the inspection and roguing. Crop rotation should be done with sorghum,
cotton, rice, etc. Cultivar purity is examined after ear emergence when grain filling
has started. Later inspection should be made to observe seed colour and glume
colour. Two or three roguings are carried out to remove the off-type plants. The first
roguing is carried out after the flowering stage, the second after flowering has
occurred and the third roguing is done after the ear turns brown.
28.8.1.2 Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the staple food of >50% of the world’s population. Rice
breeding can be accomplished through any method suitable for self-pollinated crops
such as pure line or heterosis which has been commercially exploited to develop
course rice hybrids (Acquaah 2009). Pure line breeding is the conventional method
in rice breeding which requires seven to eight generations for new-variety develop-
ment programs. Inter-specific crossing has also been exploited to transfer target
traits in cultivated rice. The rice cultivars such as wild rice, naldubi, alai, campo,
selenio and basmati are from various countries of the world.
28.8.2 Synthetics and Composites
Variety developed by inter-crossing of inbred lines in all possible ways, having

good general combining ability and by equal mixing of seeds of each combination
is known as synthetic variety. It is maintained by proper isolation with open pollina-
tion. It is of great importance in cross-pollinated crops in which pollination control
is not easy, e.g. forage crops. Clones, inbred lines and OPVs can be used for the
development of synthetic varieties. Basically synthetic variety development is com-
prised of three steps: (1) GCA evaluation and selection of lines, (2) synthetic variety
production and (3) multiplication. After recurrent selection, 5–8 GCA inbred lines
are selected for synthetic variety development. These lines initially consist of many
heterozygotes and then are maintained through OPV for fixation of genes. As a
result of this selection and maintenance, a next generation of synthetic variety with
various heterozygotes is obtained. For the purpose of multiplication, the synthetic
variety is multiplied for more than one generation in isolation. This practice is com-
mon for commercial seed production of clover, grasses and maize.
Mixing seeds of superior but phenotypically the same lines develops composite
variety. Crossing among chosen varieties is feasible due to open-pollinated species.
Composite varieties are heterogeneous and their exact regeneration is not feasible.
Farmers can utilize the preserved seed for only 3–4 years, and after that they must
replace the seed with the original type. Some essential composite varieties of corn
in India are vijay, sona, tarun, vikas, amber, etc. (Chahal and Gosal 2002).
28.8.2.1 Forages
Approximately 200 species of plants are recognized as forage crops, and these
plants are the major feed source of domesticated animals such as alfalfa, sorghum,
670 I. Afzal et al.
maize, etc. (Hirata 2011). These crops are cultivated for the production of dry matter
for animal consumption. Therefore, seed production practices of these crops are
different from other agronomic crops (Ceccarelli 1986). Hybrid seeds were not
proved to be successful in these crops due to their inbreeding depression and inca-
pability of seed production at a commercial level. Synthetic and composite varieties
have better success rates in forages (Tamaki et al. 2007). Hybrid development and
utilization is costly in forage crops than synthetic and composite varieties.
28.8.3 Clone
The asexually propagated progeny of a plant is called a clone, and crop propagated
through the clone is called clonal crop. All plants are identical to each other and to
the parent plant in clonal crops. Any variation in clones is because of the environ-
ment (Allard and Allard 1999). In sugarcane and potato, clonal propagation is
practised.
28.8.3.1 Sugarcane
Fluff seed (true seed) of sugarcane is the result of breeding practices for clone devel-
opment and cane multiplication. Multiplication of cane is done through stem cutting
or micro-propagation under in vitro conditions. After multiplication, canes are
tested for adaptability under field conditions, yield potential, desirable characters,
disease resistance, insect resistance and ratooning ability. Selected clones must have
good germinability, health and uniformity.
Selected clones must be multiplied for various seed classes from breeder seed to
certified seed. Almost all the seed classes required effective selection, seed treat-
ment, setts planting and inspection for cane production. Some examples of sugar-
cane clones are CP 72-2086, CP 88-1762, CP 84-1198 and CP-892143 (Miller et al.
1984: Tai et al. 1997: Glaz et al. 2000).
28.8.3.2 Potato
Potato is the fourth in ranking for food production worldwide. Its demand has been
by >7 billion people. Disease-free planting material for potato propagation is essen-
tial because it is susceptible to various diseases that can affect overall yield. Clonal
propagation is the conventional method of seed production in potato. This method
requires effective seed programs of clonal selection and it can take 10 years (Dimante
and Gaile 2014). In addition to clonal production, true seeds of potato (TPS) can be
used. True seeds of potato have many advantages than clonal production (Clulow
et al. 1995). Sullu and SA2563 are two clone varieties of potato used in some
research protocols (Schafleitner et al. 2007). The potato bud eyes of pure and
disease-free tubers of variety are regenerated and cultured under in vitro aseptic
conditions. Fresh shoots are produced from meristematic buds over MS (Murashige
and Skoog 1962) nutrients media supplemented with suitable dosage of plant growth
regulators and carbon source. These shoots are multiplied through micro-propagation
and induced over plant growth regulators to induce micro-tubers under in vitro asep-
tic conditions. The obtained micro-tubers are sown in a growth tunnel where only
50–60% tubers survive for further propagation. Micro-tubers yield mini-tubers
which are subjected to the field multiplication and are a source of breeder seed.
Breeder seed is tested for various potato diseases through ELISA or Q-PCRs. Clonal
field multiplication (stage 1) is done under space plantation of 100 × 100 cm for
clone-to-clone and row-to-row distances. Each clone is harvested and sown sepa-
rately at a distance of 100 × 20 cm under stage II and is harvested as bulk. Similar
cycles are repeated in stage III and IV. Stage IV seed is the source of foundation
seed and finally certified seed. The field used for the potato seed multiplication
should be free from wart, cyst-forming nematodes and brown rot within 3 years of
cultivation. The permissible limit for non-seed size tuber is less than 5%, and cut
cracked tubers should be less than 1% whereas greenish pigmentation is allowed.
28.8.4 Hybrid Seed Development
A hybrid is the progeny of cross between two inbred lines selected on the basis of
genetic divergence and their specific- and general-combining ability. Hybrids gen-
erally show better performance than OPVs due to manifestation of heterosis.
Heterosis is defined as the superiority of F1 over mid-parent or better parents.
Hybrids are developed for superior attributes such as better uniformity, disease
resistance, improved color and better yield (Tay 2002). The genetic basis of hetero-
sis is accounted due to genetic divergence and combining ability of the parents,
heterozygosity and masking by dominant alleles. The success of hybrids depends on
the synchronized flowering between male and female lines, high fertility and ade-
quate seed setting per cross. Hybrid development also needs an emasculation
method to remove male part of the inflorescence in the female lines. Several meth-
ods including mechanical, chemical and genetic mechanisms are used to emasculate
female lines. The mechanical and chemical methods are laborious and increase the
cost of the hybrid seed production. The former genetic methods have been widely
used in a wide range of crop species with great success. Genetic emasculation meth-
ods include cytoplasmic and nuclear male sterility. Among two genetic male steril-
ity methods, cytoplasmic male sterility has been successful in which a cytoplasmic
factor causes the male sterility in female “A” lines and is maintained by normal “B”
lines while “R” male lines contained fertility restorer genes. The cross between “A”
and “R” gives hybrids seed which is collected only from “A” lines thus increasing
the cost of hybrid. Another male sterility method called genetic-environment male
sterility is also promising and has been exploited in various crop species such as
tomatoes. The pollination between the inbred lines depends on some carriers such
as insects (entomophillous) or wind (anemophillous). The pollination of ento-
mophillous species is more tedious and requires the raring of insect for effective
672 I. Afzal et al.
Table 28.5 Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) values at 27 °C and 70% relative humidity
(Mrema et al. 2012)
Crop Equilibrium moisture content (%)
Wheat 13.5
Maize 13.5
Rice 13
Paddy 15
Sorghum 13.5
Millet 16
Cowpeas 15
Beans 15
Groundnuts 7
population and the ratio of male to female is higher, while anemophillous species
have lighter pollen which could be transferred by wind at some distance. Therefore,
low male-to-female ratio is maintained in such species. Male-to-female ratio for
hybrid seed production in various species is shown in Table 28.5. Plants produced
by hybrids are homogenous but heterozygous and significant segregation occurs in
the seed set by the hybrids themselves; therefore they are only exploited in the F1
generation. Breeders used the elite inbred lines with optimum combining ability for
hybrid development.
According to Wych (1988), the steps involved in hybrid seed development and
production are:
1 . A-line selection (seed parent/female parent)

2. R-line or restorer selection (male parent)
3. Seed multiplication or crossing by parents
4. Hybrid production (F1)
Prerequisites for hybrid seed production in maize are proper isolation distance,
planting ratio, synchronization of flowering, genetic drift, detasseling, harvest seed
crop and postharvest handling (Gaitonde 2017).
28.8.4.1 Sunflower
Sunflower is cross-pollinated and ranks fourth in oilseed crops after soybean,
groundnut and rapeseed mustard. The economic importance and presence of reli-
able cytoplasmic male sterility system and fertility restorer system led to the pro-
duction of hybrids in this crop (Tripathi and Singh 2013). The cytoplasmic male
sterility system (CMS) and fertility restoration on a genetic basis are used for hybrid
development of sunflower. This system consists of the following components:
1. Cytoplasmic sterile: A-line (female parent with recessive fertility gene and with
male sterility factor in cytoplasm).
2. Cytoplasmic fertile: B-line (male parent with recessive fertility gene).
3. Cytoplasmic fertile or sterile: R-line (dominant gene for fertility restoration).
The hybrid is developed by crossing A and R lines; the fertility restorer lines (R)
will be able to overcome the cytoplasmic male sterility, and thus hybrids are fertile
(Agrawal 2014). Hybrid seed of sunflower is produced by planting female and male
lines in a field of about 4:2 and two hives of bees per hectare are kept to facilitate
cross-pollination. The seed rate for “A” line is 7.5 kg ha−1 and 2.5 kg ha−1 for “R” line.
28.8.5 GMOs Seed Production
Genetically modified crops/biotech crops/transgenic crops are the crops having the
DNA from unrelated sources or carrying synthetic DNA to manipulate the genetic
makeup of any living organism. The first transgenic was produced when a gene
from Bacillus thuringiensis was introduced in a plasmid vector which was intro-
duced in tobacco plants in the 1980s. A foreign or transgene is directly inserted into
the embryos or callus or any tissue having totipotence. Tissues are regenerated to
complete plantlet (R0) under invitro aseptic conditions. R0 plants are self-pollinated
under a greenhouse to get pure transgene seeds. The seed is a source of R1 genera-
tion and is used to study the gene expression and agronomic performance. The gene
expression is enhanced through the selection of plants having satisfactorily levels of
expression. Several generations of selection may be carried out to improve the per-
formance of the transgenic population. The transgene may be backcrossed with elite
lines if the original population shows poor agronomic or adaptability performance.
The heritability of the transgene is dependent on the method of gene transmissibil-
ity. Generally, transformed genes show higher integration and heritability through
the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and lower through the ballistic gun.
Gene expression is driven by the gene construct, promoter and regulatory elements
if any. Transgenic development is carried out to achieve novel and high ambitious
breeding goals. One such goal was fulfilled by the development of Bt (insect) and
herbicide-resistant crops of cotton, soybean and canola. They are also developed to
enhance nutritional value, biotic and abiotic stress management (Thapa 2013).
Transgenic research and development projects require implementation of strict
rules and regulations. The case for the development of transgenics is first consid-
ered at the institutional level, and the biosafety committee considers such cases
and identifies the containment levels. Approved projects are sent to the national
biosafety commission which works under the ministry of environment. A special-
ized containment area is established to test the performance of the transgenic
crop. The containment area is wired by two boundaries and a non-transgenic crop
is sown as a “trap crop” in between the two boundaries. An isolation distance of
1000 meter is kept between the containment area and other varieties of the same
crop. GM seed is the step forward in the seed production of crops. These types of
seeds are developed to contain certain characteristics such as herbicide or insect
resistance, e.g. Bt cotton. There are also pros and cons of using this type of seeds
such as less use of insecticides and herbicides, higher yield of crop and good
resistance against stress; on the other hand the effects of this technology on the
environment is a concern of growers (Kruft 2010).
674 I. Afzal et al.
28.8.5.1 Brassica
Primarily Brassica oil species are grown worldwide for protein and oil content of
crop (Balalic et al. 2017). Canada is the first country which commercially produces
herbicide-tolerant canola (James 2015). Almost 60% of Brassica cultivars are genet-
ically modified in Canada (Welbaum 2005).
28.8.5.2 Cotton
Cotton accounts for almost 50% of fiber used in the textile industry. It is the best
natural fiber and is better than synthetic fibers. It is grown almost in 80 countries
(Acquaah 2009). Hybridization and biotech approaches are the basic methods of
cotton breeding. In most of the countries, pure line selection is used for maintaining
the genetic purity of developed varieties and selection in hybridization. Some vari-
eties of cotton are coker, rowden, lankart, tamcot and acala, developed by US breed-
ers (Poehlman 1987).
Genetically modified cotton is grown on approximately 25Mha around the globe
mostly in China, the United States, Pakistan and India. Transgenic herbicides or
pest-resistant varieties of cotton have been developed and are available in the mar-
ket. Bt cotton is the most commonly grown GM crop of cotton. Pure lines of cotton
advanced lines or approved cotton varieties are multiplied under standard condi-
tions (Table 28.3) to avoid contaminations due to insect pollinators. Hybrid seed
cotton production is also practised in many countries including China, Pakistan,
Thailand and the Philippines using hand emasculation or genetic male sterility sys-
tems. Hybrids have been known to have a yield advantage of 5–20%, are more
uniform in maturity and have greater transgenic expression. The isolation distance
for hybrid seed production is 30 m from either side, while the isolation distance
between male and female parents is 5 m. 2:1 ratio is maintained for female-to-male
ratio for hybrid seed production. Female rows occupy about 67% of the field while
33% is occupied by the male lines. However, higher plant-to-plant and row-to-row
distance is maintained in female lines (90 cm x 90 cm cm/120 cm x 120 cm) as
compared to male lines (90 x 30 cm/ 90 cm x 60 cm).
28.8.5.3 Maize
Generally, GM and non-GM crops are not separated from each other in corn because
most of the food components are corn based. In most of the processed foods, GM
corn is present, e.g. genetically modified sweet corn is in the market as fresh ears
(Welbaum 2005). Maize production is generally carried out through hybrid seed
(Table 28.6). The certified hybrid seed is obtained by sowing the female and male
rows at a ratio of 4:2 for single crosses (cross between two inbred lines A × R) and
6:2 for double crosses (cross between single crosses, (A× B) × (C × D)). The isola-
tion distance is about 400 m. The seed rate for females is 7–10 kg ha−1 and for male
about 3–4 kg ha−1. The maize plant is monoecious, and no mechanical emasculation
is required. However, female lines lacking genetic male sterility are subjected to
detasseling (removal of male florescence).
Table 28.6 Hybrids of maize (Gaitonde 2017)

Hybrid Female Male Seed Hybrid Hybrid
type parent parent Seed yield price characteristics grain yield
Single Inbred Inbred Lowest High Uniform Highest
cross line
Double Single- Single- Highest Low Highly variable Moderate
cross cross cross to high
hybrid hybrid
Three- Single- Inbred High Moderate Slightly High
way cross line variable
cross hybrid
Top cross OPV Inbred Moderate Low Highly variable Moderate
line
Varietal OPV OPV Moderate Low Highly variable Moderate
cross to high to low
28.8.5.4 Soybean
Soybean (Glycine max) is a prized crop due to high-quality seed protein which is
consumed in local cuisines, baby formula feeds and animal and poultry feedstocks.
Major breeding objectives are improvement of yield, disease and insect resistance
and enhancement of meal (modification of amino acids) and oil quality (fatty acids).
Herbicide-tolerant soybean cultivars are high in market demand. In a large group of
processed food, ingredients based on soybean are used (Welbaum 2005). Roundup
ready (RR) soybean was the first genetically modified soybean cultivar (Elsanhoty
2013). Soybean is a self-pollinated crop, and breeding methodologies applicable to
the self-pollinated crops such as development of pure lines through pedigree or bulk
selection methods are applicable to these crops. The pure lines are multiplied at an
isolation distance of 3 m.
28.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects
Today, seed production is a multimillion dollar business around the globe. The mod-
ern seed industry is dependent on state-of-the-art technologies during key seed pro-
duction, sorting, packaging and marketing of their seeds. The main objectives of
this chapter were to elaborate the technologies relevant to the production and qual-
ity maintenance of seed in agronomic crops. Agronomic crops such as wheat, rice,
maize and soybean are the staple foods for most of the countries in the world. The
demand of quality seed for these crops is high in both developed and developing
countries. Seed production is generally practiced under strict quality standards,
which vary with countries to meet the highest level of genetic and physical purity.
Large seed enterprises based in the United States and European countries, which
sell the seed at high prices due to high levels of infrastructure and increased cost of
seed production in these countries, generally meet these quality standards.
Developing countries are largely dependent on the import of this seed as the local
seed industry struggles to satisfactorily meet the quality standards. In order to
676 I. Afzal et al.
improve the seed availability of major crops and their adaptability to environment,
the local seed production system needs to be strengthened through technological
advancement, development of highly skilled class of scientists and field labour and
strict adhesion to the local seed production laws and standards. The modern seed
industry will continue to develop new, precise agronomic and seed production prac-
tices and innovative technologies.
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Postharvest Technologies for Major
Agronomic Crops 29
Muhammad Yasin, Waqas Wakil, Kazam Ali,
Muhammad Ijaz, Shahid Hanif, Liaqat Ali,
Hafiz Muhammad Atif, and Shakeel Ahmad
Abstract
The global food security is a big challenge for the growers to fulfill the dietary
needs of increasing world population. More than one-third of produced food is
lost during postharvest operations (harvesting, threshing, drying, transportation,
and storage). Overwhelming these issues, mainly in developing countries, can be
a good solution to eliminate hunger, improve lifestyle of farmers, reduce pres-
sure on natural resources, and most importantly increase the food availability. In
most parts of the world, cereals are staple food in developing countries, which
usually accounts for maximum postharvest losses among all the agricultural pro-
duce. Inadequate storage of cereal grains and pulses may lead to 50–60% losses
due to insects, birds, rodents, and mold growth. These losses can be reduced as
low as 1–2% if storage facilities are equipped with modern technologies. In this
chapter, we summarize the conventional and modern postharvest technologies of
different agronomic crops used in various countries, the causes and status of
postharvest losses, and the technological intervention to mitigate these losses.
M. Yasin · K. Ali · S. Hanif · H. M. Atif

W. Wakil
Department of Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
M. Ijaz
L. Ali
Cholistan Institute of Desert Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur,
Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan
S. Ahmad (*)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9151-5_29
680 M. Yasin et al.
Keywords
Global food security · Postharvest operations · Hunger · Staple food
29.1 Introduction
The global food security is threatening due to the growing world population and
emerging challenge for humankind. By the year 2050, the world population will be
increased to 9.1 billion and the demand of food will be increased up to 70% (FAO
2009; Godfray et al. 2010; Parfitt et al. 2010; Hodges et al. 2011). In most developing
countries, which are already facing the issue of food security, population is expected
to increase very rapidly. Additionally, the threats like climate change, declining fresh-
water resources, loss of biodiversity and fertile land, and most importantly the chang-
ing diet pattern and lifestyle of middle class are posing serious threat. To cope with the
current scenario of food crises, most developing countries have focused on land-use
efficiency, high agricultural production, and control over-increasing population
(Kumar and Kalita 2017). But reducing the postharvest losses is a vital step to ensure
food security. Postharvest loss can be defined as “the measurable qualitative and quan-
titative food loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its con-
sumption or other end uses” (Hodges et al. 2011: Aulakh et al. 2013; Buzby et al.
2015). It is estimated that about one-third (about 1.3 billion tons) food is lost during
postharvest processes every year worldwide (Gustavsson et al. 2011). According to
FAO, huge amount of food is lost during the journey from harvesting to end consumer,
and these losses may even reach 40–50% in some African countries. However, this
critical issue is not receiving adequate attention and not getting ample research fund-
ing (less than 5%) (Bourne 1977; Greeley 1986; Pantenius 1988).
The postharvest losses can be categorized as harvesting losses, threshing losses,
transportation losses, storage losses, and commercial losses (Boxall 2001). These
losses may vary among crops, areas, and economy, for example, in developing
countries, significant portion of produce is lost during postharvest operations due to
nonavailability of adequate technology and poor infrastructure for storage. On the
other hand, in developing countries, postharvest losses in the middle of supply chain
are nominal due to the accessibility of modern harvesting technologies for threshing
and storage. However, in the end of the food chain, adequate amount of food is lost
known as “food waste” (FAO 2014). According to the survey, in 2010, food losses
of the USA from retail to consumer level were 133 billion pounds (31% of the total
available food) (Gustavsson et al. 2011). In another report, about 19% and 20%
losses in cereal and root crops have been reported, respectively (Lipinski et al.
2013). Physical losses of commodities also account for lowering the quality and
quantity of crop or even render it to be suitable for human use. In worst cases, losses
are as high as 80% of the total produces (Fox 2013). Losses of commodities during
storage are of significant importance. Costa (2014) reported 59.48% losses in stored
maize grains after 90 days of storage in polypropylene bags or granary. In this chap-
ter, we discussed conventional practices and current trends in postharvest handling
29 Postharvest Technologies for Major Agronomic Crops 681
of different agronomic crops. Postharvest losses from harvesting to end consumer

and technological development to reduce these losses.
29.2 Harvesting
Harvesting of an agronomic crop is an important field operation in which cutting of

physiological mature crop is carried out with an aim to get quality product without
much loss. Harvesting of mature crop at proper time and maturity stage may reduce
the field losses to great extent, thus increasing final yield. Consequently, timely
harvesting of the crop is a key to get maximum yield (Kiaya 2014).
29.2.1 Harvesting Time
Crops are harvested after normal maturity with an objective to take out grain, straw,
seeds, tubers, etc., without much loss. Timely harvesting of grains reduces field
losses caused by lodging, shattering and birds, and rodent’s damage, thereby ensur-
ing the quality and less breakage of grains with good marketability of consumer
acceptance. Contrarily, early harvested crops yield low test weight and produce
shriveled grains, less starch contents, and low market value (Khan 2010), while
delayed harvesting led to the increased field losses, deterioration in grain quality,
and reduced milling outcome (Baloch 2010). Delayed harvesting of wheat in India
resulted in about 67% shattering losses (2.5% from 1.5% by delay in harvesting).
Similar case was observed with paddy in which 10.3% paddy was lost in the field
(1.74% to 1.92% due to delayed harvesting) (De Lucia and Assennato 2006). Hence,
timely harvesting may reduce these losses. Conventionally, the ripening judgement
of pulses and cereal rely on (a) the grain moisture content and (b) the color panicle
and leaf, which is often perceived as golden yellow (Hodges and Stathers 2012).
These parameters may cause visual errors which results in lowering the grain mois-
ture contents. Time of harvesting has not been well defined by the researchers to get
maximum production of any crop (Nanda et al. 2012; Kiaya 2014). But there is
specific time period (days), known as harvesting period, during which yield losses
can be significantly reduced. The number of days are counted either from day after
sowing (DAS) or day after flowering (DAF) or on the basis of grain moisture con-
tents at harvesting (Table 29.1). The number of days for any specific crop may be
influenced by the crop variety, climatic condition, and sowing dates (De Lucia and
Assennato 2006).
Table 29.1 Maturity moisture contents of various crops

Crop Maturity moisture contents (%) Crop Maturity moisture contents (%)
Paddy 22–28 Beans 30–40
Maize 23–28 Groundnut 30–35
Sorghum 20–25 Sunflower 9–10
682 M. Yasin et al.
29.2.2 Traditional Method of Crop Harvesting
Traditionally, crop harvesting is carried out manually using hand tools. Harvesting
of major pulses and cereals are done with the help of sickles, while spade or country
plough is used to harvest tuber crops. All these methods are time consuming and
labor intensive (Proctor, 1994). Similarly, sickles are used to harvest paddy and
sorghum, while maize cobs and bean pods are plucked from plants with hands.
Sometimes, the maize plants are harvested along with stalks and tied into small
bundles locally called as “pahra.” Bundles from all fields are collected and placed
into an upright position which is named as zhumb or thua (Singh 2014).
After 30–45 days of staking maize, the cobs are separated from the stalks
by removing husk. The staking period of 1–1.5 months in open environment
ensures the proper ripening and also helps to separate the cobs from husk. In
Pakistan, it is a common practice among maize growers to pluck the cobs
with husk and spread them in the field, manipulating them from time to time
for proper drying. After 20–30 days, depending on the weather conditions,
husk is removed and crop is threshed using locally designed maize shellers.
Conventionally, the paddy is harvested with the help of sickle and tied into
small bundles, called polla or polli. These bundles are kept in open condition
for next 3–4 days and stalked at one place for next couple of days. These
stalks are locally known as kundli (Singh and Pandey 2008). Similarly, millet
heads (mandal or sonk) are harvested when they are partially ripened. They
are stalked into a heap and covered with tarpaulin to fully ripen, a procedure
that is called garr dena (Sharma 1998).
29.2.3 Harvesting of Major Agronomic Crops
Harvesting of major crops is an essential component among field operations

which must be performed carefully to avoid maximum field losses. Some crops
such as soybean and paddy need to be harvested carefully as their pods/ear-
heads shatter due to fast working tools and therefore must be harvested with
slow-operating machines (Sharma 1998). Green gram, Bengal gram, and lentils
are to be harvested at ground level. For oilseed crops, different types of mecha-
nization practices are done by engineers. Safflower harvesting needs special
types of machines as they are spiny and their manual harvesting is difficult.
Similarly, Sesamum also need gentle handling as the seed pods are attached to
the main stem and shatter with little disturbance. On the other hand, sunflower
does not need any special equipment because only flower heads are to be col-
lected (Anonymous 2008). Different methods are adopted to harvest rapeseed
and pigeon pea. Most of the time, branches are harvested, but small farmers
used to harvest at ground level with their sticks. Root crops are harvested
through digging and shaking to remove adhering soil, picking, and windrowing
or stacking (Anonymous 2011).
29.2.4 Harvesting Hand Tools
In developing countries, harvesting of most crops is performed manually, which is

time consuming, full of drudgery, and slow. Even in peak harvesting times, farmers
suffer of labor shortage, which results in delayed harvesting and huge crop losses in
the field (Kumar and Kalita 2017). The most common types of harvesting hand tools
are small sickle, big sickle (darat) or scythe, cradle, chopper (gandasa), small axe,
etc. (Singh and Singh 1978). The hand sickle is used to harvest crops like wheat,
maize, barley, pulses, and grass. Big sickle is used to harvest fodder from trees.
Gandasa and axe are used to harvest crops like sugarcane (Karthikeyan et al. 2009:
Terefe 2017).
29.2.5 Power-Operated Harvesters
Rapid crop harvesting facilitates in providing ample time for preparation of land
and timely sowing of next crop as compared to the conventional methods. Moreover,
the machines speed up the harvesting process which helps to harvest the crop at
proper stage and maturity and save labor and time. Nowadays, mechanical reapers
and harvesters with several modification have been developed which suit the need
for many pulses and cereal crops (Yadav and Yadav 1992). Self-propelled and
tractor-mounted combine harvesters are available for harvesting and threshing of
different agronomic crops (Prem et al. 2017). Different types of mechanical harvest-
ers and their suitability for crops are given below.
29.2.5.1 Reaper/Reaper Binder

Reapers are mostly tractor driven or operated by petrol/diesel engine and frequently
used for crop harvesting at ground level (Abo et al. 2010). They contain crop-row
divider, cutter bar assembly, and feeding and conveying devices. Reapers harvest
the crop, while reaper binders cut and tie the crop at the same time into neat and
uniform sheaves (Veerangouda et al. 2010; Chavan et al. 2015).
29.2.5.2 Self-Propelled Harvester

A self-propelled harvester is used for harvesting multiple crops. It has one rear
wheel and two front driving wheels with pneumatic tires. It is powered by a 6–8 hp.
petrol engine. A V-belt drive and bevel gear transmit power to the cutter bar, which
operates at 700 strokes per minute and is mounted 5 cm behind the front wheels,
with a 20 cm diameter supporting wheel at the other end. The cutter-bar height is
adjustable up to 33 cm. It can harvest paddy and wheat at the speed of 0.4 ha−1 with
harvesting cost of US$7.5 ha−1 (Datt and Prasad 2000; Karahle et al. 2013).
29.2.5.3 Strippers
Strippers are mostly used for seed collection from mature grasses and picking of
cotton. Different designs of a tractor-front-mounted strippers are available, which
consist of a reel with helical rubber bats that beat the grasses over a sweeping
684 M. Yasin et al.
surface; resultantly, the mature seeds are detached and collected in the seed box
(http://agroman.in/agri-machines-guide/harvesting-threshing/). On the other hand,
stripping action in cotton harvests seed cotton while removing leaves, bolls,
branches, and other undesirable materials (Boman et al. 2009).
29.2.5.4 Diggers
Diggers are mostly used for harvesting tuber crops and ground nuts. The digging
units consist of a straight or V-shape blade, and lifter rods are attached behind the
share. The lifter rods are spaced which function to drop residual material and clods
during the digging operation. Afterwards, tubers/pods along with plant material are
collected manually. Various types of animal- and tractor-drawn potato and ground-
nut diggers are available in market (Gurgaon 2016).
29.2.5.5 Mower
Mower is used to harvest herbage crops such as grasses and similar vegetation and
leaves them in swath which is collected manually. Different types, namely, recipro-
cating mower, flail mower, cylinder mower, gang mower, and horizontal rotary
mower, are commercially available for different purposes in different ways (Gurgaon
2016). Moreover, different types of modern harvesters, strippers, and diggers are
available for various agronomic crops.
29.3 Threshing
The threshing is aimed to detach and separate the physiologically mature grains
from the plants (Agidi et al. 2013). In some cereal and pulse crops, the process is
involved to remove the kernel from pod or husk (protective cover). The threshing is
achieved by stripping, rubbing, or impact action or their integration which may
cause losses in terms of unthreshed grain, spilled grain, broken grain, blown grain,
etc. (Kumar and Kalita 2017). The crop may suffer from quantitative and qualitative
losses caused by insects, birds, and rodents due to delayed threshing, while the crop
is lying in the open environment. Accumulation of high moisture in cold night may
lead to the mold growth.
29.3.1 Traditional Threshing Methods
Manual threshing is common among the farming community in developing coun-

tries. Harvested wheat and paddy are dried on cemented floor or in the field for
3–5 days to reduce their moisture contents up to 15–20% (Khan 2010; Shah 2013).
Before the invention of mechanical threshing machines, threshing process was per-
formed by beating grains with flail, trampling paddy under feet, or beating shelves
of rice or wheat crop on hard slant surface (Ramatoulaye 2010; Mohammad and
Alireza 2013). Likewise, another traditional method of threshing is make animals
such as bull and donkey tread in circles on harvested crop that was spread on hard
surface in thick layers of 15–20 cm (Ramatoulaye2010). In some countries, the

advance version of this technique is to spread the crop on roads, so that the wheels
of running vehicles thresh the grains. After threshing, the threshed material is col-
lected in a heap and subjected to winnowing either by using fans or natural wind
flow for separation of grains from husk, but this method is labor intensive and time
consuming and needs effort to obtain good-quality bhusa (straw). The grains after
separation are then cleaned to remove broken grain, straw, sand, stones, chaff, weed
seed, and other foreign material, as infested grains suffer from unwanted smell and
color, which can damage processing equipment. Moreover, chances of insect infes-
tation and mold growth are maximum during storage. In conventional methods,
grain breakage, spillage, and incomplete separation from chaff can cause more than
4% losses of grains (Sarkar et al. 2013). Therefore, conventional methods are con-
sidered slow which are suitable for small farmers due to capital constraints and
limited area of production (Sarkar et al. 2013).
29.3.2 Power-Operated Threshing/Shelling
Nowadays in developing countries, threshing or shelling is carried out with motorized

equipment called threshing machines. In developed countries, they are being replaced
by combine harvesters, but motorized threshers still have their own significance, espe-
cially for their convertibility (Shahi et al. 2012). Simple modifications in setting and
replacement of few accessories can change the thresher for different crops like beans,
rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, soybeans, and sunflowers (Mwinama 2013). Thresher
consists of a rotating threshing drum having teeth or beaters and a stationary counter-
thresher, also sometimes equipped with devices to shake out the straw and to clean
and bag the bran. Machines are mounted on rubber wheels for movement and are
operated either by tractor or self-propelled. Two to three persons are required for
proper functioning of motorized threshers (De Lucia and Assennato 1994).
Different types of power threshers are as follows.
29.3.2.1 Pedal Threshing

Pedal threshers are available in various sizes, designs, and capacities in different
parts of the world, which are mostly hold-on type or throw-in type (Chabrol et al.
2005). Firstly, a hold-on type Japanese rotary drum thresher was developed for
paddy threshing. Now such types of threshers are commonly available in rice-
growing countries. The thresher is simple and compact, consisting of a threshing
cylinder (40–70 cm long and 42 cm in diameter) having wire loops, driving
mechanism, and supporting frame. The drum is rotated with the help of a crank
mechanism from a treadle and two cast iron gears (80 and 20 teeth) with 1:4
speed gain to achieve a cylinder speed between 300 and 375 rpm. The threshing
drum bears wire loops at its periphery at regular intervals which shatter grains by
impact and combing actions (ARC 2006). Tiller ends of paddy are held tightly
over the rotating cylinder toward the direction of motion, resulting in the detach-
ment of the paddy. A single person can thresh 1.5–2.0 quintal day−1, but extra
686 M. Yasin et al.
labor is required to remove chaff and debris from the paddy. To increase the work-
ing efficiency, four to six persons are engaged for threshing machine having cyl-
inder length of 1.5–2.4 m. This type of machine is locally made and operated by
a 3.75 kW diesel or petrol engine through a flat belt (Chimchana et al. 2008).
Additional two to four persons are required for grain separation and to ensure the
ample supply of crop near the thresher. This machine indeed reduced the human
drudgery and saved time as compared to the manual threshing (Amare et al. 2015).
29.3.2.2 Power Threshing

These are the machines which detach kernel heads or pods from parent stalk, sepa-
rate grains and husk, deliver the grains to a delivery outlet, and collect clean grains
free from any foreign entity, while the leftover is drawn through blower in the form
of bhusa (Olayanju et al. 2009). Power thresher is commonly a throw-in type and its
unit is very similar to combine harvester. The large-sized threshers are provided
with a belt conveyor, on which labor place the crop evenly and uniformly and serve
as a self-feeder to the threshing cylinder (Ouezou et al. 2009). Axial-flow thresher
efficiently removes the grains from husk and departs the grains and husk into their
respective directions. All these processes are operate simultaneously and in a
sequence, and a high-power engine with a capacity of 3.5–30.0 kW is required
according to the crop nature, size, and type, feed rate, and threshing cylinder size
(Tamiru and Teka 2015).
The following are the major parts of a mechanical thresher:
1 . Feeding device (chute/tray/trough/hopper/conveyor)

2. Threshing cylinder (hammers/spikes/rasp-bars/wire-loops/syndicator)
3. Concave (woven wire mesh/punched sheet/welded square bars)
4. Blower/aspirator
5. Sieve shaker/straw walker.
(a) Power threshers are designed on the basis of their threshing cylinder fitted in
the threshing machine. The following are the major types of commercially
available threshers:
29.3.2.2.1 Drummy Type

In this type, thresher beaters are mounted on a shaft which revolves inside a closed
casing and concave.
29.3.2.2.2 Hammer Mill Type

It is almost similar to drummy-type thresher except for an aspirator-type blower and
sieve shaker assembly for cleaning grains.
29.3.2.2.3 Spike-Tooth Type

Spikes are welded on cylinder periphery which rotates inside a closed casing and
concave. It also has an aspirator-type blower and cleaning sieves.
29.3.2.2.4 Rasp-Bar Type

Corrugated bars are welded axially on cylinder periphery. It is fitted with an upper
casing and an open-type concave at the bottom of the cylinder. The blower fan and
straw walker are also provided in cleaning system.
29.3.2.2.5 Wire-Loop Type

The periphery of closed-type cylinder is fabricated with wire loops and woven wire
mesh-type concave is provided at the bottom.
29.3.2.2.6 Axial-Flow Type

It consists of spike-tooth cylinder, woven wire mesh concave, and upper casing
provided with helical louvers.
29.3.2.2.7 Syndicator Type

The cylinder consists of a flywheel with corrugation on its periphery and sides,
which rotates inside a closed casing and concave. The rims of flywheel are fitted
with chopping blades.
29.3.2.3 Working Principle

During threshing, the farmer feeds the crop from feeding tray through the feeding
chute into threshing cylinder, which gets into the working slit created between cir-
cumference of revolving cylinder having attached spikes and upper casing. There is
a concave below the cylinder which covers its portion. The cylinder through power
of a tractor rotates at high speed and most of the pods and grains are separated by
repeated impacts. The remaining are threshed through rubbing, combing, squeez-
ing, and tearing actions as crops advance and pass through narrow slit between
concave and cylinder element tip and with louvers (Chakraverty et al. 2003). Much
of the threshed material falls down through gravity from concave on the top sieve
which has reciprocating motion. This motion helps grain to fall on lower sieve and
lighter material is accumulated at top sieve. In spike-tooth threshers, aspirator
blower sucks the lighter material from top sieve and throws it out via blower outlet,
and the lower sieves help to clean grains and allow heavier straw to overflow
(Anonymous 2017).
29.3.2.4 Adjustments
A number of adjustments are needed prior starting threshing operation:
The ground should be leveled and cleaned where thresher needs to be installed
and set keeping in view the crop conditions. Moreover, clearance of concave, clear-
ance of sieve, sieve slope, length of stroke, and lower suction opening also are
checked. Besides, slight modification for different crops such as cylinder concave
grate, holes of top sieve, size, and speed adjustment of cylinder according to the
crop type are key to get good-quality and undamaged seeds (Anonymous 2017).
688 M. Yasin et al.
29.3.2.5 Combine Harvester

The name combine harvester is derived from the combination of three different
operations: reaping, threshing, and winnowing into a single process (Fuchs et al.
2015). It is a multifunctional all-in-one machine which performs harvesting,
threshing, winnowing, and cleaning at the same time one after the other. The
machine consists of five units: (a) header unit, (b) threshing unit, (c) separation
unit, (d) cleaning unit, and (e) grain collection unit (Miu 2018: Woodford 2018).
The header is used to harvest and gather crop with the help of a reel which pushes
the crop on to plate form and cutter bar cut and deliver the crop to threshing cyl-
inder. The rubbing action of concave and threshing cylinder thresh the crop which
is then tossed back and shaken by straw rack which falls down onto the cleaning
shoe through small holes of straw rack while straw is discharged from the back.
Straw may contain stems and leaves with limited nutrients left in it. Straw is then
sometimes collected and chopped for making bhusa with the help of straw collec-
tor or chopper, baled for bedding and limited feed for livestock, or ploughed back
into the field (Chakraverty et al. 2003). The grains are cleaned in cleaning unit,
which is fabricated with a fan and two sieves, and then the grains are conveyed by
a conveyor and collected in collection tank. Combine harvesters of various designs
and length of cutter bar (2–6 m long) are available. The crops like sorghum, soy-
beans, wheat, barley, oats, rye, canola, corn (maize), flax (linseed), and sunflowers
are harvested by using combine harvester with slight modifications, for example,
for rapeseeds, vertical cutter bars are used at outer ends and increase of header
table length to get a clean cut windrow and to accommodate the bulky crop,
respectively (Fuchs et al. 2015).
29.4 Drying
Drying of grains means to remove small amount of moisture from grains by evapo-
ration to preserve the grains from insect attack, mold growth, and spoilage
(Chakraverty and Singh 2014).
The crops are harvested at little high moisture contents of grains to avoid field
shattering losses during harvesting process. The level of storage moisture may vary
from commodity to commodity (Table 29.2). But, for the long-term and safe stor-
age, the recommended moisture content is below 13% (Baloch 2010). Even mois-
ture content below 15% is recommended if the crop is needed to be stored for less
than 6 months. Inadequate grain drying may result in significant losses due to insect
attack and mold growth during storage and milling process. Hence, appropriate dry-
ing of grains for storage is key to maintain quality and to avoid storage losses caused
by insects and molds.
Table 29.2 Maximum recommended moisture contents of selected clean, sound grains for stor-
age with aeration in North Dakota
Grains Short term (less than 6 months) Long term (more than 6 months)
Recommended moisture (%)
Barley 14.0 12.0
Corn 15.5 13.0
Edible beans 16.0 13.0
Flaxseed 09.0 07.0
Millet 10.0 09.0
Oat 14.0 12.0
Rye 13.0 12.0
Sorghum 13.5 13.0
Soybean 13.0 11.0
Non-oil sunflower 11.0 10.0
Oil sunflower 10.0 08.0
Wheat 14.0 13.0
Source: Kenneth and Hellevang (2013)
29.4.1 Drying Mechanisms
In grain drying process, two mechanisms are involved: (i) migration of moisture
from interior to the surface of grain and (ii) evaporation of that moisture into an
environment. For drying of grains, heat is an essential element to evaporate mois-
ture and an air current to carry away moisture. Drying rate of grains can be deter-
mined by measuring the moisture contents and temperature of grains, air velocity,
relative humidity (RH), and temperature which is being used for grain drying
(Proctor 1994).
29.4.2 Conventional Drying of Grains
Solar drying of grains has been practiced extensively since decades and still
remained mainstay among the farmers of developing countries. Sometimes, entire
crop after harvesting is left under field conditions for few days to dry, for example,
paddy and wheat after harvesting are tied into small bundles and left in field for
about 1 week or less for drying as such or stalked at one place in field (Kumar and
Kalita 2017). Sun drying is drudgery and weather dependent and is a slow process
which may cause huge losses in field. Crops lying open in field are vulnerable to
attack of insects, birds, and rodents. Moreover, the chances of contamination with
dusts, stone, and other foreign particles are maximum. However, to avoid the con-
tamination and making the collection process easy, some farmers use plastic sheets
690 M. Yasin et al.
or mats for spreading grains. But the technique is not suitable for commercial dry-
ing of various grains in large quantities. Unexpected rains and funky weather cause
hindrance in proper drying and grains are stored with high moisture contents which
boost mold growth. In maize, 4.5% and 3.5% drying losses were observed in
Zimbabwe and Zambia, respectively (Calverley 1996; Abass et al. 2014).
29.4.3 Mechanical Drying Methods
Mechanical drying highlighted the limitations of conventional drying methods and

offers compensations like controlled hot air temperature, space utilization, and most
importantly the reduction in handling losses. However, mechanical methods also
suffer from some limitations such as availability of adequate machine size, high
initial and maintenance cost, and need for skilled labor to operate, etc. Due to these
constraints, small farmers of the developing countries are unable to afford such
expensive drying machinery (Alavi et al. 2012). The drying methods are classified
in to two groups: (a) mode of heat transfer to the commodity and (b) physical prop-
erties and handling characters of wet material. In the first method, differences in
design and dryer operation are considered, while in the second method drying prob-
lems are considered in the selection of a group of dryers (Proctor 1994).
On the basis of mode of heat transfer, drying methods can be divided into:
1. Conduction drying
2. Convection drying
3. Radiation drying
Except these methods, other methods such as vacuum drying, freeze-drying,

dielectric drying, and chemical or sorption drying are also popular among farming
community.
29.4.3.1 Conduction Drying

In this method of drying, heat is transferred via conduction through a solid, usually
metallic surface, also called contact drying. In this method, commodity remains in
touch with hot surface and the vaporized moisture is evaporated independently of
heating media (Chakraverty and Singh 2014).
Conduction drying has the following characteristics:
1. Mode of heat transfer through commodity is by contact action with solid surface;
heat source may be steam, hot water, hot oil or flue gases, etc.
2. Temperature of hot surface may vary widely.
3. Contact dryers can efficiently work in inert atmosphere and operate under low
pressure.
4. Soil clods and dust can effectively be removed.
5. Uniform and increased drying can be obtained from the contact drier when agi-
tated continuously.
6 . Conduction drying can be performed either batch-wise or continuously.

7. Agitated pan dryer, freeze-dryer, and vacuum tray dryer are examples of batch
conduction dryers, while steam tube rotary dryer, cylinder dryer, and drum dryer
are some examples of continuous conduction dryers.
Conduction drying is of two types:
29.4.3.1.1 Drying by Direct Contact with Heated Surface

The commodity is placed over hot surface of heated bed (moving, vibratory, or sta-
tionary) to evaporate moisture. The vapors are removed from system either by
stream of gas, which carries moisture with it, or removed under subatmospheric
pressure. No doubt, the conduction dryers are efficient than convective dryers, but
their initial and operation cost is very high and they are used commercially for high-
value crops such as steam tube rotary dryer which is efficient for drying free-flowing
granular materials, for example, cereal grains. It consists of 4–10 cylinders which
are installed in an assembly at 2–4° horizontally, and cylinders usually rotate at
4–6 rpm. The commodity is fed from one end of the cylinder and accelerated by
rotation action and slope effect, while dried material is discharged from distal end.
The cylinder from inside is equipped with single or multiple rows of metal tubes
installed vertically through which hot material flows, removing moisture from the
grains (Mujumdar and Menon 1995). These dryers are fit for drying brewer grain,
cattle feed, wheat, parboiled paddy, corn, etc. The efficiency of such type of dryers
can be enhanced by integration of both convection and conduction mode of heat
transfer. Convection drying not only helps to transfer heat by hot gas but also aids
in removing moisture from commodity (Chakraverty 1995).
29.4.3.1.2 Drying by Direct Contact with Heated Particles

This method of drying has been practiced in different parts of Southeast Asia since
decades. Grains are brought in direct contact with heated particle through which
grains are dried by evaporating moisture. So far, no commercial plant has been
installed for commercial drying by this method. A heated sand drying system on
small scale is very effective for drying paddy in which two parts of hot sand (120–
150 °C) are mixed with one part of paddy (20–29% moisture content). The drum is
rotated for 5–6 minutes to lower the moisture contents up to 15% and discharged on
screen to separate paddy from sand, and sand is then recycled for next batch of
paddy (Ienger et al. 1971). The process can be triggered by increasing the sand
temperature from 190 to 240 °C and mix paddy for 15–60 s. It has also been reported
that high temperature is also helpful to reduce the sand–grain to great extent
(Ramakumar et al. 1996).
29.4.3.2 Convection Drying

In this type of drying method, hot gas is used to provide heat supply which contact
with drying commodity and carry away the moisture, and heat is transferred to wet
solid mainly by convection. This method of drying has an advantage over conduc-
tion drying because it can be used for all types of commodities.
692 M. Yasin et al.
Convection drying is characterized as follows:
1 . Drying of the commodity is dependent on heat transfer from drying material.

2. Steam-heated air, direct flue gases of agricultural waste, etc., can be used as dry-
ing agents.
3. The gas temperature below boiling points may affect the drying process and final
moisture contents of the commodity.
4. If humidity in the environment is high, dehumidification is needed in natural air
drying.
5. Drying cost in terms of fuel consumption per kilogram to evaporate moisture is
higher as compared to conduction drying.
6. Among grain drying methods, convection drying is most popular.
Convection drying can be performed either batch-wise or continuously. Tray

dryer, batch through-circulation dryer, and compartment dryer come under the cat-
egory of batch dryers, whereas continuous sheeting dryer, continuous tray dryer,
tunnel dryer, rotary dryer, and pneumatic conveying dryer are some common con-
tinuous drying systems.
29.4.4 Radiation Drying
The principle of radiation drying is to absorb radiant energy by the grains and trans-
form it into heat energy. Source of radiations can be the sun or infrared lamps which
cause the grain to dry by evaporation of moisture, carried out by differences in
temperature and partial pressures of water vapor between surrounding air and grains
(Bala 2016). Sun drying is among the ancient methods of drying still practiced in
most part of the world. The efficiency of sun drying depends upon the speed of
wind, grain type, grain condition, atmospheric temperature, humidity, etc.
(Chakraverty et al. 2003). On the other hand, infrared radiation generators or lamps
are used to raise the temperature of commodities.
29.4.5 Solar Drying
Solar dryers are efficiently working in tropical and subtropical areas of the world
where abundant solar energy is available with high insulation. They are available in
different designs, capacity, and efficiency (Bala 2016). The main components of this
type of dryer are the absorbers which receive solar radiation and transform it into
thermal energy used for heating air for drying commodity. They can be categorized
as natural convection dryer and forced convection dryers, and both can be operated
either in a direct or indirect mode. Natural convection dryers are cheaper and con-
venient to use as they do not have any blower or fan for air circulation and did not
pose any economic burden to run these fans. But the drying process is time consum-
ing, slow, and labor intensive to some extent, for example, the simple solar cabinet
dryers. On the other hand, forced convection solar dryers have blower and fans
which push the hot air force fully on the drying commodity which in turn dries
adequate quantity in a very short time. Bin-type forced convection solar dryers are
quite common. Besides these dryers, integrated array of solar collectors, hybrid-
type solar grain dryers, integrated hybrid-type solar grain dryer, and continuous
solar grain dryers are some other types of solar dryers (Bala 2016).
29.4.6 Drying by Electromagnetic Radiation
29.4.6.1 Dielectric and Microwave Drying

Both microwave systems and radio frequency come under the category of dielectric
heating. The method has been used since years because of their ability to maintain
uniform moisture contents in commodity and volumetric dissipation of energy
throughout the product. In this method, commodity is heated within very short
period of time, but economics of this whole process is high as compared to other
drying processes. In drying process, heat is generated within the grains by placing
it in a fixed high-frequency current. The molecules of the substance, placed in a field
of high-frequency current, are polarized and begin to oscillate in accordance with
the frequency (Bala 2016). The oscillations are accompanied by friction and thus a
part of the electrical energy is transformed into heat.
29.4.6.2 Infrared Drying

This is a common method of drying coated films, paper, and boards, but their utili-
zation in food sector at commercial level is not yet common. The drying is carried
out by absorption of spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranging between 0.75
and 100 μm by the material. Electromagnetic radiation for drying mainly includes
near infrared, medium infrared, and far infrared (Chakraverty and Singh 2014). The
speed of drying mainly depends upon factors such as wavelength spectrum, thermo-
physical and optical characteristics of the products, uniformity and insensitivity of
radiation, and physical properties of medium which is being dried (Chakraverty
et al. 2003).
29.4.7 Sack Prying
Sack prying is mostly practiced for small quantities of seeds mostly by the seed
growers to prevent seed loss ensure quality and viability of seeds. The grain bags
weighing about 60 kg are laid flat on the floor (having holes) of tunnels system and
the hot air is forced from chamber from the bottom by a fan fitted underneath.
Generally, air with temperature of 45 °C with velocity 4 m3 min−1 at 3–4 cm static
pressure bag−1is used (Chakraverty et al. 2003; Bala 2016).
694 M. Yasin et al.
29.4.8 Drying by Chemicals
Various chemicals like ferrous sulfate, sodium chloride, calcium propionate, copper
sulfate, and urea have been used to store high-moisture paddy. Among all salts,
common salt (NaCl) has been found effective in lowering moisture contents and
preventing from deterioration during storage. Common salt removes moisture from
paddy through osmosis but unable to reach into endosperm via layer of husk. This
distinctive property of common salt and its economic price has led the farmers to
preserve monsoon harvested rice both at small and large scale. Moreover, common
salt also retards sprouting of rice (Baig 2018).
29.5 Storage
The purpose of safe storage is to cap the product’s quality and freshness. If proper
storage conditions are not applied, there may be chances of enhanced qualitative
and quantitative losses of grains. So, proper storage considerations need to be pro-
vided to avoid losses. The grains are used for human food since prehistoric times
and considered one of the most important economic crops in present day. Today,
proper storage of commodities is one of the main economic weapons for great pow-
ers. Improper storage conditions may cause weight losses in grains up to 50% in
some countries (Al Saaidy 1983). Deterioration of grains occurs if attacked by
insect pests and rodents which in turn lead to qualitative and quantitative losses.
Sustainability is required in food sources of the world to manage nourishment of
growing population. The focus should be on obtaining maximum production from
per unit area and their proper storage and processing should be of primary concern.
The objective of storage is to protect stored commodities from harsh weather condi-
tions, birds, rodents, and insect pests. In various parts of the world, grains of differ-
ent leguminous crops are stored in a variety of storage structures, depending upon
the availability of resources. In Africa and elsewhere in the developing world, grains
are stored underground and in clay bin. In addition to proper selection and size of a
storage system, its location is important with respect to drainage, traffic patterns,
and safety (Brooker et al. 1992).
In the USA, grains are generally stored in round metal bins, flat storage, and
concrete silos and sometimes grain is piled on the ground and covered with plastic
for temporary storage, while in most parts of Southeast Asia, mostly conventional
methods are used for seed storage of major agronomic crops. Many entomological,
microbial, and ecological factors are responsible for physiochemical changes which
result in quantitative losses of grains (Iconomou et al. 2006). The losses in grains
during storage are mostly due to insect pests of stored grains; during harvest to
carry, spoilage, sprouting, and mold growth may occur. Sisman et al. (2004) reported
different storage facilities which lead to increased grain losses during storage.
Adequate monitoring, proper hygienic conditions, and facilities should be adopted
for long-term storage. In warehouses, bins and granaries control over temperature
and humidity with good hygienic conditions is necessary to avoid any kind of loss.
29.5.1 Principles of Grain Storage
29.5.1.1 Conditions of the Grains

Only clean, unbroken kernels should be selected for storage and moisture contents
of the grains must be reduced to 9–12% depending on the type of grains. Before
putting the commodity into the storage facility, it must be cooled to avoid grain
heating
29.5.1.2 Climatic Conditions

Grain stores best in weather that is dry and cool, but storage facilities are unfortu-
nately not always dry and cool. During rainy season, even well-dried grain can
become wet if exposed to very wet air or rain. Therefore, grains must be stored and
protected enough to cope with worst possible environmental conditions
29.5.1.3 Store Conditions

The storage facility must provide protection against natural intruders such as molds,
insect pests, rodents, birds, and other animals. For this purpose, the grain stores
should have the following properties:
1 . The store must be dry.

2. The store should be cool.
3. The store should be clean.
4. The store should have no holes or cracks in the roof, walls, or floor.
5. The store needs to be treated with insecticide and fumigants in airtight

environment.
A good grain store keeps the grains cool, dry, and out of sunlight because cool,
dry grain respire slowly. The seed coat can resist mold and insect attack if the grain
is kept cool and dry. Grain store should be kept clean and in good shape (no holes
or cracks in walls) so that insects and rats cannot enter or hide and live inside.
Finally, some stores have to be treated with an insecticide to remove serious insect
infestation. It is often difficult to control insects without using chemicals.
29.5.2 Conventional Storage
29.5.2.1 Temporary Storage Methods

Drying of the crop is the primary focus in temporary storage method as less mois-
ture contents is associated with less attack of insect pests. These methods are
adopted for short-term storage.
29.5.2.2 Aerial Storage

Aerial method though is not commercially feasible but somehow can be applied in
the form of suspending the tied bundles of maize cobs, sorghum, or millet panicles
with tree branches, posts, or tight lines on or inside houses. This method is
696 M. Yasin et al.
unsuitable for open filed storage due to bad weather conditions, rodents, or bird and
insect pest attack.
29.5.2.3 Storage on the Ground or on Drying Floors

This method is used when transportation of grains is not possible or the grains are
attacked by animals, birds, and insect pests or wetted by rain. This is a quite rough
method but somehow being used specially in local markets.
29.5.2.4 Open Timber Platforms

This method contains the use of timbers laid horizontally with straight poles in a
series of upright posts raised at the height of 35–40 cm from ground level. This
helps in cleaning and inspecting of grains. Platforms may be rectangular, circular,
or polygonal shape-wise, and grains are stored on them in the form of heaps. To dry
the product or to un-infest from insect pests, fire is lit under elevated platforms.
29.5.3 Long-Term Storage Methods
29.5.3.1 Storage Baskets

In countries where drying of grain is not practiced before storage, granaries are
made with plant materials like timber and bamboo to keep the grains ventilated and
safe. These plant materials need to be changed after 2–3 years. Somehow, the crib
used traditionally is elevated at 1 meter from the ground level, and for drying of
contents fire is maintained underneath to assist reduction in insect infestation.
29.5.3.2 Earthenware Pots

Earthenware pots are commonly used for storing pulses and seeds like cowpea.
Hermetically, it can be made with the sealing of walls having small opening with
liquid clay. Mouth of the pots is closed with stiff clay. The purpose of storage is also
to keep the grains moisture below 12%, if present.
29.5.3.3 Jars
The shape of jars may vary from place to place. Usually its upper part is narrow,
having clay lid which is used for storage of legumes and seeds by keeping them in
houses. Sunlight is avoided for proper and safe storage.
29.5.3.4 Underground Storage

Underground storage method is used in subcontinental areas, especially in Turkey,
Southern Africa, and Sahelian countries. This method is followed only where water
table is not a threat for underground storage. Underground pits may vary in size and
sometimes their capacity may reach up to 200 tones. Heaping with earth is done for
closing the entrance of pit. The main advantages of underground storage are that
they are hardly visible, their temperature is low, and they are safe from thieves and
do not require regular inspection for insect pests attack. The main disadvantage of
underground storage is that the digging of such storage type is expensive and drudg-
ery. Furthermore, it may affect the viability of grains while at the same time shifting
of grains from such storage is also hectic. There is also low level of oxygen in
underground storage which may affect labor health and there is excessive amount of
carbon dioxide which also exerts bad effect on grains.
29.5.4 Farm-Level Storage
Mostly, unthreshed crops are stored by farmers, as they do not have time after har-
vesting to thresh crop in which chances of crop losses increase with the passage of
time. Grains at farm levels are stored for 6–12 months in storage containers which
are economically feasible and easily available in the market.
Small farm storage is of three types:
• Open systems.
• Semi-open systems.
• Closed storage systems.
29.5.4.1 Open Systems

Grain are stored in open systems when freshly harvest because of unfavorable cli-
matic conditions. Some farmers hang crops in frames or on houses roofs and light
fire underneath the frames to repel insects. Open systems are very easy to build but
hygienic conditions are difficult to maintain in this structure. Open systems allow
strong ventilation which gradually dry the grains and prevent fungus development.
Disadvantage of this system is that the attack of rodents and birds cannot be avoided.
29.5.4.2 Semi-Open Storage System

Containers made with woven twigs are used as semi-open storage system with straw
mate and commodity is stored in this system in unthreshed form. Stone foundations
are provided to avoid the storage facility which come in contact with the ground.
29.5.4.3 Closed Storage Systems

Semi-open storage systems supply higher safety from environmental hazards than
open ones, but provide less aeration and no chances of insect pest and rodent attack.
In arid regions, sorghum, wheat, paddy, millet, peanuts, and pulses are stored in
closed garages in packing containers manufactured from mud, often mixed with
bhusa, called banco. The upper opening is covered with a lid to protect from rain
and base with straw roof massive stones which save any ground moisture from get-
ting into the grains.
29.5.4.4 Bagged Storage

In most parts of Asia, the grains are stored in 40–100 kg bags crafted from either
jute or woven plastic. Depending on the dimensions of storage, these bags are com-
monly shaped into a stack. For bag storage, the following considerations must be
698 M. Yasin et al.
taken: i) Jute baggage should not be stacked higher than four 4 m and plastic bags
3 m. Plastic bags are slippery, and the stacks will be much less stable. ii) Bags have
to be stacked under cowl, for example, under a roof, in a shed or granary, or below
waterproof tarpaulins. iii) A 1.0 m gap must be left between and around stacks and
1.5 m clearance among the pinnacle of the stack and the roof. iv) Bags need to be
stacked on pallets or on an aboveground structure to avoid the possibility of soaking
up moisture from the ground. v) Bags should no longer be stacked on a mattress of
rice husks or baggage filled with rice husks, as those are hard to keep free from
insect infestation. vi) Bags should be stacked so that fumigation can be undertaken
without problems. The dimensions of the stacks ought to be set to facilitate sealing
with a single fumigation sheet. vii) The performance of bag garage can be pro-
gressed if a hermetic plastic liner bag just like the IRRI Super Bag is used in the
existing garage bag, specifically for seeds but additionally for industrial rice.
29.5.5 Bulk Storage
29.5.5.1 Farm-Level Bulk Storage

At farm level, grains are usually stored in conventional small granaries, woven big
baskets, and small containers made from concrete, metal, or timbers which are
installed in-house. These structures vary in capacity ranging from 200 to 1000 kg.
Storage losses from insect pests, birds, and rodents and moisture uptake are nor-
mally excessive in conventional bulk garage systems.
29.5.5.2 Commercial Bulk Storage

At commercial scale, big storage structures called silos are constructed either from
metal or concrete. These silos vary in length and have capacity from 20 to 2000
tons. Silos have the property and facilities to be fumigated and sealed with no or
very little grain losses. Silos are not very common in Asia due to the issues of mois-
ture migration inside the them which ultimately lead to the mold growth.
29.5.5.3 Hermetic Storage

The effective means to control grain moisture contents and reduce insect infestation
is the use of sealed containers or hermetic storage systems especially in tropical
regions. Moisture level remains the same when a barrier is placed between grains
and outside atmosphere. Oxygen in this storage is consumed and insects do not have
chance to survive, so the control of insect pests is done without the application of
synthetic chemicals.
The following types of hermetic storage systems are commercially available in
developed countries:
• Cocoon™
• The Grain Safe™
• The smaller 50-kg IRRI Super Bags, which are less expensive and easily avail-
able to farmers
• For the rural settings, locally available containers are useful as they can easily be
converted into hermetic storage systems.
The capacity of hermetic storage varies from 3 to 2000 tons and used for paddy,
wheat, and other cereal crops.
29.5.6 Outdoor Storage
Grain stored in covered outdoor piles can be successfully maintained for medium-
to longer-term “temporary” storage if variables such as site preparation, layout
design, aeration use, and initial grain moisture content have been properly addressed
before grain was piled outdoors.
29.6 Insect Pests of Stored Grains
Stored grain insect pests mostly belong to orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.
Stored grain losses are counted as the final-stage losses in agricultural practices
which can be direct or indirect. The direct losses include consumption of kernels,
frass, exuviaes of insects, webbing, and insect cadavers. Higher contamination ren-
ders grains unfit for human consumption. Furthermore, insect attack can result in
development of fungus by forming moist hotspots. It is estimated that 5–10% losses
are generally caused by stored grain insect pests which may reach up to 30% and in
severe cases may reach up to 50%. Stored grain insect pests are categorized as pri-
mary and secondary pests on the basis of their feeding habits. Healthy grains are
attacked by primary feeders or primary insect pests, while secondary insect pests
attack on damaged or already infested grains. Some insects develop their few life
stages in grains like larval or pupal growth resulting in poor grains quality.
29.6.1 Beetles and Weevils
Among stored product insect pests, beetles and weevils are often similar in appear-
ance but have different feeding habit. Thus, species identification is vital for effi-
cient control of these pests, for which literature is available.
29.6.1.1 Tribolium spp.

The world’s most destructive insect pests in stored grains are the red flour beetle,
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and confuse flour beetle, Tribolium confusum, which
are cosmopolitan in nature. Stored grains are their source for feeding, but they also
feed on wheat flour and cause serious damage. Although T. castaneum is a second-
ary pest, its infestation may result in severe losses and serious health concerns (Devi
and Devi 2015). These species proliferate very quickly, and their life stages resem-
ble each other, from eggs to larvae to pupa. Damaged grains and higher moisture
700 M. Yasin et al.
promote their feeding on wheat kernels. The females of both beetles lay 300–400
eggs in their food source of either flour or other stuff. Eggs are whitish and micro-
scopic and hatched into brown-headed larvae after 5–12 days. The larval period
lasts for 22–100 days which convert into pupae, and after 8 days adults emerge from
the pupae. Adults live for 3 years or more, while the other life stages for both beetles
are completed in 7–12 weeks. The ideal temperature for both beetles is 30 °C. Both
larvae and adult feed on damaged grains but do not attack undamaged or whole
grains and spend its entire life outside the grain kernels (Karunakaran et al. 2004).
The flour turns greyish and gives pungent smell which may result in allergic
response.
29.6.1.2 Cryptolestes spp.

These beetles, which remain in groups, are serious pest of stored grains and are
commonly known as “flat grain beetles” or “bran bugs.” They have different species
such as the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), the flat grain
beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus (Schonherr), and the flour mill beetle, Cryptolestes
turcicus (Grouv.). Individuals of all species are reddish brown in color with shiny
appearance and approximately 2 mm (1/12 in) long. Their body is long and flat with
narrow antennae of varying length in different species (Mason 2015). They gener-
ally feed on the germ part of seed and lead to grain breakage and heat production in
case of severs infestation. Eggs are deposited singly in crevices or furrows of grains,
in space among kernels, or in debris. Larvae after hatching burrow into the grains
however may depart their burrows in search for more favorable meals. There are
four larval instars, the last of which forms a silken cocoon in chambers inside the
kernels. Before chewing their way out, newly emerged adults remain inside the
cocoon for a few days. Development from egg to adult varies among species, with
rusty and flat grain beetles taking 22–24 days at 32–35 °C and 75% RH, and the
flour mill beetle require approximately 30–35 days. The adults exhibit cannibalistic
behavior and could eat their eggs, pupae, and pre-pupae (Mason 2015).
29.6.1.3 Khapra Beetle

The khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium, is among the globe’s most adverse
insect pest of grain merchandise and seeds. It is a primary pest which feeds on a
variety of stored products and dried meals like, corn, wheat, barley, oats, dried milk,
rye, rice, dried blood, flour, fishmeal, ground nuts, bran, flax seed, malt, alfalfa seed,
pinto beans, black eyed cowpeas, tomato seed, sorghum seed, alfalfa hay, noodles,
cottonseed meal, grain straw, coconuts, garbanzos, dried end result, lima beans,
powdered yeast, lentils, and a number of other products (Lindgren and Vincent
1959; Lowe et al. 2000). Populations of this pest can build rapidly in a short period
of time under warm and dry conditions. Grain harm, relying on existing conditions,
often reaches 30%; up to 70% damage has been observed in severe cases. Khapra
beetle has earned recognition as a dirty feeder, since it damages the outer part of the
kernels on which it feeds. Feeding and infestation by khapra beetle cause weight
loss of the product, reduction in grade quality, and harm in processed products
(USDA-APHIS-PPQ 1983). Males of khapra beetle are brown to black with vague
reddish-brown markings on their elytra. Females are slightly larger than male with
lighter shade. Adult khapra beetle has wings, but cannot fly and also no longer feed.
Optimum temperature for their development is 35 °C, but larvae may get crowded
and enter into diapause as temperature falls below 25 °C (Anonymous 2006).
29.6.1.4 Callosobruchus spp./Bruchid Beetles

Most species within the Callosobruchus genus are native to Asia. They can be found
in warm areas inside the vintage globe. They arise in locations outside of their local
range named as introduced species. At least 11 species of stored legumes are natural
hosts of these beetles, along with wild and domesticated vegetation. Some are taken
into consideration because they invade stores of legume meals, including beans and
lentils. Stored legumes are generally attacked by three species of bruchids, namely,
Callosobruchus maculatus (cowpea weevil), Callosobruchus chinensis (bean wee-
vils), and Callosobruchus analis (graham bean weevils). The adult C. chinensis is a
small insect, growing to be about 5 mm. The adult is brown in color with black and
grey patches over the body. Abdomen of female is longer than the elytra and its
males are white in color with oval black spots on it. The adults are storing flyer and
can disperse in different fields and bean garage. C. analis is oval in shape and red-
dish brown in color and normally smaller than C. chinensis. C. maculatus is more
elongated different individuals of bruchid family. It is reddish-brown, with black
and gray elytra marked with black spots (Saleem and Shah 2010). Both larvae and
adult ravage the commodities. Female lay eggs on the seeds, and the larvae after
hatching devour them after boring into the grains and ingesting the whole contents
and emerge from seeds as adult. A foul odor is produced from infested commodity
if not ventilated properly. In case of severe infestation, every single kernel becomes
infested, resultantly rendering it unfit for human consumption (Saleem and
Shah2010).
29.6.1.5 Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle

The saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzae philussurinamensis, is one of the most
destructive insect pests of stored products (Champ and Dyte 1976). It is considered
as secondary pest in stored commodities because of its incapability to harm whole
grains; however, its status has been changed from secondary to primary due to its
attack on mechanical damaged grains during postharvest operations, on which this
species builds up very rapidly and causes high infestation (Pricket et al. 1990). The
adults are brown in color, having length of about 0.3 cm and thorax bears six tooth-
like projections on every segment. Both larvae and adult feed on copra, flours, feed,
breakfast cereals, nuts, and dried materials, especially due to their cosmopolitan
habit of feeding stored commodities (Mowery et al. 2002). In case of severe infesta-
tion, the germ part of seed can be broken, and heat is produced which resultantly
may lead to mold growth, caking, and even sprouting. Insect presence causes both
qualitative and quantitative losses which resultantly cause rejection, for example,
malting barley may be rejected due to poor germination, and similarly wheat may
be rejected due to discoloration.
702 M. Yasin et al.
29.6.1.6 Sitophilus spp.

Some species of Sitophilus are common pests of stored commodities which
include rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), wheat/granary weevil (Sitophilus gra-
narius), and maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais). These species are primary pests
of stored rice, wheat, maize, barley, lentils, sorghum, millet, corn flour, biscuits,
beans, pumpkin seeds, and other stored products. The females lay eggs singly in
a hole of the seed and seal it with a gelatinous plug. After hatching, the larvae
feed on endosperm and complete their larval and pupal development inside the
kernel. Adults on emergence chew a hole inside the facet of the kernels and
come out of seed. Adults of granary weevil are usually 0.3–0.4 cm long with a
special snout which helps weevil in boring into the grains. The adults of rice
weevil are 0.2–0.4 cm long and have four distinct reddish-orange spots at wing
covers that maize weevil lack.
29.6.1.7 Lesser Grain Borer

The lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, is a cosmopolitan and destructive
primary insect pest of stored grains like wheat, rice, corn, and different commodities
containing starch (Edde 2012). They feed on whole grains and complete larval
development inside the kernel after which the adult emerges from kernel. The pres-
ence of a couple of oval bacteriomes in R. dominica can be related to the midgut and
densely populated by means of others.
29.6.1.8 American Black Flour Beetle

This beetle is almost similar to T. castaneum but little larger, having black shades on
the body. It is usually found in empty granaries; however, very little or no infesta-
tion has been observed on oilseeds and other farm stored grains.
29.6.1.9 Fungus Beetles

These beetles are usually found in heated and damp oilseeds and grains on which
mold has developed. Fungus beetles in stored grains and oilseeds are reasons for
a lot of concern as are rusty grain beetles, due to the fact that they contain high
moisture and molds and that the crop may be going out of control. The grains or
oilseeds should be turned and dried to interrupt tough or damp pockets. As fumi-
gation will not prevent spoilage by means of molds or heating, it is important to
take measures to transport the majority immediately or it may be ruined, result-
ing in substantial losses.
29.6.1.10 Psocids
Wheat psocids/book lice Liposcelis spp. are usually found in grain storage premises
and cause damage to the stored commodities. Earlier, it was suggested that this is
the scavenger and mold feeder but now it has been reported to cause more than 3%
damage within the storage period of 6 months.
29.7 Mites
Mites are tiny arthropods, occurring in stored grains in almost all parts of the world
(Haines 1991). They are different from bugs in that they got eight instead of six legs.
Mites secrete an oily substance that has an exceptional, minty smell. They feed on
germ part of the kernel, kernel itself, and foreign material in the grain. Moisture
contents of the grains are critical for their survival, for example, low temperature in
damp and moldy grains favor their development. In case of heavy infestation, mites
impart a typical smell in the commodity which is attributed by their lipid secretions.
Mites feed on germ part of the grains and may cause allergies and dermatitis in
humans (Fleurat-Lessard 1987). In stored grains, both saprophytic (e.g., Acarus siro
and Tyrophagus putrescentiae) and parasitic (Pyemotes spp. and Cheyletus spp.) are
found at the same time. Their lifecycle differs from insects in which pupae is
replaced with nymph, that is, larva, nymph, and adult.
29.8 Rodents
Rats have been found to cause more than 1% loss in cereals and other crops, while
in developing countries, this may reach 3–5%. Besides economic losses, they are
also responsible in the transfer of more than 50 diseases of human and other animals
like paratyphoid, typhoid, and scabies. They usually select protein-rich food source
and feed specially on the germ part of the seed. They not only cause nutritional
losses but also cause qualitative and quantitative losses in stored commodities.
The following are important rodent species:
• Black rat or house rat (Rattus rattus)

• Norway rat or common rat (Rattus norvegicus)
• House mouse (Mus musculus)
The following are few species of rats common in specific areas:
• Multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis) in Africa and the Middle East

• Bandicoot rat (Bandicota bengalensis) in Southern and Southeast Asia
• Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) in Southeast Asia, additionally occurring in Southern
Asia
29.8.1 Damage Caused by Rodents
29.8.1.1 Feeding on Stored Produce

On an average, rats and mice can devour 25 and 3–4 g of food/day, respectively.
Besides ravaging stored commodities, rodents also contaminate the food with their
feces, urine, pathogenic agents, hairs, and dead bodies. Economically, it is not
704 M. Yasin et al.
feasible to discard contaminated material, therefore, it is needed to declare rodent-

infested batches so as to avoid their consumption by humans.
29.8.1.2 Damage to Material and System

The rodents may damage material by the following ways:
• Cause leakage in stored baggage or storage boxes

• Bag stacks collapse due to leakage in layers in the base
• Chew electric cables which may lead to short circuits and sparks
• Warehouses and silos may collapse due to undermining
• Drainage canals, water channels, and stores can be broken
29.8.1.3 Signs of Rodent Infestation

When there are signs and symptoms of rodent infestation in any part of the storage,
it’s direly needed to completely inspect the whole storage system and their sur-
roundings to find out the rodents. There are number of clear symptoms of rodent
infestation:
29.8.1.3.1 Live Animals

Rodents are nocturnal and specially active at night. In case of population build up or
high infestation, the animals can be seen at daytime in storage structure.
29.8.1.3.2 Droppings
The form, type, length, and shape of rodent droppings can provide data of rodent
species and their degree of infestation. The droppings of Norway rats are round
20 mm long and are discovered alongside their runs. The droppings of black rats are
around 15 mm long and are of shaped like a banana. Mouse droppings are among
3–8 mm long and irregular in shape. Droppings are tender and bright sparkling
when fresh, turning into crumbly and matte black or grey in coloration after
2–3 days.
29.8.1.3.3 Runs and Tracks

Runs, consisting of the ones of Norway rats, are to be located along the foot of
walls, fences, or throughout rubble. They do not move in open and dense areas.
Runs inside homes can be recognized by means of the fact that they may be freed
from dust. The animal’s fur comes in contact with walls which leaves dark greasy
stains. Even black rats do not have any fixed runs but leave greasy stains on walls
and beams which they pass by.
29.8.1.3.4 Footprints and Tail Marks

Rats and mice leave footprints and tail marks in the dirt while wondering in storage
facility. If you suspect rodent infestation, just spread a dust, flour, or talcum powder
at numerous places alongside the walls to check the footprints next morning. The
length of lower back feet helps in identifying the species of rat. If the length of back
toes is larger than 30 mm, then it’s a black rat, Norway rat, and bandicoot rat;
however, if the back foot is smaller than 30 mm, it is suggestive of a Pacific rat,
multimammate rat, and house mouse.
29.8.1.3.5 Telltale Damage

Rats and mice cause broken grains as they nibble on grains and consume embryo
part of the stored cereals and leave the seed coat broken, which are symptoms of rat
attack. Moreover, damaged sacks with spilled grains are also the symptoms of
rodent attack. Thousands of grains are spilled through damaged sacks and they can
be checked with the aid of torchlight to control infestation.
29.8.1.3.6 Burrows and Nests

Depending on their living behavior, rodents make burrows or build nests inside or
outside of storage facility. Rats’ holes have a diameter ranging between 6 and 8 cm,
while mice holes are around 2 cm in diameter. These holes can be found especially
in thickened areas or close to the entrance of a store.
29.8.1.3.7 Urine
Urine traces are fluorescent in ultraviolet light. Where available, ultraviolet lamps
can be used to look for stains of urine.
29.9 Birds
In stored commodities, the losses from birds result through direct feeding and con-
tamination by means of their feathers and droppings. Their activity starts right after
harvesting and throughout threshing, drying, and storage in the garage, mainly in
bagged storage. The birds also play a significant role in carrying and bringing grain
bugs and microflora into grain storage facilities (Smith 1995). Major pests are the
pigeons (Columba livia) and sparrow (Passer domesticus). Other opportunistic
grain feeders such as doves, weavers, and parrots are of significant importance.
Pigeons feed in flocks and tour up to 8 km for foraging. They are usually domestic
and have little fear from human beings and feed on spilled grains instead of tearing
grain bags. Sparrows on the other hand are smaller and feed in flocks, spanning
distances of up to 2–3 km.
29.10 Conclusion
Achieving global food security is a great challenge to food procedures, as it is

affected by a number of biotic and abiotic factors and postharvest losses. Securing
the food not only means to enhance the food production, but also to reduce the post-
harvest losses. Food losses from the start of supply chain to the end consumer are
significantly higher due to postharvest losses during harvesting, handling, transport-
ing, storage, processing, packaging, and distribution. Losses can also be attributed
to mechanical damage and injury, physiological processes, poor handling, lack of
706 M. Yasin et al.
processing equipment, inadequate packaging, poor logistics, and suboptimal stor-

age conditions. Postharvest losses are more in developing countries due to lack of
adequate technologies and adopting conventional agricultural practices from start of
supply chain to end consumer. Much of the produce is lost during crop harvesting,
drying, and threshing operations in the field. Others are lost during grain drying in
the open environment by birds and animals, and contamination with dust, stones,
and other foreign material. Significant portion of the produce is lost during storage
due to the ravages of insects, rodents, and molds. During milling process, a portion
is also wasted. A significant portion of food is lost from retail to the end consumer.
Adoption of modern technologies for postharvest process can significantly reduce
the losses. The remedial methods include harvesting of crops with combined har-
vester and using straw chopper/collector to collect the leftover crop in the field
which escapes from the harvester. Likewise, drying of grains with modern grain
dryers instead of conventional methods can also significantly reduce the losses.
Losses during storage should be minimized by adopting modern storage technolo-
gies such as hermetic storage system to store the commodities for as long duration
as possible. Postharvest losses reduce the availability of food crops and income that
could be generated by selling these products and thus in terms of quantity is linked
to food security. The qualitative losses are related directly to nutrition and they are
more complicated to measure. However, the quantitative losses are of greater impor-
tance to measure in developing countries. It is important to recognize that posthar-
vest management practices and capacities (not only just production and marketing)
are consequential for many reasons including attaining high level of food and nutri-
tional security.
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Agronomic Crops Volume 1 Production Technologies

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Mirza

ISBN 978-981-32-9150-8 ISBN 978-981-32-9151-5 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

Dhaka, Bangladesh Mirza Hasanuzzaman

1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses......................................................... 1

9 Crop Production Under Changing Climate: Past,

21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug............................. 441

About the Editor

Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a professor of Agronomy

at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University in Dhaka. He

Ghulam Abbas Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

Roshan Ali Agriculture Research Institute, Mingora, Pakistan

Muhammad Dawood Department of Environmental Sciences, Bahauddin

Muhammad Ijaz College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,

Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad,

Naeem Sarwar Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

Muhammad Yasin College of agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University,

1.1 Cereal Crops

S. Naz (*) · Z. Fatima · I. Zakir · H. Younis · G. Abbas · S. Ahmad (*)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

Table 1.1 Classification of commonly grown C3 and C4 cereal crops in Asia

Barley is of great importance because in many temperate areas of the world it is

1.2 Oil Seed Crops

1.2.3 Castor Bean

1.3.1 Mung Bean

1.3.3 Black Gram

(Vigna mungo L.)

LD long day, SD short day, DN day neutral

1.4 Fibre Crops

production and inflexible fibre-resistant composite among thermostat and thermo-

1.4.2.1 Advantages of Jute

1.4.2.2 Drawbacks of Jute

1.5 Sugar Crops

Sugarcane is used for preparation of various industrial products, so it is known as

1.5.2 Sweet Sorghum

1.5.3 Sugar Beet

1.6 Forage Crops

Rhodes grass Spring ID A + P CP Seed + C4 Exhaustive

1.7 Medicinal Crops

1.7.1 Aloe Vera

1.8 Vegetable or Garden Crops

1.9 Roots and Tuber Crops

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 19

2.2 Nutritional Advantage

2.3 Major Challenges

Max. Maturity Average

Table 2.4 Climatic requirement of major nutri-cereals (Hirich et al. 2014)

development of these cereals. Environmental pollution and soil degradation also

2.4 Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L.)

2.5 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

2.6 Chia (Salvia hispanica)

Cultivated chia belongs to Lamiaceae family native to Mexico grown in Argentina,

2.7 Wild Rice (Zizania palustris L.)

Similar to cultivated rice, it belongs to family Poaceae native to North America. It is

2.8 Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum Gaertn.)

2.9 Teff (Eragrostis tef Zuccagni Trotter)

Teff is a dual-purpose, warm-season C4-type cereal, popular in dry areas of Africa.

Imran (*) · Amanullah

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 33

3.2  esponse of Crop Toward Climate Change and Their

approached its peak in 1960–1980 due to growing industrialization and urbaniza-

3.3 Climate Change and Agronomic Cropping Pattern

3.4  ice per Grain Production on the Cost of More GHG

Dhaka, Bangladesh Mirza Hasanuzzaman

1 Agronomic Crops: Types and Uses......................................................... 1

9 Crop Production Under Changing Climate: Past,

21 Tea Production in Bangladesh: From Bush to Mug............................. 441

1.1 Cereal Crops

S. Naz () · Z. Fatima · I. Zakir · H. Younis · G. Abbas · S. Ahmad ()

1.2 Oil Seed Crops

1.2.3 Castor Bean

1.3.1 Mung Bean

1.3.3 Black Gram

1.4 Fibre Crops

1.4.2.1 Advantages of Jute

1.4.2.2 Drawbacks of Jute

1.5 Sugar Crops

1.5.2 Sweet Sorghum

1.5.3 Sugar Beet

1.6 Forage Crops

1.7 Medicinal Crops

1.7.1 Aloe Vera

1.8 Vegetable or Garden Crops

1.9 Roots and Tuber Crops

2.2 Nutritional Advantage

2.3 Major Challenges

2.4 Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L.)

2.5 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

2.6 Chia (Salvia hispanica)

2.7 Wild Rice (Zizania palustris L.)

2.8 Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum Gaertn.)

2.9 Teff (Eragrostis tef Zuccagni Trotter)

3.2 esponse of Crop Toward Climate Change and Their

3.3 Climate Change and Agronomic Cropping Pattern

3.4 ice per Grain Production on the Cost of More GHG

3.5 Human Activities Accelerates Climate Change

3.6 Greenhouse Gases Effect and Global Warming

3.7 Climate Change Mitigating Strategy (DSR Technology)

3.8 limate Change Impact on Seed Germination and Crop

3.9 limate Change Impact on Crop Growth

4.2 Concept of Soil Health

4.3 ropping System in Relation to Soil Fertility

4.4 arming System Diversity in Different Agroecological

4.5 essons Learnt and Rephrasing Traditional Approach

5.2 What Is Climate Change and Climate Variability?

5.2.1 Importance of Climate

5.3.1 Cropping Patterns

5.3.2 Cropping System

5.4 Major Agronomic Cropping Patterns

5.5 What Is Crop Rotation?

5.5.1 Advantages of Crop Rotation

5.5.2 Sequential Cropping

5.6 Factors Affecting Cropping Patterns

5.6.1 Government Policies

5.6.2 Knowledge, Skills, and Labor

5.6.4 Historical Factors

5.6.5 Physical and Technical Factors

5.7 Impact of Climate Variability on Cropping Patterns

5.8 Role of Remote Sensing in Cropping Patterns

5.9 Use of GIS Techniques for Cropping Pattern Mapping

5.9.1 Cropping Pattern Maps

5.9.2 Crop Rotation Map

5.9.3 Long-Term Change Analysis

5.10 Cropping Pattern Choice as a Strategy to Cope with Risk

5.11 Global Climate Trends and Adaptation

5.11.1 Farm-Level Adaptations

5.12 Future Research Needs

S. A. H. Bukhari () · M. H. Javed · N. Hussain · S. Ahmad ()