Summary of defects and possible remedial/maintenance interventions for flexible pavements

Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment

remedies reference /unit of
measurement

Block Cracks Predominant Hardening and shrinkage of Cold milling and Major deterioration
width of crack bituminous mixture resurfacing (m²)
(mm)
Fatigue cracking in embrittled Full depth
Predominant cell bituminous wearing course reconstruction
width (mm)

Area affected
(m²)

Interconnected cracks forming a

series of large polygons. Cell sizes
are usually greater than 200 mm and
can exceed 3000 mm

Crocodile Cracks Predominant Saturated base or sub grade Full depth Major deterioration
width of crack reconstruction - (m²)
(mm) Rupture of surface course due to removing the wet
traffic load, fatigue, ageing and material and installing
Predominant cell brittleness of the binder drainage
width (mm)
Inadequate pavement thickness Skin patches or sealing
Area affected with emulsion and sand
(m²) Developing from a surface showing
can be used as a
Interconnected or interlaced cracks block cracking
temporary repair
forming a series of small polygons
resembling a crocodile hide. Usually
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

associated with wheel paths and with

resilient sub grade. Cell sizes are
generally less than 15mm across but
may extend up to 300 mm (synonym
– alligator cracks, crazing)

Diagonal Crack Predominant Reflection of a shrinkage crack or Fill and seal the crack Major deterioration
width of crack joint in and underlying cemented with bituminous (m²)
(mm) material emulsion slurry or
cutback bitumen mixed
Length (m) Differential settlements between with sand
embankments, cuts or structures
Area affected Cold mill and resurface
(m²) Tree roots
An unconnected crack which
Service installation
generally takes a

diagonal line across a pavement

Longitudinal Crack Width of Occurring singly: Fill and seal the crack Major deterioration
dominant crack with bituminous (m²)
(mm) Poor longitudinal joint construction emulsion slurry or
cutback bitumen mixed
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

Length of Differential movement in the case of with sand

dominant crack pavement widening
(m) Cold mill and resurface
Bitumen hardening
Spacing (mm) Improvement of stability
Incipient slips for roads on slopes of the slopes
Area affected
(m²) Occurring as a series of almost
Crack running longitudinally along parallel cracks:
the pavement. Can occur singly or as
series of almost parallel cracks. Volume change of expansive clay
Some limited branching may occur. sub grade

Differential settlement of sub grade,

e.g. between cut and fill

Incipient slips for roads on slopes

Slippage Cracks Predominant Inadequate bond of wearing course Remove the surface Slippage between
width of cracks with underlying layer or insufficientlayer from around the wearing course and
(mm) thickness of wearing course. crack to the point where underlying layer -
Inadequate bond may be due to there is good bond wearing course
Area affected dust, dirt, oil or the absence of a between the layers. deterioration (m²)
(m²) tack coat Square up and patch
the area with hot-mix Slippage extend in
Slippage of wearing course at road bituminous material depth below the
Half-moon or crescent shaped crack
locations with high shearing wearing course -
in the direction of traffic, commonly
stresses (braking and acceleration major deterioration
associated with shoving - (synonym –
zones) (m²)
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

shear crack, crescent crack) Low modulus base course

Transverse Crack Predominant Construction joint or shrinkage crack Fill and seal the crack Major deterioration
crack width (mm) (due to low temperature or bitumen with bituminous (m²)
hardening) in surfacing course emulsion slurry or
Spacing (mm) cutback bitumen mixed
Reflection of cracking from lean with sand
Length (m) concrete or concrete bases
Area affected Movement of underlying pavement
Transverse rupture across the
(m²)
pavement – for bituminous surfacing
over bridge deck or concrete slabs
the crack reflect movement or pattern
in the underlying pavement structure
and is referred to as reflection crack

Corrugations

Maximum depth Low in service stability of bituminous Corrugated layers Wearing course
under 1.2 m mix removed by cold milling deterioration (m²)
straightedge and resurfacing with
(mm) Low air voids polymer modified
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

Crest to crest Road locations under high materials

spacing (mm) tangential traffic stresses (steep
gradients with considerable heavy
Length of traffic braking zones).
pavement
affected (m)

Transverse undulations, closely and

regularly

spaced - (synonym - ripples)

Depression

Maximum depth Settlement of service trenches Patching to restore the Maximum depth of
under 1.2 m area to the same grade depression < 50 mm -
straightedge Consolidation of isolated areas of as the surrounding minor deterioration
(mm) soft or poorly compacted sub grade pavement (m²)
or embankment materials
Area of Excavate locally down Maximum depth of
depression (m²) Settlement due to the instability of into fill/poorly depression <50 mm -
embankment compacted sub grade major deterioration
and replace with new (m²)
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

Localised area within a pavement compacted fill and

with elevations lower than the pavement
surrounding area. May not be
confined to wheel paths and could
extend across several wheel paths

Rutting

Maximum depth Inadequate compaction in surfacing Leveling the pavement Maximum depth of rut
(under a or base by regulating course < 20 mm – wearing
transverse 1.2 m and followed by a course deterioration
straight edge) Plastic deformation of bituminous bituminous overlay (m²)
(mm) materials (flow) observed
longitudinally. It is accelerated by
Dig down to bottom of Maximum depth of rut
Length (m) the combined effect of traffic anddistress material and <20 mm – wheel
high temperature. replace track rutting (m) i.e.
assessed as lengths
Settlement of underlying courses of rutting
Longitudinal deformation in a wheel
and sub grade under traffic
path - (synonym - channeling)
Structural failure of sub grade
Rutting (Cont’d)

Shoving

Maximum depth Inadequate strength in surfacing or Square up and remove Maximum depth of
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

of bulge under base the shoving for full layer the shoved area <
1.2 m straight depth followed by 50mm wearing
edge from high Poor bond between pavement patching with hot course deterioration
point layers polymer modified (m²)

Area affected Stop and start of vehicles at bituminous material. Maximum depth of
(m²) intersections the shoved area 
Pressure exerted by a cement 50mm major
concrete pavement at transition deterioration (m²)
point with bituminous pavement

Low void content in surfacing or

other layers

Bulging of the road surface generally

parallel to the direction of traffic;
and/or horizontal displacement of
surfacing materials mainly in the
direction of traffic where braking or
acceleration movement occurs.

Flushing

Area affected Excessive binder content of wearing Cold mill and resurface Wearing course
(m²) course and associated low voids deterioration (m²)

Percentage (by Penetration of aggregate into base

area) stone
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

immersed (%) (low strength base)

Immersion, partially or completely, of

the aggregate into the bituminous
binder resulting in a black and
brilliant aspect - (synonym -
bleeding).

Polishing Area affected Inadequate resistance to polishing Cold mill and resurface Wearing course
(m²) of surface aggregates, particularly in with standard deterioration (m²)
areas of heavy traffic movements or bituminous wearing
where high stresses are developed course or textured
between surface and tyres. wearing course if high
skidding resistance is
essential

Smooth and rounding of the upper

surface of the road stone, usually
occurs in the wheel tracks. Identified
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

partly by relative appearance and

feel of trafficked and non-trafficked
areas. Polished areas will feel
relatively smooth and will sometimes
be noticeably shiny. The quality of
polishing cannot be quantified by
observation

Ravelling Area affected Separation of bituminous film from Cold mill and resurface Wearing course
(m²) aggregates (stripping) due to water deterioration (m²)
action, chemicals (including
hydrocarbon oils) or mechanical
forces

Progressive disintegration of the
pavement surface by loss of both
binder and aggregates
Disintegration of aggregates
Poor construction (segregation,
faulty mix design, overheating of
mix, bad compaction, inadequate
coating of aggregates or aggregates
badly embedded)

Delamination Thickness of Inadequate cleaning or inadequate Patch after squaring Wearing course
layer(s) removed tack coat before placement of upper defective area deterioration (m²)
(mm) layers
Cold mill and resurface
Area (typical) of Seepage of water through cracks to
individual defects break bond between surface and
(m²)
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity assessment
remedies reference /unit of
measurement

Number of lower layers

defects
Insufficient thickness or stability of
wearing course

Full damage of surface layer

Patching over failed pavement

Loss of a discrete and large area of
the wearing course layer. Usually
there is a clear delineation of the
wearing course and the layer below -
(synonym - peeling)

Potholes Depth of Developing from another defect Temporary repair Pothole in the
potholes (mm) such as too thin a surfacing layer, involves cleaning the wearing course only -
too many fines etc., resulting in hole and filling it with wearing course
Area of pothole disintegration with removal of either fine cold asphalt deterioration (m²)
(m²) material by traffic over weakened or bituminous wearing
spots on the surface course material Pothole extends in
Number depth below the
Irregularly shaped holes of various Moisture entry to base course Permanent repair is wearing course -
sizes in the pavement - through a cracked pavement made by constructing a major deterioration
surface deep patch after (m²)
squaring defective area
and removing all
unsound material
 Table 7.1.B: Summary of defects and possible remedial/maintenance interventions for rigid pavements
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity and
remedies assessment
reference /unit of
measure

Spalling Loose debris on the pavement, Excessive stress at the Partial–depth and full- Joint deficiencies and
roughness generally an indicator of joint caused by filtration depth repair cracking
advanced joint/crack deterioration if incompressible
materials and
Usually occurs within about o.6 m
subsequent expansion
of joint/crack edge
Weakness of pavement
Likely to impair serviceability of the
at joints/edges due to
pavement
poor
Cracking, breaking or chipping of Maximum depth of spall (mm) workmanship/improper
the edges of cracks, joints and insertion
edge of pavement damage to Length of joint or edge affected of/misalignment and
riding surface Transverse (m) corrosion of dowel bars
undulations, closely and regularly
spaced Surface area affected ( m²)

Faulting Vertical differential movement of Mainly caused due to Diamond Joint deficiencies and
slab adjacent to joint or crack pumping slab grinding/removal of cracking
thin top layer of
A difference in elevation across a Thermal and moisture
hardened concrete
joint/crack usually associated with stresses
un-doweled slabs Dowel bar retrofitting is
Slab pumping
usually required
Approach slab higher than the
leave slab due to pumping Reconstruction of
slab/full-depth repair in
Roughness and unevenness of
case of faulting in
Differences elevation across a joint pavement affecting riding quality
excess of 12.5 mm
or crack usually associated with
unreinforced/un-doweled joints of Number of slabs affected Total reconstruction of
plain concrete slab and subgrade

Polished aggregates
Loss of the original surface
texture/areas of pavement where
the portion of aggregate extending
Aggregates protruding out of Incorrect selection of Diamond grinding or Surface defects
cement paste with less angularity aggregates an overlay
and roughness
Abrasion/repeated
Reduces skid resistance leading to traffic application/low
riding discomfort strength mortar worn
out from the surface
Area of pavement/road section
affected ( m²)
above the cement paste

Linear cracking
Cracks not associated with corner
breaks or blow ups that extend
across the entire slab
Cracks divide an individual slab Pavement failure under Wide racks/transverse Surface defects/cracking
into two to four pieces/panel repetitive loading/heat full depth repair of
cracking of hydration/low pavement
thermal
Predominant with of crack (mm) Medium with cracks-
conductivity/shrinkage
form a groove and seal
Crack length (m) and creep
Full reconstruction
Number of slabs affected Roughness allows
moisture infiltration
leading to erosion of
base/sub base, cracks
spall and disintegrate

Shrinkage cracking Usually do not extend through the Improper curing where Treated by means of Joint deficiencies and
entire depth of the slab the surface of the slab crack sealants cracking
is allowed to dry quickly
Considered as distress if they Synthetic resin
occur in an controlled manner (e.g. Use of high early generally used as
outside contraction joints in or strength cement or crack sealant
close together) admixtures that give
Entire slab
high heat of hydration
Predominant with of crack (mm) replacement
Hairline cracks formed during Crack length (m) Full depth repair
setting of concrete not located at
joints Number of slabs affected Minor cracks/narrow
plastic shrinkage
cracks may be self-
 sealing
Demolition and
reconstruction/bay
replacement

Pumping Creation of voids space under the Pavement continuously Full depth repair of Surface defects
pavement where water subjected to heavy affected slab and
accumulates vehicular loads inclusion of load Localized damage to
transfer device (dowel pavement
Loss of subgrade/base could Ejection of water and
bar)
occur after pumping subgrade (base)
material through the Stabilizing slabs
Surface area affected ( m²)
joints and cracks or at adjacent to the
the edge due to pumping area
deflection
Improve permeability
Formation of void of pavement and poor
under the pavement drainage soil
where free water
Movement of material underneath accumulates
the slab or ejection of material from
underneath the slab as a result of Result of water
water pressure pressure accumulated
underneath a
pavement and with
pressure when the slab
deflects affected

Punch-out Transverse cracks, a short Roughness allows Full depth repair Surface defects
longitudinal crack moisture infiltration
leading to erosion/loss
Breaking of small portion of
Localized slab portion broken into of base/sub base
concrete slab into several pieces
several pieces in continuously
Localized construction
reinforced pavements
 Cracks spall and disintegrate defect inadequate
compaction and
Width of crack (mm)
consolidation
Crack length/longitudinal (m0
Corrosion of steel and
inadequate amount of
reinforcements

Corner break Crack extending through the entire High corner stress Full depth repair to Joint deficiencies and
slab refurbish the pavement cracking
Roughness moisture
with corner cracks
Crack width (mm) infiltration/severe
corner cracks Corner , transvers or
Crack length (m)
full depth repair
Transverse or corner
Number of slabs affected
cracks as a result of
joint dowels
Failed load transfer
dowels
Cracks that intersect the slab joints
near the corner Corrosion of rebars

Weeds/grass cover Collection of soil promote weed Failure of the joint seal Treat weed growth Isolated joint and
growth with an approved cracking area
Weeds growing in pavement joints Collection of grit and
herbicide deficiencies
and shoulder area Crack length affected (m) soil
Remove all weeds
Joint length (m) affected Gravel shoulder
from gaps/cracks
covered by weeds
Joint damages, can be
repaired as
recommended under
Joints/Open Cracks.
Summary of defects and possible remedial/maintenance interventions for gavel roads
Description Attributes Possible causes Recommended Activity and
remedies assessment
reference /unit of
measure
Corrugations/ Road surface Loss of various sizes of Reshaping Carriageway/gravel
roughness deformed by aggregate lost resulting surface deterioration
Grading of corrugated
vehicular traffic in uniform grading (m²)
sections
Corrugation forcing Lack of proper
slow driving to avoid maintenance
accidents
Length of road
damage to riding surface section affected (m)
Transverse undulations,
closely and regularly
spaced

Loss of gravel surface Gravel layer Gravel lost due to Resurfacing/ Gravel surface
thickness reduced. erosion regravelling deterioration ( m²)
Reduced gravel thickness
Voids or cavities in Gravel blown (fines) as (addition of gravel)
riding surface dust formation due to
crushing by traffic
Area affected ( m²)
Rutting Longitudinal/parallel Longitudinal ruts formed Grading/filling of ruts Depth of rut >75 mm
deformation/channel under traffic when and compaction wearing course
s in the wheel path surface is wet deterioration
 Surface wet and Settlement of underlying
losses courses and subgrade
strength/retain water
Structural failure of
to aggravate rutting
subgrade
under traffic
In adequate compaction
Longitudinal depressions Length of road
of the surfacing layer
or isolated ruts in riding section affected (m)
surface
Loss of camber Carriageway flat/no Deformation due to Reshaping of affected Major
surface drainage traffic lateral movements road sections carriageway/deformatio
due to (variable traffic n of
Wide spread
volume and load on
potholes
lanes) loosening of
Prevent/retard gravel surface/subgrade
Camber falls below drainage of layer
required carriageway
level/deformation of
Length of section
affected (m)
Stoniness Maximum gravel size Separation of Addition of gravel Wearing course
exposed on top of aggregates due to water material to meet deterioration
road surface action grading requirements
Course material and Traffic dislodging
Relative percentage of stones on the riding aggregates
course material surface Poor
embedded in the road Loss fines construction/segregation
surface exposed resulting , faulty compaction)
in rough driving surface Area of road section
affected (m²)
Potholes Depth of potholes Developed due to water Repair involving digging Pothole in the gravel
(mm) collected in small to remove all loose layer (carriageway
Isolated potholes in riding
depressions material and replace deterioration)
surface/irregularly shaped Area of pothole (m²)
with approved gravel
holes of various sizes Loose material thrown Pothole extends in
Number of potholes surfacing material
away by traffic depth below the
(No)
Pothole filling subgrade level
Dustiness Dry road surface Aggregate crushed Placing of additional Gravel wearing course
generating dust under traffic gravel deterioration
Dust blown from roadway
blown under traffic
surface by passing traffic Loss of coarse
Loss coarse aggregates
aggregate/excessive
fine material
Length of section
affected (m)
Erosion /scour Erosion gullies
on Fast runoff due to Fill of gullies with gravel Wearing course
carriageway increased slope of and compact deterioration
Formation of erosion
camber
gullies on the road Deformation of road
surface/sides surface Washing out of loose
material from surface
Length of section
affected (m)
Cracking Cracks develop to Fine grain material with Scarify/reshape Wearing course
ruts when roadway is high plasticity carriageway/add gravel deterioration
Cracking of the wearing
wet and compact
course ( during dry
season) high plasticity) Lead to formation of
potholes
Length of road
affected (m)
Road side, furniture and drainage: Summary of defects and recommended remedial actions
Description Attributes
Vegetation
 Vegetation/grass reduce
sight distance and
encroach the carriageway
Grass grown on road  Reduce visibility
side
 Grass grown high as within
the roadway
 Area ( m²) affected
Vegetation growing on  Road has been out of use
roadway  Width and length affected
 Area ( m²) affected
 Road not been in use
 Width and length affected
Bush growing on  Area ( m²) affected
road alignment
Road side Drainage
Side drain siltation  Silt deposited in the side
drain
 Side drain fully blocked in
severe conditions/due to
neglect
 Length affected (m)
Grass/vegetation inside  Vegetation grown inside
drain drain
Erosion  Eroded drain
 Length affected (m)
Possible causes Recommended Activity and
remedies assessment
reference /unit of
measure
 Vegetation growth without  Cut grass.  Roadway function
maintenance  Grass cutting reduced due to
 Visibility is reduced vegetation/bush/tr
growing on road s
 Pedestrians walk in road
 Vegetation will be incorporated  Grub vegetation
into road growth
 Road cannot be properly  Clear bush
maintained  Prune bush
 Damage to vehicles
 Slow flowing water from runoff  Clearing of side Side drain deterioratio
deposit silt drain
 Removal of silt/re-
dig
 Improve side drain
slope
 Lack of drain maintenance  Grub bush in the
drain
 Fast flowing water during runoff  Repair erosion
 Erodible soil  Construct scour
  Side drain lining
 Where possible
introduce mitre
drain
Damage to scour checks  Scour checks  Fast flowing water  Replace/repair  Damage to erosion
broken/dislodged  Spacing of scour checks scour protection measur
 Number of scour checks inconsistent with the drain checks/apron
(No) gradient  Review
spacing/add scour
checks
Ponding  Water logging inside drain  Soft spots result in loss of  Fill low  Major damage to
 Length (m) affected material spots/improve side drain
side drain gradient
to ensure smooth
flow
Shoulder erosion  Deteriorated shoulder  Soft spots/poor construction  Fill/compact  Shoulder
 Eroded shoulder result in loose material/soil prone erosion gullies deterioration
 Length (m) affected to erosion
Erosion on side slope  Eroded shoulder/effect on  Soft spots and loose soil prone  Fill side  Side slope
flow of water into side drain to erosion slopes/compact deterioration
 Length (m) affected
Others    
Kerb stone  Missing or damaged  Individual curb stones  Replace/repair  Damage to kerb
 Length (m) affected broken/cracked dislodged/shifted curb stone stone & walkway

Sidewalks  Crack  Surface cracking  Repair crack and

 Settlement  Deformed surface create deformation/settle
 Deformation discomfort to users ment
Cross Drainage
Structures
Sediment at inlet  Silt deposit block inlet
Blocked inlet/outlet  Debris at inlet
 Volume ( m3) of debris
Erosion in inlet/out let  Inlet erosion due to scour
channels/storm drains  Area ( m²) affected
Erosion around  Erosion of side of wing
structures wall/abutment
components/wing wall  Area ( m²) affected
and headwall
Damaged wing  Cracked on head/wing
wall/head wall walls
 Length (m) affected
Road furniture
Dirty road sign boards  Dirt on sign board
 Number
Missing road signs  Impact/traffic Sign board
miss
 Number
Guard rails/barrier  Barrier damaged
 Fast flowing water deposit silt  Clear inlet  Structures inlet
siltation
 Large debris caught and lead to  Clear inlet/remove  Inlet blockage
blockage debris
 Force of water may damage the
structure
 Scouring result in erosion at inlet  Repair erosion in  Channel erosion
 Fast/high flow rate of inside channels
channel  Erosion
 Could undermine structure protects/dissipate
speed
 Water collected on the riding  Repair erosion  Damaged structur
surface/splash by traffic  Grass planting on elements
 May lead to wall collapse backfill to
abutment
 Damage due to impact/traffic  Repair cracks on  Damage to
 Erosion walls structure’s
 Rebuild walls if components
damage is beyond
minor repair
 Sign board became dirty due to  Clean sign posts  Damaged/missing
dust/mud road signs and
 Absence/damaged signs pose barriers
danger to traffic
 Sign board/post damaged due to  Preplace road
impact by traffic sign
 Damage to barrier pose to road  Replace barrier
damaged  Number users
Edge delineators  Delineators not in place  Delineators damaged  Replace
 Number stolen/missing delineators
Km marker/posts  KM posts not in place  Posts damaged by traffic/stolen  Install/replace KM
damaged/missing  Number posts
Road marking/studs  Faded road marking/no  Lack of timely maintenance  Repaint lane/road
clearly marked lanes and marking
missing studs  Replace studs
 Number