Thermodynamics and Phase diagram

capo regime
H

Dominate G at low temperatures Dominate G at High temperatures

 Gibbs free energy (G)

Relative stability of a system is determined by Gibbs free energy (G)

Entropy

Enthalpy
Absolute temperature

Entropy is a measure of randomness of the system (or degree of

irreversibility of the process)

Enthalpy is a measure of the heat content of the system

 Enthalpy

Volume

Pressure
Internal Energy
(K.E. + P.E. of the system)

Interaction/bonds between atoms

Atomic vibrations (Liq and Solid), or

Translational and rotational energies
of atoms or molecules within a liq. and gas
 Equilibrium
 A system is said to be in equilibrium when it is in the most stable sta
 Shows no desire to change ad infinitum

At constant temperature and pressure a closed system

(fixed mass and composition) will be in stable equilibrium if

dG = 0

Gibbs free
energy G
 Equilibrium cont..
Gibbs free
energy G dG =
0
dG =
G1 0

G2

1 2 State of system

Metastable equilibrium Stable equilibrium

G1 > G2

Necessary criterion for phase transformation

Single component systems (pure element or molecule)

Liquid

Phase transformation at
constant temperature
TM

Solid
Temperature

Time

Time-Temperature curve
 Enthalpy and Entropy as a function of
temperature

Quantity of heat required to

raise the temp. of the
substance by 1 K

H = 0 for pure element in its

most stable state at 25oC
Gibbs free energy as a function of temperature
Gibbs free energy as a function of temperature

System of fixed mass and composition

Varying pressure and temperature

@ constant pressure
 Variation of G with temperature for the solid and
liquid phases of a pure metal

HL > HS @ all temps.

Latent heat
SL > Ss
Effect of pressure on equilibrium phase diagram for pure iron

hcp
Driving force for solidification
Phase: Portion of the system whose properties and composition are
homogeneous and which is physically distinct from other parts of the system
phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and
(often) mechanically separable

Components: are the different element or chemical compounds which make up

the system
 Binary solutions

 Ideal solutions
 Regular solutions
 Real solutions
 Gibbs free energy of binary solutions

Usually treated constant (1 atm.) in

Depends on
• Pressure solid state transformations
• Temperature
• Composition Two variables

Gibbs free energy of pure A + Gibbs free energy of pure B

Gibbs free energy of binary solutions of A and B elements
Gibbs free energy of binary solutions

Step 1 Step 2
 Step 1

After step 2, ΔGmix ??

1. Ideal solution

Free energy of mixing for an ideal solution

 Molar free energy for an ideal solution

GB

GA

More curvature
 Chemical Potential
How the free energy of a given phase will change when
atoms are added or removed
Chemical Potential
. Regular solutions
Usually mixing is either endothermic or exothermic

Quasichemical approach
ΔHmix is due to the bond energies
between adjacent atoms only

Vols. of pure A and B are equal and

do not change during mixing

A-A bonds with an energy εAA

B-B bonds with an energy εBB
A-B bonds with an energy εAB
Variation of ΔHmix with composition for a regular solution

ΔHmix
per mol
Free energy change with composition in a regular solution
3. Real solutions
Assumption of random arrangement of atoms is not possible

Compromise between lowest internal energy and entropy (randomness)

ε > 0, Increase no.

ε < 0, A-B bonds for large size
of A-A and B-B
(increase, reduce difference,
bonds (reduce
internal energy) interstitial
internal energy
 Equilibrium in heterogeneous system

If A & B do not have same crystal structures (assumption in

the models discussed)

Let stable form of A is α (fcc) GB (Bfcc)

And that of B is β (bcc)

GA (Afcc) GB (Bbcc)

This result in two free energy curves

 Similarly for Gβ

α phase solid sol. of Afcc and Bfcc

β phase is solid sol. of Abcc and Bbcc

GA (Abcc)

GA (Afcc)

A rich B rich

Gα < Gβ (α stable phase) Gα > Gβ (β stable phase)

Composition between crossover??

but

Instead of single phase α,

Mixture of two phase α and β

Till

Composition of two phases reach αe and βe

And, free energy of the system reach min. Ge

Equilibrium between two phase requires that the

tangents to each G curve lie on a common line
Or
Each component in the different phases must
have same chemical potential
 Binary phase diagrams
 Simple phase diagram
 Systems with miscibility gap
 Ordered alloys
 Simple eutectic system
 Phase diagram containing intermediate phases
A&B are completely miscible in both the solid and liquid states
(both are ideal solutions)
Systems with Miscibility gap Liquid phase is approx. ideal,
for solid phase ΔHmix > 0

Miscibility gap
 ΔHmix >> 0
Miscibility gap can extend in to the liquid phase

Eutectic phase diagram

T1 T2 T3

Example: lead-antimony, silver-copper

 Phase diagram
A & B have different crystal structure

Eutectic phase diagram

Example: chromium-nickel, lead-tin

 Ordered alloys ΔHmix more negative

When ΔHmix < 0

If attraction between unlike

atoms is very strong
 Intermediate phases

 Crystal structure different from both the components

 Have ideal atom ratio

Narrow stability range Wide stability range

Extra free energy curve appears for intermediate phase

Example: Mg-Sn, Mg-Pb

 Solubility of B in A

B is soluble in A,
but A is virtually
insoluble in B

XBe can never be zero,

No two components are ever completely
insoluble in each other
 Equilibrium vacancy concentration

Creation of Vacancy

Increases internal energy due to

broken bonds around it
At the same time increases
randomness or configurational entropy
 Kinetics of phase transformation

The rate at which transformation occurs

will depend on the frequency with
which atoms reach the activated state
Diffusion
Why? Diffusion to decrease G
G3
Diffusion from high
concentration to low
G4

Alloy with ΔHmix > 0

Diffusion from low

concentration to
high !!!

In general:
Diffusion from region
where chemical potential
of species is high to where
it is low, till equilibrium is
reached
 Atomic mechanisms of diffusion

Substitutional
(vacancy mechanism)

Interstitial Octahedral interstices

FCC BCC
 Fick’s first law
Valid, if jumping of B atoms is random with a frequency independent of
concentration

By making correct substitution of α, DB can be calculated for any

randomly diffusing atom in cubic lattice

In real systems diffusion coefficient change with composition

Diffusion coefficient of C in γ-Fe at 1000oC is 2.5×10-11 m2s-1 at 0.15 wt%C
Diffusion coefficient of C in γ-Fe at 1000oC is 7.7×10-11 m2s-1 at 1.4 wt%C
 Interstitial diffusion
Simple cubic latticeas random jump process

Fick’s first law of diffusion

Flux
atoms,moles/m2s

Diffusion coeff. Of B m2/s

Concentration gradient atoms,moles/m4

Variation of free energy of the lattice
as a function of the position of interstitial
Experimental diffusion data for interstitials in ferritic iron (bcc)

Calculation of activation energy of diffusion

 Fick’s second law
Concentration variation with both distance and time
Concentration increase with time Concentration decrease with time
Melting point diffusivity D(Tm) m2/s
Normalized activation energy of different
class of materials
 High-Diffusivity Paths

Diffusion along defects –

dislocations, interfaces, grain boundaries and free surfaces

Open structure

Therefore, Jump frequency (diffusion) is higher for

atoms migrating along these defects
compared to lattice diffusion
Diffusion along grain boundaries and free surfaces

At any given temperature

Diffusion through defect free

lattice
Grain boundary and volume diffusion
Grain boundary and volume diffusion
Steady state diffusion through a sheet of material
Arrangement of gbs and lattice
to the concentration gradient

Apparent
diffusion
Grain boundary diffusion makes a significant contribution to the total
flux when

Diffusion in polycrystalline silver

Diffusion along dislocation (pipe diffusion)

g is cross sectional of pipe per unit area of matrix

Grain boundaries

 Boundaries in single phase solids

 Dislocation model for Low angle and high angle grain boundaries
 Energy of low angle grain boundary
 Coincidence Site Lattice (CSL) model for GBs
Grain boundaries
 Planar defect – Grain boundary

Misalignment between two grains is accommodated at grain boundary

No regular arrangement of atoms in the boundary
High energy site as compare to the grain interior
Easy for impurity elements to segregate in the boundary
 Simple grain boundaries
Pure tilt Pure twist

Axis of rotation is parallel to Axis of rotation is perpendicular to

the plane of the boundary the plane of the boundary

A coherent twin boundary (in fcc) is a

pure twist boundary, 60° <111> or
180o <110>
 Low angle and high angle grain boundaries

Dislocation model of GBs - an array of dislocations

Low angle tilt

Array of parallel edge dislocations

Low angle twist Unsymmetrical tilt boundary
Cross grid of two sets of screw Dislocations of different Burgers
dislocations vectors are required to accommodate
the misfit
 Energy of low angle grain boundary

Total energy of the dislocations within unit area of boundary

For simple array - Depends on spacing of

the dislocations

As θ increases strain fields of the dislocations

progressively cancel out -- γ increases at
decreasing rate
For small θ – dislocation spacing is very large
Grain boundary energy γ is approximately proportional
to the density of dislocation in the boundary (1/D)

When θ > 10-15o the dislocation spacing

is so small that the dislocation cores
overlap, grain boundary energy become
almost independent of misorientation
Physical model of GBs

Bubble raft model

High angle grain boundary

Low angle grain boundary

 Defining grain boundaries
Boundaries in single phase solids

 Nature depend on misorientation between

two adjoining grains and the orientation of the
boundary plane

 5-paramters required to define a grain

boundary

 Three parameters – to specify orientation of

one grain with respect to other

 Two parameters – to specify orientation of

grain boundary plane with respect to one of
the grain
 Orientation (Grain)
Orientation of a grain can be expressed in terms of:

 Euler angles (ΦθΨ) - Three rotation to coincide local

coordinate (crystal) system with reference/global coordinate
(processing) system – ex Rolling (RD, TD, ND)
 Orientation matrix (R) - ( 9 elements)

Z 001

Y α1 – b/n 100 & X

100 β1 – b/n 100 & Y
010 γ1 – b/n 100 & Z
X
Euler Angles - rotation

1. the first rotation is by an angle Φabout

the z-axis (refer D)
2. the second rotation is by an angle θ
about the new x-axis ( x’) (refer C)
3. the third rotation is by an angle Ψ
about the former z-axis (now z’) (refer
B) .
 Euler Angles, Animated
e’3= e3=Zsample=ND 3rd position (final)
[001] 2nd position
[010]
zcrystal=e3’’’ f1 1st position
ycrystal=e2’’’
= e”3
e”2
f2
e’2
e2=Ysample=TD
Crystal RD
xcrystal=e1’’’ [100]
F
TD e’1 =e”1
e1=Xsample=RD
Sample Axes
 GB Misoreintation
Misorientation can be expressed in terms of:

Euler angles – by matching coordinates of two grains

Misorientation matrix R= g2g1-1, where g1 and g2 are

orientation matrix of each grain

Angle/axis pair - rotation about given axis by particular angle to

coincide lattice of one grain with the adjoining grain
g2

g1
 Rotation of an axis by an angle

An orthogonal coordinate system x y can be rotated by angle θ to new

coordinate system x’ y’
So the coordinates (x',y') of the point
(x,y) after rotation are

In matrix form, the rotation can be expressed as

This rotates column vectors by means

of the following matrix multiplication,

Rotation matrix has the following form

Rotation of [100] by 90o on z axis [001]

3×3 rotation matrix for rotation by 90o on z axis [001]

3x3 Rotation matrix from Euler angles

R = Z’(φ)X’(θ)Z(ψ)
 Angle-axis from rotation matrix

Given a 3 × 3 rotation matrix R, a vector u

parallel to the rotation axis must satisfy

Since the rotation of u around the rotation axis must result in u. The equation
above may be solved for u which is unique up to a scalar factor unless R = I.
Further, the equation may be rewritten

Viewed in another way, u is an eigenvector of R corresponding to the

eigenvalue λ = 1

Angle - calculate the trace, i.e., the sum of the

diagonal elements of the rotation matrix.
Angle/axis pair – rotation about given axis by particular
angle to coincide lattice of one grain with the adjoining grain

R = Z’(φ)X’(θ)Z(ψ)

Cos θ will provide the angle of rotation about axis (r1, r2, r3)
 Coincidence Site Lattice (CSL) model for GBs
 Dislocation model nicely explains increase in grain boundary energy with
misorienetation angle
 However, Dislocation model can not explain dip in energy for some high
angle grain boundaries
 It appears that for some boundaries there is good fitting between the two
grains
 To explain this - Coincidence site lattice model was proposed

Rotation axis // [100] Rotation axis // [110]

S11  50°<110>

S3  60°<111> or 180o <110>

 Special High-angle grain boundaries

Coherent twin Incoherent twin

GB Energy
Crystal γCoherent Twin γIncoherent twin γGB

Cu 21 498 623

Ag 8 126 377
Fe-Cr-Ni 19 209 835
(SS304)
 Coincidence site lattice - CSL

 Fraction of atoms in coincidence at a grain boundary

 Reciprocal of that is CSL boundary expressed by Σ

Rotation axis // [100] Rotation axis // [110]

S11  50°<110>
S3  60°<111>
180o <110>
{100} plane in fcc
53.1o or 36.9o rotation on
<100> axis will give CSL of Σ5

53.1o + 36.9o = 90 !!!

{111} plane in fcc
21.8o or 38.2o rotation on
<111> axis will give CSL of Σ7
Crystal interfaces and microstructure
 Three types of interfaces

 Free surfaces of crystal (solid / vapour interface)

 Grain boundaries (α/α interfaces)

 Interphase interfaces (α/β interfaces)

 Solid / Vapour interface

Atomic arrangement on three closed packed planes in fcc crystal

111 200 220

Surface energy
increasing

Surface energy due to broken bonds

 Broken-bond model for surface energy

Variation of surface energy as a function of θ

 γ-plot
Variation of γ with surface orientation in 3-D
Predict the equilibrium shape of an isolated single crystal

Construct a surface about an origin such that the free energy

of any plane is equal to the distance between the surface
and the origin in the direction normal to the plane

Equilibrium shape ΣAiγi = minimum

(1-10) section through γ-plot

 Boundaries in single phase solids
Nature depend on misorientation between two adjoining
grains and the orientation of the boundary plane
5-paramters required to define a grain boundary

The lattices of two grains can be made to coincide by

rotating one of them through a suitable angle about a single
axis
Pure tilt Pure twist
Axis of rotation is parallel Axis of rotation is
to the plane of the perpendicular to the plane of
boundary the boundary
 Distorted bonds

Stepped interface to minimize energy

Solid-vapor interface of closed packed planes

Polycrystalline material
Metastable equilibrium
Grain boundary migration
 Metastable Equilibrium
Grain boundaries are region of higher energy
Well annealed polycrystalline material is always in metastable equilibrium

Balance of grain-boundary tensions for a grain-

boundary interaction in metastable equilibrium
 Migration of GBs – thermal activation

If GBs energy is same (independent of misorientation) then

For complete metastable equilibrium the surface tension must

also balance over all the boundary faces

Any curved boundary

is acted by a force
towards its centre of
curvature
In real metallurgical materials
 The boundaries have net curvature in one direction
 Therefore inherently unstable and migrate towards
their centre of curvature

Planar (6 GBs) – metastable equilibrium

Concave inwards (< 6 GBs) – Shrink

> 6 GBs - Grow

 Kinetic of grain growth

Driving force for grain growth is to reduce total no. of grains thereby
increase the mean grain diameter

n = 0.5, for pure metals at very high temperatures

Experimentally it is found

Usually less than 0.5,

due to solute drag effect
 Driving force for migration

Effect of the pressure difference caused by curved

boundary is to create a difference in free energy (ΔG) or
chemical potential (Δμ) that drives the atom across the
boundary
 Pulling force per unit area of boundary

Grain growth
Free energy difference due to
boundary curvature
Recrystallization
Difference in dislocation strain
energy between the two grains
 Moving boundary velocity
Lead alloyed with tin

Mobility of GB

Coherent twin boundary are

almost immobile

In general special boundaries are

more mobile than random GBs

Due to solute drag

 Effect of particles on GB migration

Force due to
solute drag

Force due to
GB curvature
Maximum grain size in presence
of particle is given by

mean radius of particles

Vol. fraction of particles

Time
Interphase interfaces in solids
 Interface coherence

1. Fully coherent interfaces

2. Semi coherent interfaces
3. Incoherent interfaces
4. Complex semicoherent interfaces

Second-phase shape –
Interfacial energy effects
a. Fully coherent precipitates
b. Partially coherent precipitates
c. Incoherent precipitates
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries
Second-phase shape –
Misfit strain effects
i. Fully coherent precipitates
ii. Incoherent inclusions
iii. Plate-like precipitates
Interface coherence
1. Fully coherent
interfaces
Semi coherent interfaces
Incoherent interfaces
Complex semicoherent
interfaces

When two crystals match

perfectly at the interface plane

Two lattices are continuous

across interface
 Example

The interfacial plane has the same atomic arrangement in both the phases

Cu-Si alloys
interface between Si rich κ phase (hcp) and Cu rich α matrix (fcc)

(111)fcc is identical to (0001)hcp

both closed pack planes and,
in this particular case interatomic
distance are also identical
Orientation Relationship
(111)α // (0001)κ
[-110]α // [11-20]κ
Interfacial energy of coherent interface

For a coherent interface different chemical species across the

interface (only) contribute to interfacial energy

Interfacial energy for Cu-Si alloys interface between Si rich κ

phase (hcp) and Cu rich α matrix (fcc) ~1mJ/m2
Coherency strain
If interatomic distance in the interface is not identical
coherency can still be possible by straining one or both of
the lattices
 Interface coherence
Fully coherent interfaces
2. Semi coherent interfaces
Incoherent interfaces With increase in atomic misfit across
Complex semicoherent interfaces interface, it becomes energetically
favorable to replace the coherent
interface with semicoherent interface
Misfit is accommodated by introduction
of misfit dislocation periodically

dα and dβ are unstressed

interplanar spacing
 Spacing between edge dislocation (D)

for small misfit

b is Burgers vector
of dislocation
Interfacial energy

structural distortion caused by dislocations

for small misfit, structural contribution to

interfacial energy is approximately
proportional to the density of dislocations
in the interface

2-D interface
Interface coherence
Fully coherent interfaces
Semi coherent interfaces Interface between two randomly oriented
crystal
3. Incoherent interfaces
Complex semicoherent
interfaces high angle grain boundary, anyone 

Interatomic distance differ

by more than 25%

misfit > 0.25

Dislocation strain field will start

interacting, interface can not
remain coherent
Interface coherence
Fully coherent interfaces
Semi coherent interfaces
Incoherent interfaces
4. Complex semicoherent between closed packed planes of
interfaces fcc and bcc crystals

Orientation relationships (OR)

Nishiyama-Wasserman (N-W)
(110)bcc // (111)fcc [001]bcc // [-101]fcc

Kurdjmov-Sachs (K-S)
(110)bcc // (111)fcc [1-11]bcc // [0-11]fcc

8%
 Second-phase shape –
Interfacial energy effects

β-precipitate embedded in α matrix

Shape of the precipitate and its orientation relationship to the matrix
are optimized to give lowest total interfacial free energy (ΣAiγi)

Type of Energy
interface (mJ/m2)
a. Fully coherent precipitates Coherent <200
b. Partially coherent precipitates
c. Incoherent precipitates Semi-coherent 200-500
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries Incoherent ~ 500-1000
Second-phase shape –
Interfacial energy effects
a. Fully coherent precipitates Precipitate β and the parent α phase have
b. Partially coherent precipitates same crystal structure and similar lattice
c. Incoherent precipitates parameter
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries

Two lattices are in parallel OR

Low energy coherent interface on all the side

Usually occur in early

precipitation reaction by forming
fully coherent GP zone (Guinier-
Preston zone)
γ-plot of α/β interfacial
energy will give equilibrium
shape as Spherical
Example Al – 4 at% Ag alloy

Ppt Ag-rich fcc in Al-rich fcc matrix

TEM micrograph

Difference in atomic dia. of Al and

Ag is only 0.7%
very small coherency strain
 γ-plot
Variation of γ with surface orientation in 3-D
Predict the equilibrium shape of an isolated single crystal

Construct a surface about an

origin such that the free
energy of any plane is equal to
the distance between the
surface and the origin in the
direction normal to the plane

Equilibrium shape ΣAiγi = minimum

section through γ-plot

Second-phase shape – Interfacial
energy effects
a. Fully coherent precipitates When crystal structures are different –
b. Partially coherent precipitates matching lattice planes is difficult
c. Incoherent precipitates
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries

If we can find one identical plane in both the phases

(one interface) low energy coherent

or semicoherent interface
(Others) high energy incoherent

Thickness/diameter ratio = γc / γi

γ-plot of α/β interfacial energy will

give equilibrium shape as Disc
 Example Al – 4 at% Ag alloy
(hcp γ’ - in fcc matrix)

Habit plane
Broad phase parallel to {111}α

Widmansttäten morphology

OR - {111}fcc // {0001}hcp
Example Al – 4 wt% Cu alloy
(tetragonal θ’ - in fcc matrix)

OR - (001)θ’ // (001)α
[100] θ’ // [100]α
θ’
Second-phase shape – Interfacial
energy effects
a. Fully coherent precipitates
b. Partially coherent precipitates
c. Incoherent precipitates
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries

Two phases have completely different crystal structure

or
lattices are in random orientation

Interfacial energy high for all interfaces

γ-plot and inclusion shape will be spherical

Example θ (CuAl2) ppt

in Al – 4 wt% Cu alloy
Second-phase shape – Interfacial
energy effects
a. Fully coherent precipitates
b. Partially coherent precipitates
c. Incoherent precipitates Formation of interface with two
d. Precipitates on grain boundaries different grains

a) Incoherent interfaces with both the

grains
b) A coherent or semicoherent interface
with one grain and an incoherent
interface with the other
c) Coherent or semicoherent interface
with both grains
Example: Cu-In alloy
 Interface coherence

Fully coherent interfaces

Semi coherent interfaces
Incoherent interfaces
Complex semicoherent interfaces

Second-phase shape – Second-phase shape –

Interfacial energy effects
Misfit strain effects
Fully coherent precipitates
Partially coherent precipitates Fully coherent precipitates
Incoherent precipitates
Precipitates on grain boundaries
Incoherent inclusions
Plate-like precipitates
Second-phase shape – Misfit When misfit is present (Coherency strain)
strain effects
Shape of the precipitate is given by
i) Fully coherent precipitates
ii) Incoherent inclusions
iii) Plate-like precipitates

Elastic strain field due to misfit

Origin of lattice strain

Conserving lattice points in the hole - Equal and

opposite strain in matrix and inclusion
Let, Lattice parameter of unstrained matrix is aα and ppt is aβ

Unconstrained misfit

Constrained misfit Due to stresses maintaining

coherency at the interface

New lattice parameter due to

hydrostatic distortion in a spherical
inclusion
Shape of the Ppt. ???
Depends on value of

δ < 5% (Spherical) – interfacial energy is dominant

δ > 5% (Disc) – strain energy is dominant

Example – Precipitation hardening alloys: Al-Ag, Al-Zn, Al-Cu

In reality most metals are elastically anisotropic

In cubic crystal
<100> direction soft Ppt disc will be parallel to {100}
<111> direction hard
Second-phase shape – Misfit
strain effects
i) Fully coherent precipitates No matching across interface –
ii) Incoherent inclusions no coherency strain!
iii) Plate-like precipitates

Misfit due to mismatch in volume of the hole and ppt volume

Volume misfit

Vol. of unconstrained hole

(V - ΔV) is the volume of the unconstrained inclusion

Elastic strain energy for a homogeneous
incompressible inclusion in an isotropic matrix

μ is shear modulus of the matrix

ƒ(c/a) takes into account the

shape effect
Second-phase shape – Misfit
strain effects
i) Fully coherent precipitates
ii) Incoherent inclusions
iii) Plate-like precipitates Coherent broad face with
Coherency strain

Incoherent or
semicoherent edges

Strain energy will increase with growth of the precipitate and eventually
coherent interface will convert to semi-coherent interface
 Coherency loss

Coherent interface Non-coherent interface

Interfacial energy low high
Coherency strain Present because of Not present (extra structural
energy misfit contribution)

Free energy of fully coherent spherical ppt

If the ppt has incoherent or semi-coherent interfaces

At critical radius

In practice coherent ppt found to be

larger than rcrit
 Glissile interfaces

Semi-coherent interface discussed are non-glissile

Because burger vectors of dislocations are parallel
to interface and their glide will not result in
movement of interface (non glissile interface)

Glissile semicoherent interface

Movement by coordinated
glide of interfacial dislocations
Slip on continuous, matching
planes across interface
 Example
Gliding dislocation will shear the lattice above the slip plane relative to
below by the Burgers vector of the dislocation
Glissile low angle-angle symmetric tilt boundary
Similarly,
α sheared in to β – fcc to hcp

by Shockley partial dislocation

Shockley partial dislocations

Spacing between atoms in

close-packed directions of
the different cubic systems

Edge dislocation in fcc

lattice as viewed when
looking down on the slip
plane
 Actual movement through Relationship between total
partial dislocations and partial dislocations

In a unit cell

Dislocation reaction
 Stacking fault and extended dislocations

Introduction to Dislocations
 By Derek Hull, D. J. Bacon

Aluminum has high stacking fault energy – separation between dislocations

is only of the order of a single atomic distance

Copper has low stacking fault energy (12 interatomic spacings)

Change in stacking
sequence due to
passage of partial
dislocation

Two Shockley partial

dislocations on alternate
(111) planes create six
layers of hcp stacking
An array of Shockley partial dislocations
forming a glissile interface between fcc
and hcp crystals

Ledge mechanism
Twinning by Shockley partial dislocations