RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Boni Avenue, Mandaluyong City

College of Arts and Sciences
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 4 AND 5:
Glands and Hormones

• Terrestrial Animal – Komodo dragon (Varanus

komodoensis)
• Aquatic Animal – Hydra (Coelenterata spp.)
• Avian Animal – Peafowls (Pavo cristatus)

Dela Cruz, Jao Austin

CAS – 02 – 601P
March 14, 2022
Terrestrial Animal
Basic Description: The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) is a member of the
monitor lizard family (Varanidae). Varanidae is the largest and heaviest lizards in the
world, weighing up to 165 kg and reaching lengths of more than three meters. They are
ectotherms or cold-blooded animal, which means that their body temperature regulation
depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated rock surface. Juveniles are
bright and speckled green with yellow and black bands. Adults have finely spotted skin
with orange and yellow, and it has a dull, uniform color that ranges from brown to grayish
red. They have long, flat heads with rounded snouts, long forked tongues, scaly and hard
skin, bowed legs, sharp serrated teeth, and huge, muscular tails. These lizards have a
venomous bite, and their group behavior in hunting is exceptional in the reptile world.

Habitat/Ecology: Komodo dragons occur on Komodo Island and a few neighboring

islands of the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia. They are primarily found in the island’s
tropical savannah forests (average of 35°C). The islands are volcanic with steep slopes
and little water (except for the once-a-year short-lasting monsoon). They favor open
lowlands areas with tall grasses and bushes, but they can also be found on beaches,
hilltops, dry riverbeds, arid and mountainous regions.
Glands and Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus and Pineal gland: The hypothalamus is responsible for various
functions, but two of the most significant are maintaining homeostasis and controlling
hormones. The Komodo dragon places a high value on homeostasis. When we look at
the term, “homeo” means "the same," and stasis implies "not moving" or "keeping." As a
result, homeostasis refers to something being in the same place. Consider homeostasis
in the context of body temperature. Komodo dragons maintain, or hold, a constant
temperature. The hypothalamus of a Komodo dragon controls the secretions of pineal
gland, an endocrine gland that regulates their temperature and melatonin production for
their circadian rhythm. Pineal gland is a photosensor on their head that senses ultraviolet
light, and they use it for thermoregulation to go in and out of light. It lets them know if they
are warm enough. The Komodo dragon regulate their temperature based on external
environment, and they have so much mass that their bodies trap a lot of heat, allowing
them to maintain a fairly consistent body temperature, almost like a mammal. Removing
the pineal gland affects their capacity to regulate their body temperature, a process called
thermoregulation. In reptiles, the pineal eye also acts as a calendar. It can see days
getting longer and nights getting shorter, and the reverse, and so tells the brain how
seasons are changing. As a consequence, it monitors most life cycles, such as sleep and
reproduction rhythms. The main function of the pineal gland is to receive information
about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information
to produce and secrete the hormone melatonin. The rhythmic production of melatonin,
secreted only during the dark period of the day, is extensively used as a marker of the
phase of the internal circadian clock.
Salivary gland (Venom gland): Walter Auffenberg, an American biologist, traveled to
the Indonesian island of Komodo in 1969 to research the island's most renowned resident,
the Komodo dragon. Auffenberg spent a year studying the dragons and eventually wrote
a book about their behavior in 1981. It earned him a prize. It also perpetuated a fallacy
that took nearly three decades to debunk and is still widely believed today. When large
animals like water buffalo were harmed by dragons, Auffenberg discovered that they
developed lethal illnesses quickly. He proposed that the dragons use microorganisms as
a sort of venom based on this observation and no actual evidence. When they bite their
prey, the bacteria in their mouths overwhelm the wounds, weakening and killing the victim.
This explanation is found in textbooks, wildlife documentaries, zoo placards, and more.
It’s also wrong. “It’s an enchanting fairy tale, which has been taken as gospel”, says Bryan
Fry from the University of Queensland. By putting one of them in a medical scanner in
2009, Fry identified the true culprit of the dragon's devastating bite. The dragon's venom
glands are filled with poisons that cause low blood pressure, extensive bleeding, clotting
problems, and shock. The dragons, rather from employing germs as venom, use venom
as venom. Based on a thorough analysis of the dragon’s skull, Fry thinks that they kill with
a grip, rip and drip tactic. They bite down with serrated teeth and pull back with powerful
neck muscles. The result: huge gaping wounds. The venom then quickens the loss of
blood and sends the prey into shock. They looked into the likelihood of bacteria being
involved in the lethal bite of the Komodo dragon, but discovered nothing noteworthy. All
of the bacteria they discovered were common in their recent meals' skin and guts. There
were no virulent species at all, and none that might cause a rapid, lethal infection. And
the species that were present were not particularly abundant. In conclusion, Komodo
dragons hunt and ambush prey including invertebrates, birds, and mammals. The
researchers found the two set of glands in the Komodo dragon heads specifically in their
lower jaw, and inside they found venomlike proteins. Tests showed that one protein keeps
blood from clotting. Another one relaxes blood vessel walls. “It drops the blood pressure
like a stone,” Dr. Fry said. The biological significance of these proteins is disputed, but
the glands have been shown to secrete a venom that is an anticoagulant. Anti-coagulant
compound prevents the victim’s blood from clotting, causing it to bleed to death. The
researchers found adaptations in Komodo dragon genes involved in coagulation that
make these lizards immune from the venom anti-coagulant, protecting them from bleeding
to death when attacked by another of their own species.
Pituitary gland: Melanotropin (melanocyte-stimulating hormone, or MSH) is a hormone
generated by the pituitary gland that regulates the star-shaped cells in the skin of Komodo
dragons that contain enormous amounts of the black pigment melanin (melanophores).
Photoreceptors are stimulated by light reflected from the surface, which sends information
to the brain and then to the hypothalamus. The pigment in the melanophores disperses
and the skin darkens as a result of pituitary melanotropin, which can be extremely
dramatic.
Thyroid gland: Pituitary gland is a master gland that controls all the other glands of
Komodo dragons, it takes the stimulation from hypothalamus and directs it to all other
endocrine glands. Pituitary control of thyroid activity by means of thyrotrophic hormone
(T3: triiodothyronine and T4: thyroxine) is well demonstrated for reptiles as for other
vertebrates. Komodo dragons have a single thyroid gland that is wide, spherical, and
bilobed or paired. The thyroid gland is plainly visible since it is dorsal to many ventral
muscle layers (constrictor colli, omohyoideus, episternocleidomastoideus). On both sides
of the thyroid gland, there are two artery supplies. The superior thyroid arteries (also
known as the right and left thyroid arteries) arise from the external and internal carotid
arteries, respectively, and connect to the lateral thyroids. The inferior thyroid arteries (also
known as the right and left laryngotracheal arteries) are enormous channels that connect
the dorsal thyroid body to the body of the thyroid. One or two medial thyroid veins drain
the thyroid glands into the right tracheal, or right internal jugular, veins. A huge lymphatic
sac houses the thyroid gland itself. The thyroid gland receives its innervation from the
vagus nerve's laryngeal branches and the cervical sympathetics' fine branches. Although
there are limited studies on thyroid gland of Komodo dragon, thyroid physiology is
assumed to have an impact on several processes in reptiles, including shedding, growth,
and reproduction, nutritional assimilation, development, reproduction, metabolic rate, and
activity. The thyroid has been shown to undergo well-defined histological alterations in
monitor lizards in relation to the differentiation and shedding of the horny layer of the skin.
There is also some evidence that the growth rate of reptiles, both at embryonic and post-
embryonic stages, is affected by the thyroid hormone. Moreover, the majority of authors
that believe the reptile thyroid influences metabolic rate have done so on the basis of
speculation, which is said to be crucial for Komodo dragons as metabolism is where do
they get energy; thus, they’re so energized and powerful. This challenge can only be
solved through experiments including direct measurement of appropriate metabolic
processes. According to the study of Sam et al. (2018), there have been few published
reports of normal reference ranges for thyroid and parathyroid hormone plasma
concentrations. The fact that only a few reptiles have been studied suggests that the
concentrations of these hormones vary between orders, species, and individuals.
Parathyroid Hormone: In most mammals, one or both parathyroid gland pairs are closely
associated with the thyroid gland. In reptiles, the glands are separated from the thyroid
gland. Komodo dragons have one pair of parathyroid glands, the anterior parathyroid
glands are located along the medial surface of the mandibular rami, and the posterior pair
is located at the origins of the internal and external carotid arteries. The parathyroid
hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D3 are the main hormones involved in calcium
homeostasis. The parathyroid hormone is in charge of keeping blood calcium levels in
check in Komodo dragons. There are two types of calcium in the general circulation:
protein bound and diffusible calcium (ionized calcium). Many biological functions, such as
muscle contractions, blood coagulation, bone growth. enzyme activity, neuronal
excitability, hormone release, and membrane permeability, rely on the physiologically
active form of calcium (ionized) which is essential for Komodo dragons as they are a
hunting animal or predator. In Komodo dragons, the regulation of ionized calcium is
essential for appropriate function. Low levels of ionized calcium in the blood stimulate the
release of PTH, which results in calcium resorption from the bones, increased calcium
resorption from the kidneys, and increased calcium absorption from the intestines;
however, these actions have not been fully researched in reptiles. The release of PTH is
inhibited by an increase in ionized calcium in the general circulation.
Skin gland (Pheromones): The active pheromonal agents come from the skin glands.
Apocrine sweat glands, eccrine sweat glands, and sebaceous glands are the three
principal skin glands that can create odorous compounds. Before the mating season,
female Komodo will have a number of their ova (egg cells) develop yolk in a process
called vitellogenesis. The female Komodo will usually develop a visually enlarged
abdomen, start giving off pheromones (airborne hormones) to attract males, and become
more receptive to them when they approach. As more than one male may approach a
receptive female, the males will often combat r fight over to be the right mate to her. The
combat consists of the males rising on their hind legs with the claws of their forelimbs
wrapped around each other’s shoulders as they try to throw each other down to the
ground. The researchers also found adaptations involving genes that control chemical
sensors involved in an advanced sensory system that lets Komodo dragons detect
hormones, the body’s chemical messengers, and pheromones, chemicals released
particularly by mammals that serve as cues to other members of their species. These
adaptations may help Komodo dragons find prey over long distances, added study co-
author Katherine Pollard, director of the Gladstone Institute of Data Science &
Biotechnology.
Adrenal gland: Komodo dragons have discrete adrenal glands, but the anatomical
relationship is such that often the “cortex” and the “medulla” are not distint units. Under
the influence of pituitary adrenocorticotropin hormone, the interrenal cells produce
steroids (corticosterone) that influence sodium balance, water balance, and metabolism.
Olfactory gland: The key food detector for the Komodo dragon is its sense of smell. The
Komodo dragons’ nostrils are not very good for smelling and it only has a few taste buds
at the back of its throat. Thus, it uses its long, yellow, forked tongue to sample the air. It
then moves the forked tip of its tongue to the roof of its mouth, where it makes contact
with the Jacobson's organs. These chemical analyzers (hormones) for "smell" of prey,
such as a deer, function by recognizing airborne molecules. If the concentration of
molecules present on the left tip of the tongue is greater than that sample from the right,
the Komodo dragon knows that the deer is approaching from the left. This system, along
with an undulatory walk, in which the head swings from side to side, helps the dragon
sense the existence and direction of food. At times, these reptiles can smell carrion, or
rotting flesh, up to 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) away.
AQUATIC ANIMAL
Basic Description: The Hydra (Coelenterata spp.) are a genus of small, polyp-like,
freshwater organisms that are classified under the phylum Cnidaria. They are ectotherms
or cold-blooded organism; they also depend on the external environment to maintain body
temperature. Hydra has a cylindrical, radially symmetric body that ranges in length from
2 to 20 mm. When fully extended, it is visible to the naked eye. While some other species
have been identified, two of the most distinctive species include hydra oligactis, which is
brown in color, and hydra viridissima, which is green in color. The tentacles that form a
ring around the mouth/anus are covered with stinging cells called nematocysts. These
stinging cells can inject toxins upon contact, and are often used for prey capture, defense,
and sometimes locomotion. In addition, hydra has remarkable regenerative ability, and
they do not appear to die of old age, or to age at all.

Habitat/Ecology: Hydras can be found in a variety of freshwater environments, such as

ponds, spring brooks, littoral zone of lakes, ditches, and shallow, slow moving rivers and
unpolluted streams. They are native in temperate and tropical environments. Hydra, like
a water plant, ties itself to a substrate (such as stones, twigs, or vegetation) with its foot.
Glands and Hormones:
Hydra lack well-defined glands and endocrine system.

The endocrine system of vertebrates is well-studied, with several reports of chemical

disturbance. Cnidarians, on the other hand, are less compartmentalized, their
physiological control is poorly understood, and their disruption potential is unclear.
Several classical vertebrate hormones (e.g., steroids, iodinated organic compounds,
neuropeptides, and indoleamines) have been found in cnidarian tissues, although
endocrine-like action has not been explored in cnidarians. Researchers have made
progress in finding potential bioregulatory chemicals in cnidarians, as well as studying the
effects of these compounds individually. The elucidation of signaling pathways has made
less progress. Putative gonadotropin-releasing hormone and sex steroids, for example,
have been found in cnidarian tissues, but it is unclear whether these substances are part
of a wider signal cascade similar to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in vertebrates.
Furthermore, while sex hormones and iodinated organic substances may aid in cnidarian
physiological regulation, their methods of action are unknown. Cnidarians do not have
homologs to vertebrate steroid and thyroid receptors, hence further research is needed
to understand the mechanisms of endocrine-like signaling in cnidarians. The discovery of
cnidarian regulatory mechanisms will help researchers better understand the evolution of
hormone signaling. These experiments will also help researchers better understand how
cnidarians respond to environmental cues and give a foundation for investigating how
physical and chemical stresses disturb physiological systems.

Cnidarians have endocrine-like bioregulation, but little is known about it. Cnidarian cells,
unlike vertebrates, are differentiated into tissues but are not organized into organs or
systems. The nervous system in cnidarians is a nerve net that is mostly ectodermal.
Chemical synapses in cnidarians emit neurotransmitters such as biogenic amines and
peptides. Bioregulation in cnidarians, and to a lesser extent other invertebrates, has
traditionally been thought to be predominantly neurochemical; nevertheless, a variety of
possible signal molecules have been found in cnidarians. In cnidarians, no systematic
study of e activity has been conducted. Many of these chemicals' mechanisms of action
in cnidarians are unknown. In contrast to vertebrates, which have specialized endocrine
organs and a closed circulatory system, cnidarians have a range of secretory cells (e.g.,
cnidocytes) and circulation is accomplished through diffusion. While these traits may
suggest limited or simple chemical signaling pathways, the spectrum of neuroendocrine-
like processes is far broader.

Several vertebrate hormones are found in cnidarians, are biologically active in cnidarians,
or have cnidarian homologs. To illustrate this, Table 1 was adapted from a table entitled
“Principal Hormones of Vertebrates” (Beaulieu, 1990). For each compound I have listed
known occurrences of the hormones or related compounds and evidence of biological
activity in cnidarians. I've noted occurrences in other invertebrates in certain cases,
especially when a substance hasn't been found or researched in cnidarians. Cnidarians
have a number of molecules that are similar to or identical to vertebrate hormones,
although these compounds do not always operate in the same way. Furthermore, while
some cnidarian substances (such as palytoxin and anthopleurin) are vertebrate
hormones, they can impact vertebrate hormone signaling pathways.

Hydras have long used as model organisms for research into cellular differentiation,
regeneration, and morphogenesis (see Hassel et al., 1996; Martin et al., 1997; Plickert et
al., 2003; Frank et al., 2001 and references therein). Existing inbred strains with a wide
range of reproductive traits (Martin et al., 1997) may shed light on the biochemical and
molecular mechanisms that control sexual and asexual reproduction. In addition, a group
of neuropeptides that can cause morphological alterations in hydrozoans, such as the
creation of an ectopic head or foot, have been identified and characterized (Leitz et al.,
1994). Hydras are similar to other invertebrate model animals like Drosophila
melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans in that they develop quickly, are relatively easy
to keep in the lab, and are well-characterized at the cellular, biochemical, and/or
molecular levels. While dealing with such organisms has many advantages, one of the
most significant disadvantages is that bioregulatory systems in hydras may not be
indicative of other cnidarians. D. in particular. C. melanogaster Within their respective
phyla, elegans and hydras like Hydra vulgaris are all considered highly developed
organisms.

Opsin pathway: There is a study by Appleton, J. (2015), the study hypothesized that
through specialized sensory receptors, the hydra has the same feeding response as
vertebrate animals. Cnidarians use stinging cells called cnidocytes to sting other animals,
execute a wide range of tasks, such as moving around, capturing prey, and inducing of
feeding responses, and defense. Their discharge is highly regulated by mechanical and
chemical signals that are mediated by a complex system including the opsin and taste
pathways. The cnidocyte, which functions as a specialized secretory cell as well as a
sensory cell with extensive communication with the neurological system, is in charge of
the cnidae discharge. After an attack, the prey's body fluids include compounds that
match the predator's receptors to attract or repel them, as well as provoke feeling reflexes.
The cnidae can be released for a variety of causes, including chemosensitization and
vibrational frequencies, as well as responding to mechanical stimulation. The cnidocyte
supporting cell complex, which includes both the cnidocyte and the surrounding cells, is
required for the discharge, which is a multi-cellular event. This episode is primarily driven
by the capsule's high-pressure system, which demonstrates the mechanisms that operate
as a sensory neuron. The tertiary structure of the inactive protein on the cell surface
changes when the tentacles are stimulated, activating the protein and eliciting a
depolarizing action when the excess calcium ions stored in the capsule are released
through the opening of the ion channels. The influx of water caused by the concentration
gradient drives the cnidae onto the prey. The opsin pathway, which is thought to be
analogous to the systems organized in vertebrates, regulates cnidocyte discharge
through a complicated sensory control system. The amino acid cues, notably Glycine and
Proline, were found to be capable of triggering a cnidocyte response in this study's
behavioral trials. The feeding response elicited by this discharge is similar to that of
invertebrates' taste one receptor responses to umami, indicating that the feeding
responses in vertebrate systems are similar to those of invertebrates. Overall, the data
reveals that amino acids in hydra elicit the same feeding response in vertebrate systems
and, in addition to other data, the existing understanding of the evolution of Taste 1
Receptors pathways predates the current understanding by around 400 million years.
Taste 1 Receptors could have been the most ancient sensory receptor, present in the last
common ancestor of animals and may have been present in the diversification of most
species if not lost, according to this dating method.
Avian Animal
Basic Description: The Peafowls (Pavo Cristatus) is a large-sized, colorful bird
belonging to the pheasant family. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and female
peafowl are referred to as peahens, even though peafowl of either sex are often referred
to colloquially as "peacocks". One of the largest flying birds is the male peacock. Their
entire length can be around 8 feet, with the body being approximately 3 feet long and the
tail being around 5 feet long (train). Peacocks weigh between 9 and 13 pounds. Females
aren't as colorful as males, and their tails are much shorter. Peafowl are divided into three
types: Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus or blue peacock), Asian Green Peofowl (Pavo
muticus or green peacock), and Congo Peafowl (Afropavo congensis), native to parts of
Africa. Their tail feathers, known as coverts, form a long distinctive train that spans more
than and have vibrant "eye" markings in blue, gold, red, and other colors. The enormous
train is employed in wooing displays and mating rituals. It can be stretched into a beautiful
fan that spans the bird's back and touches the ground on both sides. Females are said to
select their partners based on the size, color, and quality of these extravagant feather
trains.

Habitat/Ecology: Indian blue peafowl are mostly found in temperate deciduous, open
rainforest habitats. Green peafowl preferred also preferred dry deciduous forest over
mixed and evergreen forest. Areas that had sufficient water sources and were relatively
distant from any human presence were also preferred if given the choice. Their basic
requirements include a suitable roost tree, a small territory, and sufficient food. In their
native range, peafowl are only found from 900 to 1200 m above sea level in areas with
appropriate forest habitat to support them. Peafowl are able to adapt to much colder
climates than their native range. In captivity, they can survive winters in southern Britain
with only a simple shelter. However, in areas that are both damp and cold, peafowl do not
fare as well. They are often kept in urban gardens and zoos.
Glands and Hormones:
Pituitary gland or hypophysis: Many of the compounds produced by the pituitary gland
target other comparable glands, causing them to create their own compounds, which then
influence the functioning of a specific system or organ. As a result, it can be described as
a regulating gland. The pituitary gland is a small gland at the base of the brain that is well
protected by the skull bones. It is divided into two sections:
i. Anterior pituitary
ii. Posterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary gland is driven to create and release a variety of hormones by
unique releasing factors from the hypothalamus of the brain. These include:
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone – stimulates the thyroid gland.
• Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone – stimulates the adrenal cortex.
• Sex hormones – stimulates the sex glands:
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Melanin Stimulating Hormone – function in birds is unknown.
• Natural Growth Hormone – stimulates growth of the animal.
The amount of these hormones produced by the pituitary gland will have an impact on
the level of activity or reaction of the target organ. The bigger the quantity produced, the
greater the response. The hypothalamus produces arginine vasotocin, whereas the
posterior pituitary gland stores oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as
vasopressin). The release of the yolk into the oviduct and the actual laying of the egg,
known as oviposition, are both aided by oxytocin. Antidiuretic hormone affects the
reabsorption of water into the bloodstream by acting on the kidney collecting ducts. The
pituitary gland's secretions enter the bloodstream and are subsequently delivered to the
area of the body where they are needed.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a large region of the brain that is situated towards
the base of the skull. As far as its endocrine functions in the peafowl is concerned, they
include the production of the releasing factors that act as a control on the anterior
pituitary gland, and oxytocin that plays a part in the release of the yolk. The amount of
releasing factors and oxytocin released is affected by the length of the day. The bigger
the amount of these substances released and the stronger the influence on the target
gland or function, the longer the day is to 18 hours.
Thyroid gland: The thyroid gland is made up of two reddish purple glands that are located
on either side of the neck's base. Two hormones are produced by this gland:
• Thyroxine aids in the regulation of heat production, carbohydrate metabolism,
blood sugar levels, and growth.
• Triiodothyronine is involved in the development of skin and feathers, and it may
also play a role in the molting process (shedding of feathers).
Parathyroid glands: These are two small, round, yellowish-white glands located at the
base of the thyroid glands at the base of the neck. They make a hormone called
parathormone, which reacts to low blood calcium levels by increasing calcium levels in
the blood.
Adrenal gland: The adrenal glands are tiny glands that are placed anterior to (in front of)
the kidneys and are around 9 mm long. There are two adrenal glands, each of which is
linked to a different kidney. The adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla are two distinct
regions of the gland that are made up of two different types of cells.
The cortex produces three hormones:
• Corticosterone – facilitate the carbohydrate and fat metabolism, breakdown of
protein and plays an important role in the bird’s reaction to stress
• Aldosterone - increases the reabsorption and retention of sodium
• 8-hydroxycorticosterone – function unknown
The adrenal medulla produces two compounds:
• Epinephrine – control of blood pressure
• Norepinephrine – fat metabolism
Ultimobranchial bodies: They are 1-3 mm in length and are found just behind (behind)
the parathyroid glands. They create calcitonin, a hormone that works to lower calcium
levels in the bloodstream. If calcium levels in the blood are to be balanced to
requirements, the hormones parathormone of the parathyroids and calcitonin of the
ultimobranchial bodies must be in balance.
Pineal body: The pineal body is a tiny gland found above the midbrain that produces
melatonin from tryptophane (an amino acid). Melatonin has an impact on sleep,
behavior, and electrical activity in the brain. As a result, the pineal body serves as a
biological clock, influencing the hypothalamus's activity and the generation of releasing
factors.
Islets of Langerhans: These are little clumps of unique cells in the pancreas that nestle
in the small intestine's duodenal loop. Two hormones are produced by these special
cells:
• Insulin – lowers blood sugar
• Glucagon – increases blood sugar and affects fatty acid levels
Gonads: The gonads are the sex organs of both males and females. Sex hormones are
produced by these organs, which include:
The principal female sex hormone, oestrogen, governs and controls the female
reproductive system as well as secondary sex traits. The principal male sex hormone,
testosterone, is involved in the development of male reproductive tissues as well as the
promotion of male secondary sexual traits. The endogenous steroid progesterone plays
a role in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis. It also serves as a catalyst
in the synthesis of other endogenous steroids.
All three hormones are produced and required by both males and females, but in varying
amounts. When a male is castrated, for example, the balance of sex hormones is
disrupted, causing the bird to take on feminine characteristics. This means that a capon,
or castrated male, will eventually adopt much of a female's appearance and behavior.
Related Species of Peafowl: Chicken/Fowl Endocrine System
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